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Climate

February 05, 2023

For other uses, see Climate (disambiguation).

Climate is the long-term weather pattern in a region, typically averaged over 30 years.[1][2] More rigorously, it is the mean and variability of meteorological variables over a time spanning from months to millions of years. Some of the meteorological variables that are commonly measured are temperature, humidity, atmospheric pressure, wind, and precipitation. In a broader sense, climate is the state of the components of the climate system, including the atmosphere, hydrosphere, cryosphere, lithosphere and biosphere and the interactions between them.[1] The climate of a location is affected by its latitude, longitude, terrain, altitude, land use and nearby water bodies and their currents.[3]

Climates can be classified according to the average and typical variables, most commonly temperature and precipitation. The most widely used classification scheme was the Köppen climate classification. The Thornthwaite system,[4] in use since 1948, incorporates evapotranspiration along with temperature and precipitation information and is used in studying biological diversity and how climate change affects it. Finally, the Bergeron and Spatial Synoptic Classification systems focus on the origin of air masses that define the climate of a region.

Paleoclimatology is the study of ancient climates. Paleoclimatologists seek to explain climate variations for all parts of the Earth during any given geologic period, beginning with the time of the Earth's formation.[5] Since very few direct observations of climate were available before the 19th century, paleoclimates are inferred from proxy variables. They include non-biotic evidence—such as sediments found in lake beds and ice cores—and biotic evidence—such as tree rings and coral. Climate models are mathematical models of past, present, and future climates. Climate change may occur over long and short timescales from various factors. Recent warming is discussed in global warming, which results in redistributions. For example, "a 3 °C [5 °F] change in mean annual temperature corresponds to a shift in isotherms of approximately 300–400 km [190–250 mi] in latitude (in the temperate zone) or 500 m [1,600 ft] in elevation. Therefore, species are expected to move upwards in elevation or towards the poles in latitude in response to shifting climate zones."[6][7]

Definition

Climate (from Ancient Greek κλίμα 'inclination') is commonly defined as the weather averaged over a long period.[8] The standard averaging period is 30 years,[9] but other periods may be used depending on the purpose. Climate also includes statistics other than the average, such as the magnitudes of day-to-day or year-to-year variations. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) 2001 glossary definition is as follows:

Climate in a narrow sense is usually defined as the "average weather", or more rigorously, as the statistical description in terms of the mean and variability of relevant quantities over a period ranging from months to thousands or millions of years. The classical period is 30 years, as defined by the World Meteorological Organization (WMO). These quantities are most often surface variables such as temperature, precipitation, and wind. Climate in a wider sense is the state, including a statistical description, of the climate system.[10]

The World Meteorological Organization (WMO) describes "climate normals" as "reference points used by climatologists to compare current climatological trends to that of the past or what is considered typical. A climate normal is defined as the arithmetic average of a climate element (e.g. temperature) over a 30-year period. A 30-year period is used as it is long enough to filter out any interannual variation or anomalies such as El Niño–Southern Oscillation, but also short enough to be able to show longer climatic trends."[11]

The WMO originated from the International Meteorological Organization which set up a technical commission for climatology in 1929. At its 1934 Wiesbaden meeting, the technical commission designated the thirty-year period from 1901 to 1930 as the reference time frame for climatological standard normals. In 1982, the WMO agreed to update climate normals, and these were subsequently completed on the basis of climate data from 1 January 1961 to 31 December 1990.[12] The 1961–1990 climate normals serve as the baseline reference period. The next set of climate normals to be published by WMO is from 1991 to 2010.[13] Aside from collecting from the most common atmospheric variables (air temperature, pressure, precipitation and wind), other variables such as humidity, visibility, cloud amount, solar radiation, soil temperature, pan evaporation rate, days with thunder and days with hail are also collected to measure change in climate conditions.[14]

The difference between climate and weather is usefully summarized by the popular phrase "Climate is what you expect, weather is what you get."[15] Over historical time spans, there are a number of nearly constant variables that determine climate, including latitude, altitude, proportion of land to water, and proximity to oceans and mountains. All of these variables change only over periods of millions of years due to processes such as plate tectonics. Other climate determinants are more dynamic: the thermohaline circulation of the ocean leads to a 5 °C (41 °F) warming of the northern Atlantic Ocean compared to other ocean basins.[16] Other ocean currents redistribute heat between land and water on a more regional scale. The density and type of vegetation coverage affects solar heat absorption,[17] water retention, and rainfall on a regional level. Alterations in the quantity of atmospheric greenhouse gases determines the amount of solar energy retained by the planet, leading to global warming or global cooling. The variables which determine climate are numerous and the interactions complex, but there is general agreement that the broad outlines are understood, at least insofar as the determinants of historical climate change are concerned.[18]

Climate classification

Main article: Climate classification

Climate classifications are systems that categorize the world's climates. A climate classification may correlate closely with a biome classification, as climate is a major influence on life in a region. One of the most used is the Köppen climate classification scheme first developed in 1899.[19]

There are several ways to classify climates into similar regimes. Originally, climes were defined in Ancient Greece to describe the weather depending upon a location's latitude. Modern climate classification methods can be broadly divided into genetic methods, which focus on the causes of climate, and empiric methods, which focus on the effects of climate. Examples of genetic classification include methods based on the relative frequency of different air mass types or locations within synoptic weather disturbances. Examples of empiric classifications include climate zones defined by plant hardiness,[20] evapotranspiration,[21] or more generally the Köppen climate classification which was originally designed to identify the climates associated with certain biomes. A common shortcoming of these classification schemes is that they produce distinct boundaries between the zones they define, rather than the gradual transition of climate properties more common in nature.

Record

Paleoclimatology

Main article: Paleoclimatology

Paleoclimatology is the study of past climate over a great period of the Earth's history. It uses evidence with different time scales (from decades to millennia) from ice sheets, tree rings, sediments, pollen, coral, and rocks to determine the past state of the climate. It demonstrates periods of stability and periods of change and can indicate whether changes follow patterns such as regular cycles.[22]

Modern

See also: Instrumental temperature record and Satellite temperature measurements

Details of the modern climate record are known through the taking of measurements from such weather instruments as thermometers, barometers, and anemometers during the past few centuries. The instruments used to study weather over the modern time scale, their observation frequency, their known error, their immediate environment, and their exposure have changed over the years, which must be considered when studying the climate of centuries past.[23] Long-term modern climate records skew towards population centres and affluent countries.[24] Since the 1960s, the launch of satellites allow records to be gathered on a global scale, including areas with little to no human presence, such as the Arctic region and oceans.

Climate variability

Main article: Climate variability and change

Climate variability is the term to describe variations in the mean state and other characteristics of climate (such as chances or possibility of extreme weather, etc.) "on all spatial and temporal scales beyond that of individual weather events."[25] Some of the variability does not appear to be caused systematically and occurs at random times. Such variability is called random variability or noise. On the other hand, periodic variability occurs relatively regularly and in distinct modes of variability or climate patterns.[26]

There are close correlations between Earth's climate oscillations and astronomical factors (barycenter changes, solar variation, cosmic ray flux, cloud albedo feedback, Milankovic cycles), and modes of heat distribution between the ocean-atmosphere climate system. In some cases, current, historical and paleoclimatological natural oscillations may be masked by significant volcanic eruptions, impact events, irregularities in climate proxy data, positive feedback processes or anthropogenic emissions of substances such as greenhouse gases.[27]

Over the years, the definitions of climate variability and the related term climate change have shifted. While the term climate change now implies change that is both long-term and of human causation, in the 1960s the word climate change was used for what we now describe as climate variability, that is, climatic inconsistencies and anomalies.[26]

Climate change

 
Average surface air temperatures from 2011 to 2021 compared to the 1956–1976 average. Source: NASA
 
Observed temperature from NASA[28] vs the 1850–1900 average used by the IPCC as a pre-industrial baseline.[29] The primary driver for increased global temperatures in the industrial era is human activity, with natural forces adding variability.[30]
Main article: Climate change
See also: Global temperature record, List of weather records, and Attribution of recent climate change

Climate change is the variation in global or regional climates over time.[31] It reflects changes in the variability or average state of the atmosphere over time scales ranging from decades to millions of years. These changes can be caused by processes internal to the Earth, external forces (e.g. variations in sunlight intensity) or, more recently, human activities.[32][33] In recent usage, especially in the context of environmental policy, the term "climate change" often refers only to changes in modern climate, including the rise in average surface temperature known as global warming. In some cases, the term is also used with a presumption of human causation, as in the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). The UNFCCC uses "climate variability" for non-human caused variations.[34]

Earth has undergone periodic climate shifts in the past, including four major ice ages. These consisting of glacial periods where conditions are colder than normal, separated by interglacial periods. The accumulation of snow and ice during a glacial period increases the surface albedo, reflecting more of the Sun's energy into space and maintaining a lower atmospheric temperature. Increases in greenhouse gases, such as by volcanic activity, can increase the global temperature and produce an interglacial period. Suggested causes of ice age periods include the positions of the continents, variations in the Earth's orbit, changes in the solar output, and volcanism.[35] However, these naturally-caused changes in climate occur on a much slower time scale than the present rate of change which is caused by the emission of greenhouse gases by human activities.[36]

Climate models

Climate models use quantitative methods to simulate the interactions and transfer of radiative energy between the atmosphere,[37] oceans, land surface and ice through a series of physics equations. They are used for a variety of purposes; from the study of the dynamics of the weather and climate system, to projections of future climate. All climate models balance, or very nearly balance, incoming energy as short wave (including visible) electromagnetic radiation to the Earth with outgoing energy as long wave (infrared) electromagnetic radiation from the earth. Any imbalance results in a change in the average temperature of the earth.

Climate models are available on different resolutions ranging from >100 km to 1 km. High resolutions in global climate models are computational very demanding and only few global datasets exists. Global climate models can be dynamically or statistically downscaled to regional climate models to analyze impacts of climate change on a local scale. Examples are ICON[38] or mechanistically downscaled data such as CHELSA (Climatologies at high resolution for the earth's land surface areas).[39][40]

The most talked-about applications of these models in recent years have been their use to infer the consequences of increasing greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, primarily carbon dioxide (see greenhouse gas). These models predict an upward trend in the global mean surface temperature, with the most rapid increase in temperature being projected for the higher latitudes of the Northern Hemisphere.

Models can range from relatively simple to quite complex:

  • Simple radiant heat transfer model that treats the earth as a single point and averages outgoing energy
  • this can be expanded vertically (radiative-convective models), or horizontally
  • finally, (coupled) atmosphere–ocean–sea ice global climate models discretise and solve the full equations for mass and energy transfer and radiant exchange.[41]

See also

References

  1. ^ a b Matthews, J.B. Robin; Möller, Vincent; van Diemen, Renée; Fuglestvedt, Jan S.; Masson-Delmotte, Valérie; Méndez, Carlos; Semenov, Sergey; Reisinger, Andy (2021). "Annex VII. Glossary: IPCC – Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change" (PDF). IPCC Sixth Assessment Report. p. 2222. (PDF) from the original on 2022-06-05. Retrieved 2022-05-18.
  2. ^ Shepherd, Dr. J. Marshall; Shindell, Drew; O'Carroll, Cynthia M. (1 February 2005). "What's the Difference Between Weather and Climate?". NASA. from the original on 22 September 2020. Retrieved 13 November 2015.
  3. ^ Gough, William A.; Leung, Andrew C. W. (2022). "Do Airports Have Their Own Climate?". Meteorology. 1 (2): 171–182. doi:10.3390/meteorology1020012. ISSN 2674-0494.
  4. ^ Thornthwaite, C. W. (1948). "An Approach Toward a Rational Classification of Climate" (PDF). Geographical Review. 38 (1): 55–94. doi:10.2307/210739. JSTOR 210739. from the original on 2020-09-22. Retrieved 2010-12-13.
  5. ^ "paleoclimatology | science | Britannica". www.britannica.com. Retrieved 2022-09-01.
  6. ^ Hughes, Lesley (2000). Biological consequences of globalwarming: is the signal already. p. 56.
  7. ^ Hughes, Leslie (1 February 2000). "Biological consequences of global warming: is the signal already apparent?". Trends in Ecology and Evolution. 15 (2): 56–61. doi:10.1016/S0169-5347(99)01764-4. PMID 10652556. from the original on 12 October 2013. Retrieved November 17, 2016.
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  9. ^ . Met Office. Archived from the original on 2008-07-06. Retrieved 2008-05-17.
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  12. ^ (PDF). World Meteorological Organization. 2011. pp. 6, 8, 10, 21, 26. Archived from the original (PDF) on 13 September 2015. Retrieved 1 September 2015.
  13. ^ "WMO Climatological Normals". World Meteorological Organization. Retrieved 2022-08-21.
  14. ^ WMO Guidelines on the Calculation of Climate Normals (PDF) (2017 ed.). World Meteorological Organization. 2017. ISBN 978-92-63-11203-3. Retrieved 2022-08-20.
  15. ^ National Weather Service Office Tucson, Arizona. Main page. 2017-03-12 at the Wayback Machine Retrieved on 2007-06-01.
  16. ^ Rahmstorf, Stefan. "The Thermohaline Ocean Circulation: A Brief Fact Sheet". Potsdam Institute for Climate Impact Research. from the original on 2013-03-27. Retrieved 2008-05-02.
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  19. ^ Beck, Hylke E.; Zimmermann, Niklaus E.; McVicar, Tim R.; Vergopolan, Noemi; Berg, Alexis; Wood, Eric F. (30 October 2018). "Present and future Köppen-Geiger climate classification maps at 1-km resolution". Scientific Data. 5: 180214. Bibcode:2018NatSD...580214B. doi:10.1038/sdata.2018.214. ISSN 2052-4463. PMC 6207062. PMID 30375988.
  20. ^ United States National Arboretum. USDA Plant Hardiness Zone Map. 2012-07-04 at the Wayback Machine Retrieved on 2008-03-09
  21. ^ "Thornthwaite Moisture Index". Glossary of Meteorology. American Meteorological Society. Retrieved 2008-05-21.
  22. ^ National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. NOAA Paleoclimatology. 2020-09-22 at the Wayback Machine Retrieved on 2007-06-01.
  23. ^ Weart, Spencer. . American Institute of Physics. Archived from the original on 2020-09-22. Retrieved 2007-06-01.
  24. ^ Vose, R. S.; Schmoyer, R. L.; Steurer, P. M.; Peterson, T. C.; Heim, R.; Karl, T. R.; Eischeid, J. K. (1992-07-01), The Global Historical Climatology Network: Long-term monthly temperature, precipitation, sea level pressure, and station pressure data, U.S. Department of Energy. Office of Scientific and Technical Information, doi:10.2172/10178730, OSTI 10178730
  25. ^ IPCC AR5 WG1 Glossary 2013, p. 1451.
  26. ^ a b Rohli & Vega 2018, p. 274.
  27. ^ Scafetta, Nicola (May 15, 2010). (PDF). Journal of Atmospheric and Solar-Terrestrial Physics. 72 (13): 951–970. arXiv:1005.4639. Bibcode:2010JASTP..72..951S. doi:10.1016/j.jastp.2010.04.015. S2CID 1626621. Archived from the original (PDF) on 10 June 2010. Retrieved 20 July 2011.
  28. ^ "Global Annual Mean Surface Air Temperature Change". NASA. from the original on 16 April 2020. Retrieved 23 February 2020..
  29. ^ IPCC AR5 SYR Glossary 2014, p. 124.
  30. ^ USGCRP Chapter 3 2017 Figure 3.1 panel 2 2018-04-09 at the Wayback Machine, Figure 3.3 panel 5 2018-04-09 at the Wayback Machine.
  31. ^ "Climate Change | National Geographic Society". education.nationalgeographic.org. from the original on 2022-07-30. Retrieved 2022-06-28.
  32. ^ Arctic Climatology and Meteorology. Climate change. 2010-01-18 at the Wayback Machine Retrieved on 2008-05-19.
  33. ^ Gillis, Justin (28 November 2015). "Short Answers to Hard Questions About Climate Change". The New York Times. from the original on 22 September 2020. Retrieved 29 November 2015.
  34. ^ . Climate Change 2001: The Scientific Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. 2001-01-20. Archived from the original on 2017-01-26. Retrieved 2008-05-22.
  35. ^ Illinois State Museum (2002). Ice Ages. 2010-03-26 at the Wayback Machine Retrieved on 2007-05-15.
  36. ^ Joos, Fortunat; Spahni, Renato (2008-02-05). "Rates of change in natural and anthropogenic radiative forcing over the past 20,000 years". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 105 (5): 1425–1430. Bibcode:2008PNAS..105.1425J. doi:10.1073/pnas.0707386105. ISSN 0027-8424. PMC 2234160. PMID 18252830.
  37. ^ Eric Maisonnave. Climate Variability. Retrieved on 2008-05-02. June 10, 2008, at the Wayback Machine
  38. ^ Dipankar, A.; Heinze, Rieke; Moseley, Christopher; Stevens, Bjorn; Zängl, Günther; Brdar, Slavko (2015). "A Large Eddy Simulation Version of ICON (ICOsahedral Nonhydrostatic): Model Description and Validation". Journal of Advances in Modeling Earth Systems. 7. doi:10.1002/2015MS000431. S2CID 56394756.
  39. ^ Karger, D.; Conrad, O.; Böhner, J.; Kawohl, T.; Kreft, H.; Soria-Auza, R.W.; Zimmermann, N.E.; Linder, P.; Kessler, M. (2017). "Climatologies at high resolution for the Earth land surface areas". Scientific Data. 4 (4 170122): 170122. Bibcode:2017NatSD...470122K. doi:10.1038/sdata.2017.122. PMC 5584396. PMID 28872642. S2CID 3750792.
  40. ^ Karger, D.N.; Lange, S.; Hari, C.; Reyer, C.P.O.; Zimmermann, N.E. (2021). "CHELSA-W5E5 v1.0: W5E5 v1.0 downscaled with CHELSA v2.0". ISIMIP Repository. doi:10.48364/ISIMIP.836809.
  41. ^ Climateprediction.net. Modelling the climate. 2009-02-04 at the Wayback Machine Retrieved on 2008-05-02.

Sources

  • IPCC (2013). Stocker, T. F.; Qin, D.; Plattner, G.-K.; Tignor, M.; et al. (eds.). Climate Change 2013: The Physical Science Basis (PDF). Contribution of Working Group I to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge, UK & New York: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-107-05799-9.. AR5 Climate Change 2013: The Physical Science Basis — IPCC
  • IPCC AR5 SYR (2014). The Core Writing Team; Pachauri, R. K.; Meyer, L. A. (eds.). Climate Change 2014: Synthesis Report. Contribution of Working Groups I, II and III to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Geneva, Switzerland: IPCC.
  • Knutson, T.; Kossin, J.P.; Mears, C.; Perlwitz, J.; Wehner, M.F (2017). Wuebbles, D.J; Fahey, D.W; Hibbard, K.A; Dokken, D.J; Stewart, B.C; Maycock, T.K (eds.). Ch. 3: Detection and Attribution of Climate Change (PDF). doi:10.7930/J01834ND.
  • Rohli, Robert. V.; Vega, Anthony J. (2018). Climatology (fourth ed.). Jones & Bartlett Learning. ISBN 9781284126563.

Further reading

  • The Study of Climate on Alien Worlds; Characterizing atmospheres beyond our Solar System is now within our reach Kevin Heng July–August 2012 American Scientist
  • Reumert, Johannes: "Vahls climatic divisions. An explanation" (Geografisk Tidsskrift, Band 48; 1946)

External links

 
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Climate.
 
Wikisource has the text of the 1905 New International Encyclopedia article "Climate".
  • NOAA Climate Services Portal
  • NOAA State of the Climate
  • NASA's Climate change and global warming portal
  • Climate Prediction Project
  • Climate index and mode information – Arctic
  • Climate: Data and charts for world and US locations
  • IPCC Data Distribution Centre – Climate data and guidance on use.
  • HistoricalClimatology.com – Past, present and future climates – 2013.
  • Globalclimatemonitor – Contains climatic information from 1901.
  • ClimateCharts – Webapplication to generate climate charts for recent and historical data.
  • International Disaster Database
  • Paris Climate Conference

February 05, 2023
climate, other, uses, disambiguation, long, term, weather, pattern, region, typically, averaged, over, years, more, rigorously, mean, variability, meteorological, variables, over, time, spanning, from, months, millions, years, some, meteorological, variables, . For other uses see Climate disambiguation Climate is the long term weather pattern in a region typically averaged over 30 years 1 2 More rigorously it is the mean and variability of meteorological variables over a time spanning from months to millions of years Some of the meteorological variables that are commonly measured are temperature humidity atmospheric pressure wind and precipitation In a broader sense climate is the state of the components of the climate system including the atmosphere hydrosphere cryosphere lithosphere and biosphere and the interactions between them 1 The climate of a location is affected by its latitude longitude terrain altitude land use and nearby water bodies and their currents 3 Climates can be classified according to the average and typical variables most commonly temperature and precipitation The most widely used classification scheme was the Koppen climate classification The Thornthwaite system 4 in use since 1948 incorporates evapotranspiration along with temperature and precipitation information and is used in studying biological diversity and how climate change affects it Finally the Bergeron and Spatial Synoptic Classification systems focus on the origin of air masses that define the climate of a region Paleoclimatology is the study of ancient climates Paleoclimatologists seek to explain climate variations for all parts of the Earth during any given geologic period beginning with the time of the Earth s formation 5 Since very few direct observations of climate were available before the 19th century paleoclimates are inferred from proxy variables They include non biotic evidence such as sediments found in lake beds and ice cores and biotic evidence such as tree rings and coral Climate models are mathematical models of past present and future climates Climate change may occur over long and short timescales from various factors Recent warming is discussed in global warming which results in redistributions For example a 3 C 5 F change in mean annual temperature corresponds to a shift in isotherms of approximately 300 400 km 190 250 mi in latitude in the temperate zone or 500 m 1 600 ft in elevation Therefore species are expected to move upwards in elevation or towards the poles in latitude in response to shifting climate zones 6 7 Contents 1 Definition 2 Climate classification 3 Record 3 1 Paleoclimatology 3 2 Modern 4 Climate variability 5 Climate change 6 Climate models 7 See also 8 References 8 1 Sources 9 Further reading 10 External linksDefinition EditClimate from Ancient Greek klima inclination is commonly defined as the weather averaged over a long period 8 The standard averaging period is 30 years 9 but other periods may be used depending on the purpose Climate also includes statistics other than the average such as the magnitudes of day to day or year to year variations The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change IPCC 2001 glossary definition is as follows Climate in a narrow sense is usually defined as the average weather or more rigorously as the statistical description in terms of the mean and variability of relevant quantities over a period ranging from months to thousands or millions of years The classical period is 30 years as defined by the World Meteorological Organization WMO These quantities are most often surface variables such as temperature precipitation and wind Climate in a wider sense is the state including a statistical description of the climate system 10 The World Meteorological Organization WMO describes climate normals as reference points used by climatologists to compare current climatological trends to that of the past or what is considered typical A climate normal is defined as the arithmetic average of a climate element e g temperature over a 30 year period A 30 year period is used as it is long enough to filter out any interannual variation or anomalies such as El Nino Southern Oscillation but also short enough to be able to show longer climatic trends 11 The WMO originated from the International Meteorological Organization which set up a technical commission for climatology in 1929 At its 1934 Wiesbaden meeting the technical commission designated the thirty year period from 1901 to 1930 as the reference time frame for climatological standard normals In 1982 the WMO agreed to update climate normals and these were subsequently completed on the basis of climate data from 1 January 1961 to 31 December 1990 12 The 1961 1990 climate normals serve as the baseline reference period The next set of climate normals to be published by WMO is from 1991 to 2010 13 Aside from collecting from the most common atmospheric variables air temperature pressure precipitation and wind other variables such as humidity visibility cloud amount solar radiation soil temperature pan evaporation rate days with thunder and days with hail are also collected to measure change in climate conditions 14 The difference between climate and weather is usefully summarized by the popular phrase Climate is what you expect weather is what you get 15 Over historical time spans there are a number of nearly constant variables that determine climate including latitude altitude proportion of land to water and proximity to oceans and mountains All of these variables change only over periods of millions of years due to processes such as plate tectonics Other climate determinants are more dynamic the thermohaline circulation of the ocean leads to a 5 C 41 F warming of the northern Atlantic Ocean compared to other ocean basins 16 Other ocean currents redistribute heat between land and water on a more regional scale The density and type of vegetation coverage affects solar heat absorption 17 water retention and rainfall on a regional level Alterations in the quantity of atmospheric greenhouse gases determines the amount of solar energy retained by the planet leading to global warming or global cooling The variables which determine climate are numerous and the interactions complex but there is general agreement that the broad outlines are understood at least insofar as the determinants of historical climate change are concerned 18 Climate classification EditMain article Climate classification Worldwide Koppen climate classifications Climate classifications are systems that categorize the world s climates A climate classification may correlate closely with a biome classification as climate is a major influence on life in a region One of the most used is the Koppen climate classification scheme first developed in 1899 19 There are several ways to classify climates into similar regimes Originally climes were defined in Ancient Greece to describe the weather depending upon a location s latitude Modern climate classification methods can be broadly divided into genetic methods which focus on the causes of climate and empiric methods which focus on the effects of climate Examples of genetic classification include methods based on the relative frequency of different air mass types or locations within synoptic weather disturbances Examples of empiric classifications include climate zones defined by plant hardiness 20 evapotranspiration 21 or more generally the Koppen climate classification which was originally designed to identify the climates associated with certain biomes A common shortcoming of these classification schemes is that they produce distinct boundaries between the zones they define rather than the gradual transition of climate properties more common in nature Record EditPaleoclimatology Edit Main article Paleoclimatology Paleoclimatology is the study of past climate over a great period of the Earth s history It uses evidence with different time scales from decades to millennia from ice sheets tree rings sediments pollen coral and rocks to determine the past state of the climate It demonstrates periods of stability and periods of change and can indicate whether changes follow patterns such as regular cycles 22 Modern Edit See also Instrumental temperature record and Satellite temperature measurements Details of the modern climate record are known through the taking of measurements from such weather instruments as thermometers barometers and anemometers during the past few centuries The instruments used to study weather over the modern time scale their observation frequency their known error their immediate environment and their exposure have changed over the years which must be considered when studying the climate of centuries past 23 Long term modern climate records skew towards population centres and affluent countries 24 Since the 1960s the launch of satellites allow records to be gathered on a global scale including areas with little to no human presence such as the Arctic region and oceans Climate variability EditMain article Climate variability and change Climate variability is the term to describe variations in the mean state and other characteristics of climate such as chances or possibility of extreme weather etc on all spatial and temporal scales beyond that of individual weather events 25 Some of the variability does not appear to be caused systematically and occurs at random times Such variability is called random variability or noise On the other hand periodic variability occurs relatively regularly and in distinct modes of variability or climate patterns 26 There are close correlations between Earth s climate oscillations and astronomical factors barycenter changes solar variation cosmic ray flux cloud albedo feedback Milankovic cycles and modes of heat distribution between the ocean atmosphere climate system In some cases current historical and paleoclimatological natural oscillations may be masked by significant volcanic eruptions impact events irregularities in climate proxy data positive feedback processes or anthropogenic emissions of substances such as greenhouse gases 27 Over the years the definitions of climate variability and the related term climate change have shifted While the term climate change now implies change that is both long term and of human causation in the 1960s the word climate change was used for what we now describe as climate variability that is climatic inconsistencies and anomalies 26 Climate change Edit Average surface air temperatures from 2011 to 2021 compared to the 1956 1976 average Source NASA Observed temperature from NASA 28 vs the 1850 1900 average used by the IPCC as a pre industrial baseline 29 The primary driver for increased global temperatures in the industrial era is human activity with natural forces adding variability 30 Main article Climate change See also Global temperature record List of weather records and Attribution of recent climate change Climate change is the variation in global or regional climates over time 31 It reflects changes in the variability or average state of the atmosphere over time scales ranging from decades to millions of years These changes can be caused by processes internal to the Earth external forces e g variations in sunlight intensity or more recently human activities 32 33 In recent usage especially in the context of environmental policy the term climate change often refers only to changes in modern climate including the rise in average surface temperature known as global warming In some cases the term is also used with a presumption of human causation as in the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change UNFCCC The UNFCCC uses climate variability for non human caused variations 34 Earth has undergone periodic climate shifts in the past including four major ice ages These consisting of glacial periods where conditions are colder than normal separated by interglacial periods The accumulation of snow and ice during a glacial period increases the surface albedo reflecting more of the Sun s energy into space and maintaining a lower atmospheric temperature Increases in greenhouse gases such as by volcanic activity can increase the global temperature and produce an interglacial period Suggested causes of ice age periods include the positions of the continents variations in the Earth s orbit changes in the solar output and volcanism 35 However these naturally caused changes in climate occur on a much slower time scale than the present rate of change which is caused by the emission of greenhouse gases by human activities 36 Climate models EditClimate models use quantitative methods to simulate the interactions and transfer of radiative energy between the atmosphere 37 oceans land surface and ice through a series of physics equations They are used for a variety of purposes from the study of the dynamics of the weather and climate system to projections of future climate All climate models balance or very nearly balance incoming energy as short wave including visible electromagnetic radiation to the Earth with outgoing energy as long wave infrared electromagnetic radiation from the earth Any imbalance results in a change in the average temperature of the earth Climate models are available on different resolutions ranging from gt 100 km to 1 km High resolutions in global climate models are computational very demanding and only few global datasets exists Global climate models can be dynamically or statistically downscaled to regional climate models to analyze impacts of climate change on a local scale Examples are ICON 38 or mechanistically downscaled data such as CHELSA Climatologies at high resolution for the earth s land surface areas 39 40 The most talked about applications of these models in recent years have been their use to infer the consequences of increasing greenhouse gases in the atmosphere primarily carbon dioxide see greenhouse gas These models predict an upward trend in the global mean surface temperature with the most rapid increase in temperature being projected for the higher latitudes of the Northern Hemisphere Models can range from relatively simple to quite complex Simple radiant heat transfer model that treats the earth as a single point and averages outgoing energy this can be expanded vertically radiative convective models or horizontally finally coupled atmosphere ocean sea ice global climate models discretise and solve the full equations for mass and energy transfer and radiant exchange 41 See also EditClimate inertia Climate Prediction Center Climatic map Climograph Ecosystem Effect of Sun angle on climate Greenhouse effect List of climate scientists List of weather records Microclimate National Climatic Data Center Outline of meteorology Tectonic climatic interactionReferences Edit a b Matthews J B Robin Moller Vincent van Diemen Renee Fuglestvedt Jan S Masson Delmotte Valerie Mendez Carlos Semenov Sergey Reisinger Andy 2021 Annex VII Glossary IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change PDF IPCC Sixth Assessment Report p 2222 Archived PDF from the original on 2022 06 05 Retrieved 2022 05 18 Shepherd Dr J Marshall Shindell Drew O Carroll 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Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 2001 01 20 Archived from the original on 2017 01 26 Retrieved 2008 05 22 Illinois State Museum 2002 Ice Ages Archived 2010 03 26 at the Wayback Machine Retrieved on 2007 05 15 Joos Fortunat Spahni Renato 2008 02 05 Rates of change in natural and anthropogenic radiative forcing over the past 20 000 years Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 105 5 1425 1430 Bibcode 2008PNAS 105 1425J doi 10 1073 pnas 0707386105 ISSN 0027 8424 PMC 2234160 PMID 18252830 Eric Maisonnave Climate Variability Retrieved on 2008 05 02 Archived June 10 2008 at the Wayback Machine Dipankar A Heinze Rieke Moseley Christopher Stevens Bjorn Zangl Gunther Brdar Slavko 2015 A Large Eddy Simulation Version of ICON ICOsahedral Nonhydrostatic Model Description and Validation Journal of Advances in Modeling Earth Systems 7 doi 10 1002 2015MS000431 S2CID 56394756 Karger D Conrad O Bohner J Kawohl T Kreft H Soria Auza R W Zimmermann N E Linder P Kessler M 2017 Climatologies at high resolution for the Earth land surface areas Scientific Data 4 4 170122 170122 Bibcode 2017NatSD 470122K doi 10 1038 sdata 2017 122 PMC 5584396 PMID 28872642 S2CID 3750792 Karger D N Lange S Hari C Reyer C P O Zimmermann N E 2021 CHELSA W5E5 v1 0 W5E5 v1 0 downscaled with CHELSA v2 0 ISIMIP Repository doi 10 48364 ISIMIP 836809 Climateprediction net Modelling the climate Archived 2009 02 04 at the Wayback Machine Retrieved on 2008 05 02 Sources Edit IPCC 2013 Stocker T F Qin D Plattner G K Tignor M et al eds Climate Change 2013 The Physical Science Basis PDF Contribution of Working Group I to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Cambridge UK amp New York Cambridge University Press ISBN 978 1 107 05799 9 AR5 Climate Change 2013 The Physical Science Basis IPCC IPCC 2013 Annex III Glossary PDF IPCC AR5 WG1 2013 IPCC AR5 SYR 2014 The Core Writing Team Pachauri R K Meyer L A eds Climate Change 2014 Synthesis Report Contribution of Working Groups I II and III to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Geneva Switzerland IPCC IPCC 2014 Annex II Glossary PDF IPCC AR5 SYR 2014 Knutson T Kossin J P Mears C Perlwitz J Wehner M F 2017 Wuebbles D J Fahey D W Hibbard K A Dokken D J Stewart B C Maycock T K eds Ch 3 Detection and Attribution of Climate Change PDF doi 10 7930 J01834ND Rohli Robert V Vega Anthony J 2018 Climatology fourth ed Jones amp Bartlett Learning ISBN 9781284126563 Further reading EditThe Study of Climate on Alien Worlds Characterizing atmospheres beyond our Solar System is now within our reach Kevin Heng July August 2012 American Scientist Reumert Johannes Vahls climatic divisions An explanation Geografisk Tidsskrift Band 48 1946 External links Edit Wikimedia Commons has media related to Climate Wikisource has the text of the 1905 New International Encyclopedia article Climate NOAA Climate Services Portal NOAA State of the Climate NASA s Climate change and global warming portal Climate Prediction Project Climate index and mode information Arctic Climate Data and charts for world and US locations IPCC Data Distribution Centre Climate data and guidance on use HistoricalClimatology com Past present and future climates 2013 Globalclimatemonitor Contains climatic information from 1901 ClimateCharts Webapplication to generate climate charts for recent and historical data International Disaster Database Paris Climate Conference Portal Weather Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Climate amp oldid 1137007418, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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