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Satan

January 31, 2023

This article is about the figure in the Abrahamic religions. For personifications of evil in various cultures, see Devil. For other uses, see Satan (disambiguation).
"The Devil" redirects here. For other uses, see Devil (disambiguation).

Satan,[a] also known as the Devil,[b] and sometimes also called Lucifer in Christianity, is an entity in the Abrahamic religions that seduces humans into sin or falsehood. In Judaism, Satan is seen as an agent subservient to God, typically regarded as a metaphor for the yetzer hara, or "evil inclination." In Christianity and Islam, he is usually seen as a fallen angel or jinn who has rebelled against God, who nevertheless allows him temporary power over the fallen world and a host of demons. In the Quran, Shaitan, also known as Iblis, is an entity made of fire who was cast out of Heaven because he refused to bow before the newly created Adam and incites humans to sin by infecting their minds with waswās ("evil suggestions").

Illustration of the Devil on folio 290 recto of the Codex Gigas, dating to the early thirteenth century

A figure known as ha-satan ("the satan") first appears in the Hebrew Bible as a heavenly prosecutor, subordinate to Yahweh (God), who prosecutes the nation of Judah in the heavenly court and tests the loyalty of Yahweh's followers.[citation needed] During the intertestamental period, possibly due to influence from the Zoroastrian figure of Angra Mainyu, the satan developed into a malevolent entity with abhorrent qualities in dualistic opposition to God. In the apocryphal Book of Jubilees, Yahweh grants the satan (referred to as Mastema) authority over a group of fallen angels, or their offspring, to tempt humans to sin and punish them.

Although the Book of Genesis does not mention him, Christians often identify the serpent in the Garden of Eden as Satan. In the Synoptic Gospels, Satan tempts Jesus in the desert and is identified as the cause of illness and temptation. In the Book of Revelation, Satan appears as a Great Red Dragon, who is defeated by Michael the Archangel and cast down from Heaven. He is later bound for one thousand years, but is briefly set free before being ultimately defeated and cast into the Lake of Fire.

In the Middle Ages, Satan played a minimal role in Christian theology and was used as a comic relief figure in mystery plays. During the early modern period, Satan's significance greatly increased as beliefs such as demonic possession and witchcraft became more prevalent. During the Age of Enlightenment, belief in the existence of Satan was harshly criticized by thinkers such as Voltaire. Nonetheless, belief in Satan has persisted, particularly in the Americas.

Although Satan is generally viewed as evil, some groups have very different beliefs. In theistic Satanism, Satan is considered a deity who is either worshipped or revered. In LaVeyan Satanism, Satan is a symbol of virtuous characteristics and liberty. Satan's appearance is never described in the Bible, but, since the ninth century, he has often been shown in Christian art with horns, cloven hooves, unusually hairy legs, and a tail, often naked and holding a pitchfork. These are an amalgam of traits derived from various pagan deities, including Pan, Poseidon, and Bes. Satan appears frequently in Christian literature, most notably in Dante Alighieri's Inferno, all variants of the classic Faust story, John Milton's Paradise Lost and Paradise Regained, and the poems of William Blake. He continues to appear in film, television, and music.

Historical development

Hebrew Bible

 
Balaam and the Angel (1836) by Gustav Jäger. The angel in this incident is referred to as a "satan".[6]

The Hebrew term śāṭān (Hebrew: שָׂטָן) is a generic noun meaning "accuser" or "adversary",[7][8] and is derived from a verb meaning primarily "to obstruct, oppose".[9] In the earlier biblical books, e.g. 1 Samuel 29:4, it refers to human adversaries, but in the later books, especially Job 1-2 and Zechariah 3, to a supernatural entity.[8] When used without the definite article (simply satan), it can refer to any accuser,[10] but when it is used with the definite article (ha-satan), it usually refers specifically to the heavenly accuser, literally, the satan.[10]

The word with the definite article Ha-Satan (Hebrew: הַשָּׂטָן hasSāṭān) occurs 17 times in the Masoretic Text, in two books of the Hebrew Bible: Job ch. 1–2 (14×) and Zechariah 3:1–2 (3×).[11][12] It is translated in English bibles mostly as 'Satan'.

The word without the definite article is used in ten instances,[citation needed] of which two are translated diabolos in the Septuagint. It is generally translated in English Bibles as 'an accuser' (1x) or 'an adversary' (9x as in Book of Numbers, 1 & 2 Samuel and 1 Kings). In some cases, it is translated as 'Satan':

The word does not occur in the Book of Genesis, which mentions only a talking serpent and does not identify the serpent with any supernatural entity.[15] The first occurrence of the word "satan" in the Hebrew Bible in reference to a supernatural figure comes from Numbers 22:22[16],[7] which describes the Angel of Yahweh confronting Balaam on his donkey:[6] "Balaam's departure aroused the wrath of Elohim, and the Angel of Yahweh stood in the road as a satan against him."[7] In 2 Samuel 24,[17] Yahweh sends the "Angel of Yahweh" to inflict a plague against Israel for three days, killing 70,000 people as punishment for David having taken a census without his approval.[18] 1 Chronicles 21:1[19] repeats this story,[18] but replaces the "Angel of Yahweh" with an entity referred to as "a satan".[18]

Some passages clearly refer to the satan, without using the word itself.[20] 1 Samuel 2:12[21] describes the sons of Eli as "sons of Belial";[22] the later usage of this word makes it clearly a synonym for "satan".[22] In 1 Samuel 16:14–2,[23] Yahweh sends a "troubling spirit" to torment King Saul as a mechanism to ingratiate David with the king.[24] In 1 Kings|22:19–25,[25] the prophet Micaiah describes to King Ahab a vision of Yahweh sitting on his throne surrounded by the Host of Heaven.[22] Yahweh asks the Host which of them will lead Ahab astray.[22] A "spirit", whose name is not specified, but who is analogous to the satan, volunteers to be "a Lying Spirit in the mouth of all his Prophets".[22]

Book of Job

 
The Examination of Job (c. 1821) by William Blake

The satan appears in the Book of Job, a poetic dialogue set within a prose framework,[26] which may have been written around the time of the Babylonian captivity.[26] In the text, Job is a righteous man favored by Yahweh.[26] Job 1:6–8[27] describes the "sons of God" (bənê hāʼĕlōhîm) presenting themselves before Yahweh.[26] Yahweh asks one of them, "the satan", where he has been, to which he replies that he has been roaming around the earth.[26] Yahweh asks, "Have you considered My servant Job?"[26] The satan replies by urging Yahweh to let him torture Job, promising that Job will abandon his faith at the first tribulation.[28] Yahweh consents; the satan destroys Job's servants and flocks, yet Job refuses to condemn Yahweh.[28] The first scene repeats itself, with the satan presenting himself to Yahweh alongside the other "sons of God".[29] Yahweh points out Job's continued faithfulness, to which the satan insists that more testing is necessary;[29] Yahweh once again gives him permission to test Job.[29] In the end, Job remains faithful and righteous, and it is implied that the satan is shamed in his defeat.[30]

Book of Zechariah

Zechariah 3:1–7[31] contains a description of a vision dated to the middle of February of 519 BC,[32] in which an angel shows Zechariah a scene of Joshua the High Priest dressed in filthy rags, representing the nation of Judah and its sins,[33] on trial with Yahweh as the judge and the satan standing as the prosecutor.[33] Yahweh rebukes the satan[33] and orders for Joshua to be given clean clothes, representing Yahweh's forgiveness of Judah's sins.[33]

Second Temple period

 
Map showing the expansion of the Achaemenid Empire, in which Jews lived during the early Second Temple Period,[8] allowing Zoroastrian ideas about Angra Mainyu to influence the Jewish conception of Satan[8]

During the Second Temple Period, when Jews were living in the Achaemenid Empire, Judaism was heavily influenced by Zoroastrianism, the religion of the Achaemenids.[34][8][35] Jewish conceptions of Satan were impacted by Angra Mainyu,[8][36] the Zoroastrian god of evil, darkness, and ignorance.[8] In the Septuagint, the Hebrew ha-Satan in Job and Zechariah is translated by the Greek word diabolos (slanderer), the same word in the Greek New Testament from which the English word "devil" is derived.[37] Where satan is used to refer to human enemies in the Hebrew Bible, such as Hadad the Edomite and Rezon the Syrian, the word is left untranslated but transliterated in the Greek as satan, a neologism in Greek.[37]

The idea of Satan as an opponent of God and a purely evil figure seems to have taken root in Jewish pseudepigrapha during the Second Temple Period,[38] particularly in the apocalypses.[39] The Book of Enoch, which the Dead Sea Scrolls have revealed to have been nearly as popular as the Torah,[40] describes a group of 200 angels known as the "Watchers", who are assigned to supervise the earth, but instead abandon their duties and have sexual intercourse with human women.[41] The leader of the Watchers is Semjâzâ[42] and another member of the group, known as Azazel, spreads sin and corruption among humankind.[42] The Watchers are ultimately sequestered in isolated caves across the earth[42] and are condemned to face judgement at the end of time.[42] The Book of Jubilees, written in around 150 BC,[43] retells the story of the Watchers' defeat,[44] but, in deviation from the Book of Enoch, Mastema, the "Chief of Spirits", intervenes before all of their demon offspring are sealed away, requesting for Yahweh to let him keep some of them to become his workers.[45] Yahweh acquiesces this request[45] and Mastema uses them to tempt humans into committing more sins, so that he may punish them for their wickedness.[46] Later, Mastema induces Yahweh to test Abraham by ordering him to sacrifice Isaac.[46][47]

The Second Book of Enoch, also called the Slavonic Book of Enoch, contains references to a Watcher called Satanael.[48] It is a pseudepigraphic text of an uncertain date and unknown authorship. The text describes Satanael as being the prince of the Grigori who was cast out of heaven[49] and an evil spirit who knew the difference between what was "righteous" and "sinful".[50] In the Book of Wisdom, the devil is taken to be the being who brought death into the world, but originally the culprit was recognized as Cain.[51][52][53] The name Samael, which is used in reference to one of the fallen angels, later became a common name for Satan in Jewish Midrash and Kabbalah.[54]

Judaism

 
The sound of a shofar (pictured) is believed to symbolically confuse Satan.

Most Jews do not believe in the existence of a supernatural omnimalevolent figure.[55] Traditionalists and philosophers in medieval Judaism adhered to rational theology, rejecting any belief in rebel or fallen angels, and viewing evil as abstract.[56] The rabbis usually interpreted the word satan lacking the article ha- as it is used in the Tanakh as referring strictly to human adversaries.[57] Nonetheless, the word satan has occasionally been metaphorically applied to evil influences,[58] such as the Jewish exegesis of the yetzer hara ("evil inclination") mentioned in Genesis 6:5.[59][60] The Talmudic image of Satan is contradictory. While Satan's identification with the abstract yetzer hara remains uniform over the sages' teachings, he is generally identified as an entity with divine agency. For instance, the sages considered Satan to be an angel of death that would later be called Samael, since God's prohibition on Satan killing Job implied he was even capable of doing so,[61] yet despite this syncretization with a known heavenly body, Satan is identified as the yetzer hara in the very same passage. Satan's status as a 'physical' entity is strengthened by numerous other rabbinical anecdotes: one tale describes two separate incidents where Satan appeared as a woman in order to tempt Rabbi Meir and Rabbi Akiva into sin.[62] Another passage describes Satan taking the form of an ill-mannered, diseased beggar in order to tempt the sage Peleimu into breaking the mitzvah of hospitality.[63]

Rabbinical scholarship on the Book of Job generally follows the Talmud and Maimonides in identifying "the satan" from the prologue as a metaphor for the yetzer hara and not an actual entity.[64] Satan is rarely mentioned in Tannaitic literature, but is found in Babylonian aggadah.[39] According to a narration, the sound of the shofar, which is primarily intended to remind Jews of the importance of teshuva, is also intended symbolically to "confuse the accuser" (Satan) and prevent him from rendering any litigation to God against the Jews.[65] Kabbalah presents Satan as an agent of God whose function is to tempt humans into sinning so that he may accuse them in the heavenly court.[66] The Hasidic Jews of the eighteenth century associated ha-Satan with Baal Davar.[67]

Each modern sect of Judaism has its own interpretation of Satan's identity. Conservative Judaism generally rejects the Talmudic interpretation of Satan as a metaphor for the yetzer hara, and regard him as a literal agent of God.[citation needed] Orthodox Judaism, on the other hand, outwardly embraces Talmudic teachings on Satan, and involves Satan in religious life far more inclusively than other sects. Satan is mentioned explicitly in some daily prayers, including during Shacharit and certain post-meal benedictions, as described in the Talmud[68] and the Jewish Code of Law.[69] In Reform Judaism, Satan is generally seen in his Talmudic role as a metaphor for the yetzer hara and the symbolic representation of innate human qualities such as selfishness.[70]

Christianity

Main article: Devil in Christianity

Names

 
Illustration for John Milton’s “Paradise Lost“, depicting the "Fall of Lucifer"

The most common English synonym for "Satan" is "devil", which descends from Middle English devel, from Old English dēofol, that in turn represents an early Germanic borrowing of Latin diabolus (also the source of "diabolical"). This in turn was borrowed from Greek diabolos "slanderer", from diaballein "to slander": dia- "across, through" + ballein "to hurl".[71] In the New Testament, the words Satan and diabolos are used interchangeably as synonyms.[72][73] Beelzebub, meaning "Lord of Flies", is the contemptuous name given in the Hebrew Bible and New Testament to a Philistine god whose original name has been reconstructed as most probably "Ba'al Zabul", meaning "Baal the Prince".[74] The Synoptic Gospels identify Satan and Beelzebub as the same.[72] The name Abaddon (meaning "place of destruction") is used six times in the Old Testament, mainly as a name for one of the regions of Sheol.[75] Revelation 9:11 describes Abaddon, whose name is translated into Greek as Apollyon, meaning "the destroyer", as an angel who rules the Abyss.[76] In modern usage, Abaddon is sometimes equated with Satan.[75]

New Testament

Gospels, Acts, and epistles

 
The Devil depicted in The Temptation of Christ, by Ary Scheffer, 1854.

The three Synoptic Gospels all describe the temptation of Christ by Satan in the desert (Matthew 4:1–11, Mark 1:12–13, and Luke 4:1–13).[77] Satan first shows Jesus a stone and tells him to turn it into bread.[77] He also takes him to the pinnacle of the Temple in Jerusalem and commands Jesus to throw himself down so that the angels will catch him.[77] Satan takes Jesus to the top of a tall mountain as well; there, he shows him the kingdoms of the earth and promises to give them all to him if he will bow down and worship him.[77] Each time Jesus rebukes Satan[77] and, after the third temptation, he is administered by the angels.[77] Satan's promise in Matthew 4:8–9 and Luke 4:6–7 to give Jesus all the kingdoms of the earth implies that all those kingdoms belong to him.[78] The fact that Jesus does not dispute Satan's promise indicates that the authors of those gospels believed this to be true.[78]

Satan plays a role in some of the parables of Jesus, namely the Parable of the Sower, the Parable of the Weeds, Parable of the Sheep and the Goats, and the Parable of the Strong Man.[79] According to the Parable of the Sower, Satan "profoundly influences" those who fail to understand the gospel.[80] The latter two parables say that Satan's followers will be punished on Judgement Day, with the Parable of the Sheep and the Goats stating that the Devil, his angels, and the people who follow him will be consigned to "eternal fire".[81] When the Pharisees accused Jesus of exorcising demons through the power of Beelzebub, Jesus responds by telling the Parable of the Strong Man, saying: "how can someone enter a strong man's house and plunder his goods, unless he first binds the strong man? Then indeed he may plunder his house" (Matthew 12:29).[82] The strong man in this parable represents Satan.[83]

The Synoptic Gospels identify Satan and his demons as the causes of illness,[78] including fever (Luke 4:39), leprosy (Luke 5:13), and arthritis (Luke 13:11–16),[78] while the Epistle to the Hebrews describes the Devil as "him who holds the power of death" (Hebrews 2:14).[84] The author of Luke-Acts attributes more power to Satan than both Matthew and Mark.[85] In Luke 22:31, Jesus grants Satan the authority to test Peter and the other apostles.[86] Luke 22:3–6 states that Judas Iscariot betrayed Jesus because "Satan entered" him[85] and, in Acts 5:3, Peter describes Satan as "filling" Ananias's heart and causing him to sin.[87] The Gospel of John only uses the name Satan three times.[88] In John 8:44, Jesus says that his Jewish or Judean enemies are the children of the Devil rather than the children of Abraham.[88] The same verse describes the Devil as "a man-killer from the beginning"[88] and "a liar and the father of lying."[88][89] John 13:2 describes the Devil as inspiring Judas to betray Jesus[90] and John 12:31–32 identifies Satan as "the Archon of this Cosmos", who is destined to be overthrown through Jesus's death and resurrection.[91] John 16:7–8 promises that the Holy Spirit will "accuse the World concerning sin, justice, and judgement", a role resembling that of the satan in the Old Testament.[92]

Jude 9 refers to a dispute between Michael the Archangel and the Devil over the body of Moses.[93][94][95] Some interpreters understand this reference to be an allusion to the events described in Zechariah 3:1–2.[94][95] The classical theologian Origen attributes this reference to the non-canonical Assumption of Moses.[96][97] According to James H. Charlesworth, there is no evidence the surviving book of this name ever contained any such content.[98] Others believe it to be in the lost ending of the book.[98][99] The second chapter of the Second Epistle of Peter, a pseudepigraphical letter which falsely claims to have been written by Peter,[100] copies much of the content of the Epistle of Jude,[100] but omits the specifics of the example regarding Michael and Satan, with 2 Peter 2:10–11 instead mentioning only an ambiguous dispute between "Angels" and "Glories".[100] Throughout the New Testament, Satan is referred to as a "tempter" (Matthew 4:3),[8] "the ruler of the demons" (Matthew 12:24),[101][8] "the God of this Age" (2 Corinthians 4:4),[102] "the evil one" (1 John 5:18),[8] and "a roaring lion" (1 Peter 5:8).[101]

Book of Revelation

 
St. Michael Vanquishing Satan (1518) by Raphael, depicting Satan being cast out of heaven by Michael the Archangel, as described in Revelation 12:7–8

The Book of Revelation represents Satan as the supernatural ruler of the Roman Empire and the ultimate cause of all evil in the world.[103] In Revelation 2:9–10, as part of the letter to the church at Smyrna, John of Patmos refers to the Jews of Smyrna as "a synagogue of Satan"[104] and warns that "the Devil is about to cast some of you into prison as a test [peirasmos], and for ten days you will have affliction."[104] In Revelation 2:13–14, in the letter to the church of Pergamum, John warns that Satan lives among the members of the congregation[105] and declares that "Satan's throne" is in their midst.[105] Pergamum was the capital of the Roman Province of Asia[105] and "Satan's throne" may be referring to the monumental Pergamon Altar in the city, which was dedicated to the Greek god Zeus,[105] or to a temple dedicated to the Roman emperor Augustus.[105]

 
La Bête de la Mer (from the Tapisserie de l'Apocalypse in Angers, France). A medieval tapestry, depicting the devil as a dragon with 7 heads in the Book of Revelation.

Revelation 12:3 describes a vision of a Great Red Dragon with seven heads, ten horns, seven crowns, and a massive tail,[106] an image which is likely inspired by the vision of the four beasts from the sea in the Book of Daniel[107] and the Leviathan described in various Old Testament passages.[108] The Great Red Dragon knocks "a third of the sun... a third of the moon, and a third of the stars" out the sky[109] and pursues the Woman of the Apocalypse.[109] Revelation 12:7–9 declares: "And war broke out in Heaven. Michael and his angels fought against the Dragon. The Dragon and his angels fought back, but they were defeated, and there was no longer any place for them in Heaven. Dragon the Great was thrown down, that ancient serpent who is called Devil and Satan, the one deceiving the whole inhabited World – he was thrown down to earth and his angels were thrown down with him."[110] Then a voice booms down from Heaven heralding the defeat of "the Accuser" (ho Kantegor), identifying the Satan of Revelation with the satan of the Old Testament.[111]

In Revelation 20:1–3, Satan is bound with a chain and hurled into the Abyss,[112] where he is imprisoned for one thousand years.[112] In Revelation 20:7–10, he is set free and gathers his armies along with Gog and Magog to wage war against the righteous,[112] but is defeated with fire from Heaven, and cast into the lake of fire.[112] Some Christians associate Satan with the number 666, which Revelation 13:18 describes as the Number of the Beast.[113] However, the beast mentioned in Revelation 13 is not Satan,[114] and the use of 666 in the Book of Revelation has been interpreted as a reference to the Roman Emperor Nero, as 666 is the numeric value of his name in Hebrew.[113]

Patristic era

 
The Garden of Eden with the Fall of Man by Jan Brueghel the Elder and Pieter Paul Rubens, c. 1615, depicting Eve reaching for the forbidden fruit beside the Devil portrayed as a serpent

Christians have traditionally interpreted the unnamed serpent in the Garden of Eden as Satan due to Revelation 12:7, which calls Satan "that ancient serpent".[111][8] This verse, however, is probably intended to identify Satan with the Leviathan,[111] a monstrous sea-serpent whose destruction by Yahweh is prophesied in Isaiah 27:1.[108] The first recorded individual to identify Satan with the serpent from the Garden of Eden was the second-century AD Christian apologist Justin Martyr,[115][116] in chapters 45 and 79 of his Dialogue with Trypho.[116] Other early church fathers to mention this identification include Theophilus and Tertullian.[117] The early Christian Church, however, encountered opposition from pagans such as Celsus, who claimed in his treatise The True Word that "it is blasphemy... to say that the greatest God... has an adversary who constrains his capacity to do good" and said that Christians "impiously divide the kingdom of God, creating a rebellion in it, as if there were opposing factions within the divine, including one that is hostile to God".[118]

 
Lucifer (1890) by Franz Stuck. Because of Patristic interpretations of Isaiah 14:12 and Jerome's Latin Vulgate translation, the name "Lucifer" is sometimes used in reference to Satan.[119][120]

The name Heylel, meaning "morning star" (or, in Latin, Lucifer),[c] was a name for Attar, the god of the planet Venus in Canaanite mythology,[121][122] who attempted to scale the walls of the heavenly city,[123][121] but was vanquished by the god of the sun.[123] The name is used in Isaiah 14:12 in metaphorical reference to the king of Babylon.[123] Ezekiel 28:12–15 uses a description of a cherub in Eden as a polemic against Ithobaal II, the king of Tyre.[124]

The Church Father Origen of Alexandria (c. 184 – c. 253), who was only aware of the actual text of these passages and not the original myths to which they refer, concluded in his treatise On the First Principles, which is preserved in a Latin translation by Tyrannius Rufinus, that neither of these verses could literally refer to a human being.[125] He concluded that Isaiah 14:12 is an allegory for Satan and that Ezekiel 28:12–15 is an allusion to "a certain Angel who had received the office of governing the nation of the Tyrians," but was hurled down to Earth after he was found to be corrupt.[126][127] In his apologetic treatise Contra Celsum, however, Origen interprets both Isaiah 14:12 and Ezekiel 28:12–15 as referring to Satan.[128] According to Henry Ansgar Kelly, Origen seems to have adopted this new interpretation to refute unnamed persons who, perhaps under the influence of Zoroastrian radical dualism, believed "that Satan's original nature was Darkness."[129] The later Church Father Jerome (c. 347 – 420), translator of the Latin Vulgate, accepted Origen's theory of Satan as a fallen angel[130] and wrote about it in his commentary on the Book of Isaiah.[130] In Christian tradition ever since, both Isaiah 14:12[131][132] and Ezekiel 28:12–15 have been understood as allegorically referring to Satan.[133][134] For most Christians, Satan has been regarded as an angel who rebelled against God.[135][132]

According to the ransom theory of atonement, which was popular among early Christian theologians,[136][137] Satan gained power over humanity through Adam and Eve's sin[136][138] and Christ's death on the cross was a ransom to Satan in exchange for humanity's liberation.[136][139] This theory holds that Satan was tricked by God[136][140] because Christ was not only free of sin, but also the incarnate Deity, whom Satan lacked the ability to enslave.[140] Irenaeus of Lyons described a prototypical form of the ransom theory,[136] but Origen was the first to propose it in its fully developed form.[136] The theory was later expanded by theologians such as Gregory of Nyssa and Rufinus of Aquileia.[136] In the eleventh century, Anselm of Canterbury criticized the ransom theory, along with the associated Christus Victor theory,[136][141] resulting in the theory's decline in western Europe.[136][141] The theory has nonetheless retained some of its popularity in the Eastern Orthodox Church.[136]

Most early Christians firmly believed that Satan and his demons had the power to possess humans[142] and exorcisms were widely practiced by Jews, Christians, and pagans alike.[142] Belief in demonic possession continued through the Middle Ages into the early modern period.[143][144] Exorcisms were seen as a display of God's power over Satan.[145] The vast majority of people who thought they were possessed by the Devil did not suffer from hallucinations or other "spectacular symptoms", but "complained of anxiety, religious fears, and evil thoughts."[146]

Middle Ages

 
Medieval miniature depicting Pope Sylvester II consorting with Satan (c. 1460)
 
Detail of Satan from Hans Memling's Triptych of Earthly Vanity and Divine Salvation (c. 1485)

Satan had minimal role in medieval Christian theology,[147] but he frequently appeared as a recurring comedic stock character in late medieval mystery plays, in which he was portrayed as a comic relief figure who "frolicked, fell, and farted in the background".[147] Jeffrey Burton Russell describes the medieval conception of Satan as "more pathetic and repulsive than terrifying"[147][148] and he was seen as little more than a nuisance to God's overarching plan.[147] The Golden Legend, a collection of saints' lives compiled in around 1260 by the Dominican Friar Jacobus de Voragine, contains numerous stories about encounters between saints and Satan,[149] in which Satan is constantly duped by the saints' cleverness and by the power of God.[149] Henry Ansgar Kelly remarks that Satan "comes across as the opposite of fearsome."[150] The Golden Legend was the most popular book during the High and Late Middle Ages[151] and more manuscripts of it have survived from the period than for any other book, including even the Bible itself.[151]

The Canon Episcopi, written in the eleventh century AD, condemns belief in witchcraft as heretical,[152] but also documents that many people at the time apparently believed in it.[152] Witches were believed to fly through the air on broomsticks,[152] consort with demons,[152] perform in "lurid sexual rituals" in the forests,[152] murder human infants and eat them as part of Satanic rites,[153] and engage in conjugal relations with demons.[154][153] In 1326, Pope John XXII issued the papal bull Super illius Specula,[155] which condemned folk divination practices as consultation with Satan.[155] By the 1430s, the Catholic Church began to regard witchcraft as part of a vast conspiracy led by Satan himself.[156]

Early modern period

 
Painting from c. 1788 by Francisco Goya depicting Saint Francis Borgia performing an exorcism. During the early modern period, exorcisms were seen as displays of God's power over Satan.[145]
 
During the early modern period, witches were widely believed to engage in sexually explicit Satanic rituals with demons,[152] such as the one shown in this illustration by Martin van Maële in the 1911 edition of Satanism and Witchcraft by Jules Michelet.

During the Early Modern Period, Christians gradually began to regard Satan as increasingly powerful[154] and the fear of Satan's power became a dominant aspect of the worldview of Christians across Europe.[145][147] During the Protestant Reformation, Martin Luther taught that, rather than trying to argue with Satan, Christians should avoid temptation altogether by seeking out pleasant company;[157] Luther especially recommended music as a safeguard against temptation, since the Devil "cannot endure gaiety."[157] John Calvin repeated a maxim from Saint Augustine that "Man is like a horse, with either God or the devil as rider."[158]

In the late fifteenth century, a series of witchcraft panics erupted in France and Germany.[155][156] The German Inquisitors Heinrich Kramer and Jacob Sprenger argued in their book Malleus Maleficarum, published in 1487, that all maleficia ("sorcery") was rooted in the work of Satan.[159] In the mid-sixteenth century, the panic spread to England and Switzerland.[155] Both Protestants and Catholics alike firmly believed in witchcraft as a real phenomenon and supported its prosecution.[160][161] In the late 1500s, the Dutch demonologist Johann Weyer argued in his treatise De praestigiis daemonum that witchcraft did not exist,[162] but that Satan promoted belief in it to lead Christians astray.[162] The panic over witchcraft intensified in the 1620s and continued until the end of the 1600s.[155] Brian Levack estimates that around 60,000 people were executed for witchcraft during the entire span of the witchcraft hysteria.[155]

The early English settlers of North America, especially the Puritans of New England, believed that Satan "visibly and palpably" reigned in the New World.[163] John Winthrop claimed that the Devil made rebellious Puritan women give birth to stillborn monsters with claws, sharp horns, and "on each foot three claws, like a young fowl."[164] Cotton Mather wrote that devils swarmed around Puritan settlements "like the frogs of Egypt".[165] The Puritans believed that the Native Americans were worshippers of Satan[166] and described them as "children of the Devil".[163] Some settlers claimed to have seen Satan himself appear in the flesh at native ceremonies.[165] During the First Great Awakening, the "new light" preachers portrayed their "old light" critics as ministers of Satan.[167] By the time of the Second Great Awakening, Satan's primary role in American evangelicalism was as the opponent of the evangelical movement itself, who spent most of his time trying to hinder the ministries of evangelical preachers,[168] a role he has largely retained among present-day American fundamentalists.[169]

By the early 1600s, skeptics in Europe, including the English author Reginald Scot and the Anglican bishop John Bancroft, had begun to criticize the belief that demons still had the power to possess people.[170] This skepticism was bolstered by the belief that miracles only occurred during the Apostolic Age, which had long since ended.[171] Later, Enlightenment thinkers, such as David Hume, Denis Diderot, and Voltaire, attacked the notion of Satan's existence altogether.[172] Voltaire labelled John Milton's Paradise Lost a "disgusting fantasy"[172] and declared that belief in Hell and Satan were among the many lies propagated by the Catholic Church to keep humanity enslaved.[172] By the eighteenth century, trials for witchcraft had ceased in most western countries, with the notable exceptions of Poland and Hungary, where they continued.[173] Belief in the power of Satan, however, remained strong among traditional Christians.[173]

Modern era

Mormonism developed its own views on Satan. According to the Book of Moses, the Devil offered to be the redeemer of mankind for the sake of his own glory. Conversely, Jesus offered to be the redeemer of mankind so that his father's will would be done. After his offer was rejected, Satan became rebellious and was subsequently cast out of heaven.[174] In the Book of Moses, Cain is said to have "loved Satan more than God"[175] and conspired with Satan to kill Abel. It was through this pact that Cain became a Master Mahan.[176] The Book of Moses also says that Moses was tempted by Satan before calling upon the name of the "Only Begotten", which caused Satan to depart. Douglas Davies asserts that this text "reflects" the temptation of Jesus in the Bible.[177]

Belief in Satan and demonic possession remains strong among Christians in the United States[178][179][180] and Latin America.[181] According to a 2013 poll conducted by YouGov, fifty-seven percent of people in the United States believe in a literal Devil,[178] compared to eighteen percent of people in Britain.[178] Fifty-one percent of Americans believe that Satan has the power to possess people.[178] W. Scott Poole, author of Satan in America: The Devil We Know, has opined that "In the United States over the last forty to fifty years, a composite image of Satan has emerged that borrows from both popular culture and theological sources" and that most American Christians do not "separate what they know [about Satan] from the movies from what they know from various ecclesiastical and theological traditions."[164] The Catholic Church generally played down Satan and exorcism during late twentieth and early twenty-first centuries,[181] but Pope Francis brought renewed focus on the Devil in the early 2010s, stating, among many other pronouncements, that "The devil is intelligent, he knows more theology than all the theologians together."[181][182] According to the Encyclopædia Britannica, liberal Christianity tends to view Satan "as a [figurative] mythological attempt to express the reality and extent of evil in the universe, existing outside and apart from humanity but profoundly influencing the human sphere."[183]

Bernard McGinn describes multiple traditions detailing the relationship between the Antichrist and Satan.[184] In the dualist approach, Satan will become incarnate in the Antichrist, just as God became incarnate in Jesus.[184] However, in Orthodox Christian thought, this view is problematic because it is too similar to Christ's incarnation.[184] Instead, the "indwelling" view has become more accepted,[184] which stipulates that the Antichrist is a human figure inhabited by Satan,[184] since the latter's power is not to be seen as equivalent to God's.[184]

Islam

Main articles: Azazil and Iblis
See also: Devil § Islam

The Arabic equivalent of the word Satan is Shaitan (شيطان, from the triliteral root š-ṭ-n شطن). The word itself is an adjective (meaning "astray" or "distant", sometimes translated as "devil") that can be applied to both man ("al-ins", الإنس) and al-jinn (الجن), but it is also used in reference to Satan in particular. In the Quran, Satan's name is Iblis (Arabic pronunciation: [ˈibliːs]), probably a derivative of the Greek word diabolos.[185] Muslims do not regard Satan as the cause of evil, but as a tempter, who takes advantage of humans' inclinations toward self-centeredness.[186]

Quran

 
Illustration from a manuscript of Abu Ali Bal'ami's Persian translation of the Annals of al-Tabari, showing Satan (Iblis) refusing to prostrate before the newly created man (Adam)

Seven suras in the Quran describe how God ordered all the angels and Iblis to bow before the newly created Adam.[8][187][185] All the angels bowed, but Iblis refused,[8][187][185] claiming to be superior to Adam because he was made from fire; whereas Adam was made from clay (7:12).[185] Consequently, God expelled him from Paradise[8][185] and condemned him to Jahannam.[188][185] Iblis thereafter became a kafir, "an ungrateful disbeliever",[8] whose sole mission is to lead humanity astray.[8] (Q17:62)[189] God allows Iblis to do this,[8][190] because he knows that the righteous will be able to resist Iblis's attempts to misguide them.[8] On Judgement Day, while the lot of Satan remains in question,[191] those who followed him will be thrown into the fires of Jahannam.[188][185] After his banishment from Paradise, Iblis, who thereafter became known as Al-Shaitan ("the Demon"),[188] lured Adam and Eve into eating the forbidden fruit.[188][185][192]

The primary characteristic of Satan, aside from his hubris and despair, is his ability to cast evil suggestions (waswās) into men and women.[193] 15:45 states that Satan has no influence over the righteous,[194] but that those who fall in error are under his power.[194] 7:156 implies that those who obey God's laws are immune to the temptations of Satan.[194] 56:79 warns that Satan tries to keep Muslims from reading the Quran[195] and 16:98–100 recommends reciting the Quran as an antidote against Satan.[195] 35:6 refers to Satan as the enemy of humanity[195] and 36:60 forbids humans from worshipping him.[195] In the Quranic retelling of the story of Job, Job knows that Satan is the one tormenting him.[195]

Islamic tradition

Affiliation

 
The angels meet Adam, and their body language reveals they share, albeit to a lesser degree, the defiant reaction of Iblīs, who stands at the back haughtily turning his head away. According to some traditions, God created Iblīs as a beautiful angel named ʿAzāzīl and he is depicted here as such. He is portrayed with his characteristic darker skin to denote his impending fall, but has wings of an angel and wears the contemporary ‘angelic hairstyle,’ a loop of hair tied on top of the head

In the Quran, Satan is apparently an angel,[185] but, in 18:50, he is described as "from the jinns".[185] This, combined with the fact that he describes himself as having been made from fire, posed a major problem for Muslims exegetes of the Quran,[185] who disagree on whether Satan is a fallen angel or the leader of a group of evil jinn.[196] According to a hadith from Ibn Abbas, Iblis was actually an angel whom God created out of fire. Ibn Abbas asserts that the word jinn could be applied to earthly jinn, but also to "fiery angels" like Satan.[197]

Hasan of Basra, an eminent Muslim theologian who lived in the seventh century AD, was quoted as saying: "Iblis was not an angel even for the time of an eye wink. He is the origin of Jinn as Adam is of Mankind."[198] The medieval Persian scholar Abu Al-Zamakhshari states that the words angels and jinn are synonyms.[199] Another Persian scholar, Al-Baydawi, instead argues that Satan hoped to be an angel,[199] but that his actions made him a jinn.[199] Abu Mansur al-Maturidi who is reverred as the founder of Maturidiyyah Sunni orthodoxy (kalam) argued that since angels can be blessed by God, they are also put to a test and can be punished. Accordingly Satan became a devil (shaiṭān) or jinn after he refused to obey.[200] Other Islamic scholars argue that Satan was a jinn who was admitted into Paradise as a reward for his righteousness and, unlike the angels, was given the choice to obey or disobey God. When he was expelled from Paradise, Satan blamed humanity for his punishment.[201] Concerning the fiery origin of Iblis, Zakariya al-Qazwini and Muhammad ibn Ahmad Ibshihi[202] state that all supernatural creatures originated from fire but the angels from its light and the jinn from its blaze, thus fire denotes a disembodiment origin of all spiritual entities.[203] Abd al-Ghani al-Maqdisi argued that only the angels of mercy are created from light, but angels of punishment have been created from fire.[204]

The Muslim historian Al-Tabari, who died in around 923 AD,[185] writes that, before Adam was created, earthly jinn made of smokeless fire roamed the earth and spread corruption.[205] He further relates that Iblis was originally an angel named Azazil or Al-Harith,[206] from a group of angels, created from the fires of simoom,[207] sent by God to confront the earthly jinn.[208][185] Azazil defeated the jinn in battle and drove them into the mountains,[208] but he became convinced that he was superior to humans and all the other angels, leading to his downfall.[208] In this account, Azazil's group of angels were called jinn because they guarded Jannah (Paradise).[209] In another tradition recorded by Al-Tabari, Satan was one of the earthly jinn, who was taken captive by the angels[194][185] and brought to Heaven as a prisoner.[194][185] God appointed him as judge over the other jinn and he became known as Al-Hakam.[194] He fulfilled his duty for a thousand years before growing negligent,[185] but was rehabilitated again and resumed his position until his refusal to bow before Adam.[185]

Other traditions

 
A stoning of the Devil from 1942

During the first two centuries of Islam, Muslims almost unanimously accepted the traditional story known as the Satanic Verses as true.[210] According to this narrative, Muhammad was told by Satan to add words to the Quran which would allow Muslims to pray for the intercession of pagan goddesses.[211] He mistook the words of Satan for divine inspiration.[210] Modern Muslims almost universally reject this story as heretical, as it calls the integrity of the Quran into question.[212]

On the third day of the Hajj, Muslim pilgrims to Mecca throw seven stones at a pillar known as the Jamrah al-’Aqabah, symbolizing the stoning of the Devil.[213] This ritual is based on the Islamic tradition that, when God ordered Abraham to sacrifice his son Ishmael, Satan tempted him three times not to do it, and, each time, Abraham responded by throwing seven stones at him.[213][214]

The hadith teach that newborn babies cry because Satan touches them while they are being born, and that this touch causes people to have an aptitude for sin.[215] This doctrine bears some similarities to the doctrine of original sin.[215] Muslim tradition holds that only Jesus and Mary were not touched by Satan at birth.[215] However, when he was a boy, Muhammad's heart was literally opened by an angel, who removed a black clot that symbolized sin.[215]

 
Angels bow before the newly created Adam, but Iblis (top right on the picture) refuses to prostrate

Muslim tradition preserves a number of stories involving dialogues between Jesus and Iblis,[208] all of which are intended to demonstrate Jesus's virtue and Satan's depravity.[216] Ahmad ibn Hanbal records an Islamic retelling of Jesus's temptation by Satan in the desert from the Synoptic Gospels.[208] Ahmad quotes Jesus as saying, "The greatest sin is love of the world. Women are the ropes of Satan. Wine is the key to every evil."[216] Abu Uthman al-Jahiz credits Jesus with saying, "The world is Satan's farm, and its people are his plowmen."[208] Al-Ghazali tells an anecdote about how Jesus went out one day and saw Satan carrying ashes and honey;[217] when he asked what they were for, Satan replied, "The honey I put on the lips of backbiters so that they achieve their aim. The ashes I put on the faces of orphans, so that people come to dislike them."[217] The thirteenth-century scholar Sibt ibn al-Jawzi states that, when Jesus asked him what truly broke his back, Satan replied, "The neighing of horses in the cause of Allah."[217]

Muslims believe that Satan is also the cause of deceptions originating from the mind and desires for evil. He is regarded as a cosmic force for separation, despair and spiritual envelopment. Muslims do distinguish between the satanic temptations and the murmurings of the bodily lower self (nafs). The lower self commands the person to do a specific task or to fulfill a specific desire; whereas the inspirations of Satan tempt the person to do evil in general and, after a person successfully resists his first suggestion, Satan returns with new ones.[218] If a Muslim feels that Satan is inciting him to sin, he is advised to seek refuge with God by reciting: "In the name of Allah, I seek refuge in you, from Satan the outcast." Muslims are also obliged to "seek refuge" before reciting the Quran.[219]

Islamic mysticism

According to Sufi mysticism, Iblis refused to bow to Adam because he was fully devoted to God alone and refused to bow to anyone else.[220][199] For this reason, Sufi masters regard Satan and Muhammad as the two most perfect monotheists.[220] Sufis reject the concept of dualism[220][221] and instead believe in the unity of existence.[221] In the same way that Muhammad was the instrument of God's mercy,[220] Sufis regard Satan as the instrument of God's wrath.[220] For the Muslim Sufi scholar Ahmad Ghazali, Iblis was the paragon of lovers in self sacrifice for refusing to bow down to Adam out of pure devotion to God [222] Ahmad Ghazali's student Sheikh Adi ibn Musafir was among the Sunni Muslim mystics who defended Iblis, asserted that evil was also God's creation, Sheikh Adi argued that if evil existed without the will of God, then God would be powerless and powerlessness can't be attributed to God.[223] Some Sufis assert, since Iblis was destined by God to become a devil, God will also restore him to his former angelic nature. Attar compares Iblis's damnation to the Biblical Benjamin: Both were accused injustly, but their punishment had a greater meaning. In the end, Iblis will be released from hell.[224]

However, not all Muslim Sufi mystics are in agreement with a positive depiction of Iblis. Rumi's viewpoint on Iblis is much more in tune with Islamic orthodoxy. Rumi views Iblis as the manifestation of the great sins of haughtiness and envy. He states: "(Cunning) intelligence is from Iblis, and love from Adam."[225]

Baháʼí Faith

In the Baháʼí Faith, Satan is not regarded as an independent evil power as he is in some faiths,[226][227] but signifies the lower nature of humans.[226][227] `Abdu'l-Bahá explains: "This lower nature in man is symbolized as Satan—the evil ego within us, not an evil personality outside."[226][227] All other evil spirits described in various faith traditions—such as fallen angels, demons, and jinns—are also metaphors for the base character traits a human being may acquire and manifest when he turns away from God.[228] Actions, that are described as "satanic" in some Baháʼí writings, denote humans deeds caused by selfish desires.[229]

Satanism

Main article: Satanism

Theistic Satanism

 
The inverted pentagram, along with the Baphomet, is the most notable and widespread symbol of Satanism.[230]

Theistic Satanism, commonly referred to as "devil worship",[231] views Satan as a deity, whom individuals may supplicate to.[232][233] It consists of loosely affiliated or independent groups and cabals, which all agree that Satan is a real entity.[234]

Atheistic Satanism

Atheistic Satanism, as practiced by the Satanic Temple and by followers of LaVeyan Satanism, holds that Satan does not exist as a literal anthropomorphic entity, but rather as a symbol of a cosmos which Satanists perceive to be permeated and motivated by a force that has been given many names by humans over the course of time. In this religion, "Satan" is not viewed or depicted as a hubristic, irrational, and fraudulent creature, but rather is revered with Prometheus-like attributes, symbolizing liberty and individual empowerment. To adherents, he also serves as a conceptual framework and an external metaphorical projection of the Satanist's highest personal potential.[235] In his essay "Satanism: The Feared Religion", the current High Priest of the Church of Satan, Peter H. Gilmore, further expounds that "...Satan is a symbol of Man living as his prideful, carnal nature dictates. The reality behind Satan is simply the dark evolutionary force of entropy that permeates all of nature and provides the drive for survival and propagation inherent in all living things. Satan is not a conscious entity to be worshiped, rather a reservoir of power inside each human to be tapped at will".[236]

LaVeyan Satanists embrace the original etymological meaning of the word "Satan" (Hebrew: שָּׂטָן satan, meaning "adversary"). According to Peter H. Gilmore, "The Church of Satan has chosen Satan as its primary symbol because in Hebrew it means adversary, opposer, one to accuse or question. We see ourselves as being these Satans; the adversaries, opposers and accusers of all spiritual belief systems that would try to hamper enjoyment of our life as a human being."[237]

Post-LaVeyan Satanists, like the adherents of The Satanic Temple, argue that the human animal has a natural altruistic and communal tendency, and frame Satan as a figure of struggle against injustice and activism. They also believe in bodily autonomy, that personal beliefs should conform to science and inspire nobility, and that people should atone for their mistakes.[238]

Allegations of worship

 
A depiction of Santa Muerte

The main deity in the tentatively Indo-European pantheon of the Yazidis, Melek Taus, is similar to the devil in Christian and Islamic traditions, as he refused to bow down before humanity.[239][240] Therefore, Christians and Muslims often consider Melek Taus to be Satan.[239][240] However, rather than being Satanic, Yazidism can be understood as a remnant of a pre-Islamic Middle Eastern Indo-European religion, and/or a ghulat Sufi movement founded by Shaykh Adi. In fact, there is no entity in Yazidism which represents evil in opposition to God; such dualism is rejected by Yazidis.[241]

In the Middle Ages, the Cathars, practitioners of a dualistic religion, were accused of worshipping Satan by the Catholic Church. Pope Gregory IX stated in his work Vox in Rama that the Cathars believed that God had erred in casting Lucifer out of heaven and that Lucifer would return to reward his faithful. On the other hand, according to Catharism, the creator god of the material world worshipped by the Catholic Church is actually Satan.[242]

Wicca is a modern, syncretic Neopagan religion,[243] whose practitioners many Christians have incorrectly assumed to worship Satan.[243] In actuality, Wiccans do not believe in the existence of Satan or any analogous figure[243] and have repeatedly and emphatically rejected the notion that they venerate such an entity.[243] The cult of the skeletal figure of Santa Muerte, which has grown exponentially in Mexico,[244][245] has been denounced by the Catholic Church as Devil-worship.[246] However, devotees of Santa Muerte view her as an angel of death created by God,[247] and many of them identify as Catholic.[248]

Much modern folklore about Satanism does not originate from the actual beliefs or practices of theistic or atheistic Satanists, but rather from a mixture of medieval Christian folk beliefs, political or sociological conspiracy theories, and contemporary urban legends.[249][250][251][252] An example is the Satanic ritual abuse scare of the 1980s—beginning with the memoir Michelle Remembers—which depicted Satanism as a vast conspiracy of elites with a predilection for child abuse and human sacrifice.[250][251] This genre frequently describes Satan as physically incarnating in order to receive worship.[252]

In culture

See also: Devil in popular culture

In literature

If he was once as handsome as he now is ugly and, despite that, raised his brows against his Maker, one can understand,
how every sorrow has its source in him!

— Dante in Inferno, Canto XXXIV (Verse translation by Allen Mandelbaum)

Here we may reign secure, and in my choice
to reign is worth ambition though in Hell:
Better to reign in Hell, than serve in Heaven.

— Satan in John Milton's Paradise Lost Book I, lines 261–263

In Dante Alighieri's Inferno, Satan appears as a giant demon, frozen mid-breast in ice at the center of the Ninth Circle of Hell.[253][254] Satan has three faces and a pair of bat-like wings affixed under each chin.[255] In his three mouths, Satan gnaws on Brutus, Judas Iscariot, and Cassius,[255] whom Dante regarded as having betrayed the "two greatest heroes of the human race":[256] Julius Caesar, the founder of the new order of government, and Jesus, the founder of the new order of religion.[256] As Satan beats his wings, he creates a cold wind that continues to freeze the ice surrounding him and the other sinners in the Ninth Circle.[255] Dante and Virgil climb up Satan's shaggy legs until gravity is reversed and they fall through the earth into the southern hemisphere.[256]

Satan appears in several stories from The Canterbury Tales by Geoffrey Chaucer,[257] including "The Summoner's Prologue", in which a friar arrives in Hell and sees no other friars,[258] but is told there are millions.[258] Then Satan lifts his tail to reveal that all of the friars live inside his anus.[258] Chaucer's description of Satan's appearance is clearly based on Dante's.[258] The legend of Faust, recorded in the 1589 chapbook The History of the Damnable Life and the Deserved Death of Doctor John Faustus,[259] concerns a pact allegedly made by the German scholar Johann Georg Faust with a demon named Mephistopheles agreeing to sell his soul to Satan in exchange for twenty-four years of earthly pleasure.[259] This chapbook became the source for Christopher Marlowe's The Tragical History of the Life and Death of Doctor Faustus.[260]

John Milton's epic poem Paradise Lost features Satan as its main protagonist.[261][262] Milton portrays Satan as a tragic antihero destroyed by his own hubris.[262] The poem, which draws extensive inspiration from Greek tragedy,[263] recreates Satan as a complex literary character,[264] who dares to rebel against the "tyranny" of God,[265][266] in spite of God's own omnipotence.[265][267] The English poet and painter William Blake famously quipped that "The reason Milton wrote in fetters when he wrote of Angels & God, and at liberty when of Devils & Hell, is because he was a true poet and of the Devils party without knowing it."[268] Paradise Regained, the sequel to Paradise Lost, is a retelling of Satan's temptation of Jesus in the desert.[269]

William Blake regarded Satan as a model of rebellion against unjust authority[172] and features him in many of his poems and illustrations,[172] including his 1780 book The Marriage of Heaven and Hell,[172] in which Satan is celebrated as the ultimate rebel, the incarnation of human emotion and the epitome of freedom from all forms of reason and orthodoxy.[172] Based on the Biblical passages portraying Satan as the accuser of sin,[270] Blake interpreted Satan as "a promulgator of moral laws."[270]

In visual art

 
Early 6th century Byzantine mosaic Art, depicting Jesus separating the sheep from the goats. The blue angel is possibly the earliest artistic depiction of Satan.[271]

Satan's appearance does not appear in the Bible or in early Christian writings,[272][273] though Paul the Apostle does write that "Satan disguises himself as an angel of light" (2 Corinthians 11:14).[274] The Devil was never shown in early Christian artwork[272][273] and may have first appeared in the sixth century in one of the mosaics of the Basilica of Sant'Apollinare Nuovo. The mosaic "Christ the Good Sheppard" features a blue-violet angel at the left hand side of Christ behind three goats; opposite to a red angel on the right hand side and in front of sheep.[271] Depictions of the devil became more common in the ninth century,[275][276] where he is shown with cloven hooves, hairy legs, the tail of a goat, pointed ears, a beard, a flat nose, and a set of horns.[277][273][147] Satan may have first become associated with goats through the Parable of the Sheep and the Goats, recorded in Matthew 25:31–46,[278] in which Jesus separates sheep (representing the saved) from goats (representing the damned); the damned are thrown into an "everlasting fire" along with Satan and his angels.[81]

 
Ancient Roman mosaic showing a horned, goat-legged Pan holding a shepherd's crook. Much of Satan's traditional iconography is apparently derived from Pan.[277][273]

Medieval Christians were known to adapt previously existing pagan iconography to suit depictions of Christian figures.[277][273] Much of Satan's traditional iconography in Christianity appears to be derived from Pan,[277][273] a rustic, goat-legged fertility god in ancient Greek religion.[277][273] Early Christian writers such as Saint Jerome equated the Greek satyrs and the Roman fauns, whom Pan resembled, with demons.[277][273] The Devil's pitchfork appears to have been adapted from the trident wielded by the Greek god Poseidon[273] and Satan's flame-like hair seems to have originated from the Egyptian god Bes.[273] By the High Middle Ages, Satan and devils appear in all works of Christian art: in paintings, sculptures, and on cathedrals.[279] Satan is usually depicted naked,[273] but his genitals are rarely shown and are often covered by animal furs.[273] The goat-like portrayal of Satan was especially closely associated with him in his role as the object of worship by sorcerers[280] and as the incubus, a demon believed to rape human women in their sleep.[280]

Italian frescoes from the late Middle Ages onward frequently show Satan chained in Hell, feeding on the bodies of the perpetually damned.[281] These frescoes are early enough to have inspired Dante's portrayal in his Inferno.[281] As the serpent in the Garden of Eden, Satan is often shown as a snake with arms and legs as well the head and full-breasted upper torso of a woman.[282] Satan and his demons could take any form in medieval art,[283] but, when appearing in their true form, they were often shown as short, hairy, black-skinned humanoids with clawed and bird feet and extra faces on their chests, bellies, genitals, buttocks, and tails.[283] The modern popular culture image of Satan as a well-dressed gentleman with small horns and a tail originates from portrayals of Mephistopheles in the operas La damnation de Faust (1846) by Hector Berlioz, Mefistofele (1868) by Arrigo Boito, and Faust by Charles Gounod.[280]

Illustrations of Satan/Iblis in Islamic paintings often depict him black-faced, a feature which would later symbolize any satanic figure or heretic, and with a black body, to symbolize his corrupted nature. Another common depiction of Iblis shows him wearing a special head covering, clearly different from the traditional Islamic turban. In one painting, however, Iblis wears a traditional Islamic head covering.[284] The turban probably refers to a narration of Iblis' fall: there he wore a turban, then he was sent down from heaven.[285] Many other pictures show and describe Iblis at the moment, when the angels prostrate themselves before Adam. Here, he is usually seen beyond the outcrop, his face transformed with his wings burned, to the envious countenance of a devil.[286] Iblis and his cohorts (div or shayatin) are often portrayed in Turko-Persian art as bangled creatures with flaming eyes, only covered by a short skirt. Similar to European arts, who took traits of pagan deities to depict devils, they depicted such demons often in a similar fashion to that of Hindu deities.[287]

In film and television

The Haunted Castle (1896) (3:12)

The Devil is depicted as a vampire bat in Georges Méliès' The Haunted Castle (1896),[288] which is often considered the first horror film.[289] So-called "Black Masses" have been portrayed in sensationalist B-movies since the 1960s.[290] One of the first films to portray such a ritual was the 1965 film Eye of the Devil, also known as 13. Alex Sanders, a former black magician, served as a consultant on the film to ensure that the rituals portrayed in it were depicted accurately.[291] Over the next thirty years, the novels of Dennis Wheatley and the films of Hammer Film Productions both played a major role in shaping the popular image of Satanism.[290]

The film version of Ira Levin's Rosemary's Baby established made Satanic themes a staple of mainstream horror fiction.[292] Later films such as The Exorcist (1973), The Omen (1976), Angel Heart (1987) and The Devil's Advocate (1997) feature Satan as an antagonist.[293]

In music

 
Tartini's Dream (1824) by Louis-Léopold Boilly

References to Satan in music can be dated back to the Middle Ages. Giuseppe Tartini was inspired to write his most famous work, the Violin Sonata in G minor, also known as "The Devil's Trill", after dreaming of the Devil playing the violin. Tartini claimed that the sonata was a lesser imitation of what the Devil had played in his dream.[294] Niccolò Paganini was believed to have derived his musical talent from a deal with the Devil.[295] Charles Gounod's Faust features a narrative that involves Satan.[296]

In the early 1900s, jazz and blues became known as the "Devil's Music" as they were considered "dangerous and unholy".[296] According to legend, blues musician Tommy Johnson was a terrible guitarist before exchanging his soul to the Devil for a guitar. Later, Robert Johnson claimed that he had sold his soul in return for becoming a great blues guitarist.[297] Satanic symbolism appears in rock music from the 1960s. Mick Jagger assumes the role of Lucifer in the Rolling Stones' "Sympathy for the Devil" (1968),[296] while Black Sabbath portrayed the Devil in numerous songs, including "War Pigs" (1970) and "N.I.B." (1970).[298]

See also

Notes

  1. ^ Hebrew: שָּׂטָן, romanized: sāṭān, lit. 'adversary';[1] Ancient Greek: ὁ σατανᾶς or σατάν, ho satanas/satan;[2] Arabic: شيطانالخَنَّاس shaitan, lit. 'astray', 'distant', or sometimes 'devil'
  2. ^ In many cases, the translators of the Septuagint, the pre-Christian translation of the Hebrew Bible into ancient Greek, chose to render the Hebrew word sâtan as the Greek word διάβολος (diábolos), meaning "opponent" or "accuser".[3][2] This is the root of the modern English word Devil.[2][4] Both the words satanas and diábolos are used interchangeably in the New Testament and in later Christian writings.[2] The Pauline epistles and the Gospel of Mark both use the word satancas more frequently than diábolos,[2][5] but the Gospel of Matthew uses the word diábolos more frequently and so do the Church Fathers Justin Martyr, Irenaeus, and Origen.[2]
  3. ^ The Latin Vulgate translation of this passage renders Heylel as "Lucifer"[119] and this name continues to be used by some Christians as an alternative name for Satan.[119]

References

  1. ^ Kelly 2006, pp. 2–3.
  2. ^ a b c d e f Boyd 1975, p. 13.
  3. ^ Kelly 2006, pp. 28–31.
  4. ^ Kelly 2006, pp. 2–3, 28–31.
  5. ^ Kelly 2006, p. 114.
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  7. ^ a b c Kelly 2006, p. 16.
  8. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r Campo 2009, p. 603.
  9. ^ ed. Buttrick, George Arthur; The Interpreter's Dictionary of the Bible, An illustrated Encyclopedia
  10. ^ a b Kelly 2006, pp. 1–13, 28–29.
  11. ^ Stephen M. Hooks – 2007 "As in Zechariah 3:1–2 the term here carries the definite article (has'satan="the satan") and functions not as a...the only place in the Hebrew Bible where the term "Satan" is unquestionably used as a proper name is 1 Chronicles 21:1."
  12. ^ Coogan, Michael D.; A Brief Introduction to the Old Testament: The Hebrew Bible in Its Context, Oxford University Press, 2009
  13. ^ Rachel Adelman The Return of the Repressed: Pirqe De-Rabbi Eliezer p65 "However, in the parallel versions of the story in Chronicles, it is Satan (without the definite article),"
  14. ^ Septuagint 108:6 κατάστησον ἐπ᾽ αὐτὸν ἁμαρτωλόν καὶ διάβολος στήτω ἐκ δεξιῶν αὐτοῦ
  15. ^ Kelly 2006, p. 14.
  16. ^ Numbers 22:22
  17. ^ 2 Samuel 24
  18. ^ a b c Kelly 2006, p. 20.
  19. ^ 1 Chronicles 21:1
  20. ^ Kelly 2006, pp. 18–19.
  21. ^ 1 Samuel 2:12
  22. ^ a b c d e Kelly 2006, p. 19.
  23. ^ 1 Samuel 16:14–23
  24. ^ Kelly 2006, p. 18.
  25. ^ 1 Kings 22:19–25
  26. ^ a b c d e f Kelly 2006, p. 21.
  27. ^ Job 1:6–8
  28. ^ a b Kelly 2006, pp. 21–22.
  29. ^ a b c Kelly 2006, p. 22.
  30. ^ Steinmann, AE. "The structure and message of the Book of Job". Vetus Testamentum.
  31. ^ Zechariah 3:1–7
  32. ^ Kelly 2006, p. 23.
  33. ^ a b c d Kelly 2006, p. 24.
  34. ^ Russell 1977, p. 102.
  35. ^ Peter Clark, Zoroastrianism: An Introduction to Ancient Faith 1998, p. 152 "There are so many features that Zoroastrianism seems to share with the Judeo-Christian tradition that it would be difficult to ... Historically the first point of contact that we can determine is when the Achaemenian Cyrus conquered Babylon ..539 BC"
  36. ^ Winn, Shan M.M. (1995). Heaven, heroes, and happiness : the Indo-European roots of Western ideology. Lanham, Md.: University press of America. p. 203. ISBN 0-8191-9860-9.
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  47. ^ [ Introduction to the Book of Jubilees, 15. Theology. Some of our Author's Views: Demonology, by R.H. Charles.
  48. ^ 2 Enoch 18:3. On this tradition, see A. Orlov, "The Watchers of Satanael: The Fallen Angels Traditions in 2 (Slavonic) Enoch," in: A. Orlov, Dark Mirrors: Azazel and Satanael in Early Jewish Demonology (Albany: SUNY, 2011) 85–106.
  49. ^ "And I threw him out from the height with his angels, and he was flying in the air continuously above the bottomless" – 2 Enoch 29:4
  50. ^ "The devil is the evil spirit of the lower places, as a fugitive he made Sotona from the heavens as his name was Satanail, thus he became different from the angels, but his nature did not change his intelligence as far as his understanding of righteous and sinful things" – 2 Enoch 31:4
  51. ^ See The Book of Wisdom: With Introduction and Notes, p. 27, Object of the book, by A. T. S. Goodrick.
  52. ^ Kelly 2006, pp. 70–78.
  53. ^ Kelly 2017, pp. 28–30.
  54. ^ Alexander Altmann, Alfred L. Ivry, Elliot R. Wolfson, Allan Arkush Perspectives on Jewish Thought and Mysticism Taylor & Francis 1998 ISBN 978-9-057-02194-7 p. 268
  55. ^ Glustrom 1989, pp. 22–24.
  56. ^ Bamberger, Bernard J. (2006). Fallen angels : soldiers of satan's realm (1 paperback ed.). Philadelphia, Pa.: Jewish Publ. Soc. of America. pp. 148, 149. ISBN 0-8276-0797-0.
  57. ^ Based on the Jewish exegesis of 1 Samuel 29:4 and 1 Kings 5:18 – Oxford dictionary of the Jewish religion, 2011, p. 651
  58. ^ Glustrom 1989, p. 24.
  59. ^ Genesis 6:5
  60. ^ "Satan". Jewish Encyclopedia. Retrieved 14 March 2017.
  61. ^ "Bava Batra 16a:8".
  62. ^ "Kiddushin 81a".
  63. ^ "Kiddushin 81b".
  64. ^ Robert Eisen Associate Professor of Religious Studies George Washington University The Book of Job in Medieval Jewish Philosophy 2004 p. 120 "Moreover, Zerahfiiah gives us insight into the parallel between the Garden of Eden story and the Job story alluded to ... both Satan and Job's wife are metaphors for the evil inclination, a motif Zerahfiiah seems to identify with the imagination."
  65. ^ Ronald L. Eisenberg Dictionary of Jewish Terms: A Guide to the Language of Judaism Taylor Trade Publications 2011; ISBN 978-1-589-79729-1, p. 356.
  66. ^ Rabbi Rachel Timoner Breath of Life: God as Spirit in Judaism Paraclete Press 2011; ISBN 978-1-557-25899-1
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  68. ^ Talmud, b. Berakhot 46a.6
  69. ^ Newman, Yona (1999–2009), , yonanewman.org, archived from the original on 2016-05-18
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  73. ^ Revelation 12:9
  74. ^ van der Toorn, Becking & Willem 1999, pp. 154–155.
  75. ^ a b Guiley 2009, p. 1.
  76. ^ Revelation 9:11
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  78. ^ a b c d Kelly 2006, p. 95.
  79. ^ Beekmann & Bolt 2012, p. 99–102.
  80. ^ Beekmann & Bolt 2012, p. 99–100.
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  82. ^ Peterson 2012, p. 428.
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  89. ^ Almond 2004, p. 11.
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External links

 
Look up Satan in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
 
Wikiquote has quotations related to Satan.
 
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Satan.
  • The Devil, BBC Radio 4 discussion with Martin Palmer, Alison Rowlands and David Wootton (In Our Time, Dec. 11, 2003)

January 31, 2023
satan, this, article, about, figure, abrahamic, religions, personifications, evil, various, cultures, devil, other, uses, disambiguation, devil, redirects, here, other, uses, devil, disambiguation, also, known, devil, sometimes, also, called, lucifer, christia. This article is about the figure in the Abrahamic religions For personifications of evil in various cultures see Devil For other uses see Satan disambiguation The Devil redirects here For other uses see Devil disambiguation Satan a also known as the Devil b and sometimes also called Lucifer in Christianity is an entity in the Abrahamic religions that seduces humans into sin or falsehood In Judaism Satan is seen as an agent subservient to God typically regarded as a metaphor for the yetzer hara or evil inclination In Christianity and Islam he is usually seen as a fallen angel or jinn who has rebelled against God who nevertheless allows him temporary power over the fallen world and a host of demons In the Quran Shaitan also known as Iblis is an entity made of fire who was cast out of Heaven because he refused to bow before the newly created Adam and incites humans to sin by infecting their minds with waswas evil suggestions Illustration of the Devil on folio 290 recto of the Codex Gigas dating to the early thirteenth century A figure known as ha satan the satan first appears in the Hebrew Bible as a heavenly prosecutor subordinate to Yahweh God who prosecutes the nation of Judah in the heavenly court and tests the loyalty of Yahweh s followers citation needed During the intertestamental period possibly due to influence from the Zoroastrian figure of Angra Mainyu the satan developed into a malevolent entity with abhorrent qualities in dualistic opposition to God In the apocryphal Book of Jubilees Yahweh grants the satan referred to as Mastema authority over a group of fallen angels or their offspring to tempt humans to sin and punish them Although the Book of Genesis does not mention him Christians often identify the serpent in the Garden of Eden as Satan In the Synoptic Gospels Satan tempts Jesus in the desert and is identified as the cause of illness and temptation In the Book of Revelation Satan appears as a Great Red Dragon who is defeated by Michael the Archangel and cast down from Heaven He is later bound for one thousand years but is briefly set free before being ultimately defeated and cast into the Lake of Fire In the Middle Ages Satan played a minimal role in Christian theology and was used as a comic relief figure in mystery plays During the early modern period Satan s significance greatly increased as beliefs such as demonic possession and witchcraft became more prevalent During the Age of Enlightenment belief in the existence of Satan was harshly criticized by thinkers such as Voltaire Nonetheless belief in Satan has persisted particularly in the Americas Although Satan is generally viewed as evil some groups have very different beliefs In theistic Satanism Satan is considered a deity who is either worshipped or revered In LaVeyan Satanism Satan is a symbol of virtuous characteristics and liberty Satan s appearance is never described in the Bible but since the ninth century he has often been shown in Christian art with horns cloven hooves unusually hairy legs and a tail often naked and holding a pitchfork These are an amalgam of traits derived from various pagan deities including Pan Poseidon and Bes Satan appears frequently in Christian literature most notably in Dante Alighieri s Inferno all variants of the classic Faust story John Milton s Paradise Lost and Paradise Regained and the poems of William Blake He continues to appear in film television and music Contents 1 Historical development 1 1 Hebrew Bible 1 1 1 Book of Job 1 1 2 Book of Zechariah 1 2 Second Temple period 2 Judaism 3 Christianity 3 1 Names 3 2 New Testament 3 2 1 Gospels Acts and epistles 3 2 2 Book of Revelation 3 3 Patristic era 3 4 Middle Ages 3 5 Early modern period 3 6 Modern era 4 Islam 4 1 Quran 4 2 Islamic tradition 4 2 1 Affiliation 4 2 2 Other traditions 4 3 Islamic mysticism 5 Bahaʼi Faith 6 Satanism 6 1 Theistic Satanism 6 2 Atheistic Satanism 7 Allegations of worship 8 In culture 8 1 In literature 8 2 In visual art 8 3 In film and television 8 4 In music 9 See also 10 Notes 11 References 11 1 Bibliography 12 External linksHistorical developmentHebrew Bible Balaam and the Angel 1836 by Gustav Jager The angel in this incident is referred to as a satan 6 The Hebrew term saṭan Hebrew ש ט ן is a generic noun meaning accuser or adversary 7 8 and is derived from a verb meaning primarily to obstruct oppose 9 In the earlier biblical books e g 1 Samuel 29 4 it refers to human adversaries but in the later books especially Job 1 2 and Zechariah 3 to a supernatural entity 8 When used without the definite article simply satan it can refer to any accuser 10 but when it is used with the definite article ha satan it usually refers specifically to the heavenly accuser literally the satan 10 The word with the definite article Ha Satan Hebrew ה ש ט ן hasSaṭan occurs 17 times in the Masoretic Text in two books of the Hebrew Bible Job ch 1 2 14 and Zechariah 3 1 2 3 11 12 It is translated in English bibles mostly as Satan The word without the definite article is used in ten instances citation needed of which two are translated diabolos in the Septuagint It is generally translated in English Bibles as an accuser 1x or an adversary 9x as in Book of Numbers 1 amp 2 Samuel and 1 Kings In some cases it is translated as Satan 1 Chronicles 21 1 Satan stood up against Israel KJV or And there standeth up an adversary against Israel Young s Literal Translation 13 Psalm 109 6b and let Satan stand at his right hand KJV 14 or let an accuser stand at his right hand ESV etc The word does not occur in the Book of Genesis which mentions only a talking serpent and does not identify the serpent with any supernatural entity 15 The first occurrence of the word satan in the Hebrew Bible in reference to a supernatural figure comes from Numbers 22 22 16 7 which describes the Angel of Yahweh confronting Balaam on his donkey 6 Balaam s departure aroused the wrath of Elohim and the Angel of Yahweh stood in the road as a satan against him 7 In 2 Samuel 24 17 Yahweh sends the Angel of Yahweh to inflict a plague against Israel for three days killing 70 000 people as punishment for David having taken a census without his approval 18 1 Chronicles 21 1 19 repeats this story 18 but replaces the Angel of Yahweh with an entity referred to as a satan 18 Some passages clearly refer to the satan without using the word itself 20 1 Samuel 2 12 21 describes the sons of Eli as sons of Belial 22 the later usage of this word makes it clearly a synonym for satan 22 In 1 Samuel 16 14 2 23 Yahweh sends a troubling spirit to torment King Saul as a mechanism to ingratiate David with the king 24 In 1 Kings 22 19 25 25 the prophet Micaiah describes to King Ahab a vision of Yahweh sitting on his throne surrounded by the Host of Heaven 22 Yahweh asks the Host which of them will lead Ahab astray 22 A spirit whose name is not specified but who is analogous to the satan volunteers to be a Lying Spirit in the mouth of all his Prophets 22 Book of Job The Examination of Job c 1821 by William Blake The satan appears in the Book of Job a poetic dialogue set within a prose framework 26 which may have been written around the time of the Babylonian captivity 26 In the text Job is a righteous man favored by Yahweh 26 Job 1 6 8 27 describes the sons of God bene haʼĕlōhim presenting themselves before Yahweh 26 Yahweh asks one of them the satan where he has been to which he replies that he has been roaming around the earth 26 Yahweh asks Have you considered My servant Job 26 The satan replies by urging Yahweh to let him torture Job promising that Job will abandon his faith at the first tribulation 28 Yahweh consents the satan destroys Job s servants and flocks yet Job refuses to condemn Yahweh 28 The first scene repeats itself with the satan presenting himself to Yahweh alongside the other sons of God 29 Yahweh points out Job s continued faithfulness to which the satan insists that more testing is necessary 29 Yahweh once again gives him permission to test Job 29 In the end Job remains faithful and righteous and it is implied that the satan is shamed in his defeat 30 Book of Zechariah Zechariah 3 1 7 31 contains a description of a vision dated to the middle of February of 519 BC 32 in which an angel shows Zechariah a scene of Joshua the High Priest dressed in filthy rags representing the nation of Judah and its sins 33 on trial with Yahweh as the judge and the satan standing as the prosecutor 33 Yahweh rebukes the satan 33 and orders for Joshua to be given clean clothes representing Yahweh s forgiveness of Judah s sins 33 Second Temple period Map showing the expansion of the Achaemenid Empire in which Jews lived during the early Second Temple Period 8 allowing Zoroastrian ideas about Angra Mainyu to influence the Jewish conception of Satan 8 During the Second Temple Period when Jews were living in the Achaemenid Empire Judaism was heavily influenced by Zoroastrianism the religion of the Achaemenids 34 8 35 Jewish conceptions of Satan were impacted by Angra Mainyu 8 36 the Zoroastrian god of evil darkness and ignorance 8 In the Septuagint the Hebrew ha Satan in Job and Zechariah is translated by the Greek word diabolos slanderer the same word in the Greek New Testament from which the English word devil is derived 37 Where satan is used to refer to human enemies in the Hebrew Bible such as Hadad the Edomite and Rezon the Syrian the word is left untranslated but transliterated in the Greek as satan a neologism in Greek 37 The idea of Satan as an opponent of God and a purely evil figure seems to have taken root in Jewish pseudepigrapha during the Second Temple Period 38 particularly in the apocalypses 39 The Book of Enoch which the Dead Sea Scrolls have revealed to have been nearly as popular as the Torah 40 describes a group of 200 angels known as the Watchers who are assigned to supervise the earth but instead abandon their duties and have sexual intercourse with human women 41 The leader of the Watchers is Semjaza 42 and another member of the group known as Azazel spreads sin and corruption among humankind 42 The Watchers are ultimately sequestered in isolated caves across the earth 42 and are condemned to face judgement at the end of time 42 The Book of Jubilees written in around 150 BC 43 retells the story of the Watchers defeat 44 but in deviation from the Book of Enoch Mastema the Chief of Spirits intervenes before all of their demon offspring are sealed away requesting for Yahweh to let him keep some of them to become his workers 45 Yahweh acquiesces this request 45 and Mastema uses them to tempt humans into committing more sins so that he may punish them for their wickedness 46 Later Mastema induces Yahweh to test Abraham by ordering him to sacrifice Isaac 46 47 The Second Book of Enoch also called the Slavonic Book of Enoch contains references to a Watcher called Satanael 48 It is a pseudepigraphic text of an uncertain date and unknown authorship The text describes Satanael as being the prince of the Grigori who was cast out of heaven 49 and an evil spirit who knew the difference between what was righteous and sinful 50 In the Book of Wisdom the devil is taken to be the being who brought death into the world but originally the culprit was recognized as Cain 51 52 53 The name Samael which is used in reference to one of the fallen angels later became a common name for Satan in Jewish Midrash and Kabbalah 54 Judaism The sound of a shofar pictured is believed to symbolically confuse Satan Most Jews do not believe in the existence of a supernatural omnimalevolent figure 55 Traditionalists and philosophers in medieval Judaism adhered to rational theology rejecting any belief in rebel or fallen angels and viewing evil as abstract 56 The rabbis usually interpreted the word satan lacking the article ha as it is used in the Tanakh as referring strictly to human adversaries 57 Nonetheless the word satan has occasionally been metaphorically applied to evil influences 58 such as the Jewish exegesis of the yetzer hara evil inclination mentioned in Genesis 6 5 59 60 The Talmudic image of Satan is contradictory While Satan s identification with the abstract yetzer hara remains uniform over the sages teachings he is generally identified as an entity with divine agency For instance the sages considered Satan to be an angel of death that would later be called Samael since God s prohibition on Satan killing Job implied he was even capable of doing so 61 yet despite this syncretization with a known heavenly body Satan is identified as the yetzer hara in the very same passage Satan s status as a physical entity is strengthened by numerous other rabbinical anecdotes one tale describes two separate incidents where Satan appeared as a woman in order to tempt Rabbi Meir and Rabbi Akiva into sin 62 Another passage describes Satan taking the form of an ill mannered diseased beggar in order to tempt the sage Peleimu into breaking the mitzvah of hospitality 63 Rabbinical scholarship on the Book of Job generally follows the Talmud and Maimonides in identifying the satan from the prologue as a metaphor for the yetzer hara and not an actual entity 64 Satan is rarely mentioned in Tannaitic literature but is found in Babylonian aggadah 39 According to a narration the sound of the shofar which is primarily intended to remind Jews of the importance of teshuva is also intended symbolically to confuse the accuser Satan and prevent him from rendering any litigation to God against the Jews 65 Kabbalah presents Satan as an agent of God whose function is to tempt humans into sinning so that he may accuse them in the heavenly court 66 The Hasidic Jews of the eighteenth century associated ha Satan with Baal Davar 67 Each modern sect of Judaism has its own interpretation of Satan s identity Conservative Judaism generally rejects the Talmudic interpretation of Satan as a metaphor for the yetzer hara and regard him as a literal agent of God citation needed Orthodox Judaism on the other hand outwardly embraces Talmudic teachings on Satan and involves Satan in religious life far more inclusively than other sects Satan is mentioned explicitly in some daily prayers including during Shacharit and certain post meal benedictions as described in the Talmud 68 and the Jewish Code of Law 69 In Reform Judaism Satan is generally seen in his Talmudic role as a metaphor for the yetzer hara and the symbolic representation of innate human qualities such as selfishness 70 ChristianityMain article Devil in Christianity Names Illustration for John Milton s Paradise Lost depicting the Fall of Lucifer The most common English synonym for Satan is devil which descends from Middle English devel from Old English deofol that in turn represents an early Germanic borrowing of Latin diabolus also the source of diabolical This in turn was borrowed from Greek diabolos slanderer from diaballein to slander dia across through ballein to hurl 71 In the New Testament the words Satan and diabolos are used interchangeably as synonyms 72 73 Beelzebub meaning Lord of Flies is the contemptuous name given in the Hebrew Bible and New Testament to a Philistine god whose original name has been reconstructed as most probably Ba al Zabul meaning Baal the Prince 74 The Synoptic Gospels identify Satan and Beelzebub as the same 72 The name Abaddon meaning place of destruction is used six times in the Old Testament mainly as a name for one of the regions of Sheol 75 Revelation 9 11 describes Abaddon whose name is translated into Greek as Apollyon meaning the destroyer as an angel who rules the Abyss 76 In modern usage Abaddon is sometimes equated with Satan 75 New Testament Gospels Acts and epistles The Devil depicted in The Temptation of Christ by Ary Scheffer 1854 The three Synoptic Gospels all describe the temptation of Christ by Satan in the desert Matthew 4 1 11 Mark 1 12 13 and Luke 4 1 13 77 Satan first shows Jesus a stone and tells him to turn it into bread 77 He also takes him to the pinnacle of the Temple in Jerusalem and commands Jesus to throw himself down so that the angels will catch him 77 Satan takes Jesus to the top of a tall mountain as well there he shows him the kingdoms of the earth and promises to give them all to him if he will bow down and worship him 77 Each time Jesus rebukes Satan 77 and after the third temptation he is administered by the angels 77 Satan s promise in Matthew 4 8 9 and Luke 4 6 7 to give Jesus all the kingdoms of the earth implies that all those kingdoms belong to him 78 The fact that Jesus does not dispute Satan s promise indicates that the authors of those gospels believed this to be true 78 Satan plays a role in some of the parables of Jesus namely the Parable of the Sower the Parable of the Weeds Parable of the Sheep and the Goats and the Parable of the Strong Man 79 According to the Parable of the Sower Satan profoundly influences those who fail to understand the gospel 80 The latter two parables say that Satan s followers will be punished on Judgement Day with the Parable of the Sheep and the Goats stating that the Devil his angels and the people who follow him will be consigned to eternal fire 81 When the Pharisees accused Jesus of exorcising demons through the power of Beelzebub Jesus responds by telling the Parable of the Strong Man saying how can someone enter a strong man s house and plunder his goods unless he first binds the strong man Then indeed he may plunder his house Matthew 12 29 82 The strong man in this parable represents Satan 83 The Synoptic Gospels identify Satan and his demons as the causes of illness 78 including fever Luke 4 39 leprosy Luke 5 13 and arthritis Luke 13 11 16 78 while the Epistle to the Hebrews describes the Devil as him who holds the power of death Hebrews 2 14 84 The author of Luke Acts attributes more power to Satan than both Matthew and Mark 85 In Luke 22 31 Jesus grants Satan the authority to test Peter and the other apostles 86 Luke 22 3 6 states that Judas Iscariot betrayed Jesus because Satan entered him 85 and in Acts 5 3 Peter describes Satan as filling Ananias s heart and causing him to sin 87 The Gospel of John only uses the name Satan three times 88 In John 8 44 Jesus says that his Jewish or Judean enemies are the children of the Devil rather than the children of Abraham 88 The same verse describes the Devil as a man killer from the beginning 88 and a liar and the father of lying 88 89 John 13 2 describes the Devil as inspiring Judas to betray Jesus 90 and John 12 31 32 identifies Satan as the Archon of this Cosmos who is destined to be overthrown through Jesus s death and resurrection 91 John 16 7 8 promises that the Holy Spirit will accuse the World concerning sin justice and judgement a role resembling that of the satan in the Old Testament 92 Jude 9 refers to a dispute between Michael the Archangel and the Devil over the body of Moses 93 94 95 Some interpreters understand this reference to be an allusion to the events described in Zechariah 3 1 2 94 95 The classical theologian Origen attributes this reference to the non canonical Assumption of Moses 96 97 According to James H Charlesworth there is no evidence the surviving book of this name ever contained any such content 98 Others believe it to be in the lost ending of the book 98 99 The second chapter of the Second Epistle of Peter a pseudepigraphical letter which falsely claims to have been written by Peter 100 copies much of the content of the Epistle of Jude 100 but omits the specifics of the example regarding Michael and Satan with 2 Peter 2 10 11 instead mentioning only an ambiguous dispute between Angels and Glories 100 Throughout the New Testament Satan is referred to as a tempter Matthew 4 3 8 the ruler of the demons Matthew 12 24 101 8 the God of this Age 2 Corinthians 4 4 102 the evil one 1 John 5 18 8 and a roaring lion 1 Peter 5 8 101 Book of Revelation St Michael Vanquishing Satan 1518 by Raphael depicting Satan being cast out of heaven by Michael the Archangel as described in Revelation 12 7 8 The Book of Revelation represents Satan as the supernatural ruler of the Roman Empire and the ultimate cause of all evil in the world 103 In Revelation 2 9 10 as part of the letter to the church at Smyrna John of Patmos refers to the Jews of Smyrna as a synagogue of Satan 104 and warns that the Devil is about to cast some of you into prison as a test peirasmos and for ten days you will have affliction 104 In Revelation 2 13 14 in the letter to the church of Pergamum John warns that Satan lives among the members of the congregation 105 and declares that Satan s throne is in their midst 105 Pergamum was the capital of the Roman Province of Asia 105 and Satan s throne may be referring to the monumental Pergamon Altar in the city which was dedicated to the Greek god Zeus 105 or to a temple dedicated to the Roman emperor Augustus 105 La Bete de la Mer from the Tapisserie de l Apocalypse in Angers France A medieval tapestry depicting the devil as a dragon with 7 heads in the Book of Revelation Revelation 12 3 describes a vision of a Great Red Dragon with seven heads ten horns seven crowns and a massive tail 106 an image which is likely inspired by the vision of the four beasts from the sea in the Book of Daniel 107 and the Leviathan described in various Old Testament passages 108 The Great Red Dragon knocks a third of the sun a third of the moon and a third of the stars out the sky 109 and pursues the Woman of the Apocalypse 109 Revelation 12 7 9 declares And war broke out in Heaven Michael and his angels fought against the Dragon The Dragon and his angels fought back but they were defeated and there was no longer any place for them in Heaven Dragon the Great was thrown down that ancient serpent who is called Devil and Satan the one deceiving the whole inhabited World he was thrown down to earth and his angels were thrown down with him 110 Then a voice booms down from Heaven heralding the defeat of the Accuser ho Kantegor identifying the Satan of Revelation with the satan of the Old Testament 111 In Revelation 20 1 3 Satan is bound with a chain and hurled into the Abyss 112 where he is imprisoned for one thousand years 112 In Revelation 20 7 10 he is set free and gathers his armies along with Gog and Magog to wage war against the righteous 112 but is defeated with fire from Heaven and cast into the lake of fire 112 Some Christians associate Satan with the number 666 which Revelation 13 18 describes as the Number of the Beast 113 However the beast mentioned in Revelation 13 is not Satan 114 and the use of 666 in the Book of Revelation has been interpreted as a reference to the Roman Emperor Nero as 666 is the numeric value of his name in Hebrew 113 Patristic era The Garden of Eden with the Fall of Man by Jan Brueghel the Elder and Pieter Paul Rubens c 1615 depicting Eve reaching for the forbidden fruit beside the Devil portrayed as a serpentChristians have traditionally interpreted the unnamed serpent in the Garden of Eden as Satan due to Revelation 12 7 which calls Satan that ancient serpent 111 8 This verse however is probably intended to identify Satan with the Leviathan 111 a monstrous sea serpent whose destruction by Yahweh is prophesied in Isaiah 27 1 108 The first recorded individual to identify Satan with the serpent from the Garden of Eden was the second century AD Christian apologist Justin Martyr 115 116 in chapters 45 and 79 of his Dialogue with Trypho 116 Other early church fathers to mention this identification include Theophilus and Tertullian 117 The early Christian Church however encountered opposition from pagans such as Celsus who claimed in his treatise The True Word that it is blasphemy to say that the greatest God has an adversary who constrains his capacity to do good and said that Christians impiously divide the kingdom of God creating a rebellion in it as if there were opposing factions within the divine including one that is hostile to God 118 Lucifer 1890 by Franz Stuck Because of Patristic interpretations of Isaiah 14 12 and Jerome s Latin Vulgate translation the name Lucifer is sometimes used in reference to Satan 119 120 The name Heylel meaning morning star or in Latin Lucifer c was a name for Attar the god of the planet Venus in Canaanite mythology 121 122 who attempted to scale the walls of the heavenly city 123 121 but was vanquished by the god of the sun 123 The name is used in Isaiah 14 12 in metaphorical reference to the king of Babylon 123 Ezekiel 28 12 15 uses a description of a cherub in Eden as a polemic against Ithobaal II the king of Tyre 124 The Church Father Origen of Alexandria c 184 c 253 who was only aware of the actual text of these passages and not the original myths to which they refer concluded in his treatise On the First Principles which is preserved in a Latin translation by Tyrannius Rufinus that neither of these verses could literally refer to a human being 125 He concluded that Isaiah 14 12 is an allegory for Satan and that Ezekiel 28 12 15 is an allusion to a certain Angel who had received the office of governing the nation of the Tyrians but was hurled down to Earth after he was found to be corrupt 126 127 In his apologetic treatise Contra Celsum however Origen interprets both Isaiah 14 12 and Ezekiel 28 12 15 as referring to Satan 128 According to Henry Ansgar Kelly Origen seems to have adopted this new interpretation to refute unnamed persons who perhaps under the influence of Zoroastrian radical dualism believed that Satan s original nature was Darkness 129 The later Church Father Jerome c 347 420 translator of the Latin Vulgate accepted Origen s theory of Satan as a fallen angel 130 and wrote about it in his commentary on the Book of Isaiah 130 In Christian tradition ever since both Isaiah 14 12 131 132 and Ezekiel 28 12 15 have been understood as allegorically referring to Satan 133 134 For most Christians Satan has been regarded as an angel who rebelled against God 135 132 According to the ransom theory of atonement which was popular among early Christian theologians 136 137 Satan gained power over humanity through Adam and Eve s sin 136 138 and Christ s death on the cross was a ransom to Satan in exchange for humanity s liberation 136 139 This theory holds that Satan was tricked by God 136 140 because Christ was not only free of sin but also the incarnate Deity whom Satan lacked the ability to enslave 140 Irenaeus of Lyons described a prototypical form of the ransom theory 136 but Origen was the first to propose it in its fully developed form 136 The theory was later expanded by theologians such as Gregory of Nyssa and Rufinus of Aquileia 136 In the eleventh century Anselm of Canterbury criticized the ransom theory along with the associated Christus Victor theory 136 141 resulting in the theory s decline in western Europe 136 141 The theory has nonetheless retained some of its popularity in the Eastern Orthodox Church 136 Most early Christians firmly believed that Satan and his demons had the power to possess humans 142 and exorcisms were widely practiced by Jews Christians and pagans alike 142 Belief in demonic possession continued through the Middle Ages into the early modern period 143 144 Exorcisms were seen as a display of God s power over Satan 145 The vast majority of people who thought they were possessed by the Devil did not suffer from hallucinations or other spectacular symptoms but complained of anxiety religious fears and evil thoughts 146 Middle Ages Medieval miniature depicting Pope Sylvester II consorting with Satan c 1460 Detail of Satan from Hans Memling s Triptych of Earthly Vanity and Divine Salvation c 1485 Satan had minimal role in medieval Christian theology 147 but he frequently appeared as a recurring comedic stock character in late medieval mystery plays in which he was portrayed as a comic relief figure who frolicked fell and farted in the background 147 Jeffrey Burton Russell describes the medieval conception of Satan as more pathetic and repulsive than terrifying 147 148 and he was seen as little more than a nuisance to God s overarching plan 147 The Golden Legend a collection of saints lives compiled in around 1260 by the Dominican Friar Jacobus de Voragine contains numerous stories about encounters between saints and Satan 149 in which Satan is constantly duped by the saints cleverness and by the power of God 149 Henry Ansgar Kelly remarks that Satan comes across as the opposite of fearsome 150 The Golden Legend was the most popular book during the High and Late Middle Ages 151 and more manuscripts of it have survived from the period than for any other book including even the Bible itself 151 The Canon Episcopi written in the eleventh century AD condemns belief in witchcraft as heretical 152 but also documents that many people at the time apparently believed in it 152 Witches were believed to fly through the air on broomsticks 152 consort with demons 152 perform in lurid sexual rituals in the forests 152 murder human infants and eat them as part of Satanic rites 153 and engage in conjugal relations with demons 154 153 In 1326 Pope John XXII issued the papal bull Super illius Specula 155 which condemned folk divination practices as consultation with Satan 155 By the 1430s the Catholic Church began to regard witchcraft as part of a vast conspiracy led by Satan himself 156 Early modern period Painting from c 1788 by Francisco Goya depicting Saint Francis Borgia performing an exorcism During the early modern period exorcisms were seen as displays of God s power over Satan 145 During the early modern period witches were widely believed to engage in sexually explicit Satanic rituals with demons 152 such as the one shown in this illustration by Martin van Maele in the 1911 edition of Satanism and Witchcraft by Jules Michelet During the Early Modern Period Christians gradually began to regard Satan as increasingly powerful 154 and the fear of Satan s power became a dominant aspect of the worldview of Christians across Europe 145 147 During the Protestant Reformation Martin Luther taught that rather than trying to argue with Satan Christians should avoid temptation altogether by seeking out pleasant company 157 Luther especially recommended music as a safeguard against temptation since the Devil cannot endure gaiety 157 John Calvin repeated a maxim from Saint Augustine that Man is like a horse with either God or the devil as rider 158 In the late fifteenth century a series of witchcraft panics erupted in France and Germany 155 156 The German Inquisitors Heinrich Kramer and Jacob Sprenger argued in their book Malleus Maleficarum published in 1487 that all maleficia sorcery was rooted in the work of Satan 159 In the mid sixteenth century the panic spread to England and Switzerland 155 Both Protestants and Catholics alike firmly believed in witchcraft as a real phenomenon and supported its prosecution 160 161 In the late 1500s the Dutch demonologist Johann Weyer argued in his treatise De praestigiis daemonum that witchcraft did not exist 162 but that Satan promoted belief in it to lead Christians astray 162 The panic over witchcraft intensified in the 1620s and continued until the end of the 1600s 155 Brian Levack estimates that around 60 000 people were executed for witchcraft during the entire span of the witchcraft hysteria 155 The early English settlers of North America especially the Puritans of New England believed that Satan visibly and palpably reigned in the New World 163 John Winthrop claimed that the Devil made rebellious Puritan women give birth to stillborn monsters with claws sharp horns and on each foot three claws like a young fowl 164 Cotton Mather wrote that devils swarmed around Puritan settlements like the frogs of Egypt 165 The Puritans believed that the Native Americans were worshippers of Satan 166 and described them as children of the Devil 163 Some settlers claimed to have seen Satan himself appear in the flesh at native ceremonies 165 During the First Great Awakening the new light preachers portrayed their old light critics as ministers of Satan 167 By the time of the Second Great Awakening Satan s primary role in American evangelicalism was as the opponent of the evangelical movement itself who spent most of his time trying to hinder the ministries of evangelical preachers 168 a role he has largely retained among present day American fundamentalists 169 By the early 1600s skeptics in Europe including the English author Reginald Scot and the Anglican bishop John Bancroft had begun to criticize the belief that demons still had the power to possess people 170 This skepticism was bolstered by the belief that miracles only occurred during the Apostolic Age which had long since ended 171 Later Enlightenment thinkers such as David Hume Denis Diderot and Voltaire attacked the notion of Satan s existence altogether 172 Voltaire labelled John Milton s Paradise Lost a disgusting fantasy 172 and declared that belief in Hell and Satan were among the many lies propagated by the Catholic Church to keep humanity enslaved 172 By the eighteenth century trials for witchcraft had ceased in most western countries with the notable exceptions of Poland and Hungary where they continued 173 Belief in the power of Satan however remained strong among traditional Christians 173 Modern era The Fallen Angel 1847 by Alexandre Cabanel The Genius of Evil 1848 by Guillaume GeefsMormonism developed its own views on Satan According to the Book of Moses the Devil offered to be the redeemer of mankind for the sake of his own glory Conversely Jesus offered to be the redeemer of mankind so that his father s will would be done After his offer was rejected Satan became rebellious and was subsequently cast out of heaven 174 In the Book of Moses Cain is said to have loved Satan more than God 175 and conspired with Satan to kill Abel It was through this pact that Cain became a Master Mahan 176 The Book of Moses also says that Moses was tempted by Satan before calling upon the name of the Only Begotten which caused Satan to depart Douglas Davies asserts that this text reflects the temptation of Jesus in the Bible 177 Belief in Satan and demonic possession remains strong among Christians in the United States 178 179 180 and Latin America 181 According to a 2013 poll conducted by YouGov fifty seven percent of people in the United States believe in a literal Devil 178 compared to eighteen percent of people in Britain 178 Fifty one percent of Americans believe that Satan has the power to possess people 178 W Scott Poole author of Satan in America The Devil We Know has opined that In the United States over the last forty to fifty years a composite image of Satan has emerged that borrows from both popular culture and theological sources and that most American Christians do not separate what they know about Satan from the movies from what they know from various ecclesiastical and theological traditions 164 The Catholic Church generally played down Satan and exorcism during late twentieth and early twenty first centuries 181 but Pope Francis brought renewed focus on the Devil in the early 2010s stating among many other pronouncements that The devil is intelligent he knows more theology than all the theologians together 181 182 According to the Encyclopaedia Britannica liberal Christianity tends to view Satan as a figurative mythological attempt to express the reality and extent of evil in the universe existing outside and apart from humanity but profoundly influencing the human sphere 183 Bernard McGinn describes multiple traditions detailing the relationship between the Antichrist and Satan 184 In the dualist approach Satan will become incarnate in the Antichrist just as God became incarnate in Jesus 184 However in Orthodox Christian thought this view is problematic because it is too similar to Christ s incarnation 184 Instead the indwelling view has become more accepted 184 which stipulates that the Antichrist is a human figure inhabited by Satan 184 since the latter s power is not to be seen as equivalent to God s 184 IslamMain articles Azazil and Iblis See also Devil Islam The Arabic equivalent of the word Satan is Shaitan شيطان from the triliteral root s ṭ n شط ن The word itself is an adjective meaning astray or distant sometimes translated as devil that can be applied to both man al ins الإنس and al jinn الجن but it is also used in reference to Satan in particular In the Quran Satan s name is Iblis Arabic pronunciation ˈibliːs probably a derivative of the Greek word diabolos 185 Muslims do not regard Satan as the cause of evil but as a tempter who takes advantage of humans inclinations toward self centeredness 186 Quran Illustration from a manuscript of Abu Ali Bal ami s Persian translation of the Annals of al Tabari showing Satan Iblis refusing to prostrate before the newly created man Adam Seven suras in the Quran describe how God ordered all the angels and Iblis to bow before the newly created Adam 8 187 185 All the angels bowed but Iblis refused 8 187 185 claiming to be superior to Adam because he was made from fire whereas Adam was made from clay 7 12 185 Consequently God expelled him from Paradise 8 185 and condemned him to Jahannam 188 185 Iblis thereafter became a kafir an ungrateful disbeliever 8 whose sole mission is to lead humanity astray 8 Q17 62 189 God allows Iblis to do this 8 190 because he knows that the righteous will be able to resist Iblis s attempts to misguide them 8 On Judgement Day while the lot of Satan remains in question 191 those who followed him will be thrown into the fires of Jahannam 188 185 After his banishment from Paradise Iblis who thereafter became known as Al Shaitan the Demon 188 lured Adam and Eve into eating the forbidden fruit 188 185 192 The primary characteristic of Satan aside from his hubris and despair is his ability to cast evil suggestions waswas into men and women 193 15 45 states that Satan has no influence over the righteous 194 but that those who fall in error are under his power 194 7 156 implies that those who obey God s laws are immune to the temptations of Satan 194 56 79 warns that Satan tries to keep Muslims from reading the Quran 195 and 16 98 100 recommends reciting the Quran as an antidote against Satan 195 35 6 refers to Satan as the enemy of humanity 195 and 36 60 forbids humans from worshipping him 195 In the Quranic retelling of the story of Job Job knows that Satan is the one tormenting him 195 Islamic tradition Affiliation The angels meet Adam and their body language reveals they share albeit to a lesser degree the defiant reaction of Iblis who stands at the back haughtily turning his head away According to some traditions God created Iblis as a beautiful angel named ʿAzazil and he is depicted here as such He is portrayed with his characteristic darker skin to denote his impending fall but has wings of an angel and wears the contemporary angelic hairstyle a loop of hair tied on top of the head In the Quran Satan is apparently an angel 185 but in 18 50 he is described as from the jinns 185 This combined with the fact that he describes himself as having been made from fire posed a major problem for Muslims exegetes of the Quran 185 who disagree on whether Satan is a fallen angel or the leader of a group of evil jinn 196 According to a hadith from Ibn Abbas Iblis was actually an angel whom God created out of fire Ibn Abbas asserts that the word jinn could be applied to earthly jinn but also to fiery angels like Satan 197 Hasan of Basra an eminent Muslim theologian who lived in the seventh century AD was quoted as saying Iblis was not an angel even for the time of an eye wink He is the origin of Jinn as Adam is of Mankind 198 The medieval Persian scholar Abu Al Zamakhshari states that the words angels and jinn are synonyms 199 Another Persian scholar Al Baydawi instead argues that Satan hoped to be an angel 199 but that his actions made him a jinn 199 Abu Mansur al Maturidi who is reverred as the founder of Maturidiyyah Sunni orthodoxy kalam argued that since angels can be blessed by God they are also put to a test and can be punished Accordingly Satan became a devil shaiṭan or jinn after he refused to obey 200 Other Islamic scholars argue that Satan was a jinn who was admitted into Paradise as a reward for his righteousness and unlike the angels was given the choice to obey or disobey God When he was expelled from Paradise Satan blamed humanity for his punishment 201 Concerning the fiery origin of Iblis Zakariya al Qazwini and Muhammad ibn Ahmad Ibshihi 202 state that all supernatural creatures originated from fire but the angels from its light and the jinn from its blaze thus fire denotes a disembodiment origin of all spiritual entities 203 Abd al Ghani al Maqdisi argued that only the angels of mercy are created from light but angels of punishment have been created from fire 204 The Muslim historian Al Tabari who died in around 923 AD 185 writes that before Adam was created earthly jinn made of smokeless fire roamed the earth and spread corruption 205 He further relates that Iblis was originally an angel named Azazil or Al Harith 206 from a group of angels created from the fires of simoom 207 sent by God to confront the earthly jinn 208 185 Azazil defeated the jinn in battle and drove them into the mountains 208 but he became convinced that he was superior to humans and all the other angels leading to his downfall 208 In this account Azazil s group of angels were called jinn because they guarded Jannah Paradise 209 In another tradition recorded by Al Tabari Satan was one of the earthly jinn who was taken captive by the angels 194 185 and brought to Heaven as a prisoner 194 185 God appointed him as judge over the other jinn and he became known as Al Hakam 194 He fulfilled his duty for a thousand years before growing negligent 185 but was rehabilitated again and resumed his position until his refusal to bow before Adam 185 Other traditions A stoning of the Devil from 1942 During the first two centuries of Islam Muslims almost unanimously accepted the traditional story known as the Satanic Verses as true 210 According to this narrative Muhammad was told by Satan to add words to the Quran which would allow Muslims to pray for the intercession of pagan goddesses 211 He mistook the words of Satan for divine inspiration 210 Modern Muslims almost universally reject this story as heretical as it calls the integrity of the Quran into question 212 On the third day of the Hajj Muslim pilgrims to Mecca throw seven stones at a pillar known as the Jamrah al Aqabah symbolizing the stoning of the Devil 213 This ritual is based on the Islamic tradition that when God ordered Abraham to sacrifice his son Ishmael Satan tempted him three times not to do it and each time Abraham responded by throwing seven stones at him 213 214 The hadith teach that newborn babies cry because Satan touches them while they are being born and that this touch causes people to have an aptitude for sin 215 This doctrine bears some similarities to the doctrine of original sin 215 Muslim tradition holds that only Jesus and Mary were not touched by Satan at birth 215 However when he was a boy Muhammad s heart was literally opened by an angel who removed a black clot that symbolized sin 215 Angels bow before the newly created Adam but Iblis top right on the picture refuses to prostrate Muslim tradition preserves a number of stories involving dialogues between Jesus and Iblis 208 all of which are intended to demonstrate Jesus s virtue and Satan s depravity 216 Ahmad ibn Hanbal records an Islamic retelling of Jesus s temptation by Satan in the desert from the Synoptic Gospels 208 Ahmad quotes Jesus as saying The greatest sin is love of the world Women are the ropes of Satan Wine is the key to every evil 216 Abu Uthman al Jahiz credits Jesus with saying The world is Satan s farm and its people are his plowmen 208 Al Ghazali tells an anecdote about how Jesus went out one day and saw Satan carrying ashes and honey 217 when he asked what they were for Satan replied The honey I put on the lips of backbiters so that they achieve their aim The ashes I put on the faces of orphans so that people come to dislike them 217 The thirteenth century scholar Sibt ibn al Jawzi states that when Jesus asked him what truly broke his back Satan replied The neighing of horses in the cause of Allah 217 Muslims believe that Satan is also the cause of deceptions originating from the mind and desires for evil He is regarded as a cosmic force for separation despair and spiritual envelopment Muslims do distinguish between the satanic temptations and the murmurings of the bodily lower self nafs The lower self commands the person to do a specific task or to fulfill a specific desire whereas the inspirations of Satan tempt the person to do evil in general and after a person successfully resists his first suggestion Satan returns with new ones 218 If a Muslim feels that Satan is inciting him to sin he is advised to seek refuge with God by reciting In the name of Allah I seek refuge in you from Satan the outcast Muslims are also obliged to seek refuge before reciting the Quran 219 Islamic mysticism According to Sufi mysticism Iblis refused to bow to Adam because he was fully devoted to God alone and refused to bow to anyone else 220 199 For this reason Sufi masters regard Satan and Muhammad as the two most perfect monotheists 220 Sufis reject the concept of dualism 220 221 and instead believe in the unity of existence 221 In the same way that Muhammad was the instrument of God s mercy 220 Sufis regard Satan as the instrument of God s wrath 220 For the Muslim Sufi scholar Ahmad Ghazali Iblis was the paragon of lovers in self sacrifice for refusing to bow down to Adam out of pure devotion to God 222 Ahmad Ghazali s student Sheikh Adi ibn Musafir was among the Sunni Muslim mystics who defended Iblis asserted that evil was also God s creation Sheikh Adi argued that if evil existed without the will of God then God would be powerless and powerlessness can t be attributed to God 223 Some Sufis assert since Iblis was destined by God to become a devil God will also restore him to his former angelic nature Attar compares Iblis s damnation to the Biblical Benjamin Both were accused injustly but their punishment had a greater meaning In the end Iblis will be released from hell 224 However not all Muslim Sufi mystics are in agreement with a positive depiction of Iblis Rumi s viewpoint on Iblis is much more in tune with Islamic orthodoxy Rumi views Iblis as the manifestation of the great sins of haughtiness and envy He states Cunning intelligence is from Iblis and love from Adam 225 Bahaʼi FaithIn the Bahaʼi Faith Satan is not regarded as an independent evil power as he is in some faiths 226 227 but signifies the lower nature of humans 226 227 Abdu l Baha explains This lower nature in man is symbolized as Satan the evil ego within us not an evil personality outside 226 227 All other evil spirits described in various faith traditions such as fallen angels demons and jinns are also metaphors for the base character traits a human being may acquire and manifest when he turns away from God 228 Actions that are described as satanic in some Bahaʼi writings denote humans deeds caused by selfish desires 229 SatanismMain article Satanism Theistic Satanism The inverted pentagram along with the Baphomet is the most notable and widespread symbol of Satanism 230 Theistic Satanism commonly referred to as devil worship 231 views Satan as a deity whom individuals may supplicate to 232 233 It consists of loosely affiliated or independent groups and cabals which all agree that Satan is a real entity 234 Atheistic Satanism Atheistic Satanism as practiced by the Satanic Temple and by followers of LaVeyan Satanism holds that Satan does not exist as a literal anthropomorphic entity but rather as a symbol of a cosmos which Satanists perceive to be permeated and motivated by a force that has been given many names by humans over the course of time In this religion Satan is not viewed or depicted as a hubristic irrational and fraudulent creature but rather is revered with Prometheus like attributes symbolizing liberty and individual empowerment To adherents he also serves as a conceptual framework and an external metaphorical projection of the Satanist s highest personal potential 235 In his essay Satanism The Feared Religion the current High Priest of the Church of Satan Peter H Gilmore further expounds that Satan is a symbol of Man living as his prideful carnal nature dictates The reality behind Satan is simply the dark evolutionary force of entropy that permeates all of nature and provides the drive for survival and propagation inherent in all living things Satan is not a conscious entity to be worshiped rather a reservoir of power inside each human to be tapped at will 236 LaVeyan Satanists embrace the original etymological meaning of the word Satan Hebrew ש ט ן satan meaning adversary According to Peter H Gilmore The Church of Satan has chosen Satan as its primary symbol because in Hebrew it means adversary opposer one to accuse or question We see ourselves as being these Satans the adversaries opposers and accusers of all spiritual belief systems that would try to hamper enjoyment of our life as a human being 237 Post LaVeyan Satanists like the adherents of The Satanic Temple argue that the human animal has a natural altruistic and communal tendency and frame Satan as a figure of struggle against injustice and activism They also believe in bodily autonomy that personal beliefs should conform to science and inspire nobility and that people should atone for their mistakes 238 Allegations of worship A depiction of Santa Muerte The main deity in the tentatively Indo European pantheon of the Yazidis Melek Taus is similar to the devil in Christian and Islamic traditions as he refused to bow down before humanity 239 240 Therefore Christians and Muslims often consider Melek Taus to be Satan 239 240 However rather than being Satanic Yazidism can be understood as a remnant of a pre Islamic Middle Eastern Indo European religion and or a ghulat Sufi movement founded by Shaykh Adi In fact there is no entity in Yazidism which represents evil in opposition to God such dualism is rejected by Yazidis 241 In the Middle Ages the Cathars practitioners of a dualistic religion were accused of worshipping Satan by the Catholic Church Pope Gregory IX stated in his work Vox in Rama that the Cathars believed that God had erred in casting Lucifer out of heaven and that Lucifer would return to reward his faithful On the other hand according to Catharism the creator god of the material world worshipped by the Catholic Church is actually Satan 242 Wicca is a modern syncretic Neopagan religion 243 whose practitioners many Christians have incorrectly assumed to worship Satan 243 In actuality Wiccans do not believe in the existence of Satan or any analogous figure 243 and have repeatedly and emphatically rejected the notion that they venerate such an entity 243 The cult of the skeletal figure of Santa Muerte which has grown exponentially in Mexico 244 245 has been denounced by the Catholic Church as Devil worship 246 However devotees of Santa Muerte view her as an angel of death created by God 247 and many of them identify as Catholic 248 Much modern folklore about Satanism does not originate from the actual beliefs or practices of theistic or atheistic Satanists but rather from a mixture of medieval Christian folk beliefs political or sociological conspiracy theories and contemporary urban legends 249 250 251 252 An example is the Satanic ritual abuse scare of the 1980s beginning with the memoir Michelle Remembers which depicted Satanism as a vast conspiracy of elites with a predilection for child abuse and human sacrifice 250 251 This genre frequently describes Satan as physically incarnating in order to receive worship 252 In cultureSee also Devil in popular culture In literature If he was once as handsome as he now is ugly and despite that raised his brows against his Maker one can understand how every sorrow has its source in him Dante in Inferno Canto XXXIV Verse translation by Allen Mandelbaum Here we may reign secure and in my choiceto reign is worth ambition though in Hell Better to reign in Hell than serve in Heaven Satan in John Milton s Paradise Lost Book I lines 261 263 In Dante Alighieri s Inferno Satan appears as a giant demon frozen mid breast in ice at the center of the Ninth Circle of Hell 253 254 Satan has three faces and a pair of bat like wings affixed under each chin 255 In his three mouths Satan gnaws on Brutus Judas Iscariot and Cassius 255 whom Dante regarded as having betrayed the two greatest heroes of the human race 256 Julius Caesar the founder of the new order of government and Jesus the founder of the new order of religion 256 As Satan beats his wings he creates a cold wind that continues to freeze the ice surrounding him and the other sinners in the Ninth Circle 255 Dante and Virgil climb up Satan s shaggy legs until gravity is reversed and they fall through the earth into the southern hemisphere 256 Satan appears in several stories from The Canterbury Tales by Geoffrey Chaucer 257 including The Summoner s Prologue in which a friar arrives in Hell and sees no other friars 258 but is told there are millions 258 Then Satan lifts his tail to reveal that all of the friars live inside his anus 258 Chaucer s description of Satan s appearance is clearly based on Dante s 258 The legend of Faust recorded in the 1589 chapbook The History of the Damnable Life and the Deserved Death of Doctor John Faustus 259 concerns a pact allegedly made by the German scholar Johann Georg Faust with a demon named Mephistopheles agreeing to sell his soul to Satan in exchange for twenty four years of earthly pleasure 259 This chapbook became the source for Christopher Marlowe s The Tragical History of the Life and Death of Doctor Faustus 260 John Milton s epic poem Paradise Lost features Satan as its main protagonist 261 262 Milton portrays Satan as a tragic antihero destroyed by his own hubris 262 The poem which draws extensive inspiration from Greek tragedy 263 recreates Satan as a complex literary character 264 who dares to rebel against the tyranny of God 265 266 in spite of God s own omnipotence 265 267 The English poet and painter William Blake famously quipped that The reason Milton wrote in fetters when he wrote of Angels amp God and at liberty when of Devils amp Hell is because he was a true poet and of the Devils party without knowing it 268 Paradise Regained the sequel to Paradise Lost is a retelling of Satan s temptation of Jesus in the desert 269 William Blake regarded Satan as a model of rebellion against unjust authority 172 and features him in many of his poems and illustrations 172 including his 1780 book The Marriage of Heaven and Hell 172 in which Satan is celebrated as the ultimate rebel the incarnation of human emotion and the epitome of freedom from all forms of reason and orthodoxy 172 Based on the Biblical passages portraying Satan as the accuser of sin 270 Blake interpreted Satan as a promulgator of moral laws 270 In visual art Early 6th century Byzantine mosaic Art depicting Jesus separating the sheep from the goats The blue angel is possibly the earliest artistic depiction of Satan 271 Satan s appearance does not appear in the Bible or in early Christian writings 272 273 though Paul the Apostle does write that Satan disguises himself as an angel of light 2 Corinthians 11 14 274 The Devil was never shown in early Christian artwork 272 273 and may have first appeared in the sixth century in one of the mosaics of the Basilica of Sant Apollinare Nuovo The mosaic Christ the Good Sheppard features a blue violet angel at the left hand side of Christ behind three goats opposite to a red angel on the right hand side and in front of sheep 271 Depictions of the devil became more common in the ninth century 275 276 where he is shown with cloven hooves hairy legs the tail of a goat pointed ears a beard a flat nose and a set of horns 277 273 147 Satan may have first become associated with goats through the Parable of the Sheep and the Goats recorded in Matthew 25 31 46 278 in which Jesus separates sheep representing the saved from goats representing the damned the damned are thrown into an everlasting fire along with Satan and his angels 81 Ancient Roman mosaic showing a horned goat legged Pan holding a shepherd s crook Much of Satan s traditional iconography is apparently derived from Pan 277 273 Medieval Christians were known to adapt previously existing pagan iconography to suit depictions of Christian figures 277 273 Much of Satan s traditional iconography in Christianity appears to be derived from Pan 277 273 a rustic goat legged fertility god in ancient Greek religion 277 273 Early Christian writers such as Saint Jerome equated the Greek satyrs and the Roman fauns whom Pan resembled with demons 277 273 The Devil s pitchfork appears to have been adapted from the trident wielded by the Greek god Poseidon 273 and Satan s flame like hair seems to have originated from the Egyptian god Bes 273 By the High Middle Ages Satan and devils appear in all works of Christian art in paintings sculptures and on cathedrals 279 Satan is usually depicted naked 273 but his genitals are rarely shown and are often covered by animal furs 273 The goat like portrayal of Satan was especially closely associated with him in his role as the object of worship by sorcerers 280 and as the incubus a demon believed to rape human women in their sleep 280 Italian frescoes from the late Middle Ages onward frequently show Satan chained in Hell feeding on the bodies of the perpetually damned 281 These frescoes are early enough to have inspired Dante s portrayal in his Inferno 281 As the serpent in the Garden of Eden Satan is often shown as a snake with arms and legs as well the head and full breasted upper torso of a woman 282 Satan and his demons could take any form in medieval art 283 but when appearing in their true form they were often shown as short hairy black skinned humanoids with clawed and bird feet and extra faces on their chests bellies genitals buttocks and tails 283 The modern popular culture image of Satan as a well dressed gentleman with small horns and a tail originates from portrayals of Mephistopheles in the operas La damnation de Faust 1846 by Hector Berlioz Mefistofele 1868 by Arrigo Boito and Faust by Charles Gounod 280 Illustrations of Satan Iblis in Islamic paintings often depict him black faced a feature which would later symbolize any satanic figure or heretic and with a black body to symbolize his corrupted nature Another common depiction of Iblis shows him wearing a special head covering clearly different from the traditional Islamic turban In one painting however Iblis wears a traditional Islamic head covering 284 The turban probably refers to a narration of Iblis fall there he wore a turban then he was sent down from heaven 285 Many other pictures show and describe Iblis at the moment when the angels prostrate themselves before Adam Here he is usually seen beyond the outcrop his face transformed with his wings burned to the envious countenance of a devil 286 Iblis and his cohorts div or shayatin are often portrayed in Turko Persian art as bangled creatures with flaming eyes only covered by a short skirt Similar to European arts who took traits of pagan deities to depict devils they depicted such demons often in a similar fashion to that of Hindu deities 287 In film and television source source source source source source The Haunted Castle 1896 3 12 The Devil is depicted as a vampire bat in Georges Melies The Haunted Castle 1896 288 which is often considered the first horror film 289 So called Black Masses have been portrayed in sensationalist B movies since the 1960s 290 One of the first films to portray such a ritual was the 1965 film Eye of the Devil also known as 13 Alex Sanders a former black magician served as a consultant on the film to ensure that the rituals portrayed in it were depicted accurately 291 Over the next thirty years the novels of Dennis Wheatley and the films of Hammer Film Productions both played a major role in shaping the popular image of Satanism 290 The film version of Ira Levin s Rosemary s Baby established made Satanic themes a staple of mainstream horror fiction 292 Later films such as The Exorcist 1973 The Omen 1976 Angel Heart 1987 and The Devil s Advocate 1997 feature Satan as an antagonist 293 In music Tartini s Dream 1824 by Louis Leopold Boilly References to Satan in music can be dated back to the Middle Ages Giuseppe Tartini was inspired to write his most famous work the Violin Sonata in G minor also known as The Devil s Trill after dreaming of the Devil playing the violin Tartini claimed that the sonata was a lesser imitation of what the Devil had played in his dream 294 Niccolo Paganini was believed to have derived his musical talent from a deal with the Devil 295 Charles Gounod s Faust features a narrative that involves Satan 296 In the early 1900s jazz and blues became known as the Devil s Music as they were considered dangerous and unholy 296 According to legend blues musician Tommy Johnson was a terrible guitarist before exchanging his soul to the Devil for a guitar Later Robert Johnson claimed that he had sold his soul in return for becoming a great blues guitarist 297 Satanic symbolism appears in rock music from the 1960s Mick Jagger assumes the role of Lucifer in the Rolling Stones Sympathy for the Devil 1968 296 while Black Sabbath portrayed the Devil in numerous songs including War Pigs 1970 and N I B 1970 298 See alsoCernunnos Hades Hel Man of sin Prince of Darkness Satan Prince of Darkness Manichaeism saṭani Set deity Notes Hebrew ש ט ן romanized saṭan lit adversary 1 Ancient Greek ὁ satanᾶs or satan ho satanas satan 2 Arabic شيطان الخ ن اس shaitan lit astray distant or sometimes devil In many cases the translators of the Septuagint the pre Christian translation of the Hebrew Bible into ancient Greek chose to render the Hebrew word satan as the Greek word diabolos diabolos meaning opponent or accuser 3 2 This is the root of the modern English word Devil 2 4 Both the words satanas and diabolos are used interchangeably in the New Testament and in later Christian writings 2 The Pauline epistles and the Gospel of Mark both use the word satancas more frequently than diabolos 2 5 but the Gospel of Matthew uses the word diabolos more frequently and so do the Church Fathers Justin Martyr Irenaeus and Origen 2 The Latin Vulgate translation of this passage renders Heylel as Lucifer 119 and this name continues to be used by some Christians as an alternative name for Satan 119 References Kelly 2006 pp 2 3 a b c d e f Boyd 1975 p 13 Kelly 2006 pp 28 31 Kelly 2006 pp 2 3 28 31 Kelly 2006 p 114 a b Kelly 2006 pp 15 16 a b c Kelly 2006 p 16 a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r Campo 2009 p 603 ed Buttrick George Arthur The Interpreter s Dictionary of the Bible An illustrated Encyclopedia a b Kelly 2006 pp 1 13 28 29 Stephen M Hooks 2007 As in Zechariah 3 1 2 the term here carries the definite article has satan the satan and functions not as a the only place in the Hebrew Bible where the term Satan is unquestionably used as a proper name is 1 Chronicles 21 1 Coogan Michael D A Brief Introduction to the Old Testament The Hebrew Bible in Its Context Oxford University Press 2009 Rachel Adelman The Return of the Repressed Pirqe De Rabbi Eliezer p65 However in the parallel versions of the story in Chronicles it is Satan without the definite article Septuagint 108 6 katasthson ἐp aὐtὸn ἁmartwlon kaὶ diabolos sthtw ἐk de3iῶn aὐtoῦ Kelly 2006 p 14 Numbers 22 22 2 Samuel 24 a b c Kelly 2006 p 20 1 Chronicles 21 1 Kelly 2006 pp 18 19 1 Samuel 2 12 a b c d e Kelly 2006 p 19 1 Samuel 16 14 23 Kelly 2006 p 18 1 Kings 22 19 25 a b c d e f Kelly 2006 p 21 Job 1 6 8 a b Kelly 2006 pp 21 22 a b c Kelly 2006 p 22 Steinmann AE The structure and message of the Book of Job Vetus Testamentum Zechariah 3 1 7 Kelly 2006 p 23 a b c d Kelly 2006 p 24 Russell 1977 p 102 sfn error no target CITEREFRussell1977 help Peter Clark Zoroastrianism An Introduction to Ancient Faith 1998 p 152 There are so many features that Zoroastrianism seems to share with the Judeo Christian tradition that it would be difficult to Historically the first point of contact that we can determine is when the Achaemenian Cyrus conquered Babylon 539 BC Winn Shan M M 1995 Heaven heroes and happiness the Indo European roots of Western ideology Lanham Md University press of America p 203 ISBN 0 8191 9860 9 a b Kelly 2006 p 30 Jackson David R 2004 Enochic Judaism London T amp T Clark International pp 2 4 ISBN 0 8264 7089 0 a b Berlin editor in chief Adele 2011 The Oxford dictionary of the Jewish religion 2nd ed New York Oxford University Press p 651 ISBN 978 0 19 973004 9 a href Template Cite book html title Template Cite book cite book a first has generic name help Kelly 2006 pp 42 43 Kelly 2006 pp 34 35 a b c d Kelly 2006 p 35 Kelly 2006 p 36 Kelly 2006 pp 36 37 a b Kelly 2006 p 37 a b Kelly 2006 pp 37 40 Introduction to the Book of Jubilees 15 Theology Some of our Author s Views Demonology by R H Charles 2 Enoch 18 3 On this tradition see A Orlov The Watchers of Satanael The Fallen Angels Traditions in 2 Slavonic Enoch in A Orlov Dark Mirrors Azazel and Satanael in Early Jewish Demonology Albany SUNY 2011 85 106 And I threw him out from the height with his angels and he was flying in the air continuously above the bottomless 2 Enoch 29 4 The devil is the evil spirit of the lower places as a fugitive he made Sotona from the heavens as his name was Satanail thus he became different from the angels but his nature did not change his intelligence as far as his understanding of righteous and sinful things 2 Enoch 31 4 See The Book of Wisdom With Introduction and Notes p 27 Object of the book by A T S Goodrick Kelly 2006 pp 70 78 Kelly 2017 pp 28 30 Alexander Altmann Alfred L Ivry Elliot R Wolfson Allan Arkush Perspectives on Jewish Thought and Mysticism Taylor amp Francis 1998 ISBN 978 9 057 02194 7 p 268 Glustrom 1989 pp 22 24 Bamberger Bernard J 2006 Fallen angels soldiers of satan s realm 1 paperback ed Philadelphia Pa Jewish Publ Soc of America pp 148 149 ISBN 0 8276 0797 0 Based on the Jewish exegesis of 1 Samuel 29 4 and 1 Kings 5 18 Oxford dictionary of the Jewish religion 2011 p 651 Glustrom 1989 p 24 Genesis 6 5 Satan Jewish Encyclopedia Retrieved 14 March 2017 Bava Batra 16a 8 Kiddushin 81a Kiddushin 81b Robert Eisen Associate Professor of Religious Studies George Washington University The Book of Job in Medieval Jewish Philosophy 2004 p 120 Moreover Zerahfiiah gives us insight into the parallel between the Garden of Eden story and the Job story alluded to both Satan and Job s wife are metaphors for the evil inclination a motif Zerahfiiah seems to identify with the imagination Ronald L Eisenberg Dictionary of Jewish Terms A Guide to the Language of Judaism Taylor Trade Publications 2011 ISBN 978 1 589 79729 1 p 356 Rabbi Rachel Timoner Breath of Life God as Spirit in Judaism Paraclete Press 2011 ISBN 978 1 557 25899 1 The Dictionary of Angels by Gustav Davidson 1967 ISBN missing page needed Talmud b Berakhot 46a 6 Newman Yona 1999 2009 Part 1 Kitzur Shulchan Aruch Linear Translation The Laws of finger washing and the blessings after the meal yonanewman org archived from the original on 2016 05 18 What Reform Jews Believe Central tenets of this faith based on the questions in the Belief O Matic quiz 2008 American Heritage Dictionary Devil Retrieved 2006 05 31 a b van der Toorn Becking amp Willem 1999 p 731 Revelation 12 9 van der Toorn Becking amp Willem 1999 pp 154 155 a b Guiley 2009 p 1 Revelation 9 11 a b c d e f Kelly 2006 pp 88 95 a b c d Kelly 2006 p 95 Beekmann amp Bolt 2012 p 99 102 Beekmann amp Bolt 2012 p 99 100 a b Beekmann amp Bolt 2012 p 100 101 Peterson 2012 p 428 Beekmann amp Bolt 2012 p 102 Bass 2014 p 113 a b Kelly 2006 pp 95 96 Kelly 2006 pp 102 142 Kelly 2006 p 106 a b c d Kelly 2006 p 107 Almond 2004 p 11 Kelly 2006 p 109 Kelly 2006 p 112 Kelly 2006 pp 112 113 Kelly 2006 pp 128 129 a b Peter H Davids Douglas J Moo Robert Yarbrough 2016 1 and 2 Peter Jude 1 2 and 3 John Zondervan p 240 ISBN 978 0 310 53025 1 a b R C Lucas Christopher Green 2014 The Message of 2 Peter amp Jude InterVarsity Press pp 168 ISBN 978 0 8308 9784 1 ANF04 Fathers of the Third Century Tertullian Part Fourth Minucius Felix Commodian Origen Parts First and Second ISBN missing page needed Kelly 2006 p 129 a b James Charlesworth Old Testament Pseudepigrapha p 76 Google books link The Assumption of Moses a critical edition with commentary By Johannes Tromp p 270 a b c Kelly 2006 p 130 a b Kelly 2006 p 271 Kelly 2006 p 66 Kelly 2006 p 144 a b Kelly 2006 p 142 a b c d e Kelly 2006 p 143 Kelly 2006 pp 149 150 Kelly 2006 p 150 a b Kelly 2006 pp 150 151 a b Kelly 2006 p 151 Kelly 2006 pp 151 152 a b c Kelly 2006 p 152 a b c d Garland 2006 a b Schorn Joel October 2013 What is 666 in the Bible U S Catholic Retrieved 2018 01 02 Skatssoon Judy 2006 06 06 Why 666 is a devil of a day ABC News and Current Affairs Retrieved 2018 01 02 Poole 2009 pp 7 8 a b Kelly 2006 p 176 Kelly 2006 p 117 Origen Contra Celsum Book 6 Ch 42 a b c Kohler 1923 pp 4 5 Kelly 2006 pp 191 208 a b Day 2002 pp 171 172 Kelly 2006 p 191 a b c Caird 1980 p 225 Patmore 2012 p 4 Kelly 2006 pp 195 197 Origen On the First Principles Book I Chapter 5 Paragraphs 4 5 Kelly 2006 p 197 Kelly 2006 p 98 Kelly 2006 p 198 a b Kelly 2006 pp 202 206 Kohler 1923 p 5 a b Kelly 2006 pp 98 199 208 Patmore 2012 pp 52 53 Kelly 2006 pp 199 208 Ginther 2009 p 10 a b c d e f g h i j Eddy amp Beilby 2008 p 86 Kelly 2006 pp 215 217 Kelly 2006 pp 215 216 Kelly 2006 p 216 a b Plantinga Thompson amp Lundberg 2010 a b Kelly 2006 p 217 a b Ferguson 2003 p 237 Almond 2004 pp 1 7 Ferber 2004 pp 1 3 a b c Ferber 2004 p 3 Osborn 1998 p 213 a b c d e f Poole 2009 p 8 Russell 1984 p 225 a b Kelly 2006 pp 220 229 Kelly 2006 p 229 a b Kelly 2006 p 219 a b c d e f Thomsett 2011 p 131 a b Thomsett 2011 p 133 a b Poole 2009 pp 8 9 a b c d e f Poole 2009 p 9 a b Thomsett 2011 p 132 a b Bainton 1978 p 377 Parker 1995 p 56 Kelly 2006 pp 262 263 Thomsett 2011 p 130 Kelly 2006 p 262 a b Levack 2015 a b Poole 2009 p 16 a b Turner Matthew Paul 2014 02 16 Why American Christians Love Satan The Daily Beast Retrieved 2018 01 02 a b Poole 2009 p 17 Poole 2009 pp 15 16 Poole 2009 p 37 Poole 2009 pp 37 43 Poole 2009 pp 44 45 Almond 2004 p 7 Almond 2004 p 8 a b c d e f g Poole 2009 p 10 a b Kelly 2006 p 264 Davies 2010 p 158 Moses 5 18 Moses 5 29 32 Davies 2010 p 119 a b c d Jordan 2013 Stoddard 2007 Poole 2009 pp xvii xix 3 a b c Faiola 2014 Rosica 2015 Satan Encyclopaedia Britannica Retrieved December 22 2017 a b c d e f Cabinet 2001 a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q Kelly 2006 p 185 Charles Mathewes Understanding Religious Ethics John Wiley amp Sons 2010 ISBN 978 1 405 13351 7 page 248 a b Vicchio 2008 p 175 a b c d Vicchio 2008 p 181 Quran 17 62 Quran 17 63 64 Annemarie Schimmel Gabriel s Wing A Study Into the Religious Ideas of Sir Muhammad Iqbal Brill Archive 1963 page 212 Quran 7 20 22 Georges Tamer Islam and Rationality The Impact of al Ghazali Papers Collected on His 900th Anniversary Band 1 BRILL 2015 ISBN 978 9 004 29095 2 page 103 a b c d e f Vicchio 2008 p 178 a b c d e Vicchio 2008 p 179 Vicchio 2008 pp 175 178 Tafsir al Qur an al adhim Interpretation of the Great Qur an Ibn Kathir commentary of surat al baqarah The Beginning and the End Ibn Kathir Volume I also the Koranic commentary of the same author a b c d Vicchio 2008 p 183 Maturidi Te vilat t 1 116 Vehbe Zuhayli Tefsiru l munir trc Ahmet Efe v dgr Istanbul Risale Yay 2008 8 236 237 Amira El Zein Islam Arabs and Intelligent World of the Jinn Syracuse University Press 2009 ISBN 978 0 8156 5070 6 page 46 Tobias Nunlist Damonenglaube im Islam Walter de Gruyter GmbH amp Co KG 2015 ISBN 978 3 110 33168 4 p 49 German Seyyed Hossein Nasr Islamic Life and Thought Routledge 2013 ISBN 978 1 134 53818 8 page 135 Gibb Hamilton Alexander Rosskeen 1995 The Encyclopaedia of Islam NED SAM Brill p 94 ISBN 9789004098343 Vicchio 2008 pp 175 176 Vicchio 2008 pp 183 184 Brannon Wheeler Prophets in the Quran An Introduction to the Quran and Muslim Exegesis A amp C Black 2002 ISBN 978 1 438 41783 7 page 16 a b c d e f Vicchio 2008 p 184 Allen 2015 pp 80 81 a b Ahmed 2017 p 3 Militarev Alexander Kogan Leoni 2005 Semitic Etymological Dictionary 2 Animal Names Alter Orient und Altes Testament vol 278 2 Munster Ugarit Verlag pp 131 132 ISBN 3 934628 57 5 Ahmed 2017 p 1 a b McMillan 2011 A step by step guide to Hajj Al Jazeera August 30 2017 Retrieved December 29 2017 a b c d Jabbour 2014 a b Vicchio 2008 pp 184 185 a b c Vicchio 2008 p 185 Michael Anthony Sells Early Islamic Mysticism Sufi Qurʼan Miraj Poetic and Theological Writings Paulist Press 1996 ISBN 978 0 809 13619 3 page 143 Patrick Sookhdeo Understanding Islamic Theology BookBaby 2014 ISBN 978 0 989 29054 8 a b c d e Geoffroy 2010 p 150 a b Ahmadi amp Ahmadi 1998 p 79 Ghorban Elmi November 2019 Ahmad Ghazali s Satan Retrieved 14 September 2020 Victoria Arakelova Garnik S Asatrian 2014 The Religion of the Peacock angel The Yezidis and their spirit world Routledge p 38 ISBN 978 1 84465 761 2 Awn Peter J 1983 Satan s Tragedy and Redemption Iblis in Sufi Psychology Leiden Germany Brill Publishers p 177 ISBN 978 9004069060 Schimmel Annemarie 1993 The Triumphal Sun A Study of the Works of Jalaloddin Rumi Albany New York SUNY Press p 255 ISBN 978 0 791 41635 8 a b c ʻAbduʾl Baha 1982 pp 294 295 a b c Smith 2000 pp 135 136 304 Smith 2008 p 112 Peter Smith An Introduction to the Baha i Faith Cambridge University Press 2008 ISBN 978 0 521 86251 6 p 112 Petersen 2005 pp 444 446 sfn error no target CITEREFPetersen2005 help Cerro Rico Devil worship on the man eating mountain BBC News October 2014 Partridge Christopher Hugh 2004 The Re enchantment of the West p 82 ISBN 978 0 567 08269 5 Retrieved 2008 05 12 Satanism and Demonology by Lionel amp Patricia Fanthorpe Dundurn Press 2011 p 74 If as theistic Satanists believe the devil is an intelligent self aware entity Theistic Satanism then becomes explicable in terms of Lucifer s ambition to be the supreme god and his rebellion against Yahweh This simplistic controntational view is modified by other theistic Satanists who do not regard their hero as evil far from it For them he is a freedom fighter Interview MLO Angelfire com Retrieved 2011 11 30 Catherine Beyer An Introduction to LaVeyan Satanism and the Church of Satan About com Religion amp Spirituality High Priest Magus Peter H Gilmore What The Devil churchofsatan com High Priest Magus Peter H Gilmore F A Q Fundamental Beliefs churchofsatan com High Priest Magus Peter H Gilmore Religious Requirements and Practices churchofsatan com churchofsatan com Contemporary religious Satanism a critical anthology p 45 Jesper Aagaard Petersen 2009 High Priest Magus Peter H Gilmore Satanism The Feared Religion churchofsatan com The Church of Satan History Channel YouTube 12 January 2012 Archived from the original on 2015 07 20 The Satanic Temple s Seven Tenets 9 May 2019 a b Drower E S The Peacock Angel Being Some Account of Votaries of a Secret Cult and Their Sanctuaries London John Murray 1941 1 a b Kelly 2006 p 186 Birgul Acikyildiz The Yezidis The History of a Community Culture and Religion I B Tauris 2014 ISBN 978 0 857 72061 0 p 74 James Wasserman The Templars and the Assassins The Militia of Heaven Simon and Schuster 2001 ISBN 978 1 594 77873 5 page needed a b c d Gallagher amp Ashcraft 2006 p 89 Ramirez Margaret Saint Death comes to Chicago Chicago Tribune Chicago Retrieved 2009 10 07 BBC News Vatican declares Mexican Death Saint blasphemous Bbc co uk 2013 05 09 Retrieved 2013 12 05 Gray Steven 2007 10 16 Santa Muerte The New God in Town Time com Chicago Time Archived from the original on October 31 2007 Retrieved 2009 10 07 Cadiz Klemack John 2012 04 24 Saint or Satan Angel of Death Worshipped in LA NBC Retrieved 2017 12 29 Cadiz Klemack John 2016 06 07 Mexicans worship cult of Saint Death Reuters Retrieved 2017 12 30 Cinema of the Occult New Age Satanism Wicca and Spiritualism in Film Carrol Lee Fry Associated University Presse 2008 pp 92 98 a b Encyclopedia of Urban Legends Updated and Expanded Edition by Jan Harold Brunvand ABC CLIO 31 Jul 2012 pp 694 695 a b Raising the Devil Satanism New Religions and the Media by Bill Ellis University Press of Kentucky p 125 In discussing myths about groups accused of Satanism such myths are already pervasive in Western culture and the development of the modern Satanic Scare would be impossible to explain without showing how these myths helped organize concerns and beliefs Accusations of Satanism are traced from the witch hunts to the Illuminati to the Satanic Ritual Abuse panic in the 1980s with a distinction made between what modern Satanists believe and what is believed about Satanists a b Poole 2009 pp 42 43 Fowlie 1981 pp 210 212 Kelly 2006 pp 265 266 a b c Fowlie 1981 p 211 a b c Fowlie 1981 p 212 Tambling 2017 pp 47 50 a b c d Tambling 2017 p 50 a b Kelly 2006 p 268 Kelly 2006 pp 268 269 Verbart 1995 pp 45 46 a b Bryson 2004 pp 77 79 Bryson 2004 pp 80 81 Bryson 2004 pp 77 78 a b Kelly 2006 p 272 Bryson 2004 pp 77 80 Bryson 2004 p 80 Bryson 2004 p 20 Kelly 2006 p 274 a b Werner 1986 p 61 a b Russell 1984 p 129 a b Link 1995 p 44 a b c d e f g h i j k l Link 2010 p 264 Chambers 2014 p 89 Link 1995 p 72 Russell 1984 p 130 a b c d e f Link 1995 pp 44 45 Pilch 1995 p 167 Link 1995 pp 45 46 a b c Kelly 2006 p 295 a b Kelly 2006 p 280 Kelly 2006 pp 281 284 a b Kelly 2006 p 285 Brosh Na ama Milstein Rachel Yisraʼel Muzeʼon 1991 Biblical stories in Islamic painting Jerusalem Israel Museum p 27 ASIN B0006F66PC ibn Muḥammad Thaʻlabi Aḥmad Brinner William M 2002 ʻAraʻis al majalis fi qiṣaṣ al anbiya or Lives of the prophets Band 24 Leiden Netherlands Brill Publishers p 69 ISBN 978 9 004 12589 6 Melion Walter Zell Michael Woodall Joanna 2017 Ut pictura amor The Reflexive Imagery of Love in Artistic Theory and Practice 1500 1700 Leiden Netherlands Brill Publishers p 240 ISBN 978 9 004 34646 8 L Lewisohn C Shackle 2006 Attar and the Persian Sufi Tradition The Art of Spiritual Flight Bloomsbury Publishing pp 156 158 ISBN 9781786730183 Prince 2004 p 1 Draven 2010 p 148 sfn error no target CITEREFDraven2010 help a b Ellis 2000 pp 157 158 Ellis 2000 p 157 Ellis 2000 p 159 Blue Samantha The Devil We Used to Know Portrayals of the Devil in Media Academia edu Retrieved 2017 12 22 The Devil s Trill Encyclopedia Britannica Retrieved January 3 2018 Spignesi 2003 p 281 a b c Watson Tom The Devil s Chord A History of Satanism in Popular Music Crack Magazine Retrieved 2018 01 01 Lewis John 2011 06 15 Robert Johnson sells his souls to the devil The Guardian Retrieved 2018 01 03 Irwin William October 31 2012 Black Sabbath and the Secret of Scary Music Psychology Today Retrieved 2012 10 31 Bibliography ʻAbduʾl Baha 1982 1912 The Promulgation of Universal Peace Wilmette IL Bahaʼi Publishing Trust pp 294 295 ISBN 0 87743 172 8 Ahmed Shahab 2017 Before Orthodoxy The Satanic Verses in Early Islam Cambridge Massachusetts and London Harvard University Press ISBN 978 0 674 04742 6 Ahmadi Nader Ahmadi Fereshteh 1998 Iranian Islam The Concept of the Individual Houndmills Basingstoke Hampshire and London Palgrave Macmillan ISBN 978 0 230 37349 5 Allen Roger 2015 Studying Modern Arabic Literature Edinburgh Scotland Edinburgh University Press ISBN 978 1 4744 0349 8 Almond Philip C 2004 Demonic Possession and Exorcism in Early Modern England Contemporary Texts and their Cultural Context Cambridge England Cambridge University Press ISBN 978 0 511 21036 5 Bainton Roland H 1978 1950 Here I Stand A Life of Martin Luther Nashville Tennessee Abingdon Press ISBN 0 687 16895 3 Bamberger Bernard J 2006 Fallen Angels Soldiers of Satan s Realm Jewish Publication Society of America ISBN 0 8276 0797 0 Bass Justin 2014 The Battle for the Keys Revelation 1 18 and Christ s Descent into the Underworld Eugene Oregon Wipf amp Stock ISBN 978 1 62564 839 6 Beekmann Sharon Bolt Peter G 2012 Silencing Satan Handbook of Biblical Demonology Eugene Oregon Wipf amp Stock ISBN 978 1 61097 055 6 Boyd James W 1975 Terminology Centered Around Satan and the Devil Satan and Mara Christian and Buddhist Symbols of Evil Leiden The Netherlands Brill ISBN 90 04 04173 7 Bryson Michael 2004 The Tyranny of Heaven Milton s Rejection of God as King Cranbury New Jersey London and Mississauga Ontario Rosemont Publishing and Printing Corp ISBN 0 87413 859 0 Cabinet Kristofer Widholm and Bernard McGinn 2001 Antichrist An Interview with Bernard McGinn Cabinet Magazine Issue 5 Evil Winter Cabinet Magazine Caird George Bradford 1980 The Language and Imagery of the Bible London Westminster Press ISBN 978 0 664 21378 7 Caldwell William The Doctrine of Satan I In the Old Testament The Biblical World Vol 41 No 1 Jan 1913 pp 29 33 in JSTOR Caldwell William The Doctrine of Satan II Satan in Extra Biblical Apocalyptical Literature The Biblical World Vol 41 No 2 Feb 1913 pp 98 102 in JSTOR Caldwell William The Doctrine of Satan III In the New Testament The Biblical World Vol 41 No 3 Mar 1913 pp 167 172 in JSTOR Campo Juan Eduardo 2009 Satan Encyclopedia of Islam New York City Infobase Publishing pp 603 604 ISBN 978 0 8160 5454 1 Chambers Aaron 2014 Devoted Colorado Springs Colorado NavPress ISBN 978 1 61291 637 8 Davies Douglas J 2010 Fallen Joseph Smith Jesus and Satanic Opposition Atonement Evil and the Mormon Vision University of Durham UK ISBN 978 1 4094 0830 7 Day John 2002 2000 Yahweh and the Gods and Goddesses of Canaan Sheffield England Sheffield Academic Press ISBN 0 8264 6830 6 Eddy P R Beilby J 2008 Atonement in Dyrness William A Karkkainen Veli Matti eds Global Dictionary of Theology A Resource for the Worldwide Church Downers Grove Illinois and Nottingham England IVP Academic pp 84 92 ISBN 978 0 8308 2454 0 Ellis Bill 2000 Raising the Devil Satanism New Religions and the Media Lexington Kentucky University of Kentucky Press ISBN 0 8131 2170 1 Empson William Milton s God 1966 Faiola Anthony 10 May 2014 A modern pope gets old school on the Devil A renewed interest in exorcism The Washington Post The WP Company LLC Ferber Sarah 2004 Demonic Possession and Exorcism in Early Modern France New York City and London Routledge ISBN 0 415 21265 0 Ferguson Everett 2003 1987 Backgrounds of Early Christianity third ed Grand Rapids Michigan William B Eerdmans Publishing Company ISBN 0 8028 2221 5 Forsyth Neil 1987 The Old Enemy Satan amp the Combat Myth Princeton University Press Reprint edition ISBN 0 691 01474 4 Forsyth Neil 1987 The Satanic Epic Princeton University Press Reprint edition ISBN 0 691 11339 4 Fowlie Wallace 1981 A Reading of Dante s Inferno Chicago Illinois The University of Chicago Press ISBN 0 226 25888 2 Gallagher Eugene V Ashcraft W Michael 2006 Introduction to New and Alternative Religions in America History and Controversies vol 1 Westport Connecticut Greenwood Press ISBN 0 275 98713 2 Garland David E 2006 Hebrews Revelation The Expositor s Bible Commentary Revised Edition vol 13 Grand Rapids Michigan Zondervan ISBN 978 0 310 86624 4 Gentry Kenneth 2002 The Beast of Revelation American Vision ISBN 0 915815 41 9 Geoffroy Eric 2010 Introduction to Sufism The Inner Path of Islam Bloomington Indiana World Wisdom ISBN 978 1 935493 10 5 Ginther James R 2009 The Westminster Handbook to Medieval Theology The Westminster Handbooks to Christian Theology Louisville Kentucky Westminster John Knox Press ISBN 978 0 664 22397 7 Glustrom Simon 1989 The Myth and Reality of Judaism 82 Misconceptions Set Straight West Orange New Jersey Behrman House Inc ISBN 0 87441 479 2 Graves Kersey 1995 Biography of Satan Exposing the Origins of the Devil Book Tree ISBN 1 885395 11 6 Guiley Rosemary 2009 The Encyclopedia of Demons and Demonology New York City Facts On File Inc ISBN 978 0 8160 7314 6 The Interpreter s Dictionary of the Bible An illustrated Encyclopedia ed Buttrick George Arthur Abingdon Press 1962 Jabbour Nabeel 2014 The Crescent through the Eyes of the Cross Insights from an Arab Christian London Omnibus Press ISBN 978 1 61521 512 6 Jacobs Joseph and Ludwig Blau Satan The Jewish Encyclopedia 1906 online pp 68 71 Jordan William 27 September 2013 18 of Brits believe in possession by the devil yougov co uk YouGov Kelly Henry Ansgar 2006 Satan A Biography Cambridge England Cambridge University Press ISBN 978 0 521 60402 4 Kelly Henry Ansgar 2017 Satan in the Bible God s Minister of Justice Eugene Oregon Wipf amp Stock ISBN 978 1 5326 1331 9 Kent William Devil The Catholic Encyclopedia 1908 Vol 4 online older article Kohler Kaufmann 1923 Heaven and Hell in Comparative Religion with Special Reference to Dante s Divine Comedy New York City New York The Macmillan Company Levack Brian P 2015 54 Johann Weyer the Possession of the Nuns at Wertet 1550 The Witchcraft Sourcebook New York City London Routledge ISBN 978 1 138 77497 1 Lewis James R 2001 Satanism Today An Encyclopedia of Religion Folklore and Popular Culture Santa Barbara California ABC CLIO ISBN 1 57607 759 4 Link Luther 1995 The Devil A Mask Without a Face London England Reaktion Books ISBN 0 948462 67 1 Link Luther 2010 Devil in Grafton Anthony Most Glenn W Settis Salvatore eds The Classical Tradition Cambridge Massachusetts and London The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press pp 264 265 ISBN 978 0 674 03572 0 McMillan M E 2011 The Meaning of Mecca The Politics of Pilgrimage in Early Islam London Saqi Books ISBN 978 0 86356 437 6 Osborn Ian 1998 Tormenting Thoughts and Secret Rituals The Hidden Epidemic of Obsessive Compulsive Disorder New York City New York Dell Publishing ISBN 0 440 50847 9 Osborne B A E Peter Stumbling Block and Satan Novum Testamentum Vol 15 Fasc 3 Jul 1973 pp 187 190 in JSTOR on Get thee behind me Satan Pagels Elaine 1995 The Origin of Satan Vintage Reprint edition ISBN 0 679 72232 7 Parker Thomas Henry Louis 1995 Calvin An Introduction to his Thought Louisville Kentucky Westminster John Knox Press ISBN 978 0 664 25602 9 Patmore Hector M 2012 Adam Satan and the King of Tyre The Interpretation of Ezekiel 28 11 19 in Late Antiquity Leiden The Netherlands Brill ISBN 978 90 04 20880 3 Peterson Robert A 2012 Salvation Accomplished by the Son The Work of Christ Wheaton Illinois Crossway ISBN 978 1 4335 2360 1 Pilch John J 1995 The Cultural World of Jesus Sunday by Sunday Volume 1 Collegeville Minnesota The Liturgical Press ISBN 0 8146 2286 0 Plantinga Richard J Thompson Thomas J Lundberg Matthew D 2010 An Introduction to Christian Theology Cambridge England Cambridge University Press ISBN 978 0 521 69037 9 Poole W Scott 2009 Satan in America The Devil We Know Lanham Maryland Rowman amp Littlefield Publishers ISBN 978 1 4422 0062 3 Prince Stephen 2004 The Horror Film New Brunswick New Jersey and London Rutgers University Press ISBN 0 8135 3363 5 Rebhorn Wayne A The Humanist Tradition and Milton s Satan The Conservative as Revolutionary SEL Studies in English Literature 1500 1900 Vol 13 No 1 The English Renaissance Winter 1973 pp 81 93 in JSTOR Rosica The Rev Thomas 20 July 2015 Why is Pope Francis so obsessed with the devil Turner Broadcasting System CNN Rudwin Maximilian 1970 The Devil in Legend and Literature Open Court ISBN 0 87548 248 1 Russell Jeffrey Burton The Devil Perceptions of Evil from Antiquity to Primitive Christianity 1987a excerpt and text search Russell Jeffrey Burton Satan The Early Christian Tradition 1987b excerpt and text search Russell Jeffrey Burton 1984 Lucifer The Devil in the Middle Ages Ithaca New York Cornell University Press ISBN 0 8014 9429 X Russell Jeffrey Burton Mephistopheles The Devil in the Modern World 1990 excerpt and text search Russell Jeffrey Burton The Prince of Darkness Radical Evil and the Power of Good in History 1992 excerpt and text search Schaff D S Devil in New Schaff Herzog Encyclopedia of Religious Knowledge 1911 Mainline Protestant vol 3 pp 414 417 online Scott Miriam Van The Encyclopedia of Hell 1999 excerpt and text search comparative religions also popular culture Smith Peter 2000 A Concise Encyclopedia of the Bahaʼi Faith Oxford UK Oneworld pp 135 136 304 ISBN 1 85168 184 1 Smith Peter 2008 An Introduction to the Baha i Faith Cambridge Cambridge University Press p 112 ISBN 978 0 521 86251 6 Spignesi Stephen J 2003 The Italian 100 A Ranking of the Most Influential Cultural Scientific and Politics Past and Present New York Citadel Press ISBN 0 8065 2399 9 Stoddard Ed 29 November 2007 Poll finds more Americans believe in devil than Darwin Reuters Tambling Jeremy 2017 Histories of the Devil From Marlowe to Mann and the Manichees London Palgrave Macmillan Publishers Ltd doi 10 1057 978 1 137 51832 3 ISBN 978 1 137 51832 3 Thomsett Michael C 2011 Heresy in the Roman Catholic Church A History Jefferson North Carolina MacFarland amp Company Inc ISBN 978 0 7864 4448 9 Tomashoff Craig 13 November 2016 From Touched by an Angel to Lucifer TV s Heavenly Creatures Are Evolving The Hollywood Reporter Hollywood Reporter Billboard Media Group retrieved 2017 12 22 van der Toorn Karel Becking Bob Willem Pieter 1999 Dictionary of Deities and Demons in the Bible second ed Grand Rapids Michigan William B Eerdman s Publishing Company ISBN 0 8028 2491 9 Verbart Andre 1995 Fellowship in Paradise Lost Vergil Milton Wordsworth vol 97 Amsterdam The Netherlands and Atlanta Georgia Rodopi ISBN 90 5183 882 4 Vicchio Stephen J 2008 Biblical Figures in the Islamic Faith Eugene Oregon Wipf amp Stock ISBN 978 1 55635 304 8 Werner Bette Charlene 1986 Blake s Vision of the Poetry of Milton Illustrations to Six Poems Cranbury New Jersey London England and Mississauga Ontario Associated University Presses ISBN 0 8387 5084 2 Wray T J and Gregory Mobley The Birth of Satan Tracing the Devil s Biblical Roots 2005 excerpt and text searchExternal links Look up Satan in Wiktionary the free dictionary Wikiquote has quotations related to Satan Wikimedia Commons has media related to Satan The Devil BBC Radio 4 discussion with Martin Palmer Alison Rowlands and David Wootton In Our Time Dec 11 2003 Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Satan amp oldid 1136133252, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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