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Urban planning

March 08, 2023

"Urban development" redirects here. For actual development, see urbanization. For negative effects, see urban sprawl.
"Development planning" redirects here. For proposals setting out a local authority's policies and proposals for land use, see Development plan. For planning for personal development, see Personal development planning.

Urban planning, also known as town planning, city planning, regional planning, or rural planning, is a technical and political process that is focused on the development and design of land use and the built environment, including air, water, and the infrastructure passing into and out of urban areas, such as transportation, communications, and distribution networks and their accessibility.[1] Traditionally, urban planning followed a top-down approach in master planning the physical layout of human settlements.[2] The primary concern was the public welfare,[1][2] which included considerations of efficiency, sanitation, protection and use of the environment,[1] as well as effects of the master plans on the social and economic activities.[3] Over time, urban planning has adopted a focus on the social and environmental bottom-lines that focus on planning as a tool to improve the health and well-being of people while maintaining sustainability standards. Sustainable development was added as one of the main goals of all planning endeavors in the late 20th century when the detrimental economic and the environmental impacts of the previous models of planning had become apparent.[citation needed] Similarly, in the early 21st century, Jane Jacob's writings on legal and political perspectives to emphasize the interests of residents, businesses and communities effectively influenced urban planners to take into broader consideration of resident experiences and needs while planning.

Partizánske in Slovakia – an example of a typical planned European industrial city founded in 1938 together with a shoemaking factory in which practically all adult inhabitants of the city were employed.

Urban planning answers questions about how people will live, work and play in a given area and thus, guides orderly development in urban, suburban and rural areas.[4] Although predominantly concerned with the planning of settlements and communities, urban planners are also responsible for planning the efficient transportation of goods, resources, people and waste; the distribution of basic necessities such as water and electricity; a sense of inclusion and opportunity for people of all kinds, culture and needs; economic growth or business development; improving health and conserving areas of natural environmental significance that actively contributes to reduction in CO2 emissions[5] as well as protecting heritage structures and built environments. Since most urban planning teams consist of highly educated individuals that work for city governments,[6] recent debates focus on how to involve more community members in city planning processes.

Urban planning is an interdisciplinary field that includes civil engineering, architecture, human geography, politics, social science and design sciences. Practitioners of urban planning are concerned with research and analysis, strategic thinking, engineering architecture, urban design, public consultation, policy recommendations, implementation and management.[2] It is closely related to the field of urban design and some urban planners provide designs for streets, parks, buildings and other urban areas.[7] Urban planners work with the cognate fields of civil engineering, landscape architecture, architecture, and public administration to achieve strategic, policy and sustainability goals. Early urban planners were often members of these cognate fields though today, urban planning is a separate, independent professional discipline. The discipline of urban planning is the broader category that includes different sub-fields such as land-use planning, zoning, economic development, environmental planning, and transportation planning.[8] Creating the plans requires a thorough understanding of penal codes and zonal codes of planning.

Another important aspect of urban planning is that the range of urban planning projects include the large-scale master planning of empty sites or Greenfield projects as well as small-scale interventions and refurbishments of existing structures, buildings and public spaces. Pierre Charles L'Enfant in Washington, D.C., Daniel Burnham in Chicago, Lúcio Costa in Brasília and Georges-Eugene Haussmann in Paris planned cities from scratch, and Robert Moses and Le Corbusier refurbished and transformed cities and neighborhoods to meet their ideas of urban planning.[9]

History

Further information: History of urban planning and Grid Plan
 
1852 city plan of Pori by G.T. von Chiewitz
 
Berlin - Siegessäule. August 1963. Spacious and organized city planning in Germany was official government policy dating back to Nazi rule.[10]

There is evidence of urban planning and designed communities dating back to the Mesopotamian, Indus Valley, Minoan, and Egyptian civilizations in the third millennium BCE. Archaeologists studying the ruins of cities in these areas find paved streets that were laid out at right angles in a grid pattern.[11] The idea of a planned out urban area evolved as different civilizations adopted it. Beginning in the 8th century BCE, Greek city states primarily used orthogonal (or grid-like) plans.[12] Hippodamus of Miletus (498–408 BC), the ancient Greek architect and urban planner, is considered to be "the father of European urban planning", and the namesake of the "Hippodamian plan" (grid plan) of city layout.[13]

The ancient Romans, inspired by the Greeks, also used orthogonal plans for their cities. City planning in the Roman world was developed for military defense and public convenience. The spread of the Roman Empire subsequently spread the ideas of urban planning. As the Roman Empire declined, these ideas slowly disappeared. However, many cities in Europe still held onto the planned Roman city center. Cities in Europe from the 9th to 14th centuries, often grew organically and sometimes chaotically. But in the following centuries with the coming of the Renaissance many new cities were enlarged with newly planned extensions.[14] From the 15th century on, much more is recorded of urban design and the people that were involved. In this period, theoretical treatises on architecture and urban planning start to appear in which theoretical questions around planning the main lines, ensuring plans meet the needs of the given population and so forth are addressed and designs of towns and cities are described and depicted. During the Enlightenment period, several European rulers ambitiously attempted to redesign capital cities. During the Second French Empire, Baron Georges-Eugène Haussmann, under the direction of Napoleon III, redesigned the city of Paris into a more modern capital, with long, straight, wide boulevards.[15]

Planning and architecture went through a paradigm shift at the turn of the 20th century. The industrialized cities of the 19th century grew at a tremendous rate. The evils of urban life for the working poor were becoming increasingly evident as a matter of public concern. The laissez-faire style of government management of the economy, in fashion for most of the Victorian era, was starting to give way to a New Liberalism that championed intervention on the part of the poor and disadvantaged. Around 1900, theorists began developing urban planning models to mitigate the consequences of the industrial age, by providing citizens, especially factory workers, with healthier environments. The following century would therefore be globally dominated by a central planning approach to urban planning, not necessarily representing an increment in the overall quality of the urban realm.

At the beginning of the 20th century, urban planning began to be recognized as a separate profession. The Town and Country Planning Association was founded in 1899 and the first academic course in Great Britain on urban planning was offered by the University of Liverpool in 1909.[16] In the 1920s, the ideas of modernism and uniformity began to surface in urban planning, and lasted until the 1970s. In 1933, Le Corbusier presented the Radiant City, a city that grows up in the form of towers, as a solution to the problem of pollution and over-crowding. But many planners started to believe that the ideas of modernism in urban planning led to higher crime rates and social problems.[3][17]

In the second half of the 20th century, urban planners gradually shifted their focus to individualism and diversity in urban centers.[18]

21st century practices

See also: Mobility transition

Urban planners studying the effects of increasing congestion in urban areas began to address the externalities, the negative impacts caused by induced demand from larger highway systems in western countries such as in the United States. The United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs predicted in 2018 that around 2.5 billion more people occupy urban areas by 2050 according to population elements of global migration. New planning theories have adopted non-traditional concepts such as Blue Zones and Innovation Districts to incorporate geographic areas within the city that allow for novel business development and the prioritization of infrastructure that would assist with improving the quality of life of citizens by extending their potential lifespan.

Planning practices have incorporated policy changes to help address anthropocentric global climate change. London began to charge a congestion charge for cars trying to access already crowded places in the city.[19] Cities nowadays stress the importance of public transit and cycling by adopting such policies.

Theories

Further information: Theories of urban planning
See also: Planning cultures
 
Street Hierarchy and Accessibility

Planning theory is the body of scientific concepts, definitions, behavioral relationships, and assumptions that define the body of knowledge of urban planning. There are eight procedural theories of planning that remain the principal theories of planning procedure today: the rational-comprehensive approach, the incremental approach, the transactive approach, the communicative approach, the advocacy approach, the equity approach, the radical approach, and the humanist or phenomenological approach.[20] Some other conceptual planning theories include Ebenezer Howard's The Three Magnets theory that he envisioned for the future of British settlement, also his Garden Cities, the Concentric Model Zone also called the Burgess Model by sociologist Ernest Burgess, the Radburn Superblock that encourages pedestrian movement, the Sector Model and the Multiple Nuclei Model among others.[21]

Technical aspects

Further information: Technical aspects of urban planning

Technical aspects of urban planning involve the application of scientific, technical processes, considerations and features that are involved in planning for land use, urban design, natural resources, transportation, and infrastructure. Urban planning includes techniques such as: predicting population growth, zoning, geographic mapping and analysis, analyzing park space, surveying the water supply, identifying transportation patterns, recognizing food supply demands, allocating healthcare and social services, and analyzing the impact of land use.

In order to predict how cities will develop and estimate the effects of their interventions, planners use various models. These models can be used to indicate relationships and patterns in demographic, geographic, and economic data. They might deal with short-term issues such as how people move through cities, or long-term issues such as land use and growth.[22] One such model is the Geographic Information System (GIS) that is used to create a model of the existing planning and then to project future impacts on the society, economy and environment.

Building codes and other regulations dovetail with urban planning by governing how cities are constructed and used from the individual level.[23] Enforcement methodologies include governmental zoning, planning permissions, and building codes,[1] as well as private easements and restrictive covenants.[24]

Urban planners

Further information: Urban planner

An urban planner is a professional who works in the field of urban planning for the purpose of optimizing the effectiveness of a community's land use and infrastructure. They formulate plans for the development and management of urban and suburban areas, typically analyzing land use compatibility as well as economic, environmental and social trends. In developing any plan for a community (whether commercial, residential, agricultural, natural or recreational), urban planners must consider a wide array of issues including sustainability, existing and potential pollution, transport including potential congestion, crime, land values, economic development, social equity, zoning codes, and other legislation.

The importance of the urban planner is increasing in the 21st century, as modern society begins to face issues of increased population growth, climate change and unsustainable development.[25][26] An urban planner could be considered a green collar professional.[27]

Some researchers suggest that urban planners around the world work in different "planning cultures", adapted to their local cities and cultures.[28] However, professionals have identified skills, abilities and basic knowledge sets that are common to urban planners across national and regional boundaries.[29][30][31]

Criticisms and debates

The school of neoclassical economics argues that planning is unnecessary, or even harmful, because market efficiency allows for effective land use.[32] A pluralist strain of political thinking argues in a similar vein that the government should not intrude in the political competition between different interest groups which decides how land is used.[32] The traditional justification for urban planning has in response been that the planner does to the city what the engineer or architect does to the home, that is, make it more amenable to the needs and preferences of its inhabitants.[32]

The widely adopted consensus-building model of planning, which seeks to accommodate different preferences within the community has been criticized for being based upon, rather than challenging, the power structures of the community.[33] Instead, agonism has been proposed as a framework for urban planning decision-making.[33]

Another debate within the urban planning field is about who is included and excluded in the urban planning decision-making process. Most urban planning processes use a top-down approach which fails to include the residents of the places where urban planners and city officials are working. Sherry Arnstein's "ladder of citizen participation" is oftentimes used by many urban planners and city governments to determine the degree of inclusivity or exclusivity of their urban planning.[34] One main source of engagement between city officials and residents are city council meetings that are open to the residents and that welcome public comments. Additionally, there are some federal requirements for citizen participation in government-funded infrastructure projects.[6]

Many urban planners and planning agencies rely on community input for their policies and zoning plans. How effective community engagement is can be determined by how member's voices are heard and implemented.

Participatory urban planning

Participatory planning in the United States emerged during the 1960s and 1970s.[35] At the same time, participatory planning began to enter the development field, with similar characteristics and agendas.[36] There are many notable urban planners and activists whose work facilitated and shaped participatory planning movements. Jane Jacobs and her work is one of the most significant contributions to participatory planning because of the influence it had across the entire United States. There has also been a recent emergence in engaging youth in urban planning education.

See also

References

  1. ^ a b c d "What is Urban Planning". School of Urban Planning, McGill University. from the original on 8 January 2008.
  2. ^ a b c Taylor, Nigel (1998). Urban Planning Theory Since 1945. Los Angeles: Sage. pp. 3–4. ISBN 978-0-7619-6093-5.
  3. ^ a b Midgley, James (1999). Social Development: The Developmental Perspective in Social Welfare. Sage. p. 50. ISBN 978-0-8039-7773-0.
  4. ^ Caves, R. W. (2004). Encyclopedia of the City. Routledge. p. 704. ISBN 978-0415862875.
  5. ^ Pobiner, Joe (18 February 2020). "3 urban planning trends that are changing how our cities will look in the future". Building Design + Construction. Retrieved 25 September 2020.
  6. ^ a b M., Levy, John (2017). Contemporary urban planning. ISBN 978-1-138-66638-2. OCLC 992793499.
  7. ^ Van Assche, K., Beunen, R., Duineveld, M., & de Jong, H. (2013). Co-evolutions of planning and design: Risks and benefits of design perspectives in planning systems. Planning Theory, 12(2), 177–198.
  8. ^ . American Planning Association. Archived from the original on 10 March 2015.
  9. ^ Planetizen Courses (8 November 2019). "What is Urban Planning?". YouTube. Archived from the original on 30 October 2021.
  10. ^ Hass-Klau, Carmen. "Motorization and Footpath Planning During the Third Reich." The Pedestrian and the City. Routledge, 2014.
  11. ^ Davreu, Robert (1978). "Cities of Mystery: The Lost Empire of the Indus Valley". The World's Last Mysteries. (second edition). Sydney: Reader's Digest. pp. 121–129. ISBN 0-909486-61-1.
  12. ^ Kolb, Frank (1984). Die Stadt im Altertum. München: Verlag C.H. Beck. pp. 51–141: Morris, A.E.J. (1972). History of Urban Form. Prehistory to the Renaissance. London. pp. 22–23.
  13. ^ Glaeser, Edward (2011), Triumph of the City: How Our Best Invention Makes Us Richer, Smarter, Greener, Healthier, and Happier, New York: Penguin Press, p. 19, ISBN 978-1-59420-277-3.
  14. ^ Boerefijn, Wim (2010). The foundation, planning and building of new towns in the 13th and 14th centuries in Europe. An architectural-historical research into urban form and its creation. Phd. thesis Universiteit van Amsterdam. ISBN 978-90-9025157-8.
  15. ^ Jordan, David (1992). "Baron Haussmann and Modern Paris". American Scholar. 61 (1): 99.
  16. ^ Fainstein, Susan S. Urban planning at the Encyclopædia Britannica
  17. ^ Morris, Eleanor Smith; et al. (1997). British Town Planning and Urban Design: Principles and policies. Harlow, Essex, England: Longman. pp. 147–149. ISBN 978-0-582-23496-3.
  18. ^ Routley, Nick (20 January 2018). "The Evolution of Urban Planning". Visual Capitalist. Retrieved 25 September 2020.
  19. ^ "Congestion Charge (Official)". Transport for London. Retrieved 25 September 2020.
  20. ^ Whittmore, Andrew (2 February 2015). "How Planners Use Planning Theory". Planetizen. Retrieved 24 April 2015. citing Whittemore, Andrew H. (2014). "Practitioners Theorize, Too Reaffirming Planning Theory in a Survey of Practitioners' Theories". Journal of Planning Education and Research. 35 (1): 76–85. doi:10.1177/0739456X14563144. S2CID 144888493.)
  21. ^ Mohd Nazim Saifi (4 March 2017). "Town planning theories concept and models". {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  22. ^ Landis, John D. (2012). "Modeling Urban Systems". In Weber, Rachel; Crane, Randall (eds.). The Oxford Handbook of Urban Planning. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press. pp. 323–350. ISBN 978-0-19-537499-5.
  23. ^ Codes, rules, and standards are part of a matrix of relations that influence the practice of urban planning and design. These forms of regulation provide an important and inescapable framework for development, from the laying out of subdivisions to the control of stormwater runoff. The subject of regulations leads to the source of how communities are designed and constructed—defining how they can and can't be built—and how codes, rules, and standards continue to shape the physical space where we live and work. Ben-Joseph, Eran (2012). "Codes and Standards in Urban Planning and Design". In Weber, Rachel; Crane, Randall (eds.). The Oxford Handbook of Urban Planning. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press. pp. 352–370. ISBN 978-0-19-537499-5.
  24. ^ Smit, Anneke; Valiante, Marcia (2015). "Introduction". In Smit, Anneke; Valiante, Marcia (eds.). Public Interest, Private Property: Law and Planning Policy in Canada. Vancouver, British Columbia: University of British Columbia Press. pp. 1–36, page 10. ISBN 978-0-7748-2931-1.
  25. ^ Heidari, Hadi; Arabi, Mazdak; Warziniack, Travis; Sharvelle, Sybil (2021). "Effects of Urban Development Patterns on Municipal Water Shortage". Frontiers in Water. 3: 694817. Bibcode:2021FrW.....394817H. doi:10.3389/frwa.2021.694817. ISSN 2624-9375.
  26. ^ Heidari, Hadi; Arabi, Mazdak; Warziniack, Travis; Kao, Shih-Chieh (June 2021). "Shifts in hydroclimatology of US megaregions in response to climate change". Environmental Research Communications. 3 (6): 065002. Bibcode:2021ERCom...3f5002H. doi:10.1088/2515-7620/ac0617. ISSN 2515-7620.
  27. ^ Kamenetz, Anya (14 January 2009). "Ten Best Green Jobs for the Next Decade". fastcompany. Fast Company. from the original on 26 August 2012. Retrieved 14 January 2009.
  28. ^ Friedman, John (2012). "Varieties of Planning Experience: Toward a Globalized Planning Culture?". In Weber, Rachel; Crane, Randall (eds.). The Oxford Handbook of Urban Planning. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press. pp. 87–98. ISBN 978-0-19-537499-5.
  29. ^ "American Institutes of Certified Planners Certification". American Planning Association. American Planning Association. Retrieved 20 July 2017.
  30. ^ "Professional standards". Royal Institute of Town Planners. Royal Town Planning Institute. Retrieved 20 July 2017.
  31. ^ "About ISOCARP". International Society of City and Regional Planners. Retrieved 20 July 2017.
  32. ^ a b c Klosterman, Richard E. (1985). "Arguments for and against Planning". The Town Planning Review. 56 (1): 5–20. doi:10.3828/tpr.56.1.e8286q3082111km4. ISSN 0041-0020. JSTOR 40112168.
  33. ^ a b McAuliffe, Cameron; Rogers, Dallas (March 2019). "The politics of value in urban development: Valuing conflict in agonistic pluralism". Planning Theory. 18 (3): 300–318. doi:10.1177/1473095219831381. ISSN 1473-0952. S2CID 150714892.
  34. ^ Arnstein, Sherry (14 May 2020), ""A Ladder of Citizen Participation"", The City Reader, Abingdon, Oxon: Routledge, pp. 290–302, doi:10.4324/9780429261732-36, ISBN 978-0-429-26173-2, S2CID 159193173, retrieved 11 May 2022
  35. ^ Lane, Marcus B. (November 2005). "Public Participation in Planning: an intellectual history". Australian Geographer. 36 (3): 283–299. doi:10.1080/00049180500325694. ISSN 0004-9182. S2CID 18008094.
  36. ^ K., Duraiappah, Anantha (2005). Have participatory approaches increased capabilities?. International Institute for Sustainable Development = Institut international du développement durable. OCLC 64077133.

Further reading

External links

  • Urban planning at Curlie
  • American Planning Association

Library guides for urban planning

March 08, 2023
urban, planning, urban, development, redirects, here, actual, development, urbanization, negative, effects, urban, sprawl, development, planning, redirects, here, proposals, setting, local, authority, policies, proposals, land, development, plan, planning, per. Urban development redirects here For actual development see urbanization For negative effects see urban sprawl Development planning redirects here For proposals setting out a local authority s policies and proposals for land use see Development plan For planning for personal development see Personal development planning Urban planning also known as town planning city planning regional planning or rural planning is a technical and political process that is focused on the development and design of land use and the built environment including air water and the infrastructure passing into and out of urban areas such as transportation communications and distribution networks and their accessibility 1 Traditionally urban planning followed a top down approach in master planning the physical layout of human settlements 2 The primary concern was the public welfare 1 2 which included considerations of efficiency sanitation protection and use of the environment 1 as well as effects of the master plans on the social and economic activities 3 Over time urban planning has adopted a focus on the social and environmental bottom lines that focus on planning as a tool to improve the health and well being of people while maintaining sustainability standards Sustainable development was added as one of the main goals of all planning endeavors in the late 20th century when the detrimental economic and the environmental impacts of the previous models of planning had become apparent citation needed Similarly in the early 21st century Jane Jacob s writings on legal and political perspectives to emphasize the interests of residents businesses and communities effectively influenced urban planners to take into broader consideration of resident experiences and needs while planning Partizanske in Slovakia an example of a typical planned European industrial city founded in 1938 together with a shoemaking factory in which practically all adult inhabitants of the city were employed Urban planning answers questions about how people will live work and play in a given area and thus guides orderly development in urban suburban and rural areas 4 Although predominantly concerned with the planning of settlements and communities urban planners are also responsible for planning the efficient transportation of goods resources people and waste the distribution of basic necessities such as water and electricity a sense of inclusion and opportunity for people of all kinds culture and needs economic growth or business development improving health and conserving areas of natural environmental significance that actively contributes to reduction in CO2 emissions 5 as well as protecting heritage structures and built environments Since most urban planning teams consist of highly educated individuals that work for city governments 6 recent debates focus on how to involve more community members in city planning processes Urban planning is an interdisciplinary field that includes civil engineering architecture human geography politics social science and design sciences Practitioners of urban planning are concerned with research and analysis strategic thinking engineering architecture urban design public consultation policy recommendations implementation and management 2 It is closely related to the field of urban design and some urban planners provide designs for streets parks buildings and other urban areas 7 Urban planners work with the cognate fields of civil engineering landscape architecture architecture and public administration to achieve strategic policy and sustainability goals Early urban planners were often members of these cognate fields though today urban planning is a separate independent professional discipline The discipline of urban planning is the broader category that includes different sub fields such as land use planning zoning economic development environmental planning and transportation planning 8 Creating the plans requires a thorough understanding of penal codes and zonal codes of planning Another important aspect of urban planning is that the range of urban planning projects include the large scale master planning of empty sites or Greenfield projects as well as small scale interventions and refurbishments of existing structures buildings and public spaces Pierre Charles L Enfant in Washington D C Daniel Burnham in Chicago Lucio Costa in Brasilia and Georges Eugene Haussmann in Paris planned cities from scratch and Robert Moses and Le Corbusier refurbished and transformed cities and neighborhoods to meet their ideas of urban planning 9 Contents 1 History 2 21st century practices 3 Theories 4 Technical aspects 5 Urban planners 6 Criticisms and debates 7 Participatory urban planning 8 See also 9 References 10 Further reading 11 External links 11 1 Library guides for urban planningHistory EditFurther information History of urban planning and Grid Plan 1852 city plan of Pori by G T von Chiewitz Berlin Siegessaule August 1963 Spacious and organized city planning in Germany was official government policy dating back to Nazi rule 10 There is evidence of urban planning and designed communities dating back to the Mesopotamian Indus Valley Minoan and Egyptian civilizations in the third millennium BCE Archaeologists studying the ruins of cities in these areas find paved streets that were laid out at right angles in a grid pattern 11 The idea of a planned out urban area evolved as different civilizations adopted it Beginning in the 8th century BCE Greek city states primarily used orthogonal or grid like plans 12 Hippodamus of Miletus 498 408 BC the ancient Greek architect and urban planner is considered to be the father of European urban planning and the namesake of the Hippodamian plan grid plan of city layout 13 The ancient Romans inspired by the Greeks also used orthogonal plans for their cities City planning in the Roman world was developed for military defense and public convenience The spread of the Roman Empire subsequently spread the ideas of urban planning As the Roman Empire declined these ideas slowly disappeared However many cities in Europe still held onto the planned Roman city center Cities in Europe from the 9th to 14th centuries often grew organically and sometimes chaotically But in the following centuries with the coming of the Renaissance many new cities were enlarged with newly planned extensions 14 From the 15th century on much more is recorded of urban design and the people that were involved In this period theoretical treatises on architecture and urban planning start to appear in which theoretical questions around planning the main lines ensuring plans meet the needs of the given population and so forth are addressed and designs of towns and cities are described and depicted During the Enlightenment period several European rulers ambitiously attempted to redesign capital cities During the Second French Empire Baron Georges Eugene Haussmann under the direction of Napoleon III redesigned the city of Paris into a more modern capital with long straight wide boulevards 15 Planning and architecture went through a paradigm shift at the turn of the 20th century The industrialized cities of the 19th century grew at a tremendous rate The evils of urban life for the working poor were becoming increasingly evident as a matter of public concern The laissez faire style of government management of the economy in fashion for most of the Victorian era was starting to give way to a New Liberalism that championed intervention on the part of the poor and disadvantaged Around 1900 theorists began developing urban planning models to mitigate the consequences of the industrial age by providing citizens especially factory workers with healthier environments The following century would therefore be globally dominated by a central planning approach to urban planning not necessarily representing an increment in the overall quality of the urban realm At the beginning of the 20th century urban planning began to be recognized as a separate profession The Town and Country Planning Association was founded in 1899 and the first academic course in Great Britain on urban planning was offered by the University of Liverpool in 1909 16 In the 1920s the ideas of modernism and uniformity began to surface in urban planning and lasted until the 1970s In 1933 Le Corbusier presented the Radiant City a city that grows up in the form of towers as a solution to the problem of pollution and over crowding But many planners started to believe that the ideas of modernism in urban planning led to higher crime rates and social problems 3 17 In the second half of the 20th century urban planners gradually shifted their focus to individualism and diversity in urban centers 18 21st century practices EditSee also Mobility transition Urban planners studying the effects of increasing congestion in urban areas began to address the externalities the negative impacts caused by induced demand from larger highway systems in western countries such as in the United States The United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs predicted in 2018 that around 2 5 billion more people occupy urban areas by 2050 according to population elements of global migration New planning theories have adopted non traditional concepts such as Blue Zones and Innovation Districts to incorporate geographic areas within the city that allow for novel business development and the prioritization of infrastructure that would assist with improving the quality of life of citizens by extending their potential lifespan Planning practices have incorporated policy changes to help address anthropocentric global climate change London began to charge a congestion charge for cars trying to access already crowded places in the city 19 Cities nowadays stress the importance of public transit and cycling by adopting such policies Theories EditFurther information Theories of urban planning See also Planning cultures Street Hierarchy and Accessibility Planning theory is the body of scientific concepts definitions behavioral relationships and assumptions that define the body of knowledge of urban planning There are eight procedural theories of planning that remain the principal theories of planning procedure today the rational comprehensive approach the incremental approach the transactive approach the communicative approach the advocacy approach the equity approach the radical approach and the humanist or phenomenological approach 20 Some other conceptual planning theories include Ebenezer Howard s The Three Magnets theory that he envisioned for the future of British settlement also his Garden Cities the Concentric Model Zone also called the Burgess Model by sociologist Ernest Burgess the Radburn Superblock that encourages pedestrian movement the Sector Model and the Multiple Nuclei Model among others 21 Technical aspects EditFurther information Technical aspects of urban planning Technical aspects of urban planning involve the application of scientific technical processes considerations and features that are involved in planning for land use urban design natural resources transportation and infrastructure Urban planning includes techniques such as predicting population growth zoning geographic mapping and analysis analyzing park space surveying the water supply identifying transportation patterns recognizing food supply demands allocating healthcare and social services and analyzing the impact of land use In order to predict how cities will develop and estimate the effects of their interventions planners use various models These models can be used to indicate relationships and patterns in demographic geographic and economic data They might deal with short term issues such as how people move through cities or long term issues such as land use and growth 22 One such model is the Geographic Information System GIS that is used to create a model of the existing planning and then to project future impacts on the society economy and environment Building codes and other regulations dovetail with urban planning by governing how cities are constructed and used from the individual level 23 Enforcement methodologies include governmental zoning planning permissions and building codes 1 as well as private easements and restrictive covenants 24 Urban planners EditFurther information Urban planner An urban planner is a professional who works in the field of urban planning for the purpose of optimizing the effectiveness of a community s land use and infrastructure They formulate plans for the development and management of urban and suburban areas typically analyzing land use compatibility as well as economic environmental and social trends In developing any plan for a community whether commercial residential agricultural natural or recreational urban planners must consider a wide array of issues including sustainability existing and potential pollution transport including potential congestion crime land values economic development social equity zoning codes and other legislation The importance of the urban planner is increasing in the 21st century as modern society begins to face issues of increased population growth climate change and unsustainable development 25 26 An urban planner could be considered a green collar professional 27 Some researchers suggest that urban planners around the world work in different planning cultures adapted to their local cities and cultures 28 However professionals have identified skills abilities and basic knowledge sets that are common to urban planners across national and regional boundaries 29 30 31 Criticisms and debates EditThe school of neoclassical economics argues that planning is unnecessary or even harmful because market efficiency allows for effective land use 32 A pluralist strain of political thinking argues in a similar vein that the government should not intrude in the political competition between different interest groups which decides how land is used 32 The traditional justification for urban planning has in response been that the planner does to the city what the engineer or architect does to the home that is make it more amenable to the needs and preferences of its inhabitants 32 The widely adopted consensus building model of planning which seeks to accommodate different preferences within the community has been criticized for being based upon rather than challenging the power structures of the community 33 Instead agonism has been proposed as a framework for urban planning decision making 33 Another debate within the urban planning field is about who is included and excluded in the urban planning decision making process Most urban planning processes use a top down approach which fails to include the residents of the places where urban planners and city officials are working Sherry Arnstein s ladder of citizen participation is oftentimes used by many urban planners and city governments to determine the degree of inclusivity or exclusivity of their urban planning 34 One main source of engagement between city officials and residents are city council meetings that are open to the residents and that welcome public comments Additionally there are some federal requirements for citizen participation in government funded infrastructure projects 6 Many urban planners and planning agencies rely on community input for their policies and zoning plans How effective community engagement is can be determined by how member s voices are heard and implemented Participatory urban planning EditParticipatory planning in the United States emerged during the 1960s and 1970s 35 At the same time participatory planning began to enter the development field with similar characteristics and agendas 36 There are many notable urban planners and activists whose work facilitated and shaped participatory planning movements Jane Jacobs and her work is one of the most significant contributions to participatory planning because of the influence it had across the entire United States There has also been a recent emergence in engaging youth in urban planning education See also Edit Architecture portalAir pollution Aire de mise en valeur de l architecture et du paysage Behavioral urbanism Bicycle friendly Circulation planning Cycling infrastructure Development studies Domestic travel restrictions Elbow roomers Epidemiology Hazard mitigation Index of urban planning articles Land recycling List of planned cities List of planning journals List of urban planners List of urban plans List of urban theorists Low emission zone Noise pollution Permeability Planning cultures Regional planning Road traffic safety Rural development Smart city Universal design Urban design Urban density Urban economics Urban planning education Urban green space Urban history Urban informatics Urban planning in communist countries Urban studies Urban theory Urban vitality Walkability Walking audit StroadReferences Edit a b c d What is Urban Planning School of Urban Planning McGill University Archived from the original on 8 January 2008 a b c Taylor Nigel 1998 Urban Planning Theory Since 1945 Los Angeles Sage pp 3 4 ISBN 978 0 7619 6093 5 a b Midgley James 1999 Social Development The Developmental Perspective in Social Welfare Sage p 50 ISBN 978 0 8039 7773 0 Caves R W 2004 Encyclopedia of the City Routledge p 704 ISBN 978 0415862875 Pobiner Joe 18 February 2020 3 urban planning trends that are changing how our cities will look in the future Building Design Construction Retrieved 25 September 2020 a b M Levy John 2017 Contemporary urban planning ISBN 978 1 138 66638 2 OCLC 992793499 Van Assche K Beunen R Duineveld M amp de Jong H 2013 Co evolutions of planning and design Risks and benefits of design perspectives in planning systems Planning Theory 12 2 177 198 What Is Planning American Planning Association Archived from the original on 10 March 2015 Planetizen Courses 8 November 2019 What is Urban Planning YouTube Archived from the original on 30 October 2021 Hass Klau Carmen Motorization and Footpath Planning During the Third Reich The Pedestrian and the City Routledge 2014 Davreu Robert 1978 Cities of Mystery The Lost Empire of the Indus Valley The World s Last Mysteries second edition Sydney Reader s Digest pp 121 129 ISBN 0 909486 61 1 Kolb Frank 1984 Die Stadt im Altertum Munchen Verlag C H Beck pp 51 141 Morris A E J 1972 History of Urban Form Prehistory to the Renaissance London pp 22 23 Glaeser Edward 2011 Triumph of the City How Our Best Invention Makes Us Richer Smarter Greener Healthier and Happier New York Penguin Press p 19 ISBN 978 1 59420 277 3 Boerefijn Wim 2010 The foundation planning and building of new towns in the 13th and 14th centuries in Europe An architectural historical research into urban form and its creation Phd thesis Universiteit van Amsterdam ISBN 978 90 9025157 8 Jordan David 1992 Baron Haussmann and Modern Paris American Scholar 61 1 99 Fainstein Susan S Urban planning at the Encyclopaedia Britannica Morris Eleanor Smith et al 1997 British Town Planning and Urban Design Principles and policies Harlow Essex England Longman pp 147 149 ISBN 978 0 582 23496 3 Routley Nick 20 January 2018 The Evolution of Urban Planning Visual Capitalist Retrieved 25 September 2020 Congestion Charge Official Transport for London Retrieved 25 September 2020 Whittmore Andrew 2 February 2015 How Planners Use Planning Theory Planetizen Retrieved 24 April 2015 citing Whittemore Andrew H 2014 Practitioners Theorize Too Reaffirming Planning Theory in a Survey of Practitioners Theories Journal of Planning Education and Research 35 1 76 85 doi 10 1177 0739456X14563144 S2CID 144888493 Mohd Nazim Saifi 4 March 2017 Town planning theories concept and models a href Template Cite journal html title Template Cite journal cite journal a Cite journal requires journal help Landis John D 2012 Modeling Urban Systems In Weber Rachel Crane Randall eds The Oxford Handbook of Urban Planning Oxford England Oxford University Press pp 323 350 ISBN 978 0 19 537499 5 Codes rules and standards are part of a matrix of relations that influence the practice of urban planning and design These forms of regulation provide an important and inescapable framework for development from the laying out of subdivisions to the control of stormwater runoff The subject of regulations leads to the source of how communities are designed and constructed defining how they can and can t be built and how codes rules and standards continue to shape the physical space where we live and work Ben Joseph Eran 2012 Codes and Standards in Urban Planning and Design In Weber Rachel Crane Randall eds The Oxford Handbook of Urban Planning Oxford England Oxford University Press pp 352 370 ISBN 978 0 19 537499 5 Smit Anneke Valiante Marcia 2015 Introduction In Smit Anneke Valiante Marcia eds Public Interest Private Property Law and Planning Policy in Canada Vancouver British Columbia University of British Columbia Press pp 1 36 page 10 ISBN 978 0 7748 2931 1 Heidari Hadi Arabi Mazdak Warziniack Travis Sharvelle Sybil 2021 Effects of Urban Development Patterns on Municipal Water Shortage Frontiers in Water 3 694817 Bibcode 2021FrW 394817H doi 10 3389 frwa 2021 694817 ISSN 2624 9375 Heidari Hadi Arabi Mazdak Warziniack Travis Kao Shih Chieh June 2021 Shifts in hydroclimatology of US megaregions in response to climate change Environmental Research Communications 3 6 065002 Bibcode 2021ERCom 3f5002H doi 10 1088 2515 7620 ac0617 ISSN 2515 7620 Kamenetz Anya 14 January 2009 Ten Best Green Jobs for the Next Decade fastcompany Fast Company Archived from the original on 26 August 2012 Retrieved 14 January 2009 Friedman John 2012 Varieties of Planning Experience Toward a Globalized Planning Culture In Weber Rachel Crane Randall eds The Oxford Handbook of Urban Planning Oxford England Oxford University Press pp 87 98 ISBN 978 0 19 537499 5 American Institutes of Certified Planners Certification American Planning Association American Planning Association Retrieved 20 July 2017 Professional standards Royal Institute of Town Planners Royal Town Planning Institute Retrieved 20 July 2017 About ISOCARP International Society of City and Regional Planners Retrieved 20 July 2017 a b c Klosterman Richard E 1985 Arguments for and against Planning The Town Planning Review 56 1 5 20 doi 10 3828 tpr 56 1 e8286q3082111km4 ISSN 0041 0020 JSTOR 40112168 a b McAuliffe Cameron Rogers Dallas March 2019 The politics of value in urban development Valuing conflict in agonistic pluralism Planning Theory 18 3 300 318 doi 10 1177 1473095219831381 ISSN 1473 0952 S2CID 150714892 Arnstein Sherry 14 May 2020 A Ladder of Citizen Participation The City Reader Abingdon Oxon Routledge pp 290 302 doi 10 4324 9780429261732 36 ISBN 978 0 429 26173 2 S2CID 159193173 retrieved 11 May 2022 Lane Marcus B November 2005 Public Participation in Planning an intellectual history Australian Geographer 36 3 283 299 doi 10 1080 00049180500325694 ISSN 0004 9182 S2CID 18008094 K Duraiappah Anantha 2005 Have participatory approaches increased capabilities International Institute for Sustainable Development Institut international du developpement durable OCLC 64077133 Further reading EditPennington Mark 2008 Urban planning In Hamowy Ronald ed The Encyclopedia of Libertarianism Thousand Oaks CA SAGE Cato Institute pp 517 18 doi 10 4135 9781412965811 n316 ISBN 978 1 4129 6580 4 LCCN 2008009151 OCLC 750831024 S2CID 243497795 Knox P L 2020 Better by Design Architecture Urban Planning and the Good City Blacksburg Virginia Tech Publishing DOI https doi org 10 21061 better by design Paul Waterhouse Raymond Unwin 1912 Old Towns and New Needs also the Town Extension Plan Manchester Victoria University of Manchester OCLC 225676578 Wikidata Q18606907External links EditUrban planning at Wikipedia s sister projects Media from Commons Resources from Wikiversity Data from Wikidata Urban planning at Curlie American Planning AssociationLibrary guides for urban planning Edit Libraries Urban Planning Resources Research Guides USA Arizona State University Library Urban Planning Research Guides University of California Los Angeles Archived from the original on 30 March 2014 Retrieved 21 March 2015 Avery Architectural and Fine Arts Library Urban Planning Research Guides New York Columbia University Archived from the original on 2 April 2015 Retrieved 21 March 2015 Library Urban amp Regional Policy Research Guides USA Georgia Tech Harvard University Graduate School of Design Urban Planning and Design Research Guides Massachusetts Harvard Library Hunter College Libraries Urban Affairs amp Planning Topic Guides New York City CUNY Hunter College Archived from the original on 22 February 2014 Retrieved 21 March 2015 University Library City Planning LibGuides University of Illinois at Urbana Champaign MIT Libraries Urban Studies amp Planning Research Guides Massachusetts Institute of Technology Urban amp Regional Planning Research Guides USA University of Michigan Library Urban Studies amp Planning Research Guides Oregon USA Portland State University Archived from the original on 2 April 2015 Retrieved 21 March 2015 Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Urban planning amp oldid 1142589334, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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