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Earth science

February 15, 2024

Earth science or geoscience includes all fields of natural science related to the planet Earth.[1] This is a branch of science dealing with the physical, chemical, and biological complex constitutions and synergistic linkages of Earth's four spheres: the biosphere, hydrosphere/cryosphere, atmosphere, and geosphere (or lithosphere). Earth science can be considered to be a branch of planetary science but with a much older history.

The rocky side of a mountain creek in Costa Rica

There are reductionist and holistic approaches to Earth sciences. It is also the study of Earth and its neighbors in space. Some Earth scientists use their knowledge of the planet to locate and develop energy and mineral resources. Others study the impact of human activity on Earth's environment, and design methods to protect the planet. Some use their knowledge about Earth processes such as volcanoes, earthquakes, and hurricanes to help protect people from these dangerous events.

Typically, Earth scientists use tools from geology, chronology, physics, chemistry, geography, biology, and mathematics to build a quantitative understanding of how Earth works and evolves. For example, meteorologists study the weather and watch for dangerous storms. Hydrologists examine water and warn of floods. Seismologists study earthquakes and try to understand where they will strike. Geologists study rocks and help to locate useful minerals. Earth scientists often work in the field—perhaps climbing mountains, exploring the seabed, crawling through caves, or wading in swamps. They measure and collect samples (such as rocks or river water), then record their findings on charts and maps.

Geology edit

 
Layers of sedimentary rock in Makhtesh Ramon

Geology is the study of the lithosphere, or Earth's surface, including the crust and rocks. It includes the physical characteristics and processes that occur in the lithosphere as well as how they are affected by geothermal energy. It incorporates aspects of chemistry, physics, and biology as elements of geology interact. Historical geology is the application of geology to interpret Earth history and how it has changed over time.

Geochemistry studies the chemical components and processes of the Earth. Geophysics studies the physical properties of the Earth. Paleontology studies fossilized biological material in the lithosphere. Planetary geology studies geology as it pertains to extraterrestrial bodies. Geomorphology studies the origin of landscapes. Structural geology studies the deformation of rocks to produce mountains and lowlands. Resource geology studies how energy resources can be obtained from minerals. Environmental geology studies how pollution and contaminants affect soil and rock.[2] Mineralogy is the study of minerals and includes the study of mineral formation, crystal structure, hazards associated with minerals, and the physical and chemical properties of minerals.[3] Petrology is the study of rocks, including the formation and composition of rocks. Petrography is a branch of petrology that studies the typology and classification of rocks.[4]

Earth's interior edit

 
A volcanic eruption is the release of stored energy from below Earth's surface.[5]
Main article: Structure of Earth

Plate tectonics, mountain ranges, volcanoes, and earthquakes are geological phenomena that can be explained in terms of physical and chemical processes in the Earth's crust.[6] Beneath the Earth's crust lies the mantle which is heated by the radioactive decay of heavy elements. The mantle is not quite solid and consists of magma which is in a state of semi-perpetual convection. This convection process causes the lithospheric plates to move, albeit slowly. The resulting process is known as plate tectonics.[7][8][9][10] Areas of the crust where new crust is created are called divergent boundaries, those where it is brought back into the Earth are convergent boundaries and those where plates slide past each other, but no new lithospheric material is created or destroyed, are referred to as transform (or conservative) boundaries[8][10][11] Earthquakes result from the movement of the lithospheric plates, and they often occur near convergent boundaries where parts of the crust are forced into the earth as part of subduction.[12]

Plate tectonics might be thought of as the process by which the Earth is resurfaced. As the result of seafloor spreading, new crust and lithosphere is created by the flow of magma from the mantle to the near surface, through fissures, where it cools and solidifies. Through subduction, oceanic crust and lithosphere returns to the convecting mantle.[8][10][13] Volcanoes result primarily from the melting of subducted crust material. Crust material that is forced into the asthenosphere melts, and some portion of the melted material becomes light enough to rise to the surface—giving birth to volcanoes.[8][12]

Atmospheric science edit

Main article: Atmospheric science
 
The magnetosphere shields the surface of Earth from the charged particles of the solar wind.
(image not to scale.)

Atmospheric science initially developed in the late-19th century as a means to forecast the weather through meteorology, the study of weather. Atmospheric chemistry was developed in the 20th century to measure air pollution and expanded in the 1970s in response to acid rain. Climatology studies the climate and climate change.[14]

The troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, thermosphere, and exosphere are the five layers which make up Earth's atmosphere. 75% of the mass in the atmosphere is located within the troposphere, the lowest layer. In all, the atmosphere is made up of about 78.0% nitrogen, 20.9% oxygen, and 0.92% argon, and small amounts of other gases including CO2 and water vapor.[15] Water vapor and CO2 cause the Earth's atmosphere to catch and hold the Sun's energy through the greenhouse effect.[16] This makes Earth's surface warm enough for liquid water and life. In addition to trapping heat, the atmosphere also protects living organisms by shielding the Earth's surface from cosmic rays.[17] The magnetic field—created by the internal motions of the core—produces the magnetosphere which protects Earth's atmosphere from the solar wind.[18] As the Earth is 4.5 billion years old,[19][20] it would have lost its atmosphere by now if there were no protective magnetosphere.

Earth's magnetic field edit

This section is an excerpt from Earth's magnetic field.[edit]
 
Computer simulation of Earth's field in a period of normal polarity between reversals.[21] The lines represent magnetic field lines, blue when the field points towards the center and yellow when away. The rotation axis of Earth is centered and vertical. The dense clusters of lines are within Earth's core.[22]

Earth's magnetic field, also known as the geomagnetic field, is the magnetic field that extends from Earth's interior out into space, where it interacts with the solar wind, a stream of charged particles emanating from the Sun. The magnetic field is generated by electric currents due to the motion of convection currents of a mixture of molten iron and nickel in Earth's outer core: these convection currents are caused by heat escaping from the core, a natural process called a geodynamo.

The magnitude of Earth's magnetic field at its surface ranges from 25 to 65 μT (0.25 to 0.65 G).[23] As an approximation, it is represented by a field of a magnetic dipole currently tilted at an angle of about 11° with respect to Earth's rotational axis, as if there were an enormous bar magnet placed at that angle through the center of Earth. The North geomagnetic pole actually represents the South pole of Earth's magnetic field, and conversely the South geomagnetic pole corresponds to the north pole of Earth's magnetic field (because opposite magnetic poles attract and the north end of a magnet, like a compass needle, points toward Earth's South magnetic field, Ellesmere Island, Nunavut, Canada.

While the North and South magnetic poles are usually located near the geographic poles, they slowly and continuously move over geological time scales, but sufficiently slowly for ordinary compasses to remain useful for navigation. However, at irregular intervals averaging several hundred thousand years, Earth's field reverses and the North and South Magnetic Poles respectively, abruptly switch places. These reversals of the geomagnetic poles leave a record in rocks that are of value to paleomagnetists in calculating geomagnetic fields in the past. Such information in turn is helpful in studying the motions of continents and ocean floors in above the ionosphere that is defined by the extent of Earth's magnetic field in space. It extends several tens of thousands of kilometres into space, protecting Earth from the charged particles of the solar wind and cosmic rays that would otherwise strip away the upper atmosphere, including the ozone layer that protects Earth from harmful ultraviolet radiation.

Hydrology edit

Main article: Hydrology
 
Movement of water through the water cycle

Hydrology is the study of the hydrosphere and the movement of water on Earth. It emphasizes the study of how humans use and interact with freshwater supplies. Study of water's movement is closely related to geomorphology and other branches of Earth science. Applied hydrology involves engineering to maintain aquatic environments and distribute water supplies. Subdisciplines of hydrology include oceanography, hydrogeology, ecohydrology, and glaciology. Oceanography is the study of oceans.[24] Hydrogeology is the study of groundwater. It includes the mapping of groundwater supplies and the analysis of groundwater contaminants. Applied hydrogeology seeks to prevent contamination of groundwater and mineral springs and make it available as drinking water. The earliest exploitation of groundwater resources dates back to 3000 BC, and hydrogeology as a science was developed by hydrologists beginning in the 17th century.[25] Ecohydrology is the study of ecological systems in the hydrosphere. It can be divided into the physical study of aquatic ecosystems and the biological study of aquatic organisms. Ecohydrology includes the effects that organisms and aquatic ecosystems have on one another as well as how these ecoystems are affected by humans.[26] Glaciology is the study of the cryosphere, including glaciers and coverage of the Earth by ice and snow. Concerns of glaciology include access to glacial freshwater, mitigation of glacial hazards, obtaining resources that exist beneath frozen land, and addressing the effects of climate change on the cryosphere.[27]

Ecology edit

Main article: Ecology

Ecology is the study of the biosphere. This includes the study of nature and of how living things interact with the Earth and one another. It considers how living things use resources such as oxygen, water, and nutrients from the Earth to sustain themselves. It also considers how humans and other living creatures cause changes to nature.[28]

Physical geography edit

Main article: Physical geography

Physical geography is the study of Earth's systems and how they interact with one another as part of a single self-contained system. It incorporates astronomy, mathematical geography, meteorology, climatology, geology, geomorphology, biology, biogeography, pedology, and soils geography. Physical geography is distinct from human geography, which studies the human populations on Earth, though it does include human effects on the environment.[29]

Methodology edit

Methodologies vary depending on the nature of the subjects being studied. Studies typically fall into one of three categories: observational, experimental, or theoretical. Earth scientists often conduct sophisticated computer analysis or visit an interesting location to study earth phenomena (e.g. Antarctica or hot spot island chains).

A foundational idea in Earth science is the notion of uniformitarianism, which states that "ancient geologic features are interpreted by understanding active processes that are readily observed." In other words, any geologic processes at work in the present have operated in the same ways throughout geologic time. This enables those who study Earth history to apply knowledge of how the Earth's processes operate in the present to gain insight into how the planet has evolved and changed throughout long history.

Earth's spheres edit

Earth science generally recognizes four spheres, the lithosphere, the hydrosphere, the atmosphere, and the biosphere;[30] these correspond to rocks, water, air and life. Also included by some are the cryosphere (corresponding to ice) as a distinct portion of the hydrosphere and the pedosphere (corresponding to soil) as an active and intermixed sphere. The following fields of science are generally categorized within the Earth sciences:

Earth science breakup edit

Main article: Outline of Earth sciences
Atmosphere
Biosphere
Hydrosphere
Lithosphere (geosphere)
Pedosphere
Systems
Others

See also edit

References edit

  1. ^ "Earth sciences | Definition, Topics, & Facts | Britannica". www.britannica.com. Retrieved 2023-08-19.
  2. ^ Smith & Pun 2006, pp. 14–16.
  3. ^ Haldar 2020, p. 109.
  4. ^ Haldar 2020, p. 145.
  5. ^ Encyclopedia of Volcanoes. London: Academic Press. 2000. ISBN 9780080547985.
  6. ^ "Earth's Energy Budget". ou.edu. from the original on 2008-08-27. Retrieved 2007-06-20.
  7. ^ Simison 2007, paragraph 7
  8. ^ a b c d Adams & Lambert 2006, pp. 94–95, 100, 102
  9. ^ Smith & Pun 2006, pp. 13–17, 218, G-6
  10. ^ a b c Oldroyd 2006, pp. 101, 103, 104
  11. ^ Smith & Pun 2006, p. 331
  12. ^ a b Smith & Pun 2006, pp. 325–26, 329
  13. ^ Smith & Pun 2006, p. 327
  14. ^ Wallace, John M.; Hobbs, Peter V. (2006). Atmospheric Science: An Introductory Survey (2nd ed.). Elsevier Science. pp. 1–3. ISBN 9780080499536.
  15. ^ Adams & Lambert 2006, pp. 107–08
  16. ^ American Heritage, p. 770
  17. ^ Parker, Eugene (March 2006), (PDF), Scientific American, archived from the original (PDF) on 2016-01-01, retrieved 2017-05-24
  18. ^ Adams & Lambert 2006, pp. 21–22
  19. ^ Smith & Pun 2006, p. 183
  20. ^ "How Did Scientists Calculate the Age of Earth?". education.nationalgeographic.org. Retrieved 2023-08-19.
  21. ^ Glatzmaier, Gary A.; Roberts, Paul H. (1995). "A three-dimensional self-consistent computer simulation of a geomagnetic field reversal". Nature. 377 (6546): 203–209. Bibcode:1995Natur.377..203G. doi:10.1038/377203a0. S2CID 4265765.
  22. ^ Glatzmaier, Gary. "The Geodynamo". University of California Santa Cruz. Retrieved 20 October 2013.
  23. ^ Finlay, C. C.; Maus, S.; Beggan, C. D.; Bondar, T. N.; Chambodut, A.; Chernova, T. A.; Chulliat, A.; Golovkov, V. P.; Hamilton, B.; Hamoudi, M.; Holme, R.; Hulot, G.; Kuang, W.; Langlais, B.; Lesur, V.; Lowes, F. J.; Lühr, H.; Macmillan, S.; Mandea, M.; McLean, S.; Manoj, C.; Menvielle, M.; Michaelis, I.; Olsen, N.; Rauberg, J.; Rother, M.; Sabaka, T. J.; Tangborn, A.; Tøffner-Clausen, L.; Thébault, E.; Thomson, A. W. P.; Wardinski, I.; Wei, Z.; Zvereva, T. I. (December 2010). "International Geomagnetic Reference Field: the eleventh generation". Geophysical Journal International. 183 (3): 1216–1230. Bibcode:2010GeoJI.183.1216F. doi:10.1111/j.1365-246X.2010.04804.x. hdl:20.500.11850/27303.
  24. ^ Davie, Tim; Quinn, Nevil Wyndham (2019). Fundamentals of Hydrology (3rd ed.). Routledge. pp. 1–2. ISBN 9780203798942.
  25. ^ Hölting, Bernward; Coldewey, Wilhelm G. (2019). "Introduction". Hydrogeology (8th ed.). Springer. pp. 1–3. doi:10.1007/978-3-662-56375-5. ISBN 9783662563755. from the original on 2022-08-16. Retrieved 2022-08-16.
  26. ^ Wood, Paul J.; Hannah, David M.; Sadler, Jonathan P. (2007). "Ecohydrology and Hydroecology: An Introduction". Hydroecology and Ecohydrology: Past, Present and Future. Wiley. pp. 1–6. ISBN 9780470010174.
  27. ^ Knight, Peter (1999). Glaciers. Taylor & Francis. p. 1. ISBN 9780748740000.
  28. ^ Ricklefs, Robert E.; Miller, Gary L. (2000). Ecology (4th ed.). W. H. Freeman. pp. 3–4. ISBN 9780716728290.
  29. ^ Petersen, James F.; Sack, Dorothy; Gabler, Robert E. (2014). Fundamentals of Physical Geography. Cengage Learning. pp. 2–3. ISBN 9781285969718.
  30. ^ Earth's Spheres August 31, 2007, at the Wayback Machine. ©1997–2000. Wheeling Jesuit University/NASA Classroom of the Future. Retrieved November 11, 2007.
  31. ^ Adams & Lambert 2006, p. 20
  32. ^ a b Smith & Pun 2006, p. 5
  33. ^ "WordNet Search – 3.1". princeton.edu. from the original on 2019-05-15. Retrieved 2010-10-13.
  34. ^ "NOAA National Ocean Service Education: Global Positioning Tutorial". noaa.gov. from the original on 2005-05-08. Retrieved 2007-11-17.
  35. ^ broken link?
  36. ^ Gardiner, Duane T. . ENV320: Soil Science Lecture Notes. Texas A&M University-Kingsville. Archived from the original on 2018-02-09. Retrieved 2019-01-07.
  37. ^ Craig, Kendall. "Hydrology of the Watershed". from the original on 2017-01-11. Retrieved 2017-04-04.

Sources edit

  • Adams, Simon; Lambert, David (2006). Earth Science: An illustrated guide to science. New York: Chelsea House. ISBN 978-0-8160-6164-8.
  • Haldar, S. K. (2020). Introduction to Mineralogy and Petrology (2nd ed.). Elsevier Science. ISBN 9780323851367.
  • American Heritage dictionary of the English language (4th ed.). Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company. 1992. ISBN 978-0-395-82517-4.
  • Simison, W. Brian (2007-02-05). "The mechanism behind plate tectonics". from the original on 2007-11-12. Retrieved 2007-11-17.
  • Smith, Gary A.; Pun, Aurora (2006). How Does the Earth Work? Physical Geology and the Process of Science. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall. ISBN 978-0-13-034129-7.
  • Oldroyd, David (2006). Earth Cycles: A historical perspective. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. ISBN 978-0-313-33229-6.

Further reading edit

  • Allaby M., 2008. Dictionary of Earth Sciences, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-921194-4
  • Korvin G., 1998. Fractal Models in the Earth Sciences, Elsvier, ISBN 978-0-444-88907-2
  • "Earth's Energy Budget". Oklahoma Climatological Survey. 1996–2004. from the original on 2007-11-17. Retrieved 2007-11-17.
  • Miller, George A.; Christiane Fellbaum; and Randee Tengi; and Pamela Wakefield; and Rajesh Poddar; and Helen Langone; Benjamin Haskell (2006). "WordNet Search 3.0". WordNet a lexical database for the English language. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University/Cognitive Science Laboratory. from the original on 2011-01-01. Retrieved 2007-11-10.
  • "NOAA National Ocean Service Education: Geodesy". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2005-03-08. from the original on 2005-05-08. Retrieved 2007-11-17.
  • Reed, Christina (2008). Earth Science: Decade by Decade. New York: Facts on File. ISBN 978-0-8160-5533-3.
  • Tarbuck E. J., Lutgens F. K., and Tasa D., 2002. Earth Science, Prentice Hall, ISBN 978-0-13-035390-0

External links edit

 
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Earth sciences.

February 15, 2024
earth, science, geoscience, includes, fields, natural, science, related, planet, earth, this, branch, science, dealing, with, physical, chemical, biological, complex, constitutions, synergistic, linkages, earth, four, spheres, biosphere, hydrosphere, cryospher. Earth science or geoscience includes all fields of natural science related to the planet Earth 1 This is a branch of science dealing with the physical chemical and biological complex constitutions and synergistic linkages of Earth s four spheres the biosphere hydrosphere cryosphere atmosphere and geosphere or lithosphere Earth science can be considered to be a branch of planetary science but with a much older history The rocky side of a mountain creek in Costa RicaThere are reductionist and holistic approaches to Earth sciences It is also the study of Earth and its neighbors in space Some Earth scientists use their knowledge of the planet to locate and develop energy and mineral resources Others study the impact of human activity on Earth s environment and design methods to protect the planet Some use their knowledge about Earth processes such as volcanoes earthquakes and hurricanes to help protect people from these dangerous events Typically Earth scientists use tools from geology chronology physics chemistry geography biology and mathematics to build a quantitative understanding of how Earth works and evolves For example meteorologists study the weather and watch for dangerous storms Hydrologists examine water and warn of floods Seismologists study earthquakes and try to understand where they will strike Geologists study rocks and help to locate useful minerals Earth scientists often work in the field perhaps climbing mountains exploring the seabed crawling through caves or wading in swamps They measure and collect samples such as rocks or river water then record their findings on charts and maps Contents 1 Geology 2 Earth s interior 3 Atmospheric science 4 Earth s magnetic field 5 Hydrology 6 Ecology 7 Physical geography 8 Methodology 9 Earth s spheres 9 1 Earth science breakup 10 See also 11 References 11 1 Sources 12 Further reading 13 External linksGeology edit nbsp Layers of sedimentary rock in Makhtesh RamonGeology is the study of the lithosphere or Earth s surface including the crust and rocks It includes the physical characteristics and processes that occur in the lithosphere as well as how they are affected by geothermal energy It incorporates aspects of chemistry physics and biology as elements of geology interact Historical geology is the application of geology to interpret Earth history and how it has changed over time Geochemistry studies the chemical components and processes of the Earth Geophysics studies the physical properties of the Earth Paleontology studies fossilized biological material in the lithosphere Planetary geology studies geology as it pertains to extraterrestrial bodies Geomorphology studies the origin of landscapes Structural geology studies the deformation of rocks to produce mountains and lowlands Resource geology studies how energy resources can be obtained from minerals Environmental geology studies how pollution and contaminants affect soil and rock 2 Mineralogy is the study of minerals and includes the study of mineral formation crystal structure hazards associated with minerals and the physical and chemical properties of minerals 3 Petrology is the study of rocks including the formation and composition of rocks Petrography is a branch of petrology that studies the typology and classification of rocks 4 Earth s interior editThis section may contain material not related to the topic of the article Please help improve this section or discuss this issue on the talk page August 2022 Learn how and when to remove this template message nbsp A volcanic eruption is the release of stored energy from below Earth s surface 5 Main article Structure of Earth Plate tectonics mountain ranges volcanoes and earthquakes are geological phenomena that can be explained in terms of physical and chemical processes in the Earth s crust 6 Beneath the Earth s crust lies the mantle which is heated by the radioactive decay of heavy elements The mantle is not quite solid and consists of magma which is in a state of semi perpetual convection This convection process causes the lithospheric plates to move albeit slowly The resulting process is known as plate tectonics 7 8 9 10 Areas of the crust where new crust is created are called divergent boundaries those where it is brought back into the Earth are convergent boundaries and those where plates slide past each other but no new lithospheric material is created or destroyed are referred to as transform or conservative boundaries 8 10 11 Earthquakes result from the movement of the lithospheric plates and they often occur near convergent boundaries where parts of the crust are forced into the earth as part of subduction 12 Plate tectonics might be thought of as the process by which the Earth is resurfaced As the result of seafloor spreading new crust and lithosphere is created by the flow of magma from the mantle to the near surface through fissures where it cools and solidifies Through subduction oceanic crust and lithosphere returns to the convecting mantle 8 10 13 Volcanoes result primarily from the melting of subducted crust material Crust material that is forced into the asthenosphere melts and some portion of the melted material becomes light enough to rise to the surface giving birth to volcanoes 8 12 Atmospheric science editThis section may contain material not related to the topic of the article Please help improve this section or discuss this issue on the talk page August 2022 Learn how and when to remove this template message Main article Atmospheric science nbsp The magnetosphere shields the surface of Earth from the charged particles of the solar wind image not to scale Atmospheric science initially developed in the late 19th century as a means to forecast the weather through meteorology the study of weather Atmospheric chemistry was developed in the 20th century to measure air pollution and expanded in the 1970s in response to acid rain Climatology studies the climate and climate change 14 The troposphere stratosphere mesosphere thermosphere and exosphere are the five layers which make up Earth s atmosphere 75 of the mass in the atmosphere is located within the troposphere the lowest layer In all the atmosphere is made up of about 78 0 nitrogen 20 9 oxygen and 0 92 argon and small amounts of other gases including CO2 and water vapor 15 Water vapor and CO2 cause the Earth s atmosphere to catch and hold the Sun s energy through the greenhouse effect 16 This makes Earth s surface warm enough for liquid water and life In addition to trapping heat the atmosphere also protects living organisms by shielding the Earth s surface from cosmic rays 17 The magnetic field created by the internal motions of the core produces the magnetosphere which protects Earth s atmosphere from the solar wind 18 As the Earth is 4 5 billion years old 19 20 it would have lost its atmosphere by now if there were no protective magnetosphere Earth s magnetic field editThis section is an excerpt from Earth s magnetic field edit nbsp Computer simulation of Earth s field in a period of normal polarity between reversals 21 The lines represent magnetic field lines blue when the field points towards the center and yellow when away The rotation axis of Earth is centered and vertical The dense clusters of lines are within Earth s core 22 Earth s magnetic field also known as the geomagnetic field is the magnetic field that extends from Earth s interior out into space where it interacts with the solar wind a stream of charged particles emanating from the Sun The magnetic field is generated by electric currents due to the motion of convection currents of a mixture of molten iron and nickel in Earth s outer core these convection currents are caused by heat escaping from the core a natural process called a geodynamo The magnitude of Earth s magnetic field at its surface ranges from 25 to 65 mT 0 25 to 0 65 G 23 As an approximation it is represented by a field of a magnetic dipole currently tilted at an angle of about 11 with respect to Earth s rotational axis as if there were an enormous bar magnet placed at that angle through the center of Earth The North geomagnetic pole actually represents the South pole of Earth s magnetic field and conversely the South geomagnetic pole corresponds to the north pole of Earth s magnetic field because opposite magnetic poles attract and the north end of a magnet like a compass needle points toward Earth s South magnetic field Ellesmere Island Nunavut Canada While the North and South magnetic poles are usually located near the geographic poles they slowly and continuously move over geological time scales but sufficiently slowly for ordinary compasses to remain useful for navigation However at irregular intervals averaging several hundred thousand years Earth s field reverses and the North and South Magnetic Poles respectively abruptly switch places These reversals of the geomagnetic poles leave a record in rocks that are of value to paleomagnetists in calculating geomagnetic fields in the past Such information in turn is helpful in studying the motions of continents and ocean floors in above the ionosphere that is defined by the extent of Earth s magnetic field in space It extends several tens of thousands of kilometres into space protecting Earth from the charged particles of the solar wind and cosmic rays that would otherwise strip away the upper atmosphere including the ozone layer that protects Earth from harmful ultraviolet radiation Hydrology editMain article Hydrology nbsp Movement of water through the water cycleHydrology is the study of the hydrosphere and the movement of water on Earth It emphasizes the study of how humans use and interact with freshwater supplies Study of water s movement is closely related to geomorphology and other branches of Earth science Applied hydrology involves engineering to maintain aquatic environments and distribute water supplies Subdisciplines of hydrology include oceanography hydrogeology ecohydrology and glaciology Oceanography is the study of oceans 24 Hydrogeology is the study of groundwater It includes the mapping of groundwater supplies and the analysis of groundwater contaminants Applied hydrogeology seeks to prevent contamination of groundwater and mineral springs and make it available as drinking water The earliest exploitation of groundwater resources dates back to 3000 BC and hydrogeology as a science was developed by hydrologists beginning in the 17th century 25 Ecohydrology is the study of ecological systems in the hydrosphere It can be divided into the physical study of aquatic ecosystems and the biological study of aquatic organisms Ecohydrology includes the effects that organisms and aquatic ecosystems have on one another as well as how these ecoystems are affected by humans 26 Glaciology is the study of the cryosphere including glaciers and coverage of the Earth by ice and snow Concerns of glaciology include access to glacial freshwater mitigation of glacial hazards obtaining resources that exist beneath frozen land and addressing the effects of climate change on the cryosphere 27 Ecology editMain article Ecology Ecology is the study of the biosphere This includes the study of nature and of how living things interact with the Earth and one another It considers how living things use resources such as oxygen water and nutrients from the Earth to sustain themselves It also considers how humans and other living creatures cause changes to nature 28 Physical geography editMain article Physical geography Physical geography is the study of Earth s systems and how they interact with one another as part of a single self contained system It incorporates astronomy mathematical geography meteorology climatology geology geomorphology biology biogeography pedology and soils geography Physical geography is distinct from human geography which studies the human populations on Earth though it does include human effects on the environment 29 Methodology editThis section does not cite any sources Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources Unsourced material may be challenged and removed August 2022 Learn how and when to remove this template message Methodologies vary depending on the nature of the subjects being studied Studies typically fall into one of three categories observational experimental or theoretical Earth scientists often conduct sophisticated computer analysis or visit an interesting location to study earth phenomena e g Antarctica or hot spot island chains A foundational idea in Earth science is the notion of uniformitarianism which states that ancient geologic features are interpreted by understanding active processes that are readily observed In other words any geologic processes at work in the present have operated in the same ways throughout geologic time This enables those who study Earth history to apply knowledge of how the Earth s processes operate in the present to gain insight into how the planet has evolved and changed throughout long history Earth s spheres editThis article is in list format but may read better as prose You can help by converting this article if appropriate Editing help is available August 2022 Earth science generally recognizes four spheres the lithosphere the hydrosphere the atmosphere and the biosphere 30 these correspond to rocks water air and life Also included by some are the cryosphere corresponding to ice as a distinct portion of the hydrosphere and the pedosphere corresponding to soil as an active and intermixed sphere The following fields of science are generally categorized within the Earth sciences Geology describes the rocky parts of the Earth s crust or lithosphere and its historic development Major subdisciplines are mineralogy and petrology geomorphology paleontology stratigraphy structural geology engineering geology and sedimentology 31 32 Physical geography focuses on geography as an Earth science Physical geography is the study of Earth s seasons climate atmosphere soil streams landforms and oceans Physical geography can be divided into several branches or related fields as follows geomorphology biogeography environmental geography palaeogeography climatology meteorology coastal geography hydrology ecology glaciology citation needed Geophysics and geodesy investigate the shape of the Earth its reaction to forces and its magnetic and gravity fields Geophysicists explore the Earth s core and mantle as well as the tectonic and seismic activity of the lithosphere 32 33 34 Geophysics is commonly used to supplement the work of geologists in developing a comprehensive understanding of crustal geology particularly in mineral and petroleum exploration Seismologists use geophysics to understand plate tectonic movement as well as predict seismic activity Geochemistry is defined as the study of the processes that control the abundance composition and distribution of chemical compounds and isotopes in geologic environments Geochemists use the tools and principles of chemistry to study the composition structure processes and other physical aspects of the Earth Major subdisciplines are aqueous geochemistry cosmochemistry isotope geochemistry and biogeochemistry Soil science covers the outermost layer of the Earth s crust that is subject to soil formation processes or pedosphere 35 Major subdivisions in this field of study include edaphology and pedology 36 Ecology covers the interactions between organisms and their environment This field of study differentiates the study of Earth from the study of other planets in the Solar System Earth being its only planet teeming with life Hydrology oceanography and limnology are studies which focus on the movement distribution and quality of the water and involves all the components of the hydrologic cycle on the Earth and its atmosphere or hydrosphere Sub disciplines of hydrology include hydrometeorology surface water hydrology hydrogeology watershed science forest hydrology and water chemistry 37 Glaciology covers the icy parts of the Earth or cryosphere Atmospheric sciences cover the gaseous parts of the Earth or atmosphere between the surface and the exosphere about 1000 km Major subdisciplines include meteorology climatology atmospheric chemistry and atmospheric physics Earth science breakup edit Main article Outline of Earth sciences AtmosphereAtmospheric chemistry Geography Climatology Meteorology Hydrometeorology PaleoclimatologyBiosphereBiogeochemistry Biogeography Ecology Landscape ecology Geoarchaeology Geomicrobiology Paleontology Palynology MicropaleontologyHydrosphereHydrology Hydrogeology Limnology freshwater science Oceanography marine science Chemical oceanography Physical oceanography Biological oceanography marine biology Geological oceanography marine geology PaleoceanographyLithosphere geosphere Geology Economic geology Engineering geology Environmental geology Forensic geology Historical geology Quaternary geology Planetary geology and planetary geography Sedimentology Stratigraphy Structural geology Geography Human geography Physical geography Geochemistry Geomorphology Geophysics Geochronology Geodynamics see also Tectonics Geomagnetism Gravimetry also part of Geodesy Seismology Glaciology Hydrogeology Mineralogy Crystallography Gemology Petrology Petrophysics Speleology VolcanologyPedosphereGeography Soil science Edaphology PedologySystemsEarth system science Environmental science Geography Human geography Physical geography Gaia hypothesis Systems ecology Systems geologyOthersGeography Cartography Geoinformatics GIScience Geostatistics Geodesy and Surveying Remote Sensing Hydrography NanogeoscienceSee also edit nbsp Earth sciences portal nbsp Environment portal nbsp Ecology portal nbsp World portalAmerican Geosciences Institute Earth sciences graphics software Four traditions of geography Glossary of geology terms List of Earth scientists List of geoscience organizations List of unsolved problems in geoscience Making North America National Association of Geoscience Teachers Solid earth science Science tourism Structure of the EarthReferences edit Earth sciences Definition Topics amp Facts Britannica www britannica com Retrieved 2023 08 19 Smith amp Pun 2006 pp 14 16 Haldar 2020 p 109 Haldar 2020 p 145 Encyclopedia of Volcanoes London Academic Press 2000 ISBN 9780080547985 Earth s Energy Budget ou edu Archived from the original on 2008 08 27 Retrieved 2007 06 20 Simison 2007 paragraph 7 a b c d Adams amp Lambert 2006 pp 94 95 100 102 Smith amp Pun 2006 pp 13 17 218 G 6 a b c Oldroyd 2006 pp 101 103 104 Smith amp Pun 2006 p 331 a b Smith amp Pun 2006 pp 325 26 329 Smith amp Pun 2006 p 327 Wallace John M Hobbs Peter V 2006 Atmospheric Science An Introductory Survey 2nd ed Elsevier Science pp 1 3 ISBN 9780080499536 Adams amp Lambert 2006 pp 107 08 American Heritage p 770 Parker Eugene March 2006 Shielding Space PDF Scientific American archived from the original PDF on 2016 01 01 retrieved 2017 05 24 Adams amp Lambert 2006 pp 21 22 Smith amp Pun 2006 p 183 How Did Scientists Calculate the Age of Earth education nationalgeographic org Retrieved 2023 08 19 Glatzmaier Gary A Roberts Paul H 1995 A three dimensional self consistent computer simulation of a geomagnetic field reversal Nature 377 6546 203 209 Bibcode 1995Natur 377 203G doi 10 1038 377203a0 S2CID 4265765 Glatzmaier Gary The Geodynamo University of California Santa Cruz Retrieved 20 October 2013 Finlay C C Maus S Beggan C D Bondar T N Chambodut A Chernova T A Chulliat A Golovkov V P Hamilton B Hamoudi M Holme R Hulot G Kuang W Langlais B Lesur V Lowes F J Luhr H Macmillan S Mandea M McLean S Manoj C Menvielle M Michaelis I Olsen N Rauberg J Rother M Sabaka T J Tangborn A Toffner Clausen L Thebault E Thomson A W P Wardinski I Wei Z Zvereva T I December 2010 International Geomagnetic Reference Field the eleventh generation Geophysical Journal International 183 3 1216 1230 Bibcode 2010GeoJI 183 1216F doi 10 1111 j 1365 246X 2010 04804 x hdl 20 500 11850 27303 Davie Tim Quinn Nevil Wyndham 2019 Fundamentals of Hydrology 3rd ed Routledge pp 1 2 ISBN 9780203798942 Holting Bernward Coldewey Wilhelm G 2019 Introduction Hydrogeology 8th ed Springer pp 1 3 doi 10 1007 978 3 662 56375 5 ISBN 9783662563755 Archived from the original on 2022 08 16 Retrieved 2022 08 16 Wood Paul J Hannah David M Sadler Jonathan P 2007 Ecohydrology and Hydroecology An Introduction Hydroecology and Ecohydrology Past Present and Future Wiley pp 1 6 ISBN 9780470010174 Knight Peter 1999 Glaciers Taylor amp Francis p 1 ISBN 9780748740000 Ricklefs Robert E Miller Gary L 2000 Ecology 4th ed W H Freeman pp 3 4 ISBN 9780716728290 Petersen James F Sack Dorothy Gabler Robert E 2014 Fundamentals of Physical Geography Cengage Learning pp 2 3 ISBN 9781285969718 Earth s Spheres Archived August 31 2007 at the Wayback Machine c 1997 2000 Wheeling Jesuit University NASA Classroom of the Future Retrieved November 11 2007 Adams amp Lambert 2006 p 20 a b Smith amp Pun 2006 p 5 WordNet Search 3 1 princeton edu Archived from the original on 2019 05 15 Retrieved 2010 10 13 NOAA National Ocean Service Education Global Positioning Tutorial noaa gov Archived from the original on 2005 05 08 Retrieved 2007 11 17 Elissa Levine 2001 The Pedosphere As A Hub broken link Gardiner Duane T Lecture 1 Chapter 1 Why Study Soils ENV320 Soil Science Lecture Notes Texas A amp M University Kingsville Archived from the original on 2018 02 09 Retrieved 2019 01 07 Craig Kendall Hydrology of the Watershed Archived from the original on 2017 01 11 Retrieved 2017 04 04 Sources edit Adams Simon Lambert David 2006 Earth Science An illustrated guide to science New York Chelsea House ISBN 978 0 8160 6164 8 Haldar S K 2020 Introduction to Mineralogy and Petrology 2nd ed Elsevier Science ISBN 9780323851367 American Heritage dictionary of the English language 4th ed Boston Houghton Mifflin Company 1992 ISBN 978 0 395 82517 4 Simison W Brian 2007 02 05 The mechanism behind plate tectonics Archived from the original on 2007 11 12 Retrieved 2007 11 17 Smith Gary A Pun Aurora 2006 How Does the Earth Work Physical Geologyand theProcess of Science Upper Saddle River NJ Pearson Prentice Hall ISBN 978 0 13 034129 7 Oldroyd David 2006 Earth Cycles A historical perspective Westport CT Greenwood Press ISBN 978 0 313 33229 6 Further reading editAllaby M 2008 Dictionary of Earth Sciences Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0 19 921194 4 Korvin G 1998 Fractal Models in the Earth Sciences Elsvier ISBN 978 0 444 88907 2 Earth s Energy Budget Oklahoma Climatological Survey 1996 2004 Archived from the original on 2007 11 17 Retrieved 2007 11 17 Miller George A Christiane Fellbaum and Randee Tengi and Pamela Wakefield and Rajesh Poddar and Helen Langone Benjamin Haskell 2006 WordNet Search 3 0 WordNet a lexical database for the English language Princeton NJ Princeton University Cognitive Science Laboratory Archived from the original on 2011 01 01 Retrieved 2007 11 10 NOAA National Ocean Service Education Geodesy National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 2005 03 08 Archived from the original on 2005 05 08 Retrieved 2007 11 17 Reed Christina 2008 Earth Science Decade by Decade New York Facts on File ISBN 978 0 8160 5533 3 Tarbuck E J Lutgens F K and Tasa D 2002 Earth Science Prentice Hall ISBN 978 0 13 035390 0External links edit nbsp Wikimedia Commons has media related to Earth sciences Earth Science Picture of the Day a service of Universities Space Research Association sponsored by NASA Goddard Space Flight Center Geoethics in Planetary and Space Exploration Geology Buzz Earth Science Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Earth science amp oldid 1199372627, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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