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War in Darfur

May 01, 2023

"Situation in Darfur" redirects here. For the criminal investigation by the International Criminal Court, see International Criminal Court investigation in Darfur.
Further information: Darfur genocide

The War in Darfur, also nicknamed the Land Cruiser War,[note 1] was a major armed conflict in the Darfur region of Sudan that began in February 2003 when the Sudan Liberation Movement (SLM) and the Justice and Equality Movement (JEM) rebel groups began fighting against the government of Sudan, which they accused of oppressing Darfur's non-Arab population.[33][34] The government responded to attacks by carrying out a campaign of ethnic cleansing against Darfur's non-Arabs. This resulted in the death of hundreds of thousands of civilians and the indictment of Sudan's president, Omar al-Bashir, for genocide, war crimes, and crimes against humanity by the International Criminal Court.[35]

War in Darfur
Part of the Sudanese Civil Wars

Military situation in Sudan on 6 June 2016. (Darfur on the far left)
  Under control of the Sudanese Government and allies
  Under control of the Sudan Revolutionary Front and allies
  Under control of the Sudanese Awakening Revolutionary Council
For a more detailed map of the current military situation in Sudan, see here.
Date26 February 2003 – 31 August 2020
(16 years, 11 months, 3 weeks and 6 days)
Location
Darfur, Sudan
Result

Stalemate

Belligerents

SRF[a]
(2006–2020)

  • JEM (since 2003)
  • SLA (some factions) (since 2003)
  • LJM (2010–11)[b]

SLA (some factions)
SARC (from 2014)
SLFA (from 2017)[2]

  • SLA-Unity
  • SLMJ
  • JEM (Jali)

Supported by:
 South Sudan[3]
 Chad (2005–2010)[4]
 Eritrea (until 2008)[5]
Libya (until 2011)[6]

 Uganda (until 2015)[7]

 Sudan

Chadian rebel groups[8]
Anti-Gaddafi forces (2011)[9]
Supported by:

 Libya (since 2011)[10]
 China[11]
 Iran (until 2016) [12]
 Russia[13]
 Belarus[14]
 Syria (2000s, alleged)[15]		 UNAMID (2007–2020)
Commanders and leaders

Ahmed Diraige
Khalil Ibrahim †
Gibril Ibrahim
Abdul Wahid al Nur (SLA-AW)
Minni Minnawi (SLA-MM)

Musa Hilal (POW)[16] (SARC)

Abdel Fattah al-Burhan
Omar al-Bashir (until April 2019)[17]
Musa Hilal (until 2017)
Hamid Dawai
Ali Kushayb
Ahmed Haroun (until April 2019)[18][19]
Mohamed Hamdan Dagalo

Mohammed Nour Abdelkerim[c]

Martin Ihoeghian Uhomoibhi[20]

Frank Mushyo Kamanzi[21]
Units involved

SLA

JEM

  • Gibril Ibrahim faction
  • Abdallah Bishir Jali faction[23]

Sudanese Armed Forces

No specific units
Strength

SRF: 60,000

SAF: 109,300[d]

Janjaweed: <25,000		 UNAMID:
15,845 soldiers and 3,403 police officers[28]
Casualties and losses
Unknown Unknown 235 killed as of 31 August 2016[29]

Total killed:
300,000 (UN estimate)
10,000 (Sudanese government estimate)[30]

Total displaced:

2,850,000–3,000,000[31] (UN estimate)
450,000 (Sudanese government estimate)
  1. ^ Known as the National Redemption Front prior to 2011.
  2. ^ Signed the Doha Darfur Peace Agreement in 2011.[1]
  3. ^ Although he was a Chadian rebel leader and he was also the head of an insurgent militia, Mohammed Nour Abdelkerim was so close to the Sudanese Armed Forces that he enlisted as an officer in the Popular Defence Forces, while his troops were temporarily organized as a regular pro-government militia. He and his militia left Sudanese service in 2005 in order to take part in the Chadian Civil War (2005–2010).[8]
  4. ^ Number does not represent the number of soldiers stationed in Darfur, but the total number of military personnel.[26][27]

One side of the conflict is mainly composed of the Sudanese military, police, and the Janjaweed, a Sudanese militia group whose members are mostly recruited among Arabized indigenous Africans and a small number of Bedouin of the northern Rizeigat; the majority of other Arab groups in Darfur remained uninvolved.[36] The other side is made up of rebel groups, notably the SLM/A and the JEM, recruited primarily from the non-Arab Muslim Fur, Zaghawa, and Masalit ethnic groups. The African Union and the United Nations also have a joint peacekeeping mission in the region, named UNAMID. Although the Sudanese government publicly denies that it supported the Janjaweed, evidence supports claims that it provided financial assistance and weapons and coordinated joint attacks, many against civilians.[37][38] Estimates of the number of human casualties range up to several hundred thousand dead, from either combat or starvation and disease. Mass displacements and coercive migrations forced millions into refugee camps or across the border, creating a humanitarian crisis. Former U.S. Secretary of State Colin Powell described the situation as a genocide or acts of genocide.[39]

The Sudanese government and the JEM signed a ceasefire agreement in February 2010, with a tentative agreement to pursue peace. The JEM has the most to gain from the talks and could see semi-autonomy much like South Sudan.[40] However, talks were disrupted by accusations that the Sudanese army launched raids and air strikes against a village, violating the Tolu agreement. The JEM, the largest rebel group in Darfur, vowed to boycott negotiations.[41]

The August 2019 Draft Constitutional Declaration, signed by military and civilian representatives during the Sudanese Revolution, requires that a peace process leading to a peace agreement be made in Darfur and other regions of armed conflict in Sudan within the first six months of the 39-month transition period to democratic civilian government.[42][43]

A comprehensive peace agreement was signed on 31 August 2020 between the Sudanese authorities and several rebel factions to end armed hostilities.[44]

Origins of the conflict

Main article: History of Darfur

Darfur, Arabic for "the home of the Fur", was not a traditional part of the states organized along the upper Nile valley but instead organized as an independent sultanate in the 14th century. Owing to the migration of the Banu Hilal tribe in the 11th century AD, the peoples of the Nile valley became heavily Arabicized while the hinterlands remained closer to native Sudanese cultures. It was first annexed to the Egyptian Sudan in 1875 and then surrendered by its governor Slatin Pasha to the Mahdia in 1883. Following the Anglo-Egyptian victory in the Mahdist War, Sultan Ali Dinar was reinstated as a British client before being deposed by a 1916 expedition after he made overtures in favor of Turkey amid the First World War. Subsequently, Darfur remained a province of the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan and the independent Republic of the Sudan.

There are several different explanations for the origins of the conflict that started in 2003. One explanation involves the land disputes between semi-nomadic livestock herders and those who practice sedentary agriculture.[45] Water access has also been identified as a major source of the conflict.[46] The Darfur crisis is also related to a second conflict. In southern Sudan, civil war has raged for decades between the northern, Arab-dominated government and Christian and animist black southerners. Yet another origin is conflict between the Islamist, Khartoum-based national government and two rebel groups based in Darfur: the Sudan Liberation Army and the Justice and Equality Movement.[47]

Allegations of apartheid

In early 1991, non-Arabs of the Zaghawa tribe of Sudan attested that they were victims of an intensifying Arab apartheid campaign, segregating Arabs and non-Arabs.[48] Sudanese Arabs, who controlled the government, were widely referred to as practicing apartheid against Sudan's non-Arab citizens. The government was accused of "deftly manipulat(ing) Arab solidarity" to carry out policies of apartheid and ethnic cleansing.[49]

American University economist George Ayittey accused the Arab government of Sudan of practicing racism against black citizens.[50] According to Ayittey, "In Sudan... the Arabs monopolized power and excluded blacks – Arab apartheid."[51] Many African commentators joined Ayittey in accusing Sudan of practising Arab apartheid.[52]

Alan Dershowitz claimed Sudan was an example of Apartheid.[53] Former Canadian Minister of Justice Irwin Cotler echoed the accusation.[54]

Timeline

Beginning

Authors Julie Flint and Alex de Waal marked the onset of the genocide on 26 February 2003, when a group calling itself the Darfur Liberation Front (DLF) publicly claimed credit for an attack on Golo, the headquarters of Jebel Marra District. Prior to this attack, however, conflict had broken out, as rebels attacked police stations, army outposts and military convoys and the government engaged in a massive air and land assault on the rebel stronghold in the Marrah Mountains. The rebels' first military action was a successful attack on an army garrison on 25 February 2002. The government had been aware of a unified rebel movement since an attack on the Golo police station in June, 2002. Flint and de Waal date the beginning of the rebellion to 21 July 2001, when a group of Zaghawa and Fur met in Abu Gamra and swore oaths on the Qur'an to work together to defend against government-sponsored attacks on their villages.[55] Nearly all of Darfur's residents are Muslim, including the Janjaweed, as well as government leaders in Khartoum.[56]

On 25 March 2003, the rebels seized the garrison town of Tine along the Chadian border, seizing large quantities of supplies and arms. Despite a threat by President Omar al-Bashir to "unleash" the army, the military had little in reserve. The army was already deployed in both the south, where the Second Sudanese Civil War was drawing to an end, and the east, where rebels sponsored by Eritrea were threatening a newly constructed pipeline from the central oilfields to Port Sudan. The rebel guerilla tactic of hit-and-run raids proved almost impossible for the army, untrained in desert operations, to counter. However, its aerial bombardment of rebel positions on the mountain was devastating.[57]

 
Arab Janjaweed tribes have been a major player in the conflict.

At 5:30 am on 25 April 2003, the Darfur genocide arose when the Sudan Liberation Movement and the JEM, which is the largest rebel group in Darfur, entered Al-Fashir, the capital city of North Darfur and attacked the sleeping garrison. In the next four hours, four Antonov bombers and helicopter gunships (according to the government; seven according to the rebels) were destroyed on the ground, 75 soldiers, pilots and technicians were killed and 32 were captured, including the commander of the air base, a Major General. The success of the raid was unprecedented in Sudan; in the twenty years of the war in the south, the rebel Sudan People's Liberation Army (SPLA) had never before carried out such an operation.[58]

The Al-Fashir raid was a turning point, both militarily and psychologically. The armed forces had been humiliated by the raid, placing the government in a difficult strategic situation. The incompetent armed forces needed to be retrained and redeployed amid concerns about the loyalty of the many Darfurian non-commissioned officers and soldiers. Responsibility for prosecuting the war was given to Sudanese military intelligence. Nevertheless, in the middle months of 2003, rebels won 34 of 38 engagements. In May, the SLA destroyed a battalion at Kutum, killing 500 and taking 300 prisoners; in mid-July, 250 were killed in a second attack on Tine. The SLA began to infiltrate farther east, threatening to extend the war into Kordofan.

Given that the army was consistently losing, the war effort switched to emphasize three elements: military intelligence, the air force and the Janjaweed. The latter were armed Baggara herders whom the government had used to suppress a Masalit uprising from 1986 to 1999. The Janjaweed became the center of the new counter-insurgency strategy. Though the government consistently denied supporting them, military resources were poured into Darfur and the Janjaweed were outfitted as a paramilitary force, complete with communication equipment and some artillery. The military planners were aware of the probable consequences of such a strategy: similar methods undertaken in the Nuba Mountains and around the southern oil fields during the 1990s had resulted in massive human rights violations and forced displacements.[59]

2004–2005

In 2004, Chad brokered negotiations in N'Djamena, leading to the April 8 Humanitarian Ceasefire Agreement between the Sudanese government, the JEM, and the SLA. One group that did not participate in the April cease-fire talks or agreement, the National Movement for Reform and Development, split from the JEM in April. Janjaweed and rebel attacks continued despite the ceasefire, and the African Union (AU) formed a Ceasefire Commission (CFC) to monitor its observance.

 
Darfur refugee camp in Chad, 2005

In August, the African Union sent 150 Rwandan troops to protect the ceasefire monitors. However, it soon became apparent that 150 troops would not be enough, and they were subsequently joined by 150 Nigerian troops.

On 18 September, the United Nations Security Council issued Resolution 1564 declaring that the Sudan government had not met its commitments and expressing concern at helicopter attacks and assaults by the Janjaweed. It welcomed the intention of the African Union to enhance its monitoring mission and urged all member states to support such efforts.

During April, 2005, after the Sudan government signed a ceasefire agreement with Sudan People's Liberation Army which led to the end of the Second Sudanese Civil War, the African Union Mission in Sudan (AMIS) force was increased by 600 troops and 80 military observers. In July, the force was increased by about 3,300 (with a budget of 220 million dollars). In April, 2005, AMIS was increased to about 7,000.

The scale of the crisis led to warnings of an imminent disaster, with United Nations Secretary-General Kofi Annan warning about the risk of genocide. The scale of the Janjaweed campaign led to comparisons with the Rwandan genocide, a parallel denied by the Sudanese government. Independent observers noted that the tactics, which included dismemberment and killing of noncombatants, including young children and infants, were more akin to the ethnic cleansing used in the Yugoslav wars and warned that the region's remoteness meant that hundreds of thousands of people were effectively cut off from aid. The Brussels-based International Crisis Group had reported in May 2004 that over 350,000 people could potentially die as a result of starvation and disease.[60]

 
AMIS soldiers from Rwanda preparing to depart to Darfur in 2005.

On 10 July 2005, Ex-SPLA leader John Garang was sworn in as Sudan's vice-president.[61] However, on 30 July, Garang died in a helicopter crash.[62] Despite improved security, talks between the various rebels in the Darfur region progressed slowly.

An attack on the Chadian town of Adré near the Sudanese border led to the death of 300 rebels in December. Sudan was blamed for the attack, which was the second in the region in three days.[63] Escalating tensions led the government of Chad to declare its hostility toward Sudan and to call for Chadians to mobilise against the "common enemy".[64] (See Chad-Sudan conflict)

2006

Main article: Darfur Peace Agreement
 
Minni Minnawi with U.S. President George W. Bush after he signed the May agreement.

On 5 May 2006, the Sudanese government signed the Darfur Peace Agreement[65] along with the faction of the SLA led by Minni Minnawi. However, the agreement was rejected by the smaller Justice and Equality Movement and a rival faction of the SLA led by Abdul Wahid al Nur.[38][66] The accord was orchestrated by chief negotiator Salim Ahmed Salim (working on behalf of the African Union), U.S. Deputy Secretary of State Robert B. Zoellick, AU representatives and other foreign officials operating in Abuja, Nigeria.

The 115-page agreement included agreements on national and state power-sharing, demilitarization of the Janjaweed and other militias, an integration of SLM/A and JEM troops into the Sudanese Armed Forces and police, a system of federal wealth-sharing for the promotion of Darfurian economic interests, a referendum on the future status of Darfur and measures to promote the flow of humanitarian aid.[38][67]

Representatives of the African Union, Nigeria, Libya, the United States, the United Kingdom, the United Nations, the European Union, the Arab League, Egypt, Canada, Norway and the Netherlands served as witnesses.[38]

July and August 2006 saw renewed fighting, international aid organizations considering leaving due to attacks against their personnel. Annan called for 18,000 international peacekeepers in Darfur to replace the 7,000-man AMIS force.[68][69] In one incident at Kalma, seven women, who ventured out of a refugee camp to gather firewood, were gang-raped, beaten and robbed by the Janjaweed. When they had finished, the attackers stripped them naked and jeered at them as they fled.[70]

In a private meeting on 18 August, Hédi Annabi, Assistant Secretary-General for Peacekeeping Operations, warned that Sudan appeared to be preparing for a major military offensive.[71] The warning came a day after UN Commission on Human Rights special investigator Sima Samar stated that Sudan's efforts remained poor despite the May Agreement.[72] On 19 August, Sudan reiterated its opposition to replacing AMIS with a UN force,[73] resulting in the US issuing a "threat" to Sudan over the "potential consequences".[74]

On 25 August, Sudan rejected attending a United Nations Security Council (UNSC) meeting to explain its plan to send 10,000 Sudanese soldiers to Darfur instead of the proposed 20,000 UN peacekeeping force.[75] The Security Council announced it would hold the meeting despite Sudan's absence.[76] Also on 24 August, the International Rescue Committee reported that hundreds of women were raped and sexually assaulted around the Kalma refugee camp during the previous several weeks[77] and that the Janjaweed were reportedly using rape to cause women to be humiliated and ostracised by their own communities.[78] On 25 August, the head of the U.S. State Department's Bureau of African Affairs, Assistant Secretary Jendayi Frazer, warned that the region faced a security crisis unless the UN peacekeeping force deployed.[79]

On 26 August, two days before the UNSC meeting and Frazer was due to arrive in Khartoum, Paul Salopek, a U.S. National Geographic Magazine journalist, appeared in court in Darfur facing charges of espionage; he had crossed into the country illegally from Chad, circumventing the Sudanese government's official restrictions on foreign journalists. He was later released after direct negotiation with President al-Bashir.[80] This came a month after Tomo Križnar, a Slovenian presidential envoy, was sentenced to two years in prison for spying.[81]

Proposed UN peacekeeping force

See also: United Nations Security Council Resolution 1706

On 31 August 2006, the UNSC approved a resolution to send a new peacekeeping force of 17,300 to the region.[82] Sudan expressed strong opposition to the resolution. [83] On 1 September, African Union officials reported that Sudan had launched a major offensive in Darfur, killing more than 20 civilians and displacing over 1,000.[84] On 5 September, Sudan asked the existing AU force to leave by the end of the month, adding that "they have no right to transfer this assignment to the United Nations or any other party. This right rests with the government of Sudan."[85] On 4 September, in a move not viewed as surprising, Chad's president Idriss Déby voiced support for the UN peacekeeping force.[86] The AU, whose mandate expired on 30 September 2006, confirmed that AMIS would leave.[87] The next day, however, a senior US State Department official told reporters that the AU force might remain past the deadline.[88]

Autumn

On 8 September, António Guterres, head of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, said Darfur faced a "humanitarian catastrophe".[89] On 12 September, Sudan's European Union envoy Pekka Haavisto claimed that the Sudanese army was "bombing civilians in Darfur".[90] A World Food Programme official reported that food aid had been blocked from reaching at least 355,000 people.[91] Annan said, "the tragedy in Darfur has reached a critical moment. It merits this council's closest attention and urgent action."[92][check quotation syntax] On 14 September, the leader of the Sudan Liberation Movement, Minni Minnawi, stated that he did not object to the UN peacekeeping force, rejecting the Sudanese government's view that such a deployment would be an act of Western invasion. Minnawi claimed that AMIS "can do nothing because the AU mandate is very limited".[93] Khartoum remained opposed to UN involvement, with Al-Bashir depicting it as a colonial plan and stating that "we do not want Sudan to turn into another Iraq."[94]

On 2 October the AU announced that it would extend its presence until 31 December 2006.[95][96] Two hundred UN troops were sent to reinforce the AU force.[97] On 6 October, the UNSC voted to extend the mandate of the United Nations Mission in Sudan until 30 April 2007.[98] On 9 October, the Food and Agriculture Organization listed Darfur as the most pressing food emergency out of the forty countries listed on its Crop Prospects and Food Situation report.[99] On 10 October, the UN High Commissioner for Human Rights, Louise Arbour, claimed that the Sudanese government had prior knowledge of attacks by Janjaweed militias in Buram, South Darfur the month before, in which hundreds of civilians were killed.[100]

 
Children in the camps are encouraged to confront their psychological scars. The clay figures depict an attack by Janjaweed.

On 12 October, Nigerian Foreign Minister Joy Ogwu arrived in Darfur for a two-day visit. She urged the Sudanese government to accept the UN proposal. Nigerian President Olusegun Obasanjo spoke against "stand[ing] by and see[ing] genocide taking place in Darfur."[101] On 13 October, US President George W. Bush imposed further sanctions against those deemed complicit in the atrocities under the Darfur Peace and Accountability Act of 2006. The measures were said to strengthen existing sanctions by prohibiting US citizens from engaging in oil-related transactions with Sudan (although US companies had been prohibited from doing business with Sudan since 1997), freezing the assets of complicit parties and denying them entry to the US.[102]

The lack of funding and equipment for the AU mission meant that the work of aid workers in Darfur was severely limited by fighting. Some warned that the humanitarian situation could deteriorate to levels seen in 2003 and 2004, when UN officials called Darfur the world's worst humanitarian crisis.[95]

On 22 October, the Sudan government told UN envoy Jan Pronk to leave the country within three days. Pronk, the senior UN official in the country, had been heavily criticized by the Sudanese army after he posted a description of several recent military defeats in Darfur to his personal blog.[103] On 1 November, the US announced that it would formulate an international plan which it hoped the Sudanese government would find more palatable.[104] On 9 November, senior Sudanese presidential advisor Nafie Ali Nafie told reporters that his government was prepared to start unconditional talks with the National Redemption Front (NRF) rebel alliance, but noted he saw little use for a new peace agreement. The NRF, which had rejected the May Agreement and sought a new peace agreement, did not comment.[105]

In late 2006, Darfur Arabs started their own rebel group, the Popular Forces Troops, and announced on 6 December that they had repulsed an assault by the Sudanese army at Kas-Zallingi the previous day. They were the latest of numerous Darfur Arab groups to oppose the government since 2003, some of which had signed political accords with rebel movements.

The same period saw an example of a tribe-based split within the Arab forces, when relations between the farming Terjem and nomadic, camel-herding Mahria tribes became tense. Terjem leaders accused the Mahria of kidnapping a Terjem boy, while Mahria leaders said the Terjem had been stealing their animals. Ali Mahamoud Mohammed, the wali, or governor, of South Darfur, said the fighting began in December when the Mahria drove their camels south in a seasonal migration, trampling through Terjem territory near the Bulbul River. Fighting resumed in July 2007.[106]

Proposed compromise UN force and Sudanese offensive

On 17 November reports of a potential deal to place a "compromise peacekeeping force" in Darfur were announced,[107] but would later appear to have been rejected by Sudan.[108] The UN claimed on 18 November that Sudan had agreed to the deployment of UN peacekeepers.[109] Sudan's Foreign Minister Lam Akol stated that "there should be no talk about a mixed force" and that the UN's role should be restricted to technical support. Also on 18 November, the AU reported that Sudanese military and Sudanese-backed militias had launched a ground and air operation in the region that resulted in about 70 civilian deaths. The AU stated that this "was a flagrant violation of security agreements".[110]

On 25 November a spokesperson for UN High Commissioner for Human Rights accused the Sudanese government of having committed "a deliberate and unprovoked attack" against civilians in Sirba on 11 November, which claimed the lives of at least 30 people. The Commissioner's statement maintained that "contrary to the government's claim, it appears that the Sudanese Armed Forces launched a deliberate and unprovoked attack on civilians and their property in Sirba," and that this also involved "extensive and wanton destruction and looting of civilian property".[111]

2007

 
Displaced persons with water tank in Geneina, West Darfur in 2007

According to the Save Darfur Coalition, New Mexico Governor Bill Richardson and al-Bashir agreed to a cease-fire whereby the Sudanese "government and rebel groups will cease hostilities for a period of 60 days while they work towards a lasting peace."[112] In addition, the Save Darfur press release stated that the agreement "included a number of concessions to improve humanitarian aid and media access to Darfur." Despite the formality of a ceasefire there have been further media reports of killings and other violence.[113][114] On Sunday 15 April 2007, African Union peacekeepers were targeted and killed.[115] The New York Times reported that "a confidential United Nations report says the government of Sudan is flying arms and heavy military equipment into Darfur in violation of Security Council resolutions and painting Sudanese military planes white to disguise them as United Nations or African Union aircraft."[116]

On 28 February Sudan's humanitarian affairs minister, Ahmed Haroun, and a Janjaweed militia leader, Ali Kushayb, were charged by the International Criminal Court with 51 counts of war crimes and crimes against humanity. Ahmed Haroun said he "did not feel guilty," his conscience was clear, and that he was ready to defend himself.[117]

On 31 March Janjaweed militiamen killed up to 400 people in the eastern border region of Chad near Sudan. The border villages of Tiero and Marena were encircled and then fired upon. The women were robbed and the men shot according to the UNHCR. Many of those who survived the initial attack, ended up dying due to exhaustion and dehydration, often while fleeing.[118] On 14 April 2007, more attacks were reported by the UNHCR in Tiero and Marena.[119]

On 18 April President Bush gave a speech at the US Holocaust Memorial Museum criticizing the Sudanese government and threatened further sanctions if the situation did not improve.[120]

Al-Bashir and Deby signed a peace agreement on 3 May 2007 aimed at reducing tension between their countries.[121] The accord was brokered by Saudi Arabia. It asserted that neither country would harbor, train or fund armed movements opposed to the other. Reuters reported that "Deby's fears that Nouri's UFDD may have been receiving Saudi as well as Sudanese support could have pushed him to sign the Saudi-mediated pact with Bashir". Colin Thomas-Jensen, an expert on Chad and Darfur at the International Crisis Group think-tank expressed doubts as to whether "this new deal will lead to any genuine thaw in relations or improvement in the security situation". Chadian rebel Union of Forces for Democracy and Development (UFDD) which had fought a hit-and-run war against Deby's forces in eastern Chad since 2006, stated that the Saudi-backed peace deal would not stop its military campaign.[122]

Oxfam announced on 17 June that it would permanently pull out of Gereida, the largest refugee camp, holding more than 130,000. The agency cited inaction by local authorities from the Sudan Liberation Movement (SLM), which controls the region, in addressing security concerns and violence against aid workers. An employee of the NGO Action by Churches Together was murdered in June in West Darfur. Vehicle hijackings also made them consider leaving.[123]

BBC News reported that a huge underground lake had been found. This find could eliminate the competition for water resources.[124]

France and Britain announced they would push for a UN resolution to dispatch African Union and United Nations peacekeepers to Darfur and would push for an immediate cease-fire in Darfur and are prepared to provide "substantial" economic aid "as soon as a cease-fire makes it possible."[125]

A 14 July 2007 article noted that in the past two months up to 75,000 Arabs from Chad and Niger had crossed into Darfur. Most have been relocated by Sudanese government to former villages of displaced non-Arab people.[126]

A hybrid UN/AU force was finally approved on 31 July with the unanimously approved United Nations Security Council Resolution 1769. UNAMID was to take over from AMIS by 31 December at the latest, and had an initial mandate up to 31 July 2008.[127]

On 31 July, Mahria gunmen surrounded mourners at the funeral of an important Terjem sheik and killed 60 with rocket-propelled grenades (RPGs) and belt-fed machine guns.[106]

From 3–5 August a conference was held in Arusha to unite the rebel groups to streamline the subsequent peace negotiations with the government. Most senior rebel leaders attended, with the notable exception of Abdul Wahid al Nur, who headed a rather small splinter group of the SLA/M that he had initially founded in 2003,[128] was considered to be the representatives of a large part of the displaced Fur people. His absence was damaging to the peace talks.[129] International officials stated that there is "no John Garang in Darfur", referring to the leader of the negotiating team of South Sudan, who was universally accepted by the various South Sudanese rebel groups.[130]

The participants were Gamali Galaleiddine,[131] Khalil Abdalla Adam, Salah Abu Surra, Khamis Abdallah Abakar, Ahmed Abdelshafi, Abdalla Yahya, Khalil Ibrahim (of the Justice and Equality Movement) and Ahmed Ibrahim Ali Diraige. Closed-door meetings between the AU-UN and rebel leaders, as well as among rebel leaders took place.[132] Eight more participants arrived on 4 August (including Jar el-Neby, Salah Adam Isaac and Suleiman Marajan[133]), while the SLM Unity faction boycotted the talks because the Sudanese government had threatened to arrest Suleiman Jamous if he left the hospital.[134] The rebel leaders aimed to unify their positions and demands, which included compensation for the victims and autonomy for Darfur.[131] They eventually reached agreement on joint demands, including power and wealth sharing, security, land and humanitarian issues.[135]

In the months through August, Arab tribes that had worked together in the Janjaweed militia began falling out among themselves, and further splintered. Thousands of Terjem and Mahria gunmen traveled hundreds of miles to fight in the strategic Bulbul river valley. Farther south, Habanniya and Salamat tribes clashed. The fighting did not result in as much killing as in 2003 and 2004. United Nations officials said the groups might be trying to seize land before peacekeepers arrived.[106]

On 18 September, JEM stated that if the peace talks with Khartoum should fail, they would step up their demands from self-determination to independence.[136]

On 30 September, the rebels overran an AMIS base, killing at least 12 peacekeepers in "the heaviest loss of life and biggest attack on the African Mission" during a raid at the end of Ramadan season.[137]

 
SLM combatants

Peace talks started on 27 October in Sirte, Libya. The following groups attended:[138]

  • Justice and Equality Movement splinters:
  • Revolutionary Democratic Forces Front, led by Salah Abu Surrah
  • United Revolutionary Force Front, led by Alhadi Agabeldour
  • Sudan Liberation Movement–G19, led by Khamees Abdullah
  • Sudan Federal Democratic Alliance, led by Ahmed Ibrahim Diraige

The following groups did not attend:

  • Justice and Equality Movement, led by Khalil Ibrahim; they object to the presence of rebel groups they say had no constituency and no place at the table.
  • Sudan Liberation Movement (Abdel Wahed), led by Abdel Wahed Mohamed el-Nur; the group has few forces, but its leader is highly respected; refused to attend until a force was deployed to stem the Darfur violence.
  • Sudan Liberation Movement–Unity, originally led by Abdallah Yehya, includes many other prominent figures (Sherif Harir, Abu Bakr Kadu, Ahmed Kubur); the group with the largest number of rebel fighters; object for the same reason as JEM.
  • Ahmed Abdel Shafi, a notable rebel enjoying strong support from the Fur tribe.

Faced with a boycott from the most important rebel factions, the talks were rebranded as an "advanced consultation phase", with official talks likely to start in November or December.[139]

On 15 November, nine rebel groups – six SLM factions, the Democratic Popular Front, the Sudanese Revolutionary Front and the Justice and Equality Movement–Field Revolutionary Command – signed a Charter of Unification and agreed to operate under the name of SLM/A henceforth.[140] On 30 November it was announced that Darfur's rebel movements had united into two large groups and were now ready to negotiate in an orderly manner with the government.[141]

2008

Main article: 2008 invasion of Khartoum and Omdurman

A fresh government/militia offensive trapped thousands of refugees along the Chadian border, the rebels and humanitarian workers said on 20 February.[142] As of 21 February, the total dead in Darfur stood at 450,000 with an estimated 3,245,000 people displaced.

On 10 May 2008 Sudanese government soldiers and Darfur rebels clashed in the city of Omdurman, opposite the capital of Khartoum, over the control of a military headquarters.[143] They also raided a police base from which they stole police vehicles. A Sudanese police spokesperson said that the leader of the assailants, Mohamed Saleh Garbo, and his intelligence chief, Mohamed Nur Al-Deen, were killed in the clash.

Witnesses said that heavy gunfire could be heard in the west of Sudan's capital. Sudanese troops backed by tanks, artillery, and helicopter gunships were immediately deployed to Omdurman, and fighting raged for several hours. After seizing the strategic military airbase at Wadi-Sayedna, the Sudanese soldiers eventually defeated the rebels. A JEM force headed to the Al-Ingaz bridge to cross the White Nile into Khartoum. By late afternoon, Sudanese TV claimed that the rebels had been "completely repulsed", while showing live images of burnt vehicles and corpses on the streets.[144]

The government imposed a curfew in Khartoum from 5 pm to 6 am, while aid agencies told their workers in the capital to stay indoors.

 
Darfur men in 2008

Some 93 soldiers and 13 policemen were killed along with 30 civilians in the attack on Khartoum and Omdurman. Sudanese forces confirmed that they found the bodies of 90 rebels and had spotted dozens more strewn outside the city limits. While Sudanese authorities claimed that up to 400 rebels could have been killed, the rebels stated that they lost 45 fighters dead or wounded. Sudanese authorities also claimed to have destroyed 40 rebel vehicles and captured 17.

2009

 
A UN Peacekeeper in the Abu Shouk IDP Camp, September 2009

General Martin Agwai, head of the joint African Union-United Nations mission in Darfur, said the war was over in the region, although low-level disputes remained. There was still "Banditry, localised issues, people trying to resolve issues over water and land at a local level. But real war as such, I think we are over that," he said.[145]

2010 to 2012

In December 2010, representatives of the Liberation and Justice Movement, an umbrella organisation of ten rebel groups formed in February 2010,[146] started a fresh round of talks with the Sudanese Government in Doha. A new rebel group, the Sudanese Alliance Resistance Forces in Darfur was formed and JEM planned further talks.[147] Talks ended on 19 December with agreement only on basic principles; these included a regional authority and a referendum on autonomy. The possibility of a Darfuri Vice-President was discussed.[148][149]

In January 2011, the leader of the Liberation and Justice Movement, Dr. Tijani Sese, stated that the movement had accepted the core proposals of the Darfur peace document as proposed by the mediators in Doha. The proposals included a $300,000,000 compensation package for victims of atrocities in Darfur and special courts to conduct trials of persons accused of human rights violations. Proposals for a new Darfur Regional Authority were included. This authority would have an executive council of 18 ministers and would remain in place for five years. The current three Darfur states and state governments would continue to exist during this period.[150][151] In February, the Sudanese Government rejected the idea of a single region headed by a vice-president from the region.[152]

On 29 January, the LJM and JEM leaders issued a joint statement affirming their commitment to the Doha negotiations and intention to attend the Doha forum on 5 February. The Sudanese government postponed decision to attend the forum due to beliefs that an internal peace process without the involvement of rebel groups might be possible.[153] Later in February, the Sudanese Government agreed to return to Doha with a view to complete a new peace agreement by the end of that month.[154] On 25 February, both LJM and JEM announced that they had rejected the peace document proposed by the mediators in Doha. The main sticking points were the issues of a Darfuri vice-president and compensation for victims. The Sudanese government did not comment on the peace document.[155]

On 9 March, it was announced that two more states would be established in Darfur: Central Darfur around Zalingei and Eastern Darfur around Ed Daein. The rebel groups protested and stated that this was a bid to further divide Darfur's influence.[156]

Advising both the LJM and JEM during the Doha peace negotiations was the Public International Law & Policy Group (PILPG). Led by Dr. Paul Williams and Matthew T. Simpson, PILPG's team provided legal support.

In June, a new Darfur Peace Agreement (2011) was proposed by the Doha mediators. This agreement was to supersede the Abuja Agreement of 2005 and when signed, would halt preparations for a Darfur status referendum.[157] The proposed document included provisions for a Darfuri Vice-President and an administrative structure that included three states and a strategic regional authority, the Darfur Regional Authority.[158] The agreement was signed by the Government of Sudan and the Liberation and Justice Movement on 14 July 2011.[159]

Little progress occurred after September 2012 and the situation slowly worsened and violence was escalating.[160] The population of displaced Sudanese in IDP camps also increased.[161]

2013

 
Pro-government militia in Darfur. (2013)

A donors conference in Doha pledged US$3.6 billion to help rebuild Darfur. The conference was criticised in the region that the Sudan Liberation Army (Minni Minnawi) rebels had taken. According to the group's Hussein Minnawi, Ashma village and another town close to the South Darfur capital of Nyala were taken by the SLA.[162]

On 27 April, following weeks of fighting, a coalition that included SLA and JEM said that they had taken Um Rawaba in North Kordofan, outside Darfur, and that they were headed for Khartoum to topple the president. The head of an SLA faction, Abdel Wahid Mohammed al-Nur, called it "a significant shift in the war".[163] An estimated 300,000 were displaced by violence from January through May.[164]

In North Darfur, the Rezeigat tribe and the Beni Hussein group signed a peace deal during July after an eruption of violence between the two groups killed hundreds. Later in July, the Misseriya and Salamat Arab tribes announced a ceasefire after battles killed over 200 people. The UN security counsel also announced a review of its UNAMID mission.[164]

During the first week of August, the Maalia claimed the Rezeigat had killed five members of their tribe in the southeastern region of Adila. They responded by seizing 400 Rizeigat cattle on 6 August. Community leaders intervened to prevent escalation. When the Maalia failed to return the cattle, violence broke out on 10 August.[165] The Rezeigat attacked and reportedly destroyed a Maaliya compound.[164] In the battle, 77 Maaliya and 36 Rezeigat were killed, and another 200 people were injured.[165] Both sides said Land Cruiser vehicles were used in the battle. The Maaliya accused the Rezeigat of attacking and burning villages while employing "heavy weaponry". On 11 August, the fighting spread to several other areas in southeastern Darfur. The violence reportedly arose over a land dispute.[164]

2014

On 19 March, peacekeepers said they had received recent reports of villages that were attacked and burned after the UN expressed concern over the increasing number of internally displaced persons. UNAMID said that the attacks were in Hashaba, about 100 kilometers north-west of the city Al-Fashir, the state capital of North Darfur.[166]

In November, local media reported that 200 women and girls had been raped by Sudanese soldiers in Tabit. Sudan denied it and did not permit the UN (who said their first inquiry was inconclusive "in part due to the heavy presence of military and police") to make another inquiry.[167] An investigation by Human Rights Watch (HRW) released in February said 221 were raped by government soldiers in "a mass rape that could constitute crimes against humanity". Witnesses reported three separate operations were carried out in one and a half days. Property was looted, men arrested, residents beaten and women and girls raped. Most of the town's population are Fur people. It had been controlled by rebel forces previously but HRW found no evidence that the rebel fighters were in or close to the village when it was attacked.[168]

3,300 villages were destroyed in 2014 in attacks on civilians according to the UN Panel of Experts. Government forces or those aligned with them were behind most attacks. There were more than 400,000 attacks during the first ten months of the year. The report said that it was "highly probable that civilian communities were targeted as a result of their actual or perceived affiliations with armed opposition groups" and that "such attacks were carried out with impunity".[169]

2015

2016

In September 2016, the Sudanese government reportedly launched chemical weapon attacks on civilian populations in Darfur, killing at least 250 people; the majority of the victims were children. It is believed that the munitions contained mustard gas or other blister agents.[170]

2017

2018

Reports from UNAMID and the African Center for Justice and Peace Studies suggest that low-level violence continued in Darfur through early 2018, with Sudanese government forces attacking communities in the Jebel Marra area.[171] As UNAMID forces began to be drawn down with an eye to exiting Darfur, there were competing views on the levels of unrest in the region: UN officials pointed to a significant reduction in the scale and distribution of violence in Darfur,[172] while other NGOS such as HRW highlighted persistent pockets of unrest. In 2018, Darfur was bombed and peace was signed; see 2019.

2019

Main article: Sudanese peace process

The August 2019 Draft Constitutional Declaration, signed by military and civilian representatives during the 2018–19 Sudanese Revolution, requires that a peace agreement be made in Darfur and other regions of armed conflict in Sudan within the first six months of the 39-month transition period to democratic civilian government.[42][43]

In December 2019, The Guardian reported that irrigation projects built around community-based weirs are enabling "green shoots of peace" to appear, helping to end this conflict. This project was conducted with funding from the European Union and was overseen by the United Nations Environmental Program.[173]

2020

Janjaweed militia leader Ali Kushayb was arrested in the Central African Republic on 9 June 2020, thirteen years after he was charged by the International Criminal Court with 51 crimes against humanity and war crimes.[174]

Three mass shootings took place in Darfur in July 2020.

On 31 August 2020, a peace deal was signed in Juba, South Sudan, between the Sovereignty Council of Sudan and several rebel groups, including the Sudan Revolutionary Front (SRF), Sudan Liberation Movement/Army (SLM), Justice and Equality Movement, Transitional Revolutionary Council, and Sudan People's Liberation Movement-North (SPLM–N).

Under the terms of the agreement, the factions that signed will be entitled to three seats on the sovereignty council, a total of five ministers in the transitional cabinet and a quarter of seats in the transitional legislature. At a regional level, signatories will be entitled between 30 and 40% of the seats on transitional legislatures of their home states or regions.[175][176]

Notably absent were rebel factions led by Abdul Wahid al Nur and Abdelaziz al-Hilu who refused to be part of the agreement.[44] On 3 October 2020, the SRF, SPLM–N led by Malik Agar and SLM led by Minni Minnawi signed another peace deal with the Sudanese government,[177] with the absence of both al Nur and al-Hilu.[178] However, the deal included terms to integrate rebels into the security forces, and to grant them political representation and economic and land rights, in addition to a 10-year plan to invest $750 million to develop southern and western regions, and to guarantee the return for displaced people.[179]

In December, Sudan started to deploy troops to South Darfur "in large numbers", following recent tribal violence between the Masalit and Fula.[180]

The United Nations and African Union peacekeeping mission (UNAMID) ended its mission on 31 December, with a complete withdrawal scheduled for 30 June. There are currently some 4,000 troops, 480 police advisers, 1,631 police, 483 international civilian staff, and 945 national civilian staff in the region.[181]

2021

Main article: 2021 Darfur clashes

Fighting between Masalit people and Arab nomads in Al Geneina District, West Darfur, left 84 dead and 160 wounded, including soldiers, on 16 January. This was two weeks after the United Nations withdrew its peacekeepers from the region after 13 years.[182] Based on a statement from the Darfur Bar Association, the fresh violence initiated after a member of an Arab tribe was stabbed by another member of the Masalit tribe.[183] Following the unrest, a high profile delegation authorized by Sudanese Prime Minister Abdalla Hamdok was sent to the region in order to assess the situation.[184]

Separately, clashes were also reported to have erupted in the eastern part of Sudan on Thursday and Friday between two ethnic groups, the Beni Amer and Nuba at Port Sudan.[185]

On 17 January, a curfew was put in place by the Sudanese authorities, including a state of emergency in Sudan’s West Darfur region.[186]

As of 18 January, the death toll was reported to have reached at least 129 people, including women and children, since the beginning of the clashes between the Arabs and non-Arabs in West Darfur on Friday, according to the ABC News.[187][188]

However, the United Nations has urged the Sudanese government to see to the de-escalation of the violence in West Darfur and safeguard civilian lives.[189]

On 20 January, the residence of the provincial Governor of West Darfur Mohammed Abdalla al-Douma, was under an attempted attack by unidentified gunmen.[190] Security forces managed to repel the attack without any reports of casualties or destruction of properties.[191] Meanwhile, reports from local media suggested that during the assassination attempt, several blasts were heard all over the state.[192]

On 24 January, the UN refugee agency revealed that since the initial outbreak of tribal clashes in Darfur earlier this January, at least 250 people have lost their lives. Three humanitarian workers were also among those who were killed, the agency added.[193][194] Also, more than 100,000 people are believed to have been displaced, fleeing into neighboring Chad, with about 3,500 of them being mostly women and children.[195][196]

On 28 March, Al-Hilu, leader of SPLA-North, signed a peace agreement with the Sudanese government in Juba, South Sudan, which would guarantee freedom of religion in a civil, democratic Sudan that would also have a single unified army to protect national security.[197]

On 5 April, fresh tribal clashes erupted in West Darfur’s El Geneina, which led to the death of at least 40 people, the United Nations revealed.[198]During the three days of clashes, at least 58 people were also said to have been injured, according to the VOA News.[199] Later in the evening, Sudan’s defense council declared a state of emergency and also deployed troops to the troubled region of West Darfur state.[200]

As of 6 April, the West Darfur State Doctors' Committee reported that the death toll had reached 50, with 132 others injured, according to the Middle East Online.[201] According to the UN, reports suggest that there has been the destruction of humanitarian facilities, civilian lives, including women and children, during the violence in the region.[202] Also, the decision to declare a state of emergency in the region was applauded by the UN envoy for Sudan, Volker Peretz and he urged the government to ensure the protection of humanitarian organizations, so as to provide services to the victims of the violence.[203]

On 7 April, 37 more deaths were recorded by the Sudanese doctors’ committee in West Darfur, increasing the total death toll to 87, according to Al Jazeera.[204]

On 8 April, the governor of the West Darfur state, Mohamed Abdallah Douma stated in a news conference that at least 132 people had been killed during the days of unrest in the state.[205] However, the Western Darfur State Doctors Committee has placed the death toll to be at least 125 during the sixth day of tribal clashes consecutively, with 208 others wounded, according to CNN.[206]

The UN has called on the authorities to ensure that citizens are protected and that an immediate investigation of the clashes is launched.[207] They also maintained that all the perpetrators of the violence must be held responsible, in order to attain justice for those affected during the clashes, including immediate deployment of security forces to the region.[208]

On 12 April, following several days of violence in West Darfur that led to the death of at least 144 people, the leader of Sudan reportedly visited the region, according to ABC News.[209] Meanwhile, the head of the ruling sovereign council, Gen. Abdel-Fattah Burhan, including high-ranking security and military officials, also visited the provincial capital of West Darfur, Genena, where they held separate talks with the Arab Rizeigat and the non-Arab Masalit tribes.[210] After the visit made by the Khartoum delegation, the Dar Masalit Displaced People expressed their refusal to accept the result of the mediation headed by El Burhan. They blamed the paramilitary Rapid Support Forces for the unrest in the region.[211][212]

On 14 April, a statement released by the U.N. refugee agency confirmed that the violence in the capital of West Darfur, El Geneina had stopped, based on reports which suggested that there haven’t been any shootings for the past four days.[213] The days of deadly tribal clashes have compelled at least 1,860 people to flee into the neighboring Chad, the agency added.[214] Most of the refugees are believed to be women, children, and the elderly.[215] Babar Baloch, a spokesman for the UN High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) maintained that the refugees arriving revealed that their homes and properties were being destroyed.[216]

On 28 April, clashes reportedly erupted during a sit-in protest in South Darfur’s Bielel between security forces and protesters.[217] In an attempt by the Sudanese security forces to forcefully disperse the protesters, one woman was said to have been killed while leaving at least eight others wounded. Tear gas was said to have been used to disperse the crowd by a joint force from both the army and the police, including the firing of live rounds.[218][219]

Meanwhile, at the secretariat of the state government in Nyala, protesters gathered in front of the building to protest against an attack on their village, Gassat Enjemet, which left three people dead and others wounded.[220]

On 5 May, thousands of displaced people affected by the heavy clashes in El Geneina, have requested that they want to go back to their homes. They made the request due to the awful living conditions in their shelters, the acting governor of West Darfur, Mohamed Zakaria revealed.[221][222]

On 29 May, a group of armed men reportedly opened fire in a market in West Darfur’s Foro Baranga. As a result of the shooting, one person was said to have been killed, leaving five others seriously wounded.[223][224] Angry protests erupted following the attack, with protesters setting many shops ablaze and also blocking all main roads leading to the town.[225] According to Al Jazeera, some people threatened the doctors at the hospital to attend to their wounded patients and leave other patients.[226]

On 5 June, clashes between the Arab Taisha and ethnic African Fallata tribes in South Darfur’s Um Dafuq claimed the lives of at least 36 people, with 37 others wounded.[227][228] An aid worker who spoke on the condition of anonymity revealed that the clash erupted as a result of a land dispute between the two conflicting parties.[229] Subsequently, a certain state of calm was said to have been attained, following the deployment of more troops to the South Darfur’s Um Dafuk.[230]

Janjaweed's participation

 
Destroyed villages (August 2004)

The well-armed Janjaweed quickly gained an advantage over rebel factions. By the spring of 2004, several thousand people – mostly from the non-Arab population – had been killed and as many as a million more had been driven from their homes, causing a major humanitarian crisis. The crisis took on an international dimension when over 100,000 refugees poured into neighboring Chad, pursued by militiamen who clashed with Chadian government forces along the border. More than 70 militiamen and 10 Chadian soldiers were killed in one gun battle in April. A United Nations observer team reported that non-Arab villages were singled out, while Arab villages were left untouched:

The 23 Fur villages in the Shattaya Administrative Unit have been completely depopulated, looted and burnt to the ground (the team observed several such sites driving through the area for two days). Meanwhile, dotted alongside these charred locations are unharmed, populated and functioning Arab settlements. In some locations, the distance between a destroyed Fur village and an Arab village is less than 500 meters.[231]

A 2011 study examined 1,000 interviews with black African participants who fled from 22 village clusters to various refugee camps in 2003 and 2004. The study found: 1) the frequency of hearing racial epithets during an attack was 70% higher when it was led by the Janjaweed alone compared to official police forces; it was 80% higher when the Janjaweed and the Sudanese Government attacked together; 2) the risk of displacement was nearly 110% higher during a joint attack compared to when the police or Janjaweed acted alone, and 85% higher when Janjaweed forces attacked alone compared to when the attack was only perpetrated by government forces; 3) attacks on food and water supplies made it 129% more likely for inhabitants to be displaced compared to attacks that involved house burnings or killings; 4) perpetrators knew and took "special advantage" of the susceptibility of Darfur residents to attacks focused on basic resources. This vulnerability came against the backdrop of increased regional desertification.[232]

Rape of women and young girls

Main article: Rape during the Darfur genocide

Immediately after the Janjaweed entered the conflict, the rape of women and young girls, often by multiple militiamen and often throughout entire nights, began to be reported at a staggering rate.[233] Children as young as 2 years old were reported victims, while mothers were assaulted in front of their children.[234] Young women were attacked so violently that they were unable to walk following the attack.[235]

Non-Arab people were reportedly raped by Janjaweed militiamen as a result of the Sudanese government's goal of completely eliminating the presence of black Africans and non-Arabs from Darfur.[236] The Washington Post Foreign Service interviewed verified victims of the rapes and recorded that Arabic terms such as "abid" and "zurga" were used, which mean slave and black. One victim, Sawelah Suliman, was told by her assailant, "Black girl, you are too dark. You are like a dog. We want to make a light baby."[237] In an 88-page report, victims from Darfur have also accused the Rapid Support Forces of rape and assault as recently as 2015.[238]

Mortality estimates

 
A mother with her sick baby at Abu Shouk IDP camp in North Darfur

Multiple casualty estimates have been published since the war began, ranging from roughly 10,000 civilians (Sudan government) to hundreds of thousands.[239]

In September 2004, 18 months after the conflict began, the World Health Organization estimated that there had been 50,000 deaths in Darfur, mostly due to starvation. An updated estimate published the following month put the number of deaths for the 6-month period from March to October 2004 due to starvation and disease at 70,000; These figures were criticized because they only considered short periods and did not include deaths from violence.[240] A more recent British Parliamentary Report estimated that over 300,000 people had died[241] and others have published even higher death toll estimates.

In March 2005, the UN's Emergency Relief Coordinator Jan Egeland estimated that 10,000 people were dying each month, excluding deaths due to ethnic violence.[242] An estimated 2.7 million people had at that time been displaced from their homes, mostly seeking refuge in camps in Darfur's major towns.[243] Two hundred thousand had fled to neighboring Chad. Reports of violent deaths compiled by the UN indicate between 6,000 and 7,000 fatalities from 2004 to 2007.[244]

In May 2005, the Centre for Research on the Epidemiology of Disasters (CRED) of the School of Public Health of the Université catholique de Louvain in Brussels, Belgium published an analysis of mortality in Darfur. Their estimate stated that from September 2003 to January 2005, between 98,000 and 181,000 persons died in Darfur, including 63,000 to 146,000 excess deaths.[245]

In August 2010, Dr. Eric Reeves argued that total mortality from all violent causes, direct and indirect, at that point in the conflict, exceeded 500,000. His analysis took account of all previous mortality data and studies, including that by the Centre for Research on the Epidemiology of Disaster.[246][247]

The UN disclosed on 22 April 2008 that it might have underestimated the Darfur death toll by nearly 50%.[248]

In July 2009, The Christian Science Monitor published an op-ed stating that many of the published mortality rates have been misleading because they include a large number of people who had died of disease and malnutrition, as well as those who died from direct violence.[249]

In January 2010, the Centre for Research on the Epidemiology of Disasters published an article in a special issue of The Lancet. The article, entitled "Patterns of mortality rates in Darfur conflict", estimated with 95% confidence that the excess number of deaths is between 178,258 and 461,520 (with a mean of 298,271), with 80% of these due to disease.[250]

International response

Main article: International response to the Darfur conflict
 
U.S. President George W. Bush speaking to the UN General Assembly on the crisis in Darfur, September 21, 2004

International attention to the Darfur genocide largely began with reports by Amnesty International in July 2003 and the International Crisis Group in December 2003. However, widespread media coverage did not start until the outgoing United Nations Resident and Humanitarian Coordinator for Sudan, Mukesh Kapila, called Darfur the "world's greatest humanitarian crisis" in March 2004.[251] Organizations such as STAND: A Student Anti-Genocide Coalition, later under the umbrella of Genocide Intervention Network, and the Save Darfur Coalition emerged and became particularly active in the areas of engaging the United States Congress and President on the issue and pushing for divestment, initially launched by Adam Sterling under the auspices of the Sudan Divestment Task Force.

 
The Save Darfur Coalition advocacy group coordinated a large rally in New York in April 2006. Depicted here is a discarded protest sign littering the street.

In May 2009 the Mandate Darfur was canceled because the "Sudanese government is obstructing the safe passage of Darfurian delegates from Sudan."[252] The Mandate was a conference that would have brought together 300 representatives from different regions of Darfur's civil society.[252] The conference planned was to be held in Addis Ababa sometime in early May.

International Criminal Court

See also: International Criminal Court investigation in Darfur

In March 2005, the UN Security Council formally referred the situation in Darfur to the Prosecutor of the International Criminal Court, taking into account the report of the International Commission of Inquiry on Darfur, authorized by United Nations Security Council Resolution 1564 of 2004, but without mentioning specific crimes.[253] Two permanent members of the Security Council, the United States and China, abstained from the vote on the referral resolution.[254]

In April 2007, the Judges of the International Criminal Court issued arrest warrants against the former Minister of State for the Interior, Ahmed Haroun, and a Janjaweed leader, Ali Kushayb, for crimes against humanity and war crimes.[255] The Sudan Government said that the ICC had no jurisdiction to try Sudanese citizens and that it would not surrender the two men.[256]

On 14 July 2008, the Prosecutor filed ten charges of war crimes against Sudan's incumbent President Omar al-Bashir, including three counts of genocide, five of crimes against humanity and two of murder. The Prosecutor claimed that Mr. al-Bashir "masterminded and implemented a plan to destroy in substantial part" three tribal groups in Darfur because of their ethnicity. Leaders from three Darfur tribes sued ICC prosecutor Luis Moreno Ocampo for libel, defamation, and igniting hatred and tribalism.[257]

After an arrest warrant was issued for the Sudanese president in March 2009, the Prosecutor appealed to add genocide charges. However, the Pre-Trial Chamber found that there was no reasonable ground to support the contention that he had a specific intent to commit genocide (dolus specialis), which is an intention to destroy, in whole or in part, a protected group. The definition adopted by the Pre-Trial Chamber is the definition of the Genocide Convention, the Rome Statute, and some ICTY cases. On 3 February 2010 the Appeals Chamber of the ICC found that the Pre-Trial Chamber had applied "an erroneous standard of proof when evaluating the evidence submitted by the Prosecutor" and that the Prosecutor's application for a warrant of arrest on the genocide charges should be sent back to the Pre-Trial Chamber to review based on the correct legal standard.[258] In July 2010, al-Bashir was charged with three counts of genocide in Darfur by the International Criminal Court for orchestrating the Darfur genocide.[259]

Al-Bashir was the first incumbent head of state charged with crimes under the Rome Statute.[260] He rejected the charges and said, "Whoever has visited Darfur, met officials and discovered their ethnicities and tribes ... will know that all of these things are lies."[261]

It is expected that al-Bashir will not face trial in The Hague until he is apprehended in a nation which accepts ICC jurisdiction, as Sudan is not a party to the Rome Statute, which it signed but did not ratify.[262] Payam Akhavan, a professor of international law at McGill University in Montreal and a former war crimes prosecutor, says although he may not go to trial, "He will effectively be in prison within the Sudan itself...Al-Bashir now is not going to be able to leave the Sudan without facing arrest."[263] The Prosecutor warned that authorities could arrest the President if he enters international airspace. The Sudanese government has announced that the Presidential plane would be accompanied by jet fighters.[264] However, the Arab League announced solidarity with al-Bashir. Since the warrant, he has visited Qatar and Egypt. The African Union also condemned the charges.

Some analysts think that the ICC indictment is counterproductive and harms the peace process. Only days after the ICC indictment, al-Bashir expelled 13 international aid organizations from Darfur and disbanded three domestic aid organizations.[265] In the aftermath of the expulsions, conditions in the displaced camps deteriorated.[266] Previous ICC indictments, such as the arrest warrants of the LRA leadership in the ongoing war in northern Uganda, were also accused of harming peace processes by criminalizing one side of a war.[267]

Foreign governments which supported the Sudanese government

Al-Bashir requested assistance from non-western countries after the West, led by America, imposed sanctions on his government . He said, "From the first day, our policy was clear: To look eastward, toward China, Malaysia, India, Pakistan, Indonesia, and even Korea and Japan, even if the Western influence upon some [of these] countries is strong. We believe that the Chinese expansion was natural because it filled the space left by Western governments, the United States, and international funding agencies. The success of the Sudanese experiment in dealing with China without political conditions or pressures encouraged other African countries to look toward China."[268]

In 2007, Amnesty International issued a report[269][270][271] accusing China and Russia of supplying arms, ammunition and related equipment to Sudan, some of which the government may have transferred to Darfur in violation of a UN arms embargo. The report claims that Sudan imported 10–20 combat aircraft from China in the early-mid-2000s, including three A-5 Fantan fighters that have been sighted in Darfur.[272] The report provides evidence that the Sudan Air Force conducted indiscriminate aerial bombings of villages in Darfur and eastern Chad using ground attack fighters and repurposed Antonov transport planes. However, it does not specify whether the ground attack fighters in question are those purchased from China in the early-mid-2000s, and the Antonovs' origin remains unclear. The report also lists seven Soviet- or Russian-made Mi-24 Hind gunships that had been deployed to Darfur, though without specifying which country sold them to Sudan, or when.[273] While noting that Russia sold arms worth tens of millions of dollars to Sudan in 2005 alone,[274] the report does not specifically identify any weapons sold to Sudan by Russia after the outbreak of the Darfur conflict or after the imposition of the UNSC ban on arms transfers to Darfur, and it does not provide any evidence that any such weapons were deployed to Darfur.

The NGO Human Rights First claimed that over 90% of the light weapons currently being imported by Sudan and used in the conflict are from China.[275] Human rights advocates and opponents of the Sudanese government portray China's role in providing weapons and aircraft as a cynical attempt to obtain oil, just as colonial powers once supplied African chieftains with the military means to maintain control as they extracted natural resources.[276][277] According to China's critics, China threatened to use its veto on the U.N. Security Council to protect Khartoum from sanctions and was able to water down every resolution on Darfur in order to protect its interests.[278] Accusations of the supply of weapons from China, which were then transferred to Darfur by the Sudanese government in violation of the UN arms embargo, continued in 2010.[279]

Sarah Wykes, a senior campaigner at Global Witness, an NGO that campaigns for better natural resource governance, says: "Sudan has purchased about $100m in arms from China and has used these weapons against civilians in Darfur."[277]

According to the report Following the Thread: Arms and Ammunition Tracing in Sudan and South Sudan, released in May 2014 by the Swiss research group Small Arms Survey, "Over the period 2001–12, Khartoum's reports to UN Comtrade reveal significant fluctuation in annual conventional arms imports. The majority of the Sudanese government's total self-reported imports of small arms and light weapons, their ammunition, and ‘conventional weapons’ over the period originated in China (58 per cent), followed by Iran (13 per cent), St. Vincent and the Grenadines (9 per cent), and Ukraine (8 per cent)."[280] The report found that Chinese weapons were pervasive among most parties to the Sudanese conflicts, including the war in Darfur, but identified few if any weapons of Russian origin. (The section "Chinese weapons and ammunition" receives 20 pages in the report, whereas the only mention of Russian arms is to be found in the sentence "the majority of...mines [in South Sudan] have been of Chinese and Soviet/Russian origin.").

China and Russia denied the accusation by stating that they had not broken any UN sanctions. China has a close relationship with Sudan and increased its military co-operation with the government in early 2007. Because of Sudan's plentiful supply of oil, China considers good relations with Sudan to be a strategic necessity.[281][282][283] China has direct commercial interests in Sudan's oil. China's state-owned company CNPC controls between 60 and 70 percent of Sudan's total oil production. Additionally, it owns the largest single share (40 percent) of Sudan's national oil company, Greater Nile Petroleum Operating Company.[284] China consistently opposed economic and non-military sanctions on Sudan.[285]

In March 2007, threats to boycott the Olympic games were made by French presidential candidate François Bayrou, in an effort to stop China's support.[286][287] Sudan divestment efforts concentrated on PetroChina, the national petroleum company with extensive investments in Sudan.[288]

Criticism of the international response

Gérard Prunier, a scholar specializing in African conflicts, argued that the world's most powerful countries have limited themselves to expressing concern and demand for the United Nations to take action. The UN, lacking initiative and will, initially left the African Union to deploy a token force without a mandate to protect civilians.[251]

On 16 October 2006, Minority Rights Group (MRG) published a critical report, challenging that the UN and the great powers could have prevented the crisis and that few lessons appeared to have been drawn from the Rwandan genocide. MRG's executive director, Mark Lattimer, stated that: "this level of crisis, the killings, rape and displacement could have been foreseen and avoided ... Darfur would just not be in this situation had the UN systems got its act together after Rwanda: their action was too little too late."[289] On 20 October 120 genocide survivors of The Holocaust, and the Cambodian and Rwandan genocides, backed by six aid agencies, submitted an open letter to the European Union, calling on them to do more, proposing a UN peacekeeping force as "the only viable option."[290]

Coverage by the media

Watchers of the Sky, a 2014 documentary by Edet Belzberg, interviews former journalist and United States Ambassador to the United Nations Samantha Power about the war in Darfur. Also featured is Luis Moreno Ocampo, former ICC jurist and lead prosecutor on the ICC investigation in Darfur.[291][292] The Brutality of the militias, the violence which was used by the armed forces, the corruption and the human rights abuses were also shown on ER television series (e.g. episodes 12x19, 12x20), as well as in the 2007 documentaries They Turned Our Desert Into Fire[293] and The Devil Came on Horseback.[294]

See also

Notes

  1. ^ The name "Land Cruiser War" for the conflict in Darfur is primarily used by Justice and Equality Movement (JEM) rebels due to the widespread use of Toyota Land Cruisers as technicals on both sides of the war.[32]

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Bibliography

External links

  •   Media related to Darfur conflict at Wikimedia Commons
  • Photographer's Account – "The Cost of Silence: A Traveling Exhibition"

May 01, 2023
darfur, situation, darfur, redirects, here, criminal, investigation, international, criminal, court, international, criminal, court, investigation, darfur, further, information, darfur, genocide, also, nicknamed, land, cruiser, note, major, armed, conflict, da. Situation in Darfur redirects here For the criminal investigation by the International Criminal Court see International Criminal Court investigation in Darfur Further information Darfur genocide The War in Darfur also nicknamed the Land Cruiser War note 1 was a major armed conflict in the Darfur region of Sudan that began in February 2003 when the Sudan Liberation Movement SLM and the Justice and Equality Movement JEM rebel groups began fighting against the government of Sudan which they accused of oppressing Darfur s non Arab population 33 34 The government responded to attacks by carrying out a campaign of ethnic cleansing against Darfur s non Arabs This resulted in the death of hundreds of thousands of civilians and the indictment of Sudan s president Omar al Bashir for genocide war crimes and crimes against humanity by the International Criminal Court 35 War in DarfurPart of the Sudanese Civil WarsMilitary situation in Sudan on 6 June 2016 Darfur on the far left Under control of the Sudanese Government and allies Under control of the Sudan Revolutionary Front and allies Under control of the Sudanese Awakening Revolutionary Council For a more detailed map of the current military situation in Sudan see here Date26 February 2003 31 August 2020 16 years 11 months 3 weeks and 6 days LocationDarfur SudanResultStalemate Intertwined with the Sudanese conflict in South Kordofan and Blue Nile Until 2020 Comprehensive peace agreement signed with most rebel groupsBelligerentsSRF a 2006 2020 JEM since 2003 SLA some factions since 2003 LJM 2010 11 b SLA some factions SARC from 2014 SLFA from 2017 2 SLA Unity SLMJ JEM Jali Supported by South Sudan 3 Chad 2005 2010 4 Eritrea until 2008 5 Libya until 2011 6 Uganda until 2015 7 Sudan SAF Janjaweed RSFChadian rebel groups 8 Anti Gaddafi forces 2011 9 Supported by Libya since 2011 10 China 11 Iran until 2016 12 Russia 13 Belarus 14 Syria 2000s alleged 15 UNAMID 2007 2020 Commanders and leadersAhmed Diraige Khalil Ibrahim Gibril Ibrahim Abdul Wahid al Nur SLA AW Minni Minnawi SLA MM Musa Hilal POW 16 SARC Abdel Fattah al Burhan Omar al Bashir until April 2019 17 Musa Hilal until 2017 Hamid Dawai Ali Kushayb Ahmed Haroun until April 2019 18 19 Mohamed Hamdan Dagalo Mohammed Nour Abdelkerim c Martin Ihoeghian Uhomoibhi 20 Frank Mushyo Kamanzi 21 Units involvedSLA SLA AW 16 SLA MM 16 SLA Second Revolution 22 SLA Unity 23 JEM Gibril Ibrahim faction Abdallah Bishir Jali faction 23 Sudanese Armed Forces Popular Defence Forces until April 2019 24 Rapid Support ForcesNo specific unitsStrengthSRF 60 000 JEM 35 000 25 SAF 109 300 d RSF 17 500 26 Janjaweed lt 25 000UNAMID 15 845 soldiers and 3 403 police officers 28 Casualties and lossesUnknownUnknown235 killed as of 31 August 2016 29 Total killed 300 000 UN estimate 10 000 Sudanese government estimate 30 Total displaced 2 850 000 3 000 000 31 UN estimate 450 000 Sudanese government estimate Known as the National Redemption Front prior to 2011 Signed the Doha Darfur Peace Agreement in 2011 1 Although he was a Chadian rebel leader and he was also the head of an insurgent militia Mohammed Nour Abdelkerim was so close to the Sudanese Armed Forces that he enlisted as an officer in the Popular Defence Forces while his troops were temporarily organized as a regular pro government militia He and his militia left Sudanese service in 2005 in order to take part in the Chadian Civil War 2005 2010 8 Number does not represent the number of soldiers stationed in Darfur but the total number of military personnel 26 27 One side of the conflict is mainly composed of the Sudanese military police and the Janjaweed a Sudanese militia group whose members are mostly recruited among Arabized indigenous Africans and a small number of Bedouin of the northern Rizeigat the majority of other Arab groups in Darfur remained uninvolved 36 The other side is made up of rebel groups notably the SLM A and the JEM recruited primarily from the non Arab Muslim Fur Zaghawa and Masalit ethnic groups The African Union and the United Nations also have a joint peacekeeping mission in the region named UNAMID Although the Sudanese government publicly denies that it supported the Janjaweed evidence supports claims that it provided financial assistance and weapons and coordinated joint attacks many against civilians 37 38 Estimates of the number of human casualties range up to several hundred thousand dead from either combat or starvation and disease Mass displacements and coercive migrations forced millions into refugee camps or across the border creating a humanitarian crisis Former U S Secretary of State Colin Powell described the situation as a genocide or acts of genocide 39 The Sudanese government and the JEM signed a ceasefire agreement in February 2010 with a tentative agreement to pursue peace The JEM has the most to gain from the talks and could see semi autonomy much like South Sudan 40 However talks were disrupted by accusations that the Sudanese army launched raids and air strikes against a village violating the Tolu agreement The JEM the largest rebel group in Darfur vowed to boycott negotiations 41 The August 2019 Draft Constitutional Declaration signed by military and civilian representatives during the Sudanese Revolution requires that a peace process leading to a peace agreement be made in Darfur and other regions of armed conflict in Sudan within the first six months of the 39 month transition period to democratic civilian government 42 43 A comprehensive peace agreement was signed on 31 August 2020 between the Sudanese authorities and several rebel factions to end armed hostilities 44 List of abbreviations used in this articleAU African Union DLF Darfur Liberation Front ICC International Criminal Court IDP Internally Displaced Person JEM Justice and Equality Movement SLM A A Sudan Liberation Movement Army SLM A Sudan Liberation Movement SPLA Sudan People s Liberation Army UN United Nations UNAMID United Nations African Union Mission in Darfur UNSC United Nations Security CouncilContents 1 Origins of the conflict 1 1 Allegations of apartheid 2 Timeline 2 1 Beginning 2 2 2004 2005 2 3 2006 2 3 1 Proposed UN peacekeeping force 2 3 2 Autumn 2 3 3 Proposed compromise UN force and Sudanese offensive 2 4 2007 2 5 2008 2 6 2009 2 7 2010 to 2012 2 8 2013 2 9 2014 2 10 2015 2 11 2016 2 12 2017 2 13 2018 2 14 2019 2 15 2020 2 16 2021 3 Janjaweed s participation 4 Rape of women and young girls 5 Mortality estimates 6 International response 6 1 International Criminal Court 6 2 Foreign governments which supported the Sudanese government 6 3 Criticism of the international response 7 Coverage by the media 8 See also 9 Notes 10 References 11 Bibliography 12 External linksOrigins of the conflict EditMain article History of Darfur Darfur Arabic for the home of the Fur was not a traditional part of the states organized along the upper Nile valley but instead organized as an independent sultanate in the 14th century Owing to the migration of the Banu Hilal tribe in the 11th century AD the peoples of the Nile valley became heavily Arabicized while the hinterlands remained closer to native Sudanese cultures It was first annexed to the Egyptian Sudan in 1875 and then surrendered by its governor Slatin Pasha to the Mahdia in 1883 Following the Anglo Egyptian victory in the Mahdist War Sultan Ali Dinar was reinstated as a British client before being deposed by a 1916 expedition after he made overtures in favor of Turkey amid the First World War Subsequently Darfur remained a province of the Anglo Egyptian Sudan and the independent Republic of the Sudan There are several different explanations for the origins of the conflict that started in 2003 One explanation involves the land disputes between semi nomadic livestock herders and those who practice sedentary agriculture 45 Water access has also been identified as a major source of the conflict 46 The Darfur crisis is also related to a second conflict In southern Sudan civil war has raged for decades between the northern Arab dominated government and Christian and animist black southerners Yet another origin is conflict between the Islamist Khartoum based national government and two rebel groups based in Darfur the Sudan Liberation Army and the Justice and Equality Movement 47 Allegations of apartheid Edit In early 1991 non Arabs of the Zaghawa tribe of Sudan attested that they were victims of an intensifying Arab apartheid campaign segregating Arabs and non Arabs 48 Sudanese Arabs who controlled the government were widely referred to as practicing apartheid against Sudan s non Arab citizens The government was accused of deftly manipulat ing Arab solidarity to carry out policies of apartheid and ethnic cleansing 49 American University economist George Ayittey accused the Arab government of Sudan of practicing racism against black citizens 50 According to Ayittey In Sudan the Arabs monopolized power and excluded blacks Arab apartheid 51 Many African commentators joined Ayittey in accusing Sudan of practising Arab apartheid 52 Alan Dershowitz claimed Sudan was an example of Apartheid 53 Former Canadian Minister of Justice Irwin Cotler echoed the accusation 54 Timeline EditBeginning Edit Authors Julie Flint and Alex de Waal marked the onset of the genocide on 26 February 2003 when a group calling itself the Darfur Liberation Front DLF publicly claimed credit for an attack on Golo the headquarters of Jebel Marra District Prior to this attack however conflict had broken out as rebels attacked police stations army outposts and military convoys and the government engaged in a massive air and land assault on the rebel stronghold in the Marrah Mountains The rebels first military action was a successful attack on an army garrison on 25 February 2002 The government had been aware of a unified rebel movement since an attack on the Golo police station in June 2002 Flint and de Waal date the beginning of the rebellion to 21 July 2001 when a group of Zaghawa and Fur met in Abu Gamra and swore oaths on the Qur an to work together to defend against government sponsored attacks on their villages 55 Nearly all of Darfur s residents are Muslim including the Janjaweed as well as government leaders in Khartoum 56 On 25 March 2003 the rebels seized the garrison town of Tine along the Chadian border seizing large quantities of supplies and arms Despite a threat by President Omar al Bashir to unleash the army the military had little in reserve The army was already deployed in both the south where the Second Sudanese Civil War was drawing to an end and the east where rebels sponsored by Eritrea were threatening a newly constructed pipeline from the central oilfields to Port Sudan The rebel guerilla tactic of hit and run raids proved almost impossible for the army untrained in desert operations to counter However its aerial bombardment of rebel positions on the mountain was devastating 57 Arab Janjaweed tribes have been a major player in the conflict At 5 30 am on 25 April 2003 the Darfur genocide arose when the Sudan Liberation Movement and the JEM which is the largest rebel group in Darfur entered Al Fashir the capital city of North Darfur and attacked the sleeping garrison In the next four hours four Antonov bombers and helicopter gunships according to the government seven according to the rebels were destroyed on the ground 75 soldiers pilots and technicians were killed and 32 were captured including the commander of the air base a Major General The success of the raid was unprecedented in Sudan in the twenty years of the war in the south the rebel Sudan People s Liberation Army SPLA had never before carried out such an operation 58 The Al Fashir raid was a turning point both militarily and psychologically The armed forces had been humiliated by the raid placing the government in a difficult strategic situation The incompetent armed forces needed to be retrained and redeployed amid concerns about the loyalty of the many Darfurian non commissioned officers and soldiers Responsibility for prosecuting the war was given to Sudanese military intelligence Nevertheless in the middle months of 2003 rebels won 34 of 38 engagements In May the SLA destroyed a battalion at Kutum killing 500 and taking 300 prisoners in mid July 250 were killed in a second attack on Tine The SLA began to infiltrate farther east threatening to extend the war into Kordofan Given that the army was consistently losing the war effort switched to emphasize three elements military intelligence the air force and the Janjaweed The latter were armed Baggara herders whom the government had used to suppress a Masalit uprising from 1986 to 1999 The Janjaweed became the center of the new counter insurgency strategy Though the government consistently denied supporting them military resources were poured into Darfur and the Janjaweed were outfitted as a paramilitary force complete with communication equipment and some artillery The military planners were aware of the probable consequences of such a strategy similar methods undertaken in the Nuba Mountains and around the southern oil fields during the 1990s had resulted in massive human rights violations and forced displacements 59 2004 2005 Edit In 2004 Chad brokered negotiations in N Djamena leading to the April 8 Humanitarian Ceasefire Agreement between the Sudanese government the JEM and the SLA One group that did not participate in the April cease fire talks or agreement the National Movement for Reform and Development split from the JEM in April Janjaweed and rebel attacks continued despite the ceasefire and the African Union AU formed a Ceasefire Commission CFC to monitor its observance Darfur refugee camp in Chad 2005 In August the African Union sent 150 Rwandan troops to protect the ceasefire monitors However it soon became apparent that 150 troops would not be enough and they were subsequently joined by 150 Nigerian troops On 18 September the United Nations Security Council issued Resolution 1564 declaring that the Sudan government had not met its commitments and expressing concern at helicopter attacks and assaults by the Janjaweed It welcomed the intention of the African Union to enhance its monitoring mission and urged all member states to support such efforts During April 2005 after the Sudan government signed a ceasefire agreement with Sudan People s Liberation Army which led to the end of the Second Sudanese Civil War the African Union Mission in Sudan AMIS force was increased by 600 troops and 80 military observers In July the force was increased by about 3 300 with a budget of 220 million dollars In April 2005 AMIS was increased to about 7 000 The scale of the crisis led to warnings of an imminent disaster with United Nations Secretary General Kofi Annan warning about the risk of genocide The scale of the Janjaweed campaign led to comparisons with the Rwandan genocide a parallel denied by the Sudanese government Independent observers noted that the tactics which included dismemberment and killing of noncombatants including young children and infants were more akin to the ethnic cleansing used in the Yugoslav wars and warned that the region s remoteness meant that hundreds of thousands of people were effectively cut off from aid The Brussels based International Crisis Group had reported in May 2004 that over 350 000 people could potentially die as a result of starvation and disease 60 AMIS soldiers from Rwanda preparing to depart to Darfur in 2005 On 10 July 2005 Ex SPLA leader John Garang was sworn in as Sudan s vice president 61 However on 30 July Garang died in a helicopter crash 62 Despite improved security talks between the various rebels in the Darfur region progressed slowly An attack on the Chadian town of Adre near the Sudanese border led to the death of 300 rebels in December Sudan was blamed for the attack which was the second in the region in three days 63 Escalating tensions led the government of Chad to declare its hostility toward Sudan and to call for Chadians to mobilise against the common enemy 64 See Chad Sudan conflict 2006 Edit Main article Darfur Peace Agreement Minni Minnawi with U S President George W Bush after he signed the May agreement On 5 May 2006 the Sudanese government signed the Darfur Peace Agreement 65 along with the faction of the SLA led by Minni Minnawi However the agreement was rejected by the smaller Justice and Equality Movement and a rival faction of the SLA led by Abdul Wahid al Nur 38 66 The accord was orchestrated by chief negotiator Salim Ahmed Salim working on behalf of the African Union U S Deputy Secretary of State Robert B Zoellick AU representatives and other foreign officials operating in Abuja Nigeria The 115 page agreement included agreements on national and state power sharing demilitarization of the Janjaweed and other militias an integration of SLM A and JEM troops into the Sudanese Armed Forces and police a system of federal wealth sharing for the promotion of Darfurian economic interests a referendum on the future status of Darfur and measures to promote the flow of humanitarian aid 38 67 Representatives of the African Union Nigeria Libya the United States the United Kingdom the United Nations the European Union the Arab League Egypt Canada Norway and the Netherlands served as witnesses 38 July and August 2006 saw renewed fighting international aid organizations considering leaving due to attacks against their personnel Annan called for 18 000 international peacekeepers in Darfur to replace the 7 000 man AMIS force 68 69 In one incident at Kalma seven women who ventured out of a refugee camp to gather firewood were gang raped beaten and robbed by the Janjaweed When they had finished the attackers stripped them naked and jeered at them as they fled 70 In a private meeting on 18 August Hedi Annabi Assistant Secretary General for Peacekeeping Operations warned that Sudan appeared to be preparing for a major military offensive 71 The warning came a day after UN Commission on Human Rights special investigator Sima Samar stated that Sudan s efforts remained poor despite the May Agreement 72 On 19 August Sudan reiterated its opposition to replacing AMIS with a UN force 73 resulting in the US issuing a threat to Sudan over the potential consequences 74 On 25 August Sudan rejected attending a United Nations Security Council UNSC meeting to explain its plan to send 10 000 Sudanese soldiers to Darfur instead of the proposed 20 000 UN peacekeeping force 75 The Security Council announced it would hold the meeting despite Sudan s absence 76 Also on 24 August the International Rescue Committee reported that hundreds of women were raped and sexually assaulted around the Kalma refugee camp during the previous several weeks 77 and that the Janjaweed were reportedly using rape to cause women to be humiliated and ostracised by their own communities 78 On 25 August the head of the U S State Department s Bureau of African Affairs Assistant Secretary Jendayi Frazer warned that the region faced a security crisis unless the UN peacekeeping force deployed 79 On 26 August two days before the UNSC meeting and Frazer was due to arrive in Khartoum Paul Salopek a U S National Geographic Magazine journalist appeared in court in Darfur facing charges of espionage he had crossed into the country illegally from Chad circumventing the Sudanese government s official restrictions on foreign journalists He was later released after direct negotiation with President al Bashir 80 This came a month after Tomo Kriznar a Slovenian presidential envoy was sentenced to two years in prison for spying 81 Proposed UN peacekeeping force Edit See also United Nations Security Council Resolution 1706 On 31 August 2006 the UNSC approved a resolution to send a new peacekeeping force of 17 300 to the region 82 Sudan expressed strong opposition to the resolution 83 On 1 September African Union officials reported that Sudan had launched a major offensive in Darfur killing more than 20 civilians and displacing over 1 000 84 On 5 September Sudan asked the existing AU force to leave by the end of the month adding that they have no right to transfer this assignment to the United Nations or any other party This right rests with the government of Sudan 85 On 4 September in a move not viewed as surprising Chad s president Idriss Deby voiced support for the UN peacekeeping force 86 The AU whose mandate expired on 30 September 2006 confirmed that AMIS would leave 87 The next day however a senior US State Department official told reporters that the AU force might remain past the deadline 88 Autumn Edit On 8 September Antonio Guterres head of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees said Darfur faced a humanitarian catastrophe 89 On 12 September Sudan s European Union envoy Pekka Haavisto claimed that the Sudanese army was bombing civilians in Darfur 90 A World Food Programme official reported that food aid had been blocked from reaching at least 355 000 people 91 Annan said the tragedy in Darfur has reached a critical moment It merits this council s closest attention and urgent action 92 check quotation syntax On 14 September the leader of the Sudan Liberation Movement Minni Minnawi stated that he did not object to the UN peacekeeping force rejecting the Sudanese government s view that such a deployment would be an act of Western invasion Minnawi claimed that AMIS can do nothing because the AU mandate is very limited 93 Khartoum remained opposed to UN involvement with Al Bashir depicting it as a colonial plan and stating that we do not want Sudan to turn into another Iraq 94 On 2 October the AU announced that it would extend its presence until 31 December 2006 95 96 Two hundred UN troops were sent to reinforce the AU force 97 On 6 October the UNSC voted to extend the mandate of the United Nations Mission in Sudan until 30 April 2007 98 On 9 October the Food and Agriculture Organization listed Darfur as the most pressing food emergency out of the forty countries listed on its Crop Prospects and Food Situation report 99 On 10 October the UN High Commissioner for Human Rights Louise Arbour claimed that the Sudanese government had prior knowledge of attacks by Janjaweed militias in Buram South Darfur the month before in which hundreds of civilians were killed 100 Children in the camps are encouraged to confront their psychological scars The clay figures depict an attack by Janjaweed On 12 October Nigerian Foreign Minister Joy Ogwu arrived in Darfur for a two day visit She urged the Sudanese government to accept the UN proposal Nigerian President Olusegun Obasanjo spoke against stand ing by and see ing genocide taking place in Darfur 101 On 13 October US President George W Bush imposed further sanctions against those deemed complicit in the atrocities under the Darfur Peace and Accountability Act of 2006 The measures were said to strengthen existing sanctions by prohibiting US citizens from engaging in oil related transactions with Sudan although US companies had been prohibited from doing business with Sudan since 1997 freezing the assets of complicit parties and denying them entry to the US 102 The lack of funding and equipment for the AU mission meant that the work of aid workers in Darfur was severely limited by fighting Some warned that the humanitarian situation could deteriorate to levels seen in 2003 and 2004 when UN officials called Darfur the world s worst humanitarian crisis 95 On 22 October the Sudan government told UN envoy Jan Pronk to leave the country within three days Pronk the senior UN official in the country had been heavily criticized by the Sudanese army after he posted a description of several recent military defeats in Darfur to his personal blog 103 On 1 November the US announced that it would formulate an international plan which it hoped the Sudanese government would find more palatable 104 On 9 November senior Sudanese presidential advisor Nafie Ali Nafie told reporters that his government was prepared to start unconditional talks with the National Redemption Front NRF rebel alliance but noted he saw little use for a new peace agreement The NRF which had rejected the May Agreement and sought a new peace agreement did not comment 105 In late 2006 Darfur Arabs started their own rebel group the Popular Forces Troops and announced on 6 December that they had repulsed an assault by the Sudanese army at Kas Zallingi the previous day They were the latest of numerous Darfur Arab groups to oppose the government since 2003 some of which had signed political accords with rebel movements The same period saw an example of a tribe based split within the Arab forces when relations between the farming Terjem and nomadic camel herding Mahria tribes became tense Terjem leaders accused the Mahria of kidnapping a Terjem boy while Mahria leaders said the Terjem had been stealing their animals Ali Mahamoud Mohammed the wali or governor of South Darfur said the fighting began in December when the Mahria drove their camels south in a seasonal migration trampling through Terjem territory near the Bulbul River Fighting resumed in July 2007 106 Proposed compromise UN force and Sudanese offensive Edit On 17 November reports of a potential deal to place a compromise peacekeeping force in Darfur were announced 107 but would later appear to have been rejected by Sudan 108 The UN claimed on 18 November that Sudan had agreed to the deployment of UN peacekeepers 109 Sudan s Foreign Minister Lam Akol stated that there should be no talk about a mixed force and that the UN s role should be restricted to technical support Also on 18 November the AU reported that Sudanese military and Sudanese backed militias had launched a ground and air operation in the region that resulted in about 70 civilian deaths The AU stated that this was a flagrant violation of security agreements 110 On 25 November a spokesperson for UN High Commissioner for Human Rights accused the Sudanese government of having committed a deliberate and unprovoked attack against civilians in Sirba on 11 November which claimed the lives of at least 30 people The Commissioner s statement maintained that contrary to the government s claim it appears that the Sudanese Armed Forces launched a deliberate and unprovoked attack on civilians and their property in Sirba and that this also involved extensive and wanton destruction and looting of civilian property 111 2007 Edit Displaced persons with water tank in Geneina West Darfur in 2007 According to the Save Darfur Coalition New Mexico Governor Bill Richardson and al Bashir agreed to a cease fire whereby the Sudanese government and rebel groups will cease hostilities for a period of 60 days while they work towards a lasting peace 112 In addition the Save Darfur press release stated that the agreement included a number of concessions to improve humanitarian aid and media access to Darfur Despite the formality of a ceasefire there have been further media reports of killings and other violence 113 114 On Sunday 15 April 2007 African Union peacekeepers were targeted and killed 115 The New York Times reported that a confidential United Nations report says the government of Sudan is flying arms and heavy military equipment into Darfur in violation of Security Council resolutions and painting Sudanese military planes white to disguise them as United Nations or African Union aircraft 116 On 28 February Sudan s humanitarian affairs minister Ahmed Haroun and a Janjaweed militia leader Ali Kushayb were charged by the International Criminal Court with 51 counts of war crimes and crimes against humanity Ahmed Haroun said he did not feel guilty his conscience was clear and that he was ready to defend himself 117 On 31 March Janjaweed militiamen killed up to 400 people in the eastern border region of Chad near Sudan The border villages of Tiero and Marena were encircled and then fired upon The women were robbed and the men shot according to the UNHCR Many of those who survived the initial attack ended up dying due to exhaustion and dehydration often while fleeing 118 On 14 April 2007 more attacks were reported by the UNHCR in Tiero and Marena 119 On 18 April President Bush gave a speech at the US Holocaust Memorial Museum criticizing the Sudanese government and threatened further sanctions if the situation did not improve 120 Al Bashir and Deby signed a peace agreement on 3 May 2007 aimed at reducing tension between their countries 121 The accord was brokered by Saudi Arabia It asserted that neither country would harbor train or fund armed movements opposed to the other Reuters reported that Deby s fears that Nouri s UFDD may have been receiving Saudi as well as Sudanese support could have pushed him to sign the Saudi mediated pact with Bashir Colin Thomas Jensen an expert on Chad and Darfur at the International Crisis Group think tank expressed doubts as to whether this new deal will lead to any genuine thaw in relations or improvement in the security situation Chadian rebel Union of Forces for Democracy and Development UFDD which had fought a hit and run war against Deby s forces in eastern Chad since 2006 stated that the Saudi backed peace deal would not stop its military campaign 122 Oxfam announced on 17 June that it would permanently pull out of Gereida the largest refugee camp holding more than 130 000 The agency cited inaction by local authorities from the Sudan Liberation Movement SLM which controls the region in addressing security concerns and violence against aid workers An employee of the NGO Action by Churches Together was murdered in June in West Darfur Vehicle hijackings also made them consider leaving 123 BBC News reported that a huge underground lake had been found This find could eliminate the competition for water resources 124 France and Britain announced they would push for a UN resolution to dispatch African Union and United Nations peacekeepers to Darfur and would push for an immediate cease fire in Darfur and are prepared to provide substantial economic aid as soon as a cease fire makes it possible 125 A 14 July 2007 article noted that in the past two months up to 75 000 Arabs from Chad and Niger had crossed into Darfur Most have been relocated by Sudanese government to former villages of displaced non Arab people 126 A hybrid UN AU force was finally approved on 31 July with the unanimously approved United Nations Security Council Resolution 1769 UNAMID was to take over from AMIS by 31 December at the latest and had an initial mandate up to 31 July 2008 127 On 31 July Mahria gunmen surrounded mourners at the funeral of an important Terjem sheik and killed 60 with rocket propelled grenades RPGs and belt fed machine guns 106 From 3 5 August a conference was held in Arusha to unite the rebel groups to streamline the subsequent peace negotiations with the government Most senior rebel leaders attended with the notable exception of Abdul Wahid al Nur who headed a rather small splinter group of the SLA M that he had initially founded in 2003 128 was considered to be the representatives of a large part of the displaced Fur people His absence was damaging to the peace talks 129 International officials stated that there is no John Garang in Darfur referring to the leader of the negotiating team of South Sudan who was universally accepted by the various South Sudanese rebel groups 130 The participants were Gamali Galaleiddine 131 Khalil Abdalla Adam Salah Abu Surra Khamis Abdallah Abakar Ahmed Abdelshafi Abdalla Yahya Khalil Ibrahim of the Justice and Equality Movement and Ahmed Ibrahim Ali Diraige Closed door meetings between the AU UN and rebel leaders as well as among rebel leaders took place 132 Eight more participants arrived on 4 August including Jar el Neby Salah Adam Isaac and Suleiman Marajan 133 while the SLM Unity faction boycotted the talks because the Sudanese government had threatened to arrest Suleiman Jamous if he left the hospital 134 The rebel leaders aimed to unify their positions and demands which included compensation for the victims and autonomy for Darfur 131 They eventually reached agreement on joint demands including power and wealth sharing security land and humanitarian issues 135 In the months through August Arab tribes that had worked together in the Janjaweed militia began falling out among themselves and further splintered Thousands of Terjem and Mahria gunmen traveled hundreds of miles to fight in the strategic Bulbul river valley Farther south Habanniya and Salamat tribes clashed The fighting did not result in as much killing as in 2003 and 2004 United Nations officials said the groups might be trying to seize land before peacekeepers arrived 106 On 18 September JEM stated that if the peace talks with Khartoum should fail they would step up their demands from self determination to independence 136 On 30 September the rebels overran an AMIS base killing at least 12 peacekeepers in the heaviest loss of life and biggest attack on the African Mission during a raid at the end of Ramadan season 137 SLM combatants Peace talks started on 27 October in Sirte Libya The following groups attended 138 Justice and Equality Movement splinters Justice and Equality Movement Collective Leadership led by Bahr Idriss Abu Garda Justice and Equality Movement Azraq led by Idriss Ibrahim Azraq National Movement for Reform and Development led by Khalil Abdullah Revolutionary Democratic Forces Front led by Salah Abu Surrah United Revolutionary Force Front led by Alhadi Agabeldour Sudan Liberation Movement G19 led by Khamees Abdullah Sudan Federal Democratic Alliance led by Ahmed Ibrahim DiraigeThe following groups did not attend Justice and Equality Movement led by Khalil Ibrahim they object to the presence of rebel groups they say had no constituency and no place at the table Sudan Liberation Movement Abdel Wahed led by Abdel Wahed Mohamed el Nur the group has few forces but its leader is highly respected refused to attend until a force was deployed to stem the Darfur violence Sudan Liberation Movement Unity originally led by Abdallah Yehya includes many other prominent figures Sherif Harir Abu Bakr Kadu Ahmed Kubur the group with the largest number of rebel fighters object for the same reason as JEM Ahmed Abdel Shafi a notable rebel enjoying strong support from the Fur tribe Faced with a boycott from the most important rebel factions the talks were rebranded as an advanced consultation phase with official talks likely to start in November or December 139 On 15 November nine rebel groups six SLM factions the Democratic Popular Front the Sudanese Revolutionary Front and the Justice and Equality Movement Field Revolutionary Command signed a Charter of Unification and agreed to operate under the name of SLM A henceforth 140 On 30 November it was announced that Darfur s rebel movements had united into two large groups and were now ready to negotiate in an orderly manner with the government 141 2008 Edit Main article 2008 invasion of Khartoum and Omdurman A fresh government militia offensive trapped thousands of refugees along the Chadian border the rebels and humanitarian workers said on 20 February 142 As of 21 February the total dead in Darfur stood at 450 000 with an estimated 3 245 000 people displaced On 10 May 2008 Sudanese government soldiers and Darfur rebels clashed in the city of Omdurman opposite the capital of Khartoum over the control of a military headquarters 143 They also raided a police base from which they stole police vehicles A Sudanese police spokesperson said that the leader of the assailants Mohamed Saleh Garbo and his intelligence chief Mohamed Nur Al Deen were killed in the clash Witnesses said that heavy gunfire could be heard in the west of Sudan s capital Sudanese troops backed by tanks artillery and helicopter gunships were immediately deployed to Omdurman and fighting raged for several hours After seizing the strategic military airbase at Wadi Sayedna the Sudanese soldiers eventually defeated the rebels A JEM force headed to the Al Ingaz bridge to cross the White Nile into Khartoum By late afternoon Sudanese TV claimed that the rebels had been completely repulsed while showing live images of burnt vehicles and corpses on the streets 144 The government imposed a curfew in Khartoum from 5 pm to 6 am while aid agencies told their workers in the capital to stay indoors Darfur men in 2008 Some 93 soldiers and 13 policemen were killed along with 30 civilians in the attack on Khartoum and Omdurman Sudanese forces confirmed that they found the bodies of 90 rebels and had spotted dozens more strewn outside the city limits While Sudanese authorities claimed that up to 400 rebels could have been killed the rebels stated that they lost 45 fighters dead or wounded Sudanese authorities also claimed to have destroyed 40 rebel vehicles and captured 17 2009 Edit A UN Peacekeeper in the Abu Shouk IDP Camp September 2009 General Martin Agwai head of the joint African Union United Nations mission in Darfur said the war was over in the region although low level disputes remained There was still Banditry localised issues people trying to resolve issues over water and land at a local level But real war as such I think we are over that he said 145 2010 to 2012 Edit In December 2010 representatives of the Liberation and Justice Movement an umbrella organisation of ten rebel groups formed in February 2010 146 started a fresh round of talks with the Sudanese Government in Doha A new rebel group the Sudanese Alliance Resistance Forces in Darfur was formed and JEM planned further talks 147 Talks ended on 19 December with agreement only on basic principles these included a regional authority and a referendum on autonomy The possibility of a Darfuri Vice President was discussed 148 149 In January 2011 the leader of the Liberation and Justice Movement Dr Tijani Sese stated that the movement had accepted the core proposals of the Darfur peace document as proposed by the mediators in Doha The proposals included a 300 000 000 compensation package for victims of atrocities in Darfur and special courts to conduct trials of persons accused of human rights violations Proposals for a new Darfur Regional Authority were included This authority would have an executive council of 18 ministers and would remain in place for five years The current three Darfur states and state governments would continue to exist during this period 150 151 In February the Sudanese Government rejected the idea of a single region headed by a vice president from the region 152 On 29 January the LJM and JEM leaders issued a joint statement affirming their commitment to the Doha negotiations and intention to attend the Doha forum on 5 February The Sudanese government postponed decision to attend the forum due to beliefs that an internal peace process without the involvement of rebel groups might be possible 153 Later in February the Sudanese Government agreed to return to Doha with a view to complete a new peace agreement by the end of that month 154 On 25 February both LJM and JEM announced that they had rejected the peace document proposed by the mediators in Doha The main sticking points were the issues of a Darfuri vice president and compensation for victims The Sudanese government did not comment on the peace document 155 On 9 March it was announced that two more states would be established in Darfur Central Darfur around Zalingei and Eastern Darfur around Ed Daein The rebel groups protested and stated that this was a bid to further divide Darfur s influence 156 Advising both the LJM and JEM during the Doha peace negotiations was the Public International Law amp Policy Group PILPG Led by Dr Paul Williams and Matthew T Simpson PILPG s team provided legal support In June a new Darfur Peace Agreement 2011 was proposed by the Doha mediators This agreement was to supersede the Abuja Agreement of 2005 and when signed would halt preparations for a Darfur status referendum 157 The proposed document included provisions for a Darfuri Vice President and an administrative structure that included three states and a strategic regional authority the Darfur Regional Authority 158 The agreement was signed by the Government of Sudan and the Liberation and Justice Movement on 14 July 2011 159 Little progress occurred after September 2012 and the situation slowly worsened and violence was escalating 160 The population of displaced Sudanese in IDP camps also increased 161 2013 Edit Pro government militia in Darfur 2013 A donors conference in Doha pledged US 3 6 billion to help rebuild Darfur The conference was criticised in the region that the Sudan Liberation Army Minni Minnawi rebels had taken According to the group s Hussein Minnawi Ashma village and another town close to the South Darfur capital of Nyala were taken by the SLA 162 On 27 April following weeks of fighting a coalition that included SLA and JEM said that they had taken Um Rawaba in North Kordofan outside Darfur and that they were headed for Khartoum to topple the president The head of an SLA faction Abdel Wahid Mohammed al Nur called it a significant shift in the war 163 An estimated 300 000 were displaced by violence from January through May 164 In North Darfur the Rezeigat tribe and the Beni Hussein group signed a peace deal during July after an eruption of violence between the two groups killed hundreds Later in July the Misseriya and Salamat Arab tribes announced a ceasefire after battles killed over 200 people The UN security counsel also announced a review of its UNAMID mission 164 During the first week of August the Maalia claimed the Rezeigat had killed five members of their tribe in the southeastern region of Adila They responded by seizing 400 Rizeigat cattle on 6 August Community leaders intervened to prevent escalation When the Maalia failed to return the cattle violence broke out on 10 August 165 The Rezeigat attacked and reportedly destroyed a Maaliya compound 164 In the battle 77 Maaliya and 36 Rezeigat were killed and another 200 people were injured 165 Both sides said Land Cruiser vehicles were used in the battle The Maaliya accused the Rezeigat of attacking and burning villages while employing heavy weaponry On 11 August the fighting spread to several other areas in southeastern Darfur The violence reportedly arose over a land dispute 164 2014 Edit On 19 March peacekeepers said they had received recent reports of villages that were attacked and burned after the UN expressed concern over the increasing number of internally displaced persons UNAMID said that the attacks were in Hashaba about 100 kilometers north west of the city Al Fashir the state capital of North Darfur 166 In November local media reported that 200 women and girls had been raped by Sudanese soldiers in Tabit Sudan denied it and did not permit the UN who said their first inquiry was inconclusive in part due to the heavy presence of military and police to make another inquiry 167 An investigation by Human Rights Watch HRW released in February said 221 were raped by government soldiers in a mass rape that could constitute crimes against humanity Witnesses reported three separate operations were carried out in one and a half days Property was looted men arrested residents beaten and women and girls raped Most of the town s population are Fur people It had been controlled by rebel forces previously but HRW found no evidence that the rebel fighters were in or close to the village when it was attacked 168 3 300 villages were destroyed in 2014 in attacks on civilians according to the UN Panel of Experts Government forces or those aligned with them were behind most attacks There were more than 400 000 attacks during the first ten months of the year The report said that it was highly probable that civilian communities were targeted as a result of their actual or perceived affiliations with armed opposition groups and that such attacks were carried out with impunity 169 2015 Edit This section is empty You can help by adding to it September 2016 2016 Edit In September 2016 the Sudanese government reportedly launched chemical weapon attacks on civilian populations in Darfur killing at least 250 people the majority of the victims were children It is believed that the munitions contained mustard gas or other blister agents 170 2017 Edit This section is empty You can help by adding to it September 2018 2018 Edit Reports from UNAMID and the African Center for Justice and Peace Studies suggest that low level violence continued in Darfur through early 2018 with Sudanese government forces attacking communities in the Jebel Marra area 171 As UNAMID forces began to be drawn down with an eye to exiting Darfur there were competing views on the levels of unrest in the region UN officials pointed to a significant reduction in the scale and distribution of violence in Darfur 172 while other NGOS such as HRW highlighted persistent pockets of unrest In 2018 Darfur was bombed and peace was signed see 2019 2019 Edit Main article Sudanese peace process The August 2019 Draft Constitutional Declaration signed by military and civilian representatives during the 2018 19 Sudanese Revolution requires that a peace agreement be made in Darfur and other regions of armed conflict in Sudan within the first six months of the 39 month transition period to democratic civilian government 42 43 In December 2019 The Guardian reported that irrigation projects built around community based weirs are enabling green shoots of peace to appear helping to end this conflict This project was conducted with funding from the European Union and was overseen by the United Nations Environmental Program 173 2020 Edit Janjaweed militia leader Ali Kushayb was arrested in the Central African Republic on 9 June 2020 thirteen years after he was charged by the International Criminal Court with 51 crimes against humanity and war crimes 174 Three mass shootings took place in Darfur in July 2020 On 31 August 2020 a peace deal was signed in Juba South Sudan between the Sovereignty Council of Sudan and several rebel groups including the Sudan Revolutionary Front SRF Sudan Liberation Movement Army SLM Justice and Equality Movement Transitional Revolutionary Council and Sudan People s Liberation Movement North SPLM N Under the terms of the agreement the factions that signed will be entitled to three seats on the sovereignty council a total of five ministers in the transitional cabinet and a quarter of seats in the transitional legislature At a regional level signatories will be entitled between 30 and 40 of the seats on transitional legislatures of their home states or regions 175 176 Notably absent were rebel factions led by Abdul Wahid al Nur and Abdelaziz al Hilu who refused to be part of the agreement 44 On 3 October 2020 the SRF SPLM N led by Malik Agar and SLM led by Minni Minnawi signed another peace deal with the Sudanese government 177 with the absence of both al Nur and al Hilu 178 However the deal included terms to integrate rebels into the security forces and to grant them political representation and economic and land rights in addition to a 10 year plan to invest 750 million to develop southern and western regions and to guarantee the return for displaced people 179 In December Sudan started to deploy troops to South Darfur in large numbers following recent tribal violence between the Masalit and Fula 180 The United Nations and African Union peacekeeping mission UNAMID ended its mission on 31 December with a complete withdrawal scheduled for 30 June There are currently some 4 000 troops 480 police advisers 1 631 police 483 international civilian staff and 945 national civilian staff in the region 181 2021 Edit Main article 2021 Darfur clashes Fighting between Masalit people and Arab nomads in Al Geneina District West Darfur left 84 dead and 160 wounded including soldiers on 16 January This was two weeks after the United Nations withdrew its peacekeepers from the region after 13 years 182 Based on a statement from the Darfur Bar Association the fresh violence initiated after a member of an Arab tribe was stabbed by another member of the Masalit tribe 183 Following the unrest a high profile delegation authorized by Sudanese Prime Minister Abdalla Hamdok was sent to the region in order to assess the situation 184 Separately clashes were also reported to have erupted in the eastern part of Sudan on Thursday and Friday between two ethnic groups the Beni Amer and Nuba at Port Sudan 185 On 17 January a curfew was put in place by the Sudanese authorities including a state of emergency in Sudan s West Darfur region 186 As of 18 January the death toll was reported to have reached at least 129 people including women and children since the beginning of the clashes between the Arabs and non Arabs in West Darfur on Friday according to the ABC News 187 188 However the United Nations has urged the Sudanese government to see to the de escalation of the violence in West Darfur and safeguard civilian lives 189 On 20 January the residence of the provincial Governor of West Darfur Mohammed Abdalla al Douma was under an attempted attack by unidentified gunmen 190 Security forces managed to repel the attack without any reports of casualties or destruction of properties 191 Meanwhile reports from local media suggested that during the assassination attempt several blasts were heard all over the state 192 On 24 January the UN refugee agency revealed that since the initial outbreak of tribal clashes in Darfur earlier this January at least 250 people have lost their lives Three humanitarian workers were also among those who were killed the agency added 193 194 Also more than 100 000 people are believed to have been displaced fleeing into neighboring Chad with about 3 500 of them being mostly women and children 195 196 On 28 March Al Hilu leader of SPLA North signed a peace agreement with the Sudanese government in Juba South Sudan which would guarantee freedom of religion in a civil democratic Sudan that would also have a single unified army to protect national security 197 On 5 April fresh tribal clashes erupted in West Darfur s El Geneina which led to the death of at least 40 people the United Nations revealed 198 During the three days of clashes at least 58 people were also said to have been injured according to the VOA News 199 Later in the evening Sudan s defense council declared a state of emergency and also deployed troops to the troubled region of West Darfur state 200 As of 6 April the West Darfur State Doctors Committee reported that the death toll had reached 50 with 132 others injured according to the Middle East Online 201 According to the UN reports suggest that there has been the destruction of humanitarian facilities civilian lives including women and children during the violence in the region 202 Also the decision to declare a state of emergency in the region was applauded by the UN envoy for Sudan Volker Peretz and he urged the government to ensure the protection of humanitarian organizations so as to provide services to the victims of the violence 203 On 7 April 37 more deaths were recorded by the Sudanese doctors committee in West Darfur increasing the total death toll to 87 according to Al Jazeera 204 On 8 April the governor of the West Darfur state Mohamed Abdallah Douma stated in a news conference that at least 132 people had been killed during the days of unrest in the state 205 However the Western Darfur State Doctors Committee has placed the death toll to be at least 125 during the sixth day of tribal clashes consecutively with 208 others wounded according to CNN 206 The UN has called on the authorities to ensure that citizens are protected and that an immediate investigation of the clashes is launched 207 They also maintained that all the perpetrators of the violence must be held responsible in order to attain justice for those affected during the clashes including immediate deployment of security forces to the region 208 On 12 April following several days of violence in West Darfur that led to the death of at least 144 people the leader of Sudan reportedly visited the region according to ABC News 209 Meanwhile the head of the ruling sovereign council Gen Abdel Fattah Burhan including high ranking security and military officials also visited the provincial capital of West Darfur Genena where they held separate talks with the Arab Rizeigat and the non Arab Masalit tribes 210 After the visit made by the Khartoum delegation the Dar Masalit Displaced People expressed their refusal to accept the result of the mediation headed by El Burhan They blamed the paramilitary Rapid Support Forces for the unrest in the region 211 212 On 14 April a statement released by the U N refugee agency confirmed that the violence in the capital of West Darfur El Geneina had stopped based on reports which suggested that there haven t been any shootings for the past four days 213 The days of deadly tribal clashes have compelled at least 1 860 people to flee into the neighboring Chad the agency added 214 Most of the refugees are believed to be women children and the elderly 215 Babar Baloch a spokesman for the UN High Commissioner for Refugees UNHCR maintained that the refugees arriving revealed that their homes and properties were being destroyed 216 On 28 April clashes reportedly erupted during a sit in protest in South Darfur s Bielel between security forces and protesters 217 In an attempt by the Sudanese security forces to forcefully disperse the protesters one woman was said to have been killed while leaving at least eight others wounded Tear gas was said to have been used to disperse the crowd by a joint force from both the army and the police including the firing of live rounds 218 219 Meanwhile at the secretariat of the state government in Nyala protesters gathered in front of the building to protest against an attack on their village Gassat Enjemet which left three people dead and others wounded 220 On 5 May thousands of displaced people affected by the heavy clashes in El Geneina have requested that they want to go back to their homes They made the request due to the awful living conditions in their shelters the acting governor of West Darfur Mohamed Zakaria revealed 221 222 On 29 May a group of armed men reportedly opened fire in a market in West Darfur s Foro Baranga As a result of the shooting one person was said to have been killed leaving five others seriously wounded 223 224 Angry protests erupted following the attack with protesters setting many shops ablaze and also blocking all main roads leading to the town 225 According to Al Jazeera some people threatened the doctors at the hospital to attend to their wounded patients and leave other patients 226 On 5 June clashes between the Arab Taisha and ethnic African Fallata tribes in South Darfur s Um Dafuq claimed the lives of at least 36 people with 37 others wounded 227 228 An aid worker who spoke on the condition of anonymity revealed that the clash erupted as a result of a land dispute between the two conflicting parties 229 Subsequently a certain state of calm was said to have been attained following the deployment of more troops to the South Darfur s Um Dafuk 230 Janjaweed s participation Edit Destroyed villages August 2004 The well armed Janjaweed quickly gained an advantage over rebel factions By the spring of 2004 several thousand people mostly from the non Arab population had been killed and as many as a million more had been driven from their homes causing a major humanitarian crisis The crisis took on an international dimension when over 100 000 refugees poured into neighboring Chad pursued by militiamen who clashed with Chadian government forces along the border More than 70 militiamen and 10 Chadian soldiers were killed in one gun battle in April A United Nations observer team reported that non Arab villages were singled out while Arab villages were left untouched The 23 Fur villages in the Shattaya Administrative Unit have been completely depopulated looted and burnt to the ground the team observed several such sites driving through the area for two days Meanwhile dotted alongside these charred locations are unharmed populated and functioning Arab settlements In some locations the distance between a destroyed Fur village and an Arab village is less than 500 meters 231 A 2011 study examined 1 000 interviews with black African participants who fled from 22 village clusters to various refugee camps in 2003 and 2004 The study found 1 the frequency of hearing racial epithets during an attack was 70 higher when it was led by the Janjaweed alone compared to official police forces it was 80 higher when the Janjaweed and the Sudanese Government attacked together 2 the risk of displacement was nearly 110 higher during a joint attack compared to when the police or Janjaweed acted alone and 85 higher when Janjaweed forces attacked alone compared to when the attack was only perpetrated by government forces 3 attacks on food and water supplies made it 129 more likely for inhabitants to be displaced compared to attacks that involved house burnings or killings 4 perpetrators knew and took special advantage of the susceptibility of Darfur residents to attacks focused on basic resources This vulnerability came against the backdrop of increased regional desertification 232 Rape of women and young girls EditMain article Rape during the Darfur genocide Internally displaced persons camp Immediately after the Janjaweed entered the conflict the rape of women and young girls often by multiple militiamen and often throughout entire nights began to be reported at a staggering rate 233 Children as young as 2 years old were reported victims while mothers were assaulted in front of their children 234 Young women were attacked so violently that they were unable to walk following the attack 235 Non Arab people were reportedly raped by Janjaweed militiamen as a result of the Sudanese government s goal of completely eliminating the presence of black Africans and non Arabs from Darfur 236 The Washington Post Foreign Service interviewed verified victims of the rapes and recorded that Arabic terms such as abid and zurga were used which mean slave and black One victim Sawelah Suliman was told by her assailant Black girl you are too dark You are like a dog We want to make a light baby 237 In an 88 page report victims from Darfur have also accused the Rapid Support Forces of rape and assault as recently as 2015 238 Mortality estimates Edit A mother with her sick baby at Abu Shouk IDP camp in North Darfur Multiple casualty estimates have been published since the war began ranging from roughly 10 000 civilians Sudan government to hundreds of thousands 239 In September 2004 18 months after the conflict began the World Health Organization estimated that there had been 50 000 deaths in Darfur mostly due to starvation An updated estimate published the following month put the number of deaths for the 6 month period from March to October 2004 due to starvation and disease at 70 000 These figures were criticized because they only considered short periods and did not include deaths from violence 240 A more recent British Parliamentary Report estimated that over 300 000 people had died 241 and others have published even higher death toll estimates In March 2005 the UN s Emergency Relief Coordinator Jan Egeland estimated that 10 000 people were dying each month excluding deaths due to ethnic violence 242 An estimated 2 7 million people had at that time been displaced from their homes mostly seeking refuge in camps in Darfur s major towns 243 Two hundred thousand had fled to neighboring Chad Reports of violent deaths compiled by the UN indicate between 6 000 and 7 000 fatalities from 2004 to 2007 244 In May 2005 the Centre for Research on the Epidemiology of Disasters CRED of the School of Public Health of the Universite catholique de Louvain in Brussels Belgium published an analysis of mortality in Darfur Their estimate stated that from September 2003 to January 2005 between 98 000 and 181 000 persons died in Darfur including 63 000 to 146 000 excess deaths 245 In August 2010 Dr Eric Reeves argued that total mortality from all violent causes direct and indirect at that point in the conflict exceeded 500 000 His analysis took account of all previous mortality data and studies including that by the Centre for Research on the Epidemiology of Disaster 246 247 The UN disclosed on 22 April 2008 that it might have underestimated the Darfur death toll by nearly 50 248 In July 2009 The Christian Science Monitor published an op ed stating that many of the published mortality rates have been misleading because they include a large number of people who had died of disease and malnutrition as well as those who died from direct violence 249 In January 2010 the Centre for Research on the Epidemiology of Disasters published an article in a special issue of The Lancet The article entitled Patterns of mortality rates in Darfur conflict estimated with 95 confidence that the excess number of deaths is between 178 258 and 461 520 with a mean of 298 271 with 80 of these due to disease 250 International response EditMain article International response to the Darfur conflict U S President George W Bush speaking to the UN General Assembly on the crisis in Darfur September 21 2004 International attention to the Darfur genocide largely began with reports by Amnesty International in July 2003 and the International Crisis Group in December 2003 However widespread media coverage did not start until the outgoing United Nations Resident and Humanitarian Coordinator for Sudan Mukesh Kapila called Darfur the world s greatest humanitarian crisis in March 2004 251 Organizations such as STAND A Student Anti Genocide Coalition later under the umbrella of Genocide Intervention Network and the Save Darfur Coalition emerged and became particularly active in the areas of engaging the United States Congress and President on the issue and pushing for divestment initially launched by Adam Sterling under the auspices of the Sudan Divestment Task Force The Save Darfur Coalition advocacy group coordinated a large rally in New York in April 2006 Depicted here is a discarded protest sign littering the street In May 2009 the Mandate Darfur was canceled because the Sudanese government is obstructing the safe passage of Darfurian delegates from Sudan 252 The Mandate was a conference that would have brought together 300 representatives from different regions of Darfur s civil society 252 The conference planned was to be held in Addis Ababa sometime in early May International Criminal Court Edit See also International Criminal Court investigation in Darfur In March 2005 the UN Security Council formally referred the situation in Darfur to the Prosecutor of the International Criminal Court taking into account the report of the International Commission of Inquiry on Darfur authorized by United Nations Security Council Resolution 1564 of 2004 but without mentioning specific crimes 253 Two permanent members of the Security Council the United States and China abstained from the vote on the referral resolution 254 In April 2007 the Judges of the International Criminal Court issued arrest warrants against the former Minister of State for the Interior Ahmed Haroun and a Janjaweed leader Ali Kushayb for crimes against humanity and war crimes 255 The Sudan Government said that the ICC had no jurisdiction to try Sudanese citizens and that it would not surrender the two men 256 On 14 July 2008 the Prosecutor filed ten charges of war crimes against Sudan s incumbent President Omar al Bashir including three counts of genocide five of crimes against humanity and two of murder The Prosecutor claimed that Mr al Bashir masterminded and implemented a plan to destroy in substantial part three tribal groups in Darfur because of their ethnicity Leaders from three Darfur tribes sued ICC prosecutor Luis Moreno Ocampo for libel defamation and igniting hatred and tribalism 257 After an arrest warrant was issued for the Sudanese president in March 2009 the Prosecutor appealed to add genocide charges However the Pre Trial Chamber found that there was no reasonable ground to support the contention that he had a specific intent to commit genocide dolus specialis which is an intention to destroy in whole or in part a protected group The definition adopted by the Pre Trial Chamber is the definition of the Genocide Convention the Rome Statute and some ICTY cases On 3 February 2010 the Appeals Chamber of the ICC found that the Pre Trial Chamber had applied an erroneous standard of proof when evaluating the evidence submitted by the Prosecutor and that the Prosecutor s application for a warrant of arrest on the genocide charges should be sent back to the Pre Trial Chamber to review based on the correct legal standard 258 In July 2010 al Bashir was charged with three counts of genocide in Darfur by the International Criminal Court for orchestrating the Darfur genocide 259 Al Bashir was the first incumbent head of state charged with crimes under the Rome Statute 260 He rejected the charges and said Whoever has visited Darfur met officials and discovered their ethnicities and tribes will know that all of these things are lies 261 It is expected that al Bashir will not face trial in The Hague until he is apprehended in a nation which accepts ICC jurisdiction as Sudan is not a party to the Rome Statute which it signed but did not ratify 262 Payam Akhavan a professor of international law at McGill University in Montreal and a former war crimes prosecutor says although he may not go to trial He will effectively be in prison within the Sudan itself Al Bashir now is not going to be able to leave the Sudan without facing arrest 263 The Prosecutor warned that authorities could arrest the President if he enters international airspace The Sudanese government has announced that the Presidential plane would be accompanied by jet fighters 264 However the Arab League announced solidarity with al Bashir Since the warrant he has visited Qatar and Egypt The African Union also condemned the charges Some analysts think that the ICC indictment is counterproductive and harms the peace process Only days after the ICC indictment al Bashir expelled 13 international aid organizations from Darfur and disbanded three domestic aid organizations 265 In the aftermath of the expulsions conditions in the displaced camps deteriorated 266 Previous ICC indictments such as the arrest warrants of the LRA leadership in the ongoing war in northern Uganda were also accused of harming peace processes by criminalizing one side of a war 267 Foreign governments which supported the Sudanese government Edit Al Bashir requested assistance from non western countries after the West led by America imposed sanctions on his government He said From the first day our policy was clear To look eastward toward China Malaysia India Pakistan Indonesia and even Korea and Japan even if the Western influence upon some of these countries is strong We believe that the Chinese expansion was natural because it filled the space left by Western governments the United States and international funding agencies The success of the Sudanese experiment in dealing with China without political conditions or pressures encouraged other African countries to look toward China 268 In 2007 Amnesty International issued a report 269 270 271 accusing China and Russia of supplying arms ammunition and related equipment to Sudan some of which the government may have transferred to Darfur in violation of a UN arms embargo The report claims that Sudan imported 10 20 combat aircraft from China in the early mid 2000s including three A 5 Fantan fighters that have been sighted in Darfur 272 The report provides evidence that the Sudan Air Force conducted indiscriminate aerial bombings of villages in Darfur and eastern Chad using ground attack fighters and repurposed Antonov transport planes However it does not specify whether the ground attack fighters in question are those purchased from China in the early mid 2000s and the Antonovs origin remains unclear The report also lists seven Soviet or Russian made Mi 24 Hind gunships that had been deployed to Darfur though without specifying which country sold them to Sudan or when 273 While noting that Russia sold arms worth tens of millions of dollars to Sudan in 2005 alone 274 the report does not specifically identify any weapons sold to Sudan by Russia after the outbreak of the Darfur conflict or after the imposition of the UNSC ban on arms transfers to Darfur and it does not provide any evidence that any such weapons were deployed to Darfur The NGO Human Rights First claimed that over 90 of the light weapons currently being imported by Sudan and used in the conflict are from China 275 Human rights advocates and opponents of the Sudanese government portray China s role in providing weapons and aircraft as a cynical attempt to obtain oil just as colonial powers once supplied African chieftains with the military means to maintain control as they extracted natural resources 276 277 According to China s critics China threatened to use its veto on the U N Security Council to protect Khartoum from sanctions and was able to water down every resolution on Darfur in order to protect its interests 278 Accusations of the supply of weapons from China which were then transferred to Darfur by the Sudanese government in violation of the UN arms embargo continued in 2010 279 Sarah Wykes a senior campaigner at Global Witness an NGO that campaigns for better natural resource governance says Sudan has purchased about 100m in arms from China and has used these weapons against civilians in Darfur 277 According to the report Following the Thread Arms and Ammunition Tracing in Sudan and South Sudan released in May 2014 by the Swiss research group Small Arms Survey Over the period 2001 12 Khartoum s reports to UN Comtrade reveal significant fluctuation in annual conventional arms imports The majority of the Sudanese government s total self reported imports of small arms and light weapons their ammunition and conventional weapons over the period originated in China 58 per cent followed by Iran 13 per cent St Vincent and the Grenadines 9 per cent and Ukraine 8 per cent 280 The report found that Chinese weapons were pervasive among most parties to the Sudanese conflicts including the war in Darfur but identified few if any weapons of Russian origin The section Chinese weapons and ammunition receives 20 pages in the report whereas the only mention of Russian arms is to be found in the sentence the majority of mines in South Sudan have been of Chinese and Soviet Russian origin China and Russia denied the accusation by stating that they had not broken any UN sanctions China has a close relationship with Sudan and increased its military co operation with the government in early 2007 Because of Sudan s plentiful supply of oil China considers good relations with Sudan to be a strategic necessity 281 282 283 China has direct commercial interests in Sudan s oil China s state owned company CNPC controls between 60 and 70 percent of Sudan s total oil production Additionally it owns the largest single share 40 percent of Sudan s national oil company Greater Nile Petroleum Operating Company 284 China consistently opposed economic and non military sanctions on Sudan 285 In March 2007 threats to boycott the Olympic games were made by French presidential candidate Francois Bayrou in an effort to stop China s support 286 287 Sudan divestment efforts concentrated on PetroChina the national petroleum company with extensive investments in Sudan 288 Criticism of the international response Edit Gerard Prunier a scholar specializing in African conflicts argued that the world s most powerful countries have limited themselves to expressing concern and demand for the United Nations to take action The UN lacking initiative and will initially left the African Union to deploy a token force without a mandate to protect civilians 251 On 16 October 2006 Minority Rights Group MRG published a critical report challenging that the UN and the great powers could have prevented the crisis and that few lessons appeared to have been drawn from the Rwandan genocide MRG s executive director Mark Lattimer stated that this level of crisis the killings rape and displacement could have been foreseen and avoided Darfur would just not be in this situation had the UN systems got its act together after Rwanda their action was too little too late 289 On 20 October 120 genocide survivors of The Holocaust and the Cambodian and Rwandan genocides backed by six aid agencies submitted an open letter to the European Union calling on them to do more proposing a UN peacekeeping force as the only viable option 290 Coverage by the media EditWatchers of the Sky a 2014 documentary by Edet Belzberg interviews former journalist and United States Ambassador to the United Nations Samantha Power about the war in Darfur Also featured is Luis Moreno Ocampo former ICC jurist and lead prosecutor on the ICC investigation in Darfur 291 292 The Brutality of the militias the violence which was used by the armed forces the corruption and the human rights abuses were also shown on ER television series e g episodes 12x19 12x20 as well as in the 2007 documentaries They Turned Our Desert Into Fire 293 and The Devil Came on Horseback 294 See also EditBanu Hilal Bibliography of the Darfur conflict Boswells School Breidjing Camp Chadian Civil War 2005 10 Command responsibility Darfur genocide First Sudanese Civil War History of Darfur History of Sudan Human rights in Sudan Genocides in history Genocide of indigenous peoples List of civil wars List of conflicts in Africa List of ethnic cleansing campaigns List of famines List of ongoing armed conflicts List of wars 2003 present List of wars and anthropogenic disasters by death toll Lost Boys of Sudan Second Sudanese Civil War Slavery in Sudan Team DarfurNotes Edit The name Land Cruiser War for the conflict in Darfur is primarily used by Justice and Equality Movement JEM rebels due to the widespread use of Toyota Land Cruisers as technicals on both sides of the war 32 References Edit Darfur Peace Agreement Doha draft PDF Sudan Tribune Archived PDF from the original on 22 December 2015 Retrieved 10 December 2015 Three Darfur factions establish new rebel group Sudan Tribune 7 July 2017 Al Bashir threatens to disarm Darfur rebels in South Sudan Radio Dabanga 29 April 2015 Archived from the 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Documentary War Global Contact Films Purebred Productions retrieved 27 October 2022 The Devil Came on Horseback 11 April 2008 Archived from the original on 8 February 2018 Retrieved 22 January 2018 via www IMDb com Bibliography EditDebos Marielle 2016 1st pub 2013 Living by the Gun in Chad Combatants Impunity and State Formation Translated by Andrew Brown Revised Updated and Translated ed London Zed Books ISBN 978 1 78360 532 3 Flint Julie de Waal Alexander 2005 Darfur A Short History of a Long War Zed Books ISBN 978 1 84277 696 4 Neville Leigh 2018 Technicals Non Standard Tactical Vehicles from the Great Toyota War to modern Special Forces Oxford New York City Osprey Publishing ISBN 9781472822512 External links Edit Media related to Darfur conflict at Wikimedia Commons Photographer s Account The Cost of Silence A Traveling Exhibition Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title War in Darfur amp oldid 1152024400, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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