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Manga

January 20, 2023

This article is about the comics or graphic novels created in Japan. For other uses, see Manga (disambiguation).

Manga (Japanese: 漫画 [maŋga])[a] are comics or graphic novels originating from Japan. Most manga conform to a style developed in Japan in the late 19th century,[1] and the form has a long history in earlier Japanese art.[2] The term manga is used in Japan to refer to both comics and cartooning. Outside of Japan, the word is typically used to refer to comics originally published in the country.[3]

Manga
Publishers
Publications
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Series
LanguagesJapanese
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In Japan, people of all ages and walks of life read manga. The medium includes works in a broad range of genres: action, adventure, business and commerce, comedy, detective, drama, historical, horror, mystery, romance, science fiction and fantasy, erotica (hentai and ecchi), sports and games, and suspense, among others.[4][5] Many manga are translated into other languages.[6]

Since the 1950s, manga has become an increasingly major part of the Japanese publishing industry.[7] By 1995, the manga market in Japan was valued at ¥586.4 billion ($6–7 billion),[8] with annual sales of 1.9 billion manga books and manga magazines in Japan (equivalent to 15 issues per person).[9] In 2020 Japan's manga market value hit a new record of ¥612.6 billion due to the fast growth of digital manga sales as well as increase of print sales.[10][11] Manga have also gained a significant worldwide audience.[12][13][14] Beginning with the late 2010s manga started massively outselling American comics.[15] In 2020 the North American manga market was valued at almost $250 million.[16] According to NPD BookScan manga made up 76% of overall comics and graphic novel sales in the US in 2021.[17] The fast growth of the North American manga market has been attributed to manga's wide availability on digital reading apps, book retailer chains such as Barnes & Noble and online retailers such as Amazon as well as the increased streaming of anime.[18][19] According to Jean-Marie Bouissou, manga represented 38% of the French comics market in 2005.[20] This is equivalent to approximately 3 times that of the United States and was valued at about €460 million ($640 million).[21] In Europe and the Middle East, the market was valued at $250 million in 2012.[22]

Manga stories are typically printed in black-and-white—due to time constraints, artistic reasons (as coloring could lessen the impact of the artwork)[23] and to keep printing costs low[24]—although some full-color manga exist (e.g., Colorful). In Japan, manga are usually serialized in large manga magazines, often containing many stories, each presented in a single episode to be continued in the next issue. Collected chapters are usually republished in tankōbon volumes, frequently but not exclusively paperback books.[25] A manga artist (mangaka in Japanese) typically works with a few assistants in a small studio and is associated with a creative editor from a commercial publishing company.[26] If a manga series is popular enough, it may be animated after or during its run.[27] Sometimes, manga are based on previous live-action or animated films.[28]

Manga-influenced comics, among original works, exist in other parts of the world, particularly in those places that speak Chinese ("manhua"), Korean ("manhwa"), English ("OEL manga"), and French ("manfra"), as well as in the nation of Algeria ("DZ-manga").[29][30]

Etymology

 
The kanji for "manga" from the preface to Shiji no yukikai (1798)

The word "manga" comes from the Japanese word 漫画[31] (katakana: マンガ; hiragana: まんが), composed of the two kanji 漫 (man) meaning "whimsical or impromptu" and 画 (ga) meaning "pictures".[32][33] The same term is the root of the Korean word for comics, "manhwa", and the Chinese word "manhua".[34]

The word first came into common usage in the late 18th century[35] with the publication of such works as Santō Kyōden's picturebook Shiji no yukikai (1798),[36][32] and in the early 19th century with such works as Aikawa Minwa's Manga hyakujo (1814) and the celebrated Hokusai Manga books (1814–1834)[37] containing assorted drawings from the sketchbooks of the famous ukiyo-e artist Hokusai.[38] Rakuten Kitazawa (1876–1955) first used the word "manga" in the modern sense.[39]

In Japanese, "manga" refers to all kinds of cartooning, comics, and animation. Among English speakers, "manga" has the stricter meaning of "Japanese comics", in parallel to the usage of "anime" in and outside Japan. The term "ani-manga" is used to describe comics produced from animation cels.[40]

History and characteristics

Main articles: History of manga and Manga iconography
See also: Kibyōshi and Kamishibai
 
A kami-shibai story teller from Sazae-san by Machiko Hasegawa. Sazae appears with her hair in a bun.

According to art resource Widewalls manga originated from emakimono (scrolls), Chōjū-jinbutsu-giga, dating back to the 12th century. During the Edo period (1603–1867), a book of drawings titled Toba Ehon further developed what would later be called manga.[41][42] The word itself first came into common usage in 1798,[35] with the publication of works such as Santō Kyōden's picturebook Shiji no yukikai (1798),[36][32] and in the early 19th century with such works as Aikawa Minwa's Manga hyakujo (1814) and the Hokusai Manga books (1814–1834).[38][43] Adam L. Kern has suggested that kibyoshi, picture books from the late 18th century, may have been the world's first comic books. These graphical narratives share with modern manga humorous, satirical, and romantic themes.[44] Some works were mass-produced as serials using woodblock printing.[9] however Eastern comics are generally held separate from the evolution of Western comics and Western comic art probably originated in 17th Italy,[45]

Writers on manga history have described two broad and complementary processes shaping modern manga. One view represented by other writers such as Frederik L. Schodt, Kinko Ito, and Adam L. Kern, stress continuity of Japanese cultural and aesthetic traditions, including pre-war, Meiji, and pre-Meiji culture and art.[46] The other view, emphasizes events occurring during and after the Allied occupation of Japan (1945–1952), and stresses U.S. cultural influences, including U.S. comics (brought to Japan by the GIs) and images and themes from U.S. television, film, and cartoons (especially Disney).[47]

Regardless of its source, an explosion of artistic creativity occurred in the post-war period,[48] involving manga artists such as Osamu Tezuka (Astro Boy) and Machiko Hasegawa (Sazae-san). Astro Boy quickly became (and remains) immensely popular in Japan and elsewhere,[49] and the anime adaptation of Sazae-san drew more viewers than any other anime on Japanese television in 2011.[41] Tezuka and Hasegawa both made stylistic innovations. In Tezuka's "cinematographic" technique, the panels are like a motion picture that reveals details of action bordering on slow motion as well as rapid zooms from distance to close-up shots. This kind of visual dynamism was widely adopted by later manga artists.[50] Hasegawa's focus on daily life and on women's experience also came to characterize later shōjo manga.[51] Between 1950 and 1969, an increasingly large readership for manga emerged in Japan with the solidification of its two main marketing genres, shōnen manga aimed at boys and shōjo manga aimed at girls.[52]

In 1969 a group of female manga artists (later called the Year 24 Group, also known as Magnificent 24s) made their shōjo manga debut ("year 24" comes from the Japanese name for the year 1949, the birth-year of many of these artists).[53] The group included Moto Hagio, Riyoko Ikeda, Yumiko Ōshima, Keiko Takemiya, and Ryoko Yamagishi.[25] Thereafter, primarily female manga artists would draw shōjo for a readership of girls and young women.[54] In the following decades (1975–present), shōjo manga continued to develop stylistically while simultaneously evolving different but overlapping subgenres.[55] Major subgenres include romance, superheroines, and "Ladies Comics" (in Japanese, redisu レディース, redikomi レディコミ, and josei 女性).[56]

Modern shōjo manga romance features love as a major theme set into emotionally intense narratives of self-realization.[57] With the superheroines, shōjo manga saw releases such as Pink Hanamori's Mermaid Melody Pichi Pichi Pitch, Reiko Yoshida's Tokyo Mew Mew, and Naoko Takeuchi's Pretty Soldier Sailor Moon, which became internationally popular in both manga and anime formats.[58] Groups (or sentais) of girls working together have also been popular within this genre. Like Lucia, Hanon, and Rina singing together, and Sailor Moon, Sailor Mercury, Sailor Mars, Sailor Jupiter, and Sailor Venus working together.[59]

Manga for male readers sub-divides according to the age of its intended readership: boys up to 18 years old (shōnen manga) and young men 18 to 30 years old (seinen manga);[60] as well as by content, including action-adventure often involving male heroes, slapstick humor, themes of honor, and sometimes explicit sex.[61] The Japanese use different kanji for two closely allied meanings of "seinen"—青年 for "youth, young man" and 成年 for "adult, majority"—the second referring to pornographic manga aimed at grown men and also called seijin ("adult" 成人) manga.[62] Shōnen, seinen, and seijin manga share a number of features in common.

Boys and young men became some of the earliest readers of manga after World War II. From the 1950s on, shōnen manga focused on topics thought to interest the archetypal boy, including subjects like robots, space-travel, and heroic action-adventure.[63] Popular themes include science fiction, technology, sports, and supernatural settings. Manga with solitary costumed superheroes like Superman, Batman, and Spider-Man generally did not become as popular.[64]

The role of girls and women in manga produced for male readers has evolved considerably over time to include those featuring single pretty girls (bishōjo)[65] such as Belldandy from Oh My Goddess!, stories where such girls and women surround the hero, as in Negima and Hanaukyo Maid Team, or groups of heavily armed female warriors (sentō bishōjo)[66]

With the relaxation of censorship in Japan in the 1990s, an assortment of explicit sexual material appeared in manga intended for male readers, and correspondingly continued into the English translations.[67] In 2010, the Tokyo Metropolitan Government considered a bill to restrict minors' access to such content.[68][needs update]

The gekiga style of storytelling—thematically somber, adult-oriented, and sometimes deeply violent—focuses on the day-in, day-out grim realities of life, often drawn in a gritty and unvarnished fashion.[69][70] Gekiga such as Sampei Shirato's 1959–1962 Chronicles of a Ninja's Military Accomplishments (Ninja Bugeichō) arose in the late 1950s and 1960s partly from left-wing student and working-class political activism,[71] and partly from the aesthetic dissatisfaction of young manga artists like Yoshihiro Tatsumi with existing manga.[72]

Publications and exhibition

 
Delegates of 3rd Asian Cartoon Exhibition, held at Tokyo (Annual Manga Exhibition) by The Japan Foundation[73]
 
A manga store in Japan

In Japan, manga constituted an annual 40.6 billion yen (approximately US$395 million) publication-industry by 2007.[74] In 2006 sales of manga books made up for about 27% of total book-sales, and sale of manga magazines, for 20% of total magazine-sales.[75] The manga industry has expanded worldwide, where distribution companies license and reprint manga into their native languages.

Marketeers primarily classify manga by the age and gender of the target readership.[76] In particular, books and magazines sold to boys (shōnen) and girls (shōjo) have distinctive cover-art, and most bookstores place them on different shelves. Due to cross-readership, consumer response is not limited by demographics. For example, male readers may subscribe to a series intended for female readers, and so on. Japan has manga cafés, or manga kissa (kissa is an abbreviation of kissaten). At a manga kissa, people drink coffee, read manga and sometimes stay overnight.

The Kyoto International Manga Museum maintains a very large website listing manga published in Japanese.[77]

Magazines

See also: List of manga magazines and List of Japanese manga magazines by circulation
 
Eshinbun Nipponchi is credited as the first manga magazine ever made.

Manga magazines or anthologies (漫画雑誌, manga zasshi) usually have many series running concurrently with approximately 20–40 pages allocated to each series per issue. Other magazines such as the anime fandom magazine Newtype featured single chapters within their monthly periodicals. Other magazines like Nakayoshi feature many stories written by many different artists; these magazines, or "anthology magazines", as they are also known (colloquially "phone books"), are usually printed on low-quality newsprint and can be anywhere from 200 to more than 850 pages thick. Manga magazines also contain one-shot comics and various four-panel yonkoma (equivalent to comic strips). Manga series can run for many years if they are successful. Popular shonen magazines include Weekly Shōnen Jump, Weekly Shōnen Magazine and Weekly Shōnen Sunday - Popular shoujo manga include Ciao, Nakayoshi and Ribon. Manga artists sometimes start out with a few "one-shot" manga projects just to try to get their name out. If these are successful and receive good reviews, they are continued. Magazines often have a short life.[78]

Collected volumes

Main article: Tankōbon

After a series has run for a while, publishers often collect the chapters and print them in dedicated book-sized volumes, called tankōbon. These can be hardcover, or more usually softcover books, and are the equivalent of U.S. trade paperbacks or graphic novels. These volumes often use higher-quality paper, and are useful to those who want to "catch up" with a series so they can follow it in the magazines or if they find the cost of the weeklies or monthlies to be prohibitive. "Deluxe" versions have also been printed as readers have gotten older and the need for something special grew. Old manga have also been reprinted using somewhat lesser quality paper and sold for 100 yen (about $1 U.S. dollar) each to compete with the used book market.

History

Kanagaki Robun and Kawanabe Kyōsai created the first manga magazine in 1874: Eshinbun Nipponchi. The magazine was heavily influenced by Japan Punch, founded in 1862 by Charles Wirgman, a British cartoonist. Eshinbun Nipponchi had a very simple style of drawings and did not become popular with many people. Eshinbun Nipponchi ended after three issues. The magazine Kisho Shimbun in 1875 was inspired by Eshinbun Nipponchi, which was followed by Marumaru Chinbun in 1877, and then Garakuta Chinpo in 1879.[79] Shōnen Sekai was the first shōnen magazine created in 1895 by Iwaya Sazanami, a famous writer of Japanese children's literature back then. Shōnen Sekai had a strong focus on the First Sino-Japanese War.[80]

In 1905 the manga-magazine publishing boom started with the Russo-Japanese War,[81] Tokyo Pakku was created and became a huge hit.[82] After Tokyo Pakku in 1905, a female version of Shōnen Sekai was created and named Shōjo Sekai, considered the first shōjo magazine.[83] Shōnen Pakku was made and is considered the first children's manga magazine. The children's demographic was in an early stage of development in the Meiji period. Shōnen Pakku was influenced from foreign children's magazines such as Puck which an employee of Jitsugyō no Nihon (publisher of the magazine) saw and decided to emulate. In 1924, Kodomo Pakku was launched as another children's manga magazine after Shōnen Pakku.[82] During the boom, Poten (derived from the French "potin") was published in 1908. All the pages were in full color with influences from Tokyo Pakku and Osaka Puck. It is unknown if there were any more issues besides the first one.[81] Kodomo Pakku was launched May 1924 by Tokyosha and featured high-quality art by many members of the manga artistry like Takei Takeo, Takehisa Yumeji and Aso Yutaka. Some of the manga featured speech balloons, where other manga from the previous eras did not use speech balloons and were silent.[82]

Published from May 1935 to January 1941, Manga no Kuni coincided with the period of the Second Sino-Japanese War (1937–1945). Manga no Kuni featured information on becoming a mangaka and on other comics industries around the world. Manga no Kuni handed its title to Sashie Manga Kenkyū in August 1940.[84]

Dōjinshi

Main article: Dōjinshi

Dōjinshi, produced by small publishers outside of the mainstream commercial market, resemble in their publishing small-press independently published comic books in the United States. Comiket, the largest comic book convention in the world with around 500,000 visitors gathering over three days, is devoted to dōjinshi. While they most often contain original stories, many are parodies of or include characters from popular manga and anime series. Some dōjinshi continue with a series' story or write an entirely new one using its characters, much like fan fiction. In 2007, dōjinshi sales amounted to 27.73 billion yen (US$245 million).[74] In 2006 they represented about a tenth of manga books and magazines sales.[75]

Digital manga

Thanks to the advent of the internet, there have been new ways for aspiring mangaka to upload and sell their manga online. Before, there were two main ways in which a mangaka's work could be published: taking their manga drawn on paper to a publisher themselves, or submitting their work to competitions run by magazines.[85]

Web manga

In recent years, there has been a rise in manga released digitally. Web manga, as it is known in Japan, has seen an increase thanks in part to image hosting websites where anyone can upload pages from their works for free. Although released digitally, almost all web manga sticks to the conventional black-and-white format despite some never getting physical publication. Pixiv is the most popular site where amateur and professional work gets published on the site. It has grown to be the most visited site for artwork in Japan.[86] Twitter has also become a popular place for web manga with many artists releasing pages weekly on their accounts in the hope of their work getting picked up or published professionally. One of the best examples of an amateur work becoming professional is One-Punch Man which was released online and later received a professional remake released digitally and an anime adaptation soon thereafter.[87]

Many of the big print publishers have also released digital only magazines and websites where web manga get published alongside their serialized magazines. Shogakukan for instance has two websites, Sunday Webry and Ura Sunday, that release weekly chapters for web manga and even offer contests for mangaka to submit their work. Both Sunday Webry and Ura Sunday have become one of the top web manga sites in Japan.[88][89] Some have even released apps that teach how to draw professional manga and learn how to create them. Weekly Shōnen Jump released Jump Paint, an app that guides users on how to make their own manga from making storyboards to digitally inking lines. It also offers more than 120 types of pen tips and more than 1,000 screentones for artists to practice.[85] Kodansha has also used the popularity of web manga to launch more series and also offer better distribution of their officially translated works under Kodansha Comics thanks in part to the titles being released digitally first before being published physically.[90]

The rise web manga has also been credited to smartphones and computers as more and more readers read manga on their phones rather than from a print publication. While paper manga has seen a decrease over time, digital manga have been growing in sales each year. The Research Institute for Publications reports that sales of digital manga books excluding magazines jumped 27.1 percent to ¥146 billion in 2016 from the year before while sales of paper manga saw a record year-on-year decline of 7.4 percent to ¥194.7 billion. They have also said that if the digital and paper keep the same growth and drop rates, web manga would exceed their paper counterparts.[91] In 2020 manga sales topped the ¥600 billion mark for the first time in history, beating the 1995 peak due to a fast growth of the digital manga market which rose by ¥82.7 billion from a previous year, surpassing print manga sales which have also increased.[92][93]

Webtoons

While webtoons have caught on in popularity as a new medium for comics in Asia, Japan has been slow to adopt webtoons as the traditional format and print publication still dominate the way manga is created and consumed(although this is beginning to change). Despite this, one of the biggest webtoon publishers in the world, Comico, has had success in the traditional Japanese manga market. Comico was launched by NHN Japan, the Japanese subsidiary of Korean company, NHN Entertainment. As of now[when?], there are only two webtoon publishers that publish Japanese webtoons: Comico and Naver Webtoon (under the name XOY in Japan). Kakao has also had success by offering licensed manga and translated Korean webtoons with their service Piccoma. All three companies credit their success to the webtoon pay model where users can purchase each chapter individually instead of having to buy the whole book while also offering some chapters for free for a period of time allowing anyone to read a whole series for free if they wait long enough.[94] The added benefit of having all of their titles in color and some with special animations and effects have also helped them succeed. Some popular Japanese webtoons have also gotten anime adaptations and print releases, the most notable being ReLIFE and Recovery of an MMO Junkie.[95][96]

International markets

Main article: Manga outside Japan

By 2007, the influence of manga on international comics had grown considerably over the past two decades.[97] "Influence" is used here to refer to effects on the comics markets outside Japan and to aesthetic effects on comics artists internationally.

 
The reading direction in a traditional manga

Traditionally, manga stories flow from top to bottom and from right to left. Some publishers of translated manga keep to this original format. Other publishers mirror the pages horizontally before printing the translation, changing the reading direction to a more "Western" left to right, so as not to confuse foreign readers or traditional comics-consumers. This practice is known as "flipping".[98] For the most part, criticism suggests that flipping goes against the original intentions of the creator (for example, if a person wears a shirt that reads "MAY" on it, and gets flipped, then the word is altered to "YAM"), who may be ignorant of how awkward it is to read comics when the eyes must flow through the pages and text in opposite directions, resulting in an experience that's quite distinct from reading something that flows homogeneously. If the translation is not adapted to the flipped artwork carefully enough it is also possible for the text to go against the picture, such as a person referring to something on their left in the text while pointing to their right in the graphic. Characters shown writing with their right hands, the majority of them, would become left-handed when a series is flipped. Flipping may also cause oddities with familiar asymmetrical objects or layouts, such as a car being depicted with the gas pedal on the left and the brake on the right, or a shirt with the buttons on the wrong side, however these issues are minor when compared to the unnatural reading flow, and some of them could be solved with an adaptation work that goes beyond just translation and blind flipping.[99]

Asia

Manga has highly influenced the art styles of manhwa and manhua.[100] Manga in Indonesia is published by Elex Media Komputindo, Level Comic, M&C and Gramedia. Manga has influenced Indonesia's original comic industry. Manga in the Philippines were imported from the US and were sold only in specialty stores and in limited copies. The first manga in Filipino language is Doraemon which was published by J-Line Comics and was then followed by Case Closed.[citation needed] In 2015, Boy's Love manga became popular through the introduction of BL manga by printing company BLACKink. Among the first BL titles to be printed were Poster Boy, Tagila, and Sprinters, all were written in Filipino. BL manga have become bestsellers in the top three bookstore companies in the Philippines since their introduction in 2015. During the same year, Boy's Love manga have become a popular mainstream with Thai consumers, leading to television series adapted from BL manga stories since 2016.[citation needed]

Europe

 
The comic book and manga store Sakura Eldorado in Hamburg.

Manga has influenced European cartooning in a way that is somewhat different from in the U.S. Broadcast anime in France and Italy opened the European market to manga during the 1970s.[101] French art has borrowed from Japan since the 19th century (Japonism)[102] and has its own highly developed tradition of bande dessinée cartooning.[103] In France, beginning in the mid-1990s,[104] manga has proven very popular to a wide readership, accounting for about one-third of comics sales in France since 2004.[105] By mid-2021, 75 percent of the €300 value of Culture Pass [fr] accounts given to French 18 year-olds was spent on manga.[106] According to the Japan External Trade Organization, sales of manga reached $212.6 million within France and Germany alone in 2006.[101] France represents about 50% of the European market and is the second worldwide market, behind Japan.[22] In 2013, there were 41 publishers of manga in France and, together with other Asian comics, manga represented around 40% of new comics releases in the country,[107] surpassing Franco-Belgian comics for the first time.[108] European publishers marketing manga translated into French include Asuka, Casterman, Glénat, Kana, and Pika Édition, among others.[citation needed] European publishers also translate manga into Dutch, German, Italian, and other languages. In 2007, about 70% of all comics sold in Germany were manga.[109]

Manga publishers based in the United Kingdom include Gollancz and Titan Books.[citation needed] Manga publishers from the United States have a strong marketing presence in the United Kingdom: for example, the Tanoshimi line from Random House.[citation needed] In 2019 The British Museum held a mass exhibition dedicated to manga.[110][111][112]

United States

 
The manga section at Barnes & Noble in San Bruno, California.

Manga made their way only gradually into U.S. markets, first in association with anime and then independently.[113] Some U.S. fans became aware of manga in the 1970s and early 1980s.[114] However, anime was initially more accessible than manga to U.S. fans,[115] many of whom were college-age young people who found it easier to obtain, subtitle, and exhibit video tapes of anime than translate, reproduce, and distribute tankōbon-style manga books.[116] One of the first manga translated into English and marketed in the U.S. was Keiji Nakazawa's Barefoot Gen, an autobiographical story of the atomic bombing of Hiroshima issued by Leonard Rifas and Educomics (1980–1982).[117] More manga were translated between the mid-1980s and 1990s, including Golgo 13 in 1986, Lone Wolf and Cub from First Comics in 1987, and Kamui, Area 88, and Mai the Psychic Girl, also in 1987 and all from Viz Media-Eclipse Comics.[118] Others soon followed, including Akira from Marvel Comics' Epic Comics imprint, Nausicaä of the Valley of the Wind from Viz Media, and Appleseed from Eclipse Comics in 1988, and later Iczer-1 (Antarctic Press, 1994) and Ippongi Bang's F-111 Bandit (Antarctic Press, 1995).

In the 1980s to the mid-1990s, Japanese animation, like Akira, Dragon Ball, Neon Genesis Evangelion, and Pokémon, made a bigger impact on the fan experience and in the market than manga.[119] Matters changed when translator-entrepreneur Toren Smith founded Studio Proteus in 1986. Smith and Studio Proteus acted as an agent and translator of many Japanese manga, including Masamune Shirow's Appleseed and Kōsuke Fujishima's Oh My Goddess!, for Dark Horse and Eros Comix, eliminating the need for these publishers to seek their own contacts in Japan.[120] Simultaneously, the Japanese publisher Shogakukan opened a U.S. market initiative with their U.S. subsidiary Viz, enabling Viz to draw directly on Shogakukan's catalogue and translation skills.[98]

 
A young boy reading Black Cat

Japanese publishers began pursuing a U.S. market in the mid-1990s due to a stagnation in the domestic market for manga.[121] The U.S. manga market took an upturn with mid-1990s anime and manga versions of Masamune Shirow's Ghost in the Shell (translated by Frederik L. Schodt and Toren Smith) becoming very popular among fans.[122] An extremely successful manga and anime translated and dubbed in English in the mid-1990s was Sailor Moon.[123] By 1995–1998, the Sailor Moon manga had been exported to over 23 countries, including China, Brazil, Mexico, Australia, North America and most of Europe.[124] In 1997, Mixx Entertainment began publishing Sailor Moon, along with CLAMP's Magic Knight Rayearth, Hitoshi Iwaaki's Parasyte and Tsutomu Takahashi's Ice Blade in the monthly manga magazine MixxZine. Mixx Entertainment, later renamed Tokyopop, also published manga in trade paperbacks and, like Viz, began aggressive marketing of manga to both young male and young female demographics.[125]

During this period, Dark Horse Manga was a major publisher of translated manga. In addition to Oh My Goddess!, the company published Akira, Astro Boy, Berserk, Blade of the Immortal, Ghost in the Shell, Lone Wolf and Cub, Yasuhiro Nightow's Trigun and Blood Blockade Battlefront, Gantz, Kouta Hirano's Hellsing and Drifters, Blood+, Multiple Personality Detective Psycho, FLCL, Mob Psycho 100, and Oreimo. The company received 13 Eisner Award nominations for its manga titles, and three of the four manga creators admitted to The Will Eisner Award Hall of Fame — Osamu Tezuka, Kazuo Koike, and Goseki Kojima — were published in Dark Horse translations.[126]

In the following years, manga became increasingly popular, and new publishers entered the field while the established publishers greatly expanded their catalogues.[127] The Pokémon manga Electric Tale of Pikachu issue #1 sold over 1 million copies in the United States, making it the best-selling single comic book in the United States since 1993.[128] By 2008, the U.S. and Canadian manga market generated $175 million in annual sales.[129] Simultaneously, mainstream U.S. media began to discuss manga, with articles in The New York Times, Time magazine, The Wall Street Journal, and Wired magazine.[130] As of 2017, manga distributor Viz Media is the largest publisher of graphic novels and comic books in the United States, with a 23% share of the market.[131] BookScan sales show that manga is one of the fastest-growing areas of the comic book and narrative fiction markets. From January 2019 to May 2019, the manga market grew 16%, compared to the overall comic book market's 5% growth. The NPD Group noted that, compared to other comic book readers, manga readers are younger (76% under 30) and more diverse, including a higher female readership (16% higher than other comic books).[132] As of January 2020 manga is the second largest category in the US comic book and graphic novel market, accounting for 27% of the entire market share.[133] During the COVID-19 pandemic some stores of the American bookseller Barnes & Noble saw up to a 500% increase in sales from graphic novel and manga sales due to the younger generations showing a high interest in the medium.[134] Sales of print manga titles in the U.S. increased by 3.6 million units in the first quarter of 2021 compared to the same period in 2020.[135] In 2021 24.4 million units of manga were sold in the United States. This is an increase of about 15 million(160%) more sales than in 2020.[136][137]

Localized manga

Main articles: Manfra and Original English-language manga

A number of artists in the United States have drawn comics and cartoons influenced by manga. As an early example, Vernon Grant drew manga-influenced comics while living in Japan in the late 1960s and early 1970s.[138] Others include Frank Miller's mid-1980s Ronin, Adam Warren and Toren Smith's 1988 The Dirty Pair,[139] Ben Dunn's 1987 Ninja High School and Manga Shi 2000 from Crusade Comics (1997).

By the 21st century several U.S. manga publishers had begun to produce work by U.S. artists under the broad marketing-label of manga.[140] In 2002 I.C. Entertainment, formerly Studio Ironcat and now out of business, launched a series of manga by U.S. artists called Amerimanga.[141] In 2004 eigoMANGA launched the Rumble Pak and Sakura Pakk anthology series. Seven Seas Entertainment followed suit with World Manga.[142] Simultaneously, TokyoPop introduced original English-language manga (OEL manga) later renamed Global Manga.[143]

Francophone artists have also developed their own versions of manga (manfra), like Frédéric Boilet's la nouvelle manga. Boilet has worked in France and in Japan, sometimes collaborating with Japanese artists.[144]

Awards

The Japanese manga industry grants a large number of awards, mostly sponsored by publishers, with the winning prize usually including publication of the winning stories in magazines released by the sponsoring publisher. Examples of these awards include:

The Japanese Ministry of Foreign Affairs has awarded the International Manga Award annually since May 2007.[145]

University education

Kyoto Seika University in Japan has offered a highly competitive course in manga since 2000.[146][147] Then, several established universities and vocational schools (専門学校: Semmon gakkou) established a training curriculum.

Shuho Sato, who wrote Umizaru and Say Hello to Black Jack, has created some controversy on Twitter. Sato says, "Manga school is meaningless because those schools have very low success rates. Then, I could teach novices required skills on the job in three months. Meanwhile, those school students spend several million yen, and four years, yet they are good for nothing." and that, "For instance, Keiko Takemiya, the then professor of Seika Univ., remarked in the Government Council that 'A complete novice will be able to understand where is "Tachikiri" (i.e., margin section) during four years.' On the other hand, I would imagine that, It takes about thirty minutes to completely understand that at work."[148]

See also

Notes

  1. ^ /ˈmæŋɡə/; also US: /ˈmɑːŋɡə/

References

Inline citations

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Further reading

  • (in French). 11 July 2007. Archived from the original on 8 January 2008.
  • Hattie Jones, "Manga girls: Sex, love, comedy and crime in recent boy's manga and anime," in Brigitte Steger and Angelika Koch (2013 eds): Manga Girl Seeks Herbivore Boy. Studying Japanese Gender at Cambridge. Lit Publisher, pp. 24–81.
  • (in Italian) Marcella Zaccagnino and Sebastiano Contrari. "Manga: il Giappone alla conquista del mondo" () Limes, rivista italiana di geopolitica. 31 October 2007.
  • Unser-Schutz, Giancarla (2015). "Influential or influenced? The relationship between genre, gender and language in manga". Gender and Language. 9 (2): 223–254. doi:10.1558/genl.v9i2.17331.

External links

 
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Manga.
  • Manga at Curlie
  •   Anime and manga in Japan travel guide from Wikivoyage

January 20, 2023
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This article is about the comics or graphic novels created in Japan For other uses see Manga disambiguation Manga Japanese 漫画 maŋga a are comics or graphic novels originating from Japan Most manga conform to a style developed in Japan in the late 19th century 1 and the form has a long history in earlier Japanese art 2 The term manga is used in Japan to refer to both comics and cartooning Outside of Japan the word is typically used to refer to comics originally published in the country 3 MangaPublishersShueisha Shogakukan Kodansha Hakusensha Gangan Comics ASCII Media Works Kadokawa Shoten Mag Garden listPublicationsWeekly Shōnen Jump Weekly Shōnen Magazine Weekly Young Jump Weekly Shōnen Sunday Weekly Young Magazine Ribon Nakayoshi CoroCoro Comic Monthly Shōnen Jump listCreatorsOsamu Tezuka Akira Toriyama Eiichiro Oda Yoshihiro Togashi Naoko Takeuchi listSeriesDoraemon One Piece Astro Boy My Hero Academia The Promised Neverland Demon Slayer Kimetsu no Yaiba Dr Stone Naruto Bleach Dragon Ball Golgo 13 Black Jack Fairy Tail The Seven Deadly Sins JoJo s Bizarre Adventure Kochira Katsushika ku Kameari Kōen mae Hashutsujo Case Closed Crayon Shin chan Oishinbo Slam Dunk Attack on Titan Death Note Hunter Hunter listsLanguagesJapaneseRelated articlesManfra Manhua Manhwa La nouvelle manga OEL mangaIn Japan people of all ages and walks of life read manga The medium includes works in a broad range of genres action adventure business and commerce comedy detective drama historical horror mystery romance science fiction and fantasy erotica hentai and ecchi sports and games and suspense among others 4 5 Many manga are translated into other languages 6 Since the 1950s manga has become an increasingly major part of the Japanese publishing industry 7 By 1995 the manga market in Japan was valued at 586 4 billion 6 7 billion 8 with annual sales of 1 9 billion manga books and manga magazines in Japan equivalent to 15 issues per person 9 In 2020 Japan s manga market value hit a new record of 612 6 billion due to the fast growth of digital manga sales as well as increase of print sales 10 11 Manga have also gained a significant worldwide audience 12 13 14 Beginning with the late 2010s manga started massively outselling American comics 15 In 2020 the North American manga market was valued at almost 250 million 16 According to NPD BookScan manga made up 76 of overall comics and graphic novel sales in the US in 2021 17 The fast growth of the North American manga market has been attributed to manga s wide availability on digital reading apps book retailer chains such as Barnes amp Noble and online retailers such as Amazon as well as the increased streaming of anime 18 19 According to Jean Marie Bouissou manga represented 38 of the French comics market in 2005 20 This is equivalent to approximately 3 times that of the United States and was valued at about 460 million 640 million 21 In Europe and the Middle East the market was valued at 250 million in 2012 22 Manga stories are typically printed in black and white due to time constraints artistic reasons as coloring could lessen the impact of the artwork 23 and to keep printing costs low 24 although some full color manga exist e g Colorful In Japan manga are usually serialized in large manga magazines often containing many stories each presented in a single episode to be continued in the next issue Collected chapters are usually republished in tankōbon volumes frequently but not exclusively paperback books 25 A manga artist mangaka in Japanese typically works with a few assistants in a small studio and is associated with a creative editor from a commercial publishing company 26 If a manga series is popular enough it may be animated after or during its run 27 Sometimes manga are based on previous live action or animated films 28 Manga influenced comics among original works exist in other parts of the world particularly in those places that speak Chinese manhua Korean manhwa English OEL manga and French manfra as well as in the nation of Algeria DZ manga 29 30 Contents 1 Etymology 2 History and characteristics 3 Publications and exhibition 3 1 Magazines 3 2 Collected volumes 3 2 1 History 3 3 Dōjinshi 4 Digital manga 4 1 Web manga 4 2 Webtoons 5 International markets 5 1 Asia 5 2 Europe 5 3 United States 6 Localized manga 7 Awards 8 University education 9 See also 10 Notes 11 References 11 1 Inline citations 11 2 Works cited 12 Further reading 13 External linksEtymology The kanji for manga from the preface to Shiji no yukikai 1798 The word manga comes from the Japanese word 漫画 31 katakana マンガ hiragana まんが composed of the two kanji 漫 man meaning whimsical or impromptu and 画 ga meaning pictures 32 33 The same term is the root of the Korean word for comics manhwa and the Chinese word manhua 34 The word first came into common usage in the late 18th century 35 with the publication of such works as Santō Kyōden s picturebook Shiji no yukikai 1798 36 32 and in the early 19th century with such works as Aikawa Minwa s Manga hyakujo 1814 and the celebrated Hokusai Manga books 1814 1834 37 containing assorted drawings from the sketchbooks of the famous ukiyo e artist Hokusai 38 Rakuten Kitazawa 1876 1955 first used the word manga in the modern sense 39 In Japanese manga refers to all kinds of cartooning comics and animation Among English speakers manga has the stricter meaning of Japanese comics in parallel to the usage of anime in and outside Japan The term ani manga is used to describe comics produced from animation cels 40 History and characteristicsMain articles History of manga and Manga iconography See also Kibyōshi and Kamishibai A kami shibai story teller from Sazae san by Machiko Hasegawa Sazae appears with her hair in a bun According to art resource Widewalls manga originated from emakimono scrolls Chōju jinbutsu giga dating back to the 12th century During the Edo period 1603 1867 a book of drawings titled Toba Ehon further developed what would later be called manga 41 42 The word itself first came into common usage in 1798 35 with the publication of works such as Santō Kyōden s picturebook Shiji no yukikai 1798 36 32 and in the early 19th century with such works as Aikawa Minwa s Manga hyakujo 1814 and the Hokusai Manga books 1814 1834 38 43 Adam L Kern has suggested that kibyoshi picture books from the late 18th century may have been the world s first comic books These graphical narratives share with modern manga humorous satirical and romantic themes 44 Some works were mass produced as serials using woodblock printing 9 however Eastern comics are generally held separate from the evolution of Western comics and Western comic art probably originated in 17th Italy 45 Writers on manga history have described two broad and complementary processes shaping modern manga One view represented by other writers such as Frederik L Schodt Kinko Ito and Adam L Kern stress continuity of Japanese cultural and aesthetic traditions including pre war Meiji and pre Meiji culture and art 46 The other view emphasizes events occurring during and after the Allied occupation of Japan 1945 1952 and stresses U S cultural influences including U S comics brought to Japan by the GIs and images and themes from U S television film and cartoons especially Disney 47 Regardless of its source an explosion of artistic creativity occurred in the post war period 48 involving manga artists such as Osamu Tezuka Astro Boy and Machiko Hasegawa Sazae san Astro Boy quickly became and remains immensely popular in Japan and elsewhere 49 and the anime adaptation of Sazae san drew more viewers than any other anime on Japanese television in 2011 41 Tezuka and Hasegawa both made stylistic innovations In Tezuka s cinematographic technique the panels are like a motion picture that reveals details of action bordering on slow motion as well as rapid zooms from distance to close up shots This kind of visual dynamism was widely adopted by later manga artists 50 Hasegawa s focus on daily life and on women s experience also came to characterize later shōjo manga 51 Between 1950 and 1969 an increasingly large readership for manga emerged in Japan with the solidification of its two main marketing genres shōnen manga aimed at boys and shōjo manga aimed at girls 52 In 1969 a group of female manga artists later called the Year 24 Group also known as Magnificent 24s made their shōjo manga debut year 24 comes from the Japanese name for the year 1949 the birth year of many of these artists 53 The group included Moto Hagio Riyoko Ikeda Yumiko Ōshima Keiko Takemiya and Ryoko Yamagishi 25 Thereafter primarily female manga artists would draw shōjo for a readership of girls and young women 54 In the following decades 1975 present shōjo manga continued to develop stylistically while simultaneously evolving different but overlapping subgenres 55 Major subgenres include romance superheroines and Ladies Comics in Japanese redisu レディース redikomi レディコミ and josei 女性 56 Modern shōjo manga romance features love as a major theme set into emotionally intense narratives of self realization 57 With the superheroines shōjo manga saw releases such as Pink Hanamori s Mermaid Melody Pichi Pichi Pitch Reiko Yoshida s Tokyo Mew Mew and Naoko Takeuchi s Pretty Soldier Sailor Moon which became internationally popular in both manga and anime formats 58 Groups or sentais of girls working together have also been popular within this genre Like Lucia Hanon and Rina singing together and Sailor Moon Sailor Mercury Sailor Mars Sailor Jupiter and Sailor Venus working together 59 Manga for male readers sub divides according to the age of its intended readership boys up to 18 years old shōnen manga and young men 18 to 30 years old seinen manga 60 as well as by content including action adventure often involving male heroes slapstick humor themes of honor and sometimes explicit sex 61 The Japanese use different kanji for two closely allied meanings of seinen 青年 for youth young man and 成年 for adult majority the second referring to pornographic manga aimed at grown men and also called seijin adult 成人 manga 62 Shōnen seinen and seijin manga share a number of features in common Boys and young men became some of the earliest readers of manga after World War II From the 1950s on shōnen manga focused on topics thought to interest the archetypal boy including subjects like robots space travel and heroic action adventure 63 Popular themes include science fiction technology sports and supernatural settings Manga with solitary costumed superheroes like Superman Batman and Spider Man generally did not become as popular 64 The role of girls and women in manga produced for male readers has evolved considerably over time to include those featuring single pretty girls bishōjo 65 such as Belldandy from Oh My Goddess stories where such girls and women surround the hero as in Negima and Hanaukyo Maid Team or groups of heavily armed female warriors sentō bishōjo 66 With the relaxation of censorship in Japan in the 1990s an assortment of explicit sexual material appeared in manga intended for male readers and correspondingly continued into the English translations 67 In 2010 the Tokyo Metropolitan Government considered a bill to restrict minors access to such content 68 needs update The gekiga style of storytelling thematically somber adult oriented and sometimes deeply violent focuses on the day in day out grim realities of life often drawn in a gritty and unvarnished fashion 69 70 Gekiga such as Sampei Shirato s 1959 1962 Chronicles of a Ninja s Military Accomplishments Ninja Bugeichō arose in the late 1950s and 1960s partly from left wing student and working class political activism 71 and partly from the aesthetic dissatisfaction of young manga artists like Yoshihiro Tatsumi with existing manga 72 Publications and exhibition Delegates of 3rd Asian Cartoon Exhibition held at Tokyo Annual Manga Exhibition by The Japan Foundation 73 A manga store in Japan In Japan manga constituted an annual 40 6 billion yen approximately US 395 million publication industry by 2007 74 In 2006 sales of manga books made up for about 27 of total book sales and sale of manga magazines for 20 of total magazine sales 75 The manga industry has expanded worldwide where distribution companies license and reprint manga into their native languages Marketeers primarily classify manga by the age and gender of the target readership 76 In particular books and magazines sold to boys shōnen and girls shōjo have distinctive cover art and most bookstores place them on different shelves Due to cross readership consumer response is not limited by demographics For example male readers may subscribe to a series intended for female readers and so on Japan has manga cafes or manga kissa kissa is an abbreviation of kissaten At a manga kissa people drink coffee read manga and sometimes stay overnight The Kyoto International Manga Museum maintains a very large website listing manga published in Japanese 77 Magazines See also List of manga magazines and List of Japanese manga magazines by circulation Eshinbun Nipponchi is credited as the first manga magazine ever made Manga magazines or anthologies 漫画雑誌 manga zasshi usually have many series running concurrently with approximately 20 40 pages allocated to each series per issue Other magazines such as the anime fandom magazine Newtype featured single chapters within their monthly periodicals Other magazines like Nakayoshi feature many stories written by many different artists these magazines or anthology magazines as they are also known colloquially phone books are usually printed on low quality newsprint and can be anywhere from 200 to more than 850 pages thick Manga magazines also contain one shot comics and various four panel yonkoma equivalent to comic strips Manga series can run for many years if they are successful Popular shonen magazines include Weekly Shōnen Jump Weekly Shōnen Magazine and Weekly Shōnen Sunday Popular shoujo manga include Ciao Nakayoshi and Ribon Manga artists sometimes start out with a few one shot manga projects just to try to get their name out If these are successful and receive good reviews they are continued Magazines often have a short life 78 Collected volumes Main article Tankōbon After a series has run for a while publishers often collect the chapters and print them in dedicated book sized volumes called tankōbon These can be hardcover or more usually softcover books and are the equivalent of U S trade paperbacks or graphic novels These volumes often use higher quality paper and are useful to those who want to catch up with a series so they can follow it in the magazines or if they find the cost of the weeklies or monthlies to be prohibitive Deluxe versions have also been printed as readers have gotten older and the need for something special grew Old manga have also been reprinted using somewhat lesser quality paper and sold for 100 yen about 1 U S dollar each to compete with the used book market History Kanagaki Robun and Kawanabe Kyōsai created the first manga magazine in 1874 Eshinbun Nipponchi The magazine was heavily influenced by Japan Punch founded in 1862 by Charles Wirgman a British cartoonist Eshinbun Nipponchi had a very simple style of drawings and did not become popular with many people Eshinbun Nipponchi ended after three issues The magazine Kisho Shimbun in 1875 was inspired by Eshinbun Nipponchi which was followed by Marumaru Chinbun in 1877 and then Garakuta Chinpo in 1879 79 Shōnen Sekai was the first shōnen magazine created in 1895 by Iwaya Sazanami a famous writer of Japanese children s literature back then Shōnen Sekai had a strong focus on the First Sino Japanese War 80 In 1905 the manga magazine publishing boom started with the Russo Japanese War 81 Tokyo Pakku was created and became a huge hit 82 After Tokyo Pakku in 1905 a female version of Shōnen Sekai was created and named Shōjo Sekai considered the first shōjo magazine 83 Shōnen Pakku was made and is considered the first children s manga magazine The children s demographic was in an early stage of development in the Meiji period Shōnen Pakku was influenced from foreign children s magazines such as Puck which an employee of Jitsugyō no Nihon publisher of the magazine saw and decided to emulate In 1924 Kodomo Pakku was launched as another children s manga magazine after Shōnen Pakku 82 During the boom Poten derived from the French potin was published in 1908 All the pages were in full color with influences from Tokyo Pakku and Osaka Puck It is unknown if there were any more issues besides the first one 81 Kodomo Pakku was launched May 1924 by Tokyosha and featured high quality art by many members of the manga artistry like Takei Takeo Takehisa Yumeji and Aso Yutaka Some of the manga featured speech balloons where other manga from the previous eras did not use speech balloons and were silent 82 Published from May 1935 to January 1941 Manga no Kuni coincided with the period of the Second Sino Japanese War 1937 1945 Manga no Kuni featured information on becoming a mangaka and on other comics industries around the world Manga no Kuni handed its title to Sashie Manga Kenkyu in August 1940 84 Dōjinshi Main article Dōjinshi Dōjinshi produced by small publishers outside of the mainstream commercial market resemble in their publishing small press independently published comic books in the United States Comiket the largest comic book convention in the world with around 500 000 visitors gathering over three days is devoted to dōjinshi While they most often contain original stories many are parodies of or include characters from popular manga and anime series Some dōjinshi continue with a series story or write an entirely new one using its characters much like fan fiction In 2007 dōjinshi sales amounted to 27 73 billion yen US 245 million 74 In 2006 they represented about a tenth of manga books and magazines sales 75 Digital mangaThanks to the advent of the internet there have been new ways for aspiring mangaka to upload and sell their manga online Before there were two main ways in which a mangaka s work could be published taking their manga drawn on paper to a publisher themselves or submitting their work to competitions run by magazines 85 Web manga In recent years there has been a rise in manga released digitally Web manga as it is known in Japan has seen an increase thanks in part to image hosting websites where anyone can upload pages from their works for free Although released digitally almost all web manga sticks to the conventional black and white format despite some never getting physical publication Pixiv is the most popular site where amateur and professional work gets published on the site It has grown to be the most visited site for artwork in Japan 86 Twitter has also become a popular place for web manga with many artists releasing pages weekly on their accounts in the hope of their work getting picked up or published professionally One of the best examples of an amateur work becoming professional is One Punch Man which was released online and later received a professional remake released digitally and an anime adaptation soon thereafter 87 Many of the big print publishers have also released digital only magazines and websites where web manga get published alongside their serialized magazines Shogakukan for instance has two websites Sunday Webry and Ura Sunday that release weekly chapters for web manga and even offer contests for mangaka to submit their work Both Sunday Webry and Ura Sunday have become one of the top web manga sites in Japan 88 89 Some have even released apps that teach how to draw professional manga and learn how to create them Weekly Shōnen Jump released Jump Paint an app that guides users on how to make their own manga from making storyboards to digitally inking lines It also offers more than 120 types of pen tips and more than 1 000 screentones for artists to practice 85 Kodansha has also used the popularity of web manga to launch more series and also offer better distribution of their officially translated works under Kodansha Comics thanks in part to the titles being released digitally first before being published physically 90 The rise web manga has also been credited to smartphones and computers as more and more readers read manga on their phones rather than from a print publication While paper manga has seen a decrease over time digital manga have been growing in sales each year The Research Institute for Publications reports that sales of digital manga books excluding magazines jumped 27 1 percent to 146 billion in 2016 from the year before while sales of paper manga saw a record year on year decline of 7 4 percent to 194 7 billion They have also said that if the digital and paper keep the same growth and drop rates web manga would exceed their paper counterparts 91 In 2020 manga sales topped the 600 billion mark for the first time in history beating the 1995 peak due to a fast growth of the digital manga market which rose by 82 7 billion from a previous year surpassing print manga sales which have also increased 92 93 Webtoons While webtoons have caught on in popularity as a new medium for comics in Asia Japan has been slow to adopt webtoons as the traditional format and print publication still dominate the way manga is created and consumed although this is beginning to change Despite this one of the biggest webtoon publishers in the world Comico has had success in the traditional Japanese manga market Comico was launched by NHN Japan the Japanese subsidiary of Korean company NHN Entertainment As of now when there are only two webtoon publishers that publish Japanese webtoons Comico and Naver Webtoon under the name XOY in Japan Kakao has also had success by offering licensed manga and translated Korean webtoons with their service Piccoma All three companies credit their success to the webtoon pay model where users can purchase each chapter individually instead of having to buy the whole book while also offering some chapters for free for a period of time allowing anyone to read a whole series for free if they wait long enough 94 The added benefit of having all of their titles in color and some with special animations and effects have also helped them succeed Some popular Japanese webtoons have also gotten anime adaptations and print releases the most notable being ReLIFE and Recovery of an MMO Junkie 95 96 International marketsMain article Manga outside Japan By 2007 the influence of manga on international comics had grown considerably over the past two decades 97 Influence is used here to refer to effects on the comics markets outside Japan and to aesthetic effects on comics artists internationally The reading direction in a traditional manga Traditionally manga stories flow from top to bottom and from right to left Some publishers of translated manga keep to this original format Other publishers mirror the pages horizontally before printing the translation changing the reading direction to a more Western left to right so as not to confuse foreign readers or traditional comics consumers This practice is known as flipping 98 For the most part criticism suggests that flipping goes against the original intentions of the creator for example if a person wears a shirt that reads MAY on it and gets flipped then the word is altered to YAM who may be ignorant of how awkward it is to read comics when the eyes must flow through the pages and text in opposite directions resulting in an experience that s quite distinct from reading something that flows homogeneously If the translation is not adapted to the flipped artwork carefully enough it is also possible for the text to go against the picture such as a person referring to something on their left in the text while pointing to their right in the graphic Characters shown writing with their right hands the majority of them would become left handed when a series is flipped Flipping may also cause oddities with familiar asymmetrical objects or layouts such as a car being depicted with the gas pedal on the left and the brake on the right or a shirt with the buttons on the wrong side however these issues are minor when compared to the unnatural reading flow and some of them could be solved with an adaptation work that goes beyond just translation and blind flipping 99 Asia Manga has highly influenced the art styles of manhwa and manhua 100 Manga in Indonesia is published by Elex Media Komputindo Level Comic M amp C and Gramedia Manga has influenced Indonesia s original comic industry Manga in the Philippines were imported from the US and were sold only in specialty stores and in limited copies The first manga in Filipino language is Doraemon which was published by J Line Comics and was then followed by Case Closed citation needed In 2015 Boy s Love manga became popular through the introduction of BL manga by printing company BLACKink Among the first BL titles to be printed were Poster Boy Tagila and Sprinters all were written in Filipino BL manga have become bestsellers in the top three bookstore companies in the Philippines since their introduction in 2015 During the same year Boy s Love manga have become a popular mainstream with Thai consumers leading to television series adapted from BL manga stories since 2016 citation needed Europe The comic book and manga store Sakura Eldorado in Hamburg Manga has influenced European cartooning in a way that is somewhat different from in the U S Broadcast anime in France and Italy opened the European market to manga during the 1970s 101 French art has borrowed from Japan since the 19th century Japonism 102 and has its own highly developed tradition of bande dessinee cartooning 103 In France beginning in the mid 1990s 104 manga has proven very popular to a wide readership accounting for about one third of comics sales in France since 2004 105 By mid 2021 75 percent of the 300 value of Culture Pass fr accounts given to French 18 year olds was spent on manga 106 According to the Japan External Trade Organization sales of manga reached 212 6 million within France and Germany alone in 2006 101 France represents about 50 of the European market and is the second worldwide market behind Japan 22 In 2013 there were 41 publishers of manga in France and together with other Asian comics manga represented around 40 of new comics releases in the country 107 surpassing Franco Belgian comics for the first time 108 European publishers marketing manga translated into French include Asuka Casterman Glenat Kana and Pika Edition among others citation needed European publishers also translate manga into Dutch German Italian and other languages In 2007 about 70 of all comics sold in Germany were manga 109 Manga publishers based in the United Kingdom include Gollancz and Titan Books citation needed Manga publishers from the United States have a strong marketing presence in the United Kingdom for example the Tanoshimi line from Random House citation needed In 2019 The British Museum held a mass exhibition dedicated to manga 110 111 112 United States The manga section at Barnes amp Noble in San Bruno California Manga made their way only gradually into U S markets first in association with anime and then independently 113 Some U S fans became aware of manga in the 1970s and early 1980s 114 However anime was initially more accessible than manga to U S fans 115 many of whom were college age young people who found it easier to obtain subtitle and exhibit video tapes of anime than translate reproduce and distribute tankōbon style manga books 116 One of the first manga translated into English and marketed in the U S was Keiji Nakazawa s Barefoot Gen an autobiographical story of the atomic bombing of Hiroshima issued by Leonard Rifas and Educomics 1980 1982 117 More manga were translated between the mid 1980s and 1990s including Golgo 13 in 1986 Lone Wolf and Cub from First Comics in 1987 and Kamui Area 88 and Mai the Psychic Girl also in 1987 and all from Viz Media Eclipse Comics 118 Others soon followed including Akira from Marvel Comics Epic Comics imprint Nausicaa of the Valley of the Wind from Viz Media and Appleseed from Eclipse Comics in 1988 and later Iczer 1 Antarctic Press 1994 and Ippongi Bang s F 111 Bandit Antarctic Press 1995 In the 1980s to the mid 1990s Japanese animation like Akira Dragon Ball Neon Genesis Evangelion and Pokemon made a bigger impact on the fan experience and in the market than manga 119 Matters changed when translator entrepreneur Toren Smith founded Studio Proteus in 1986 Smith and Studio Proteus acted as an agent and translator of many Japanese manga including Masamune Shirow s Appleseed and Kōsuke Fujishima s Oh My Goddess for Dark Horse and Eros Comix eliminating the need for these publishers to seek their own contacts in Japan 120 Simultaneously the Japanese publisher Shogakukan opened a U S market initiative with their U S subsidiary Viz enabling Viz to draw directly on Shogakukan s catalogue and translation skills 98 A young boy reading Black Cat Japanese publishers began pursuing a U S market in the mid 1990s due to a stagnation in the domestic market for manga 121 The U S manga market took an upturn with mid 1990s anime and manga versions of Masamune Shirow s Ghost in the Shell translated by Frederik L Schodt and Toren Smith becoming very popular among fans 122 An extremely successful manga and anime translated and dubbed in English in the mid 1990s was Sailor Moon 123 By 1995 1998 the Sailor Moon manga had been exported to over 23 countries including China Brazil Mexico Australia North America and most of Europe 124 In 1997 Mixx Entertainment began publishing Sailor Moon along with CLAMP s Magic Knight Rayearth Hitoshi Iwaaki s Parasyte and Tsutomu Takahashi s Ice Blade in the monthly manga magazine MixxZine Mixx Entertainment later renamed Tokyopop also published manga in trade paperbacks and like Viz began aggressive marketing of manga to both young male and young female demographics 125 During this period Dark Horse Manga was a major publisher of translated manga In addition to Oh My Goddess the company published Akira Astro Boy Berserk Blade of the Immortal Ghost in the Shell Lone Wolf and Cub Yasuhiro Nightow s Trigun and Blood Blockade Battlefront Gantz Kouta Hirano s Hellsing and Drifters Blood Multiple Personality Detective Psycho FLCL Mob Psycho 100 and Oreimo The company received 13 Eisner Award nominations for its manga titles and three of the four manga creators admitted to The Will Eisner Award Hall of Fame Osamu Tezuka Kazuo Koike and Goseki Kojima were published in Dark Horse translations 126 In the following years manga became increasingly popular and new publishers entered the field while the established publishers greatly expanded their catalogues 127 The Pokemon manga Electric Tale of Pikachu issue 1 sold over 1 million copies in the United States making it the best selling single comic book in the United States since 1993 128 By 2008 the U S and Canadian manga market generated 175 million in annual sales 129 Simultaneously mainstream U S media began to discuss manga with articles in The New York Times Time magazine The Wall Street Journal and Wired magazine 130 As of 2017 manga distributor Viz Media is the largest publisher of graphic novels and comic books in the United States with a 23 share of the market 131 BookScan sales show that manga is one of the fastest growing areas of the comic book and narrative fiction markets From January 2019 to May 2019 the manga market grew 16 compared to the overall comic book market s 5 growth The NPD Group noted that compared to other comic book readers manga readers are younger 76 under 30 and more diverse including a higher female readership 16 higher than other comic books 132 As of January 2020 manga is the second largest category in the US comic book and graphic novel market accounting for 27 of the entire market share 133 During the COVID 19 pandemic some stores of the American bookseller Barnes amp Noble saw up to a 500 increase in sales from graphic novel and manga sales due to the younger generations showing a high interest in the medium 134 Sales of print manga titles in the U S increased by 3 6 million units in the first quarter of 2021 compared to the same period in 2020 135 In 2021 24 4 million units of manga were sold in the United States This is an increase of about 15 million 160 more sales than in 2020 136 137 Localized mangaMain articles Manfra and Original English language manga A number of artists in the United States have drawn comics and cartoons influenced by manga As an early example Vernon Grant drew manga influenced comics while living in Japan in the late 1960s and early 1970s 138 Others include Frank Miller s mid 1980s Ronin Adam Warren and Toren Smith s 1988 The Dirty Pair 139 Ben Dunn s 1987 Ninja High School and Manga Shi 2000 from Crusade Comics 1997 By the 21st century several U S manga publishers had begun to produce work by U S artists under the broad marketing label of manga 140 In 2002 I C Entertainment formerly Studio Ironcat and now out of business launched a series of manga by U S artists called Amerimanga 141 In 2004 eigoMANGA launched the Rumble Pak and Sakura Pakk anthology series Seven Seas Entertainment followed suit with World Manga 142 Simultaneously TokyoPop introduced original English language manga OEL manga later renamed Global Manga 143 Francophone artists have also developed their own versions of manga manfra like Frederic Boilet s la nouvelle manga Boilet has worked in France and in Japan sometimes collaborating with Japanese artists 144 AwardsThe Japanese manga industry grants a large number of awards mostly sponsored by publishers with the winning prize usually including publication of the winning stories in magazines released by the sponsoring publisher Examples of these awards include The Akatsuka Award for humorous manga The Dengeki Comic Grand Prix for one shot manga The Japan Cartoonists Association Award various categories The Kodansha Manga Award multiple genre awards The Seiun Award for best science fiction comic of the year The Shogakukan Manga Award multiple genres The Tezuka Award for best new serial manga The Tezuka Osamu Cultural Prize multiple genres The Japanese Ministry of Foreign Affairs has awarded the International Manga Award annually since May 2007 145 University educationKyoto Seika University in Japan has offered a highly competitive course in manga since 2000 146 147 Then several established universities and vocational schools 専門学校 Semmon gakkou established a training curriculum Shuho Sato who wrote Umizaru and Say Hello to Black Jack has created some controversy on Twitter Sato says Manga school is meaningless because those schools have very low success rates Then I could teach novices required skills on the job in three months Meanwhile those school students spend several million yen and four years yet they are good for nothing and that For instance Keiko Takemiya the then professor of Seika Univ remarked in the Government Council that A complete novice will be able to understand where is Tachikiri i e margin section during four years On the other hand I would imagine that It takes about thirty minutes to completely understand that at work 148 See also Japan portal Anime and manga portal Comics portalACG subculture Alternative manga Anime Anime and manga fandom Cinema of Japan Cool Japan Culture of Japan Emakimono E toki horizontal illustrated narrative form Japanese language Japanese popular culture Kamishibai Lianhuanhua small Chinese picture book Light novel List of best selling manga List of films based on manga List of licensed manga in English List of manga distributors List of manga magazines List of Japanese manga magazines by circulation Manga iconography Manga outside Japan Truyện tranh Manhua Manhwa Q version cartoonification Ukiyo e Visual novel Webtoon Weekly Shōnen JumpNotes ˈ m ae ŋ ɡ e also US ˈ m ɑː ŋ ɡ e ReferencesInline citations Lent 2001 pp 3 4 Gravett 2004 p 8 Kern 2006 Ito 2005 Schodt 1986 Merriam Webster 2009 Manga Anime topics mit edu Retrieved 22 June 2017 Brenner 2007 Gravett 2004 p 8 Kinsella 2000 Schodt 1996 Schodt 1996 pp 19 20 a b Manga anime rooted in Japanese history The Indianapolis Star 2 August 1997 Manga Market in Japan Hits Record 612 6 Billion Yen in 2020 Anime News Network 26 February 2021 Manga industry in Japan statistics and facts Statista 11 March 2021 Wong 2006 Patten 2004 Paperback manga has taken over the world Polygon 13 May 2021 Did manga shape how the world sees Japan BBC 12 June 2019 Why are manga outselling superhero comics Rutgers Today 5 December 2019 Manga sales hit an all time high in North America Icv2 2 July 2021 Manga Made Up 76 Of Overall Comics amp Graphic Novel Sales In The US In 2021 Animehunch 5 February 2022 Today s North American manga market The wins the losses and everything else Book Riot 13 August 2021 Manga s Growth In Popularity Is Here To Stay Industry Leaders Predict Anime News Network 13 May 2022 Bouissou Jean Marie 2006 JAPAN S GROWING CULTURAL POWER THE EXAMPLE OF MANGA IN FRANCE The Manga Market Eurasiam Japanese art amp communication School Eurasiam Retrieved 22 June 2017 a b Danica Davidson 26 January 2012 Manga grows in the heart of Europe Geek Out CNN Turner Broadcasting System Inc Retrieved 29 January 2012 Why Are U S Comics Colored and Japanese Mangas Not Slate 15 July 2015 Retrieved 12 May 2021 Katzenstein amp Shiraishi 1997 a b Gravett 2004 p 8 Schodt 1986 Kinsella 2000 Kittelson 1998 Johnston O Neill 2007 Webb 2006 Wong 2002 Rousmaniere 2001 p 54 Thompson 2007 p xiii Prohl amp Nelson 2012 p 596 Fukushima 2013 p 19 a b c Shiji no yukikai Japanese National Diet Library Webb 2006 Thompson 2007 p xvi Onoda 2009 p 10 Petersen 2011 p 120 Thompson 2007 p xiii Onoda 2009 p 10 Prohl amp Nelson 2012 p 596 Fukushima 2013 p 19 a b Prohl amp Nelson 2012 p 596 McCarthy 2014 p 6 a b Santō Kyōden s picturebooks Archived from the original on 6 January 2016 Retrieved 6 December 2015 Hokusai Manga 15 Vols complete a b Bouquillard amp Marquet 2007 Shimizu 1985 pp 53 54 102 103 Inu Yasha Ani MangaGraphic Novels Animecornerstore com 1 November 1999 Archived from the original on 4 December 2010 Retrieved 1 November 2010 a b Kageyama Y 24 September 2016 A Short History of Japanese Manga Widewalls ch Archived from the original on 28 May 2020 Retrieved 27 July 2020 MedievalManga in Midtown The Choju Giga at the Suntory Museum Dai Nippom Printng Co Ltd Archived from the original on 21 April 2021 Retrieved 22 December 2022 Kern 2006 pp 139 144 Fig 3 3 Kern 2006 Gothic in Comics and Graphic Novels by Julia Round page 24 and 25 Schodt 1986 Ito 2004 Kern 2006 Kern 2007 Kinsella 2000 Schodt 1986 Schodt 1986 Schodt 1996 Schodt 2007 Gravett 2004 Kodansha 1999 pp 692 715 Schodt 2007 Schodt 1986 Gravett 2004 p 8 Lee 2000 Sanchez 1997 2003 Schodt 1986 Toku 2006 Gravett 2004 pp 78 80 Lent 2001 pp 9 10 Schodt 1986 Toku 2006 Thorn 2001 Ōgi 2004 Gravett 2004 p 8 Schodt 1996 Drazen 2003 Allison 2000 pp 259 278 Schodt 1996 p 92 Poitras 2001 Thompson 2007 pp xxiii xxiv Brenner 2007 pp 31 34 Schodt 1996 p 95 Perper amp Cornog 2002 Schodt 1986 pp 68 87 Gravett 2004 pp 52 73 Schodt 1986 pp 68 87 Perper amp Cornog 2002 pp 60 63 Gardner 2003 Perper amp Cornog 2002 Tokyo Moves a Step Closer to Manga Porn Crackdown The Yomiuri Shimbun 14 December 2010 Archived from the original on 20 January 2013 Rosenbaum Roman 2011 Gekiga as a site of Intercultural Exchange PDF Kyoto Seika University Archived PDF from the original on 18 April 2016 Schodt 1986 pp 68 73 Gravett 2006 Schodt 1986 pp 68 73 Gravett 2004 pp 38 42 Isao 2001 Isao 2001 pp 147 149 Nunez 2006 Manga Hai Kya Comics Shekhar Gurera The Pioneer New Delhi a b Cube 2007 a b Manga Industry in Japan PDF Archived from the original PDF on 6 April 2012 Schodt 1996 Manga Museum 2009 Schodt 1996 p 101 Eshinbun Nipponchi Griffiths 2007 a b Poten a b c Shonen Pakku Lone 2007 p 75 Manga no Kuni a b Post Washington 11 November 2017 How new technology could alter manga publishing Daily Herald How Pixiv Built Japan s 12th Largest Site With Manga Girl Drawings Redesign Sneak Peek And Invites 14 December 2011 Chapman Paul One Punch Man Anime Greenlit Crunchyroll Komatsu Mikikazu Watch Hayate the Combat Butler Manga Author s Drawing Video of Nagi Crunchyroll Chapman Paul Brawny Battling Manga Kengan Ashura Makes the Leap to Anime Crunchyroll Kodansha Comics May Digital First Debuts Anime News Network Nagata Kazuaki 2 August 2017 As manga goes digital via smartphone apps do paper comics still have a place Japan Times Online Manga sales top 600 billion yen in 2020 for first time on record The Asahi Shimbun 1 April 2021 Japan s Manga and Comic Industry Hits Record Profits in 2020 Comicbook com 15 March 2021 Kakao mulls listing Japan unit koreatimes 5 September 2017 ReLIFE Anime Promotes July Premiere With Animated Promo Anime News Network Crunchyroll to Stream Recovery of an MMO Junkie Anime Anime News Network Pink 2007 Wong 2007 a b Farago 2007 Randal Bill 2005 English For Better or Worse The Comics Journal Special ed Fantagraphics Books Archived from the original on 23 March 2012 Sugiyama Rika Comic Artists Asia Manga Manhwa Manhua New York Harper 2004 Introduces the work of comics artists in Japan Korea and Hong Kong through artist profiles and interviews that provide insight into their processes a b Fishbein 2007 Berger 1992 Vollmar 2007 Mahousu 2005 Mahousu 2005 ANN 2004 Riciputi 2007 Breeden Aurelien 31 July 2021 France Gave Teenagers 350 for Culture They re Buying Comic Books The New York Times Vol 170 no 59136 p C1 ISSN 0362 4331 Archived from the original on 28 December 2021 Retrieved 31 July 2021 Brigid Alverson 12 February 2014 Strong French Manga Market Begins to Dip publishersweekly com Retrieved 14 December 2014 Rich Johnston 1 January 2014 French Comics In 2013 It s Not All Asterix But Quite A Bit Is bleedingcool com Retrieved 14 December 2014 Jennifer Fishbein 27 December 2007 Europe s Manga Mania Spiegel Online International Retrieved 30 January 2012 The Citi exhibition Manga マンガ The British Museum 23 May 2019 Manga in the frame images from the British Museum exhibition The Guardian 23 May 2019 Manga belongs in the British Museum as much as the Elgin marbles The Guardian 23 May 2019 Patten 2004 In 1987 Japanese comics were more legendary than accessible to American readers Patten 2004 p 259 Napier 2000 pp 239 256 Clements amp McCarthy 2006 pp 475 476 Patten 2004 Schodt 1996 pp 305 340 Leonard 2004 Schodt 1996 p 309 Rifas 2004 Rifas adds that the original EduComics titles were Gen of Hiroshima and I SAW IT sic Patten 2004 pp 37 259 260 Thompson 2007 p xv Leonard 2004 Patten 2004 pp 52 73 Farago 2007 Schodt 1996 pp 318 321 Dark Horse Comics 2004 Brienza Casey E 2009 Books Not Comics Publishing Fields Globalization and Japanese Manga in the United States Publishing Research Quarterly 25 2 101 117 doi 10 1007 s12109 009 9114 2 S2CID 143718638 Kwok Wah Lau Jenny 2003 4 Multiple modernities cinemas and popular media in transcultural East Asia Philadelphia Temple University Press p 78 Patten 2004 pp 50 110 124 128 135 Arnold 2000 Schodt 1996 p 95 Arnold 2000 Farago 2007 Bacon 2005 Horn Carl Gustav Horsepower Dark Horse Comics March 2007 Schodt 1996 pp 308 319 The last million selling comic book in North America It s Batman vs Pokemon for the title Comichron 8 May 2014 Archived from the original on 9 May 2021 Retrieved 8 September 2018 Reid 2009 Glazer 2005 Masters 2006 Bosker 2007 Pink 2007 Magulick Aaron 8 October 2017 Viz Manga Sales are Destroying DC Marvel in Comic Market GoBoiano Archived from the original on 10 July 2018 Sales of Manga Books are on the Rise in the United States The NPD Group Says A big wave of imported Japanese culture is finding a hungry and growing reading audience The NPD Group 3 June 2019 Retrieved 17 June 2019 Japan s Image morphed from a fierce military empire to eccentric pop culture superpower Quartz 21 May 2020 The pandemic has sparked a book craze and Barnes amp Noble is cashing in Fox Business 19 September 2021 Streaming Anime Lifts Manga Sales Publishers Weekly 7 May 2021 Manga Sales Managed to Double in 2021 Says New Report comicbook com 1 March 2022 Manga sales growth in the United States from 2019 to 2021 Statista February 2022 Stewart 1984 Crandol 2002 Tai 2007 ANN 2002 ANN 10 May 2006 ANN 5 May 2006 Boilet 2001 Boilet amp Takahama 2004 ANN 2007 Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Japan 2007 Obunsha Co Ltd 18 July 2014 京都精華大学 入試結果 倍率 マンガ学科 in Japanese Obunsha Co Ltd Archived from the original on 17 July 2014 Retrieved 18 July 2014 Kyoto Seika University Kyoto Seika University Faculty of Manga Kyoto Seika University Archived from the original on 17 July 2014 Retrieved 18 July 2014 Shuho Sato et al 26 July 2012 漫画を学校で学ぶ意義とは in Japanese togetter Retrieved 19 July 2014 Works cited Allison Anne 2000 Sailor Moon Japanese superheroes for global girls In Craig Timothy J ed Japan Pop Inside the World of Japanese Popular Culture Armonk New York M E Sharpe ISBN 978 0 7656 0561 0 Arnold Adam 2000 Full Circle The Unofficial History of MixxZine Retrieved 19 December 2007 Bacon Michelle 14 April 2005 Tangerine Dreams Guide to Shoujo Manga and Anime Archived from the original on 4 March 2008 Retrieved 1 April 2008 Berger Klaus 1992 Japonisme in Western Painting from Whistler to Matisse Cambridge Cambridge University Press ISBN 978 0 521 37321 0 Boilet Frederic 2001 Yukiko s Spinach Castalla Alicante Spain Ponent Mon ISBN 978 84 933093 4 3 Boilet Frederic Takahama Kan 2004 Mariko Parade Castalla Alicante Spain Ponent Mon ISBN 978 84 933409 1 9 Bosker Bianca 31 August 2007 Manga Mania The Wall Street Journal Retrieved 1 April 2008 Bouquillard Jocelyn Marquet Christophe 1 June 2007 Hokusai First Manga Master New York Abrams ISBN 978 0 8109 9341 9 Brenner Robin E 2007 Understanding Manga and Anime Westport Connecticut Libraries Unlimited Greenwood ISBN 978 1 59158 332 5 Clements Jonathan McCarthy Helen 2006 The Anime Encyclopedia A Guide to Japanese Animation Since 1917 Revised and Expanded Edition Berkeley California Stone Bridge Press ISBN 978 1 933330 10 5 Crandol Mike 14 January 2002 The Dirty Pair Run from the Future Anime News Network Retrieved 4 March 2008 Cube 18 December 2007 2007年のオタク市場規模は1866億円 メディアクリエイトが白書 in Japanese Inside for All Games Retrieved 18 December 2007 Dark Horse buys Studio Proteus Press release Dark Horse Comics 6 February 2004 Drazen Patrick 2003 Anime Explosion The What Why amp Wow of Japanese Animation Berkeley California Stone Bridge ISBN 978 1 880656 72 3 Farago Andrew 30 September 2007 Interview Jason Thompson The Comics Journal Retrieved 4 March 2008 Fishbein Jennifer 26 December 2007 Europe s Manga Mania Bloomberg Businessweek Retrieved 29 December 2007 Fukushima Yoshiko 2013 Manga Discourse in Japan Theatre Routledge p 19 ISBN 978 1 136 77273 3 Gardner William O November 2003 Attack of the Phallic Girls Science Fiction Studies 88 Retrieved 5 April 2008 Glazer Sarah 18 September 2005 Manga for Girls The New York Times Retrieved 4 March 2008 Gravett Paul 2004 Manga Sixty Years of Japanese Comics New York Harper Design ISBN 978 1 85669 391 2 Gravett Paul 15 October 2006 Gekiga The Flipside of Manga Retrieved 4 March 2008 Griffiths Owen 22 September 2007 Militarizing Japan Patriotism Profit and Children s Print Media 1894 1925 Japan Focus Retrieved 16 December 2008 Isao Shimizu 2001 Red Comic Books The Origins of Modern Japanese Manga In Lent John A ed Illustrating Asia Comics Humor Magazines and Picture Books Honolulu Hawaii University of Hawai i Press ISBN 978 0 8248 2471 6 Ito Kinko 2004 Growing up Japanese reading manga International Journal of Comic Art 6 392 401 Ito Kinko 2005 A history of manga in the context of Japanese culture and society The Journal of Popular Culture 38 3 456 475 doi 10 1111 j 0022 3840 2005 00123 x Johnston O Neill Tom 3 August 2007 Finding the International in Comic Con International The San Diego Participant Observer Archived from the original on 22 August 2011 Retrieved 5 April 2008 Katzenstein Peter J Shiraishi Takashi 1997 Network Power Japan in Asia Ithaca New York Cornell University Press ISBN 978 0 8014 8373 8 Kern Adam 2006 Manga from the Floating World Comicbook Culture and the Kibyōshi of Edo Japan Cambridge Harvard University Press ISBN 978 0 674 02266 9 Kern Adam 2007 Symposium Kibyoshi The World s First Comicbook International Journal of Comic Art 9 1 486 Kinsella Sharon 2000 Adult Manga Culture and Power in Contemporary Japanese Society Honolulu Hawaii University of Hawai i Press ISBN 978 0 8248 2318 4 Kittelson Mary Lynn 1998 The Soul of Popular Culture Looking at Contemporary Heroes Myths and Monsters Chicago Open Court ISBN 978 0 8126 9363 8 Lee William 2000 From Sazae san to Crayon Shin Chan In Craig Timothy J ed Japan Pop Inside the World of Japanese Popular Culture Armonk New York M E Sharpe ISBN 978 0 7656 0561 0 Lent John A 2001 Illustrating Asia Comics Humor Magazines and Picture Books Honolulu Hawaii University of Hawaii Press ISBN 978 0 8248 2471 6 Leonard Sean 12 September 2004 Progress Against the Law Fan Distribution Copyright and the Explosive Growth of Japanese Animation PDF Archived PDF from the original on 26 April 2006 Retrieved 19 December 2007 Lone Stewart 2007 Daily Lives of Civilians in Wartime Asia From the Taiping Rebellion to the Vietnam War Westport Connecticut Greenwood Publishing Group ISBN 978 0 313 33684 3 Mahousu January 2005 Les editeurs des mangas self published Archived from the original on 3 February 2013 Retrieved 19 December 2007 unreliable source Masters Coco 10 August 2006 America is Drawn to Manga Time First International MANGA Award Press release Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Japan 29 June 2007 McCarthy Helen 2014 A Brief History of Manga The Essential Pocket Guide to the Japanese Pop Culture Phenomenon Hachette UK p 6 ISBN 978 1 78157 130 9 Napier Susan J 2000 Anime FromAkiratoPrincess Mononoke New York Palgrave ISBN 978 0 312 23863 6 Nunez Irma 24 September 2006 Alternative Comics Heroes Tracing the Genealogy of Gekiga The Japan Times Retrieved 19 December 2007 Ōgi Fusami 2004 Female subjectivity and shōjo girls manga Japanese comics shōjo in Ladies Comics and Young Ladies Comics The Journal of Popular Culture 36 4 780 803 doi 10 1111 1540 5931 00045 Onoda Natsu 2009 God of Comics Osamu Tezuka and the Creation of Post World War II Manga University Press of Mississippi p 10 ISBN 978 1 60473 478 2 Patten Fred 2004 Watching Anime Reading Manga 25 Years of Essays and Reviews Berkeley California Stone Bridge Press ISBN 978 1 880656 92 1 Perper Timothy Cornog Martha 2002 Eroticism for the masses Japanese manga comics and their assimilation into the U S Sexuality amp Culture 6 1 3 126 doi 10 1007 s12119 002 1000 4 S2CID 143692243 Perper Timothy Cornog Martha 2003 Sex love and women in Japanese comics In Francoeur Robert T Noonan Raymond J eds The Comprehensive International Encyclopedia of Sexuality New York Continuum ISBN 978 0 8264 1488 5 Petersen Robert S 2011 Comics Manga and Graphic Novels A History of Graphic Narratives ABC CLIO ISBN 978 0 313 36330 6 Prohl Inken Nelson John K 2012 Handbook of Contemporary Japanese Religions BRILL p 596 ISBN 978 90 04 23435 2 Pink Daniel H 22 October 2007 Japan Ink Inside the Manga Industrial Complex Wired Vol 15 no 11 Retrieved 19 December 2007 Poitras Gilles 2001 Anime Essentials Every Thing a Fan Needs to Know Berkeley California Stone Bridge ISBN 978 1 880656 53 2 Reid Calvin 28 March 2006 HarperCollins Tokyopop Ink Manga Deal Publishers Weekly Retrieved 4 March 2008 Reid Calvin 6 February 2009 2008 Graphic Novel Sales Up 5 Manga Off 17 Publishers Weekly Retrieved 7 September 2009 Riciputi 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ISBN 978 1 933330 54 9 Shimizu Isao June 1985 日本漫画の事典 全国のマンガファンに贈る Nihon Manga no Jiten Dictionary of Japanese Manga in Japanese Sun lexica ISBN 978 4 385 15586 9 Stewart Bhob October 1984 Screaming Metal The Comics Journal 94 Tai Elizabeth 23 September 2007 Manga outside Japan Star Online Archived from the original on 12 October 2007 Retrieved 19 December 2007 Tchiei Go 1998 Characteristics of Japanese Manga Retrieved 5 April 2008 Thompson Jason 2007 Manga The Complete Guide New York Ballantine Books ISBN 978 0 345 48590 8 Thorn Matt July September 2001 Shojo Manga Something for the Girls The Japan Quarterly 48 3 Archived from the original on 6 June 2011 Retrieved 5 April 2008 Toku Masami Spring 2006 Shojo Manga Girl Power Chico Statements California State University Chico ISBN 978 1 886226 10 4 Archived from the original on 11 April 2008 Retrieved 5 April 2008 Vollmar Rob 1 March 2007 Frederic Boilet and the Nouvelle Manga revolution World Literature Today Retrieved 14 September 2007 Webb Martin 28 May 2006 Manga by any other name is The Japan Times Retrieved 5 April 2008 Wong Wendy Siuyi 2002 Hong Kong Comics A History of Manhua New York Princeton Architectural Press ISBN 978 1 56898 269 4 Wong Wendy Siuyi 2006 Globalizing manga From Japan to Hong Kong and beyond Mechademia an Annual Forum for Anime Manga and the Fan Arts pp 23 45 Wong Wendy September 2007 The Presence of Manga in Europe and North America Media Digest Archived from the original on 30 August 2013 Retrieved 19 December 2007 About Manga Museum Current situation of manga culture Kyoto Manga Museum Archived from the original on 28 May 2009 Retrieved 6 September 2009 Correction World Manga Anime News Network 10 May 2006 Retrieved 19 December 2007 I C promotes AmeriManga Anime News Network 11 November 2002 Retrieved 4 March 2008 Interview with Tokyopop s Mike Kiley ICv2 7 September 2007 Retrieved 19 December 2007 Japan Profile of a Nation Revised Edition Tokyo Kodansha International 1999 ISBN 978 4 7700 2384 1 Japan s Foreign Minister Creates Foreign Manga Award Anime News Network 22 May 2007 Retrieved 5 October 2009 manga Merriam Webster Online Dictionary Retrieved 6 September 2009 Manga mania in France Anime News Network 4 February 2004 Retrieved 19 December 2007 Manga no Kuni A manga magazine from the Second Sino Japanese War period Kyoto International Manga Museum Archived from the original on 9 April 2009 Retrieved 21 December 2008 Poten a manga magazine from Kyoto Kyoto International Manga Museum Archived from the original on 10 April 2009 Retrieved 21 December 2008 Shonen Pakku Japan s first children s manga magazine Kyoto International Manga Museum Archived from the original on 10 April 2009 Retrieved 21 December 2008 The first Japanese manga magazine Eshinbun Nipponchi Kyoto International Manga Museum Archived from the original on 22 August 2011 Retrieved 21 December 2008 Tokyopop To Move Away from OEL and World Manga Labels Anime News Network 5 May 2006 Retrieved 19 December 2007 Further reading Un poil de culture Une introduction a l animation japonaise in French 11 July 2007 Archived from the original on 8 January 2008 Hattie Jones Manga girls Sex love comedy and crime in recent boy s manga and anime in Brigitte Steger and Angelika Koch 2013 eds Manga Girl Seeks Herbivore Boy Studying Japanese Gender at Cambridge Lit Publisher pp 24 81 in Italian Marcella Zaccagnino and Sebastiano Contrari Manga il Giappone alla conquista del mondo Archive Limes rivista italiana di geopolitica 31 October 2007 Unser Schutz Giancarla 2015 Influential or influenced The relationship between genre gender and language in manga Gender and Language 9 2 223 254 doi 10 1558 genl v9i2 17331 External links Wikimedia Commons has media related to Manga Manga at Curlie Anime and manga in Japan travel guide from Wikivoyage Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Manga amp oldid 1134169107, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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