fbpx
Wikipedia

Sultanate of Rum

January 20, 2023

The Sultanate of Rum[a] was a culturally Turco-Persian Sunni Muslim state, established over conquered Byzantine territories and peoples (Rûm) of Anatolia by the Seljuk Turks following their entry into Anatolia after the Battle of Manzikert (1071). The name Rûm was a synonym for the medieval Eastern Roman Empire and its peoples, as it remains in modern Turkish.[7] The name is derived from the Aramaic (rhπmÈ) and Parthian (frwm) names for ancient Rome, itself ultimately a loan from Greek Ῥωμαῖοι.[8]

Sultanate of Rûm
Turkish: Anadolu Selçuklu Devleti
Persian: سلجوقیان روم (Saljūqiyān-i Rūm)
1077–1308
Expansion of the Sultanate c. 1100–1240
Status
  • Independent sultanate (1077-1243)
  • Mongol vassal (1243–1256)
  • Ilkhanid vassal (1256–1308)
Capital
Common languagesArabic (numismatics)[1]
Byzantine Greek (chancery)[2]
Old Anatolian Turkish (spoken)[3]
Persian (official, court, literature, spoken)[4][5]
Religion
Sunni Islam (official), Greek Orthodox (subjects)
GovernmentHereditary monarchy
Triarchy (1249–1254)
Diarchy (1257–1262)
Sultan 
• 1077–1086
Suleiman ibn Qutalmish (first)
• 1303–1308
Mesud II (last)
History 
1071
1077
1243
1308
Today part ofTurkey
Seljuk Sultanate of Rum in 1190.
Conquest of the Seljuks.

The Sultanate of Rum seceded from the Great Seljuk Empire under Suleiman ibn Qutalmish in 1077, just six years after the Byzantine provinces of central Anatolia were conquered at the Battle of Manzikert (1071). It had its capital first at Nicaea and then at Iconium. It reached the height of its power during the late 12th and early 13th century, when it succeeded in taking key Byzantine ports on the Mediterranean and Black Sea coasts. In the east, the sultanate reached Lake Van. Trade through Anatolia from Iran and Central Asia was developed by a system of caravanserai. Especially strong trade ties with the Genoese formed during this period. The increased wealth allowed the sultanate to absorb other Turkish states that had been established following the conquest of Byzantine Anatolia: Danishmendids, House of Mengüjek, Saltukids, Artuqids.

The Seljuk sultans bore the brunt of the Crusades and eventually succumbed to the Mongol invasion at the 1243 Battle of Köse Dağ. For the remainder of the 13th century, the Seljuks acted as vassals of the Ilkhanate.[9] Their power disintegrated during the second half of the 13th century. The last of the Seljuk vassal sultans of the Ilkhanate, Mesud II, was murdered in 1308. The dissolution of the Seljuk state left behind many small Anatolian beyliks (Turkish principalities), among them that of the Ottoman dynasty, which eventually conquered the rest and reunited Anatolia to become the Ottoman Empire.

History

Further information: Timeline of the Seljuk Sultanate of Rum

Establishment

In the 1070s, after the battle of Manzikert, the Seljuk commander Suleiman ibn Qutulmish, a distant cousin of Alp Arslan and a former contender for the throne of the Seljuk Empire, came to power in western Anatolia. In 1075, he captured the Byzantine cities of Nicaea (present-day İznik) and Nicomedia (present-day İzmit). Two years later, he declared himself sultan of an independent Seljuk state and established his capital at İznik.[10]

Suleiman was killed in Antioch in 1086 by Tutush I, the Seljuk ruler of Syria, and Suleiman's son Kilij Arslan I was imprisoned. When Malik Shah died in 1092, Kilij Arslan was released and immediately established himself in his father's territories.[citation needed]

Crusades

Kilij Arslan, although victorious in the People's Crusade of 1096, was defeated by soldiers of the First Crusade and driven back into south-central Anatolia, where he set up his state with capital in Konya. He defeated three Crusade contingents in the 1101 Crusade. In 1107, he ventured east and captured Mosul but died the same year fighting Malik Shah's son, Mehmed Tapar. He was the first Muslim commander against the crusades.[citation needed]

Meanwhile, another Rum Seljuk, Malik Shah (not to be confused with the Seljuk sultan of the same name), captured Konya. In 1116 Kilij Arslan's son, Mesud I, took the city with the help of the Danishmends.[citation needed]

Upon Mesud's death in 1156, the sultanate controlled nearly all of central Anatolia. Mesud's son, Kilij Arslan II, captured the remaining territories around Sivas and Malatya from the last of the Danishmends. At the Battle of Myriokephalon in 1176, Kilij Arslan II also defeated a Byzantine army led by Manuel I Komnenos. Despite a temporary occupation of Konya in 1190 by the Holy Roman Empire's forces of the Third Crusade, the sultanate was quick to recover and consolidate its power.[11] During the last years of Kilij Arslan II's reign, the sultanate experienced a civil war with Kaykhusraw I fighting to retain control and losing to his brother Suleiman II in 1196.[11][12]

Suleiman II rallied his vassal emirs and marched against Georgia, with an army of 150,000-400,000 and encamped in the Basiani valley. Tamar of Georgia quickly marshaled an army throughout her possessions and put it under command of her consort, David Soslan. Georgian troops under David Soslan made a sudden advance into Basiani and assailed the enemy's camp in 1203 or 1204. In a pitched battle, the Seljukid forces managed to roll back several attacks of the Georgians but were eventually overwhelmed and defeated. Loss of the sultan's banner to the Georgians resulted in a panic within the Seljuk ranks. Süleymanshah himself was wounded and withdrew to Erzurum. Both the Rum Seljuk and Georgian armies suffered heavy casualties, but coordinated flanking attacks won the battle for the Georgians.[13][better source needed]

Suleiman II died in 1204 [14] and was succeeded by his son Kilij Arslan III, whose reign was unpopular.[14] Kaykhusraw I seized Konya in 1205 reestablishing his reign.[14] Under his rule and those of his two successors, Kaykaus I and Kayqubad I, Seljuk power in Anatolia reached its apogee. Kaykhusraw's most important achievement was the capture of the harbour of Attalia (Antalya) on the Mediterranean coast in 1207. His son Kaykaus captured Sinop[15] and made the Empire of Trebizond his vassal in 1214.[16] He also subjugated Cilician Armenia but in 1218 was forced to surrender the city of Aleppo, acquired from al-Kamil. Kayqubad continued to acquire lands along the Mediterranean coast from 1221 to 1225.[citation needed]

In the 1220s, he sent an expeditionary force across the Black Sea to Crimea.[17] In the east he defeated the Mengujekids and began to put pressure on the Artuqids.[citation needed]

Mongol conquest

Kaykhusraw II (1237–1246) began his reign by capturing the region around Diyarbakır, but in 1239 he had to face an uprising led by a popular preacher named Baba Ishak. After three years, when he had finally quelled the revolt, the Crimean foothold was lost and the state and the sultanate's army had weakened. It is in these conditions that he had to face a far more dangerous threat, that of the expanding Mongols. The forces of the Mongol Empire took Erzurum in 1242 and in 1243, the sultan was crushed by Baiju in the Battle of Köse Dağ (a mountain between the cities of Sivas and Erzincan), and the Seljuk Turks were forced to swear allegiance to the Mongols and became their vassals.[9] The sultan himself had fled to Antalya after the 1243 battle, where he died in 1246, his death starting a period of tripartite, and then dual, rule that lasted until 1260.

The Seljuk realm was divided among Kaykhusraw's three sons. The eldest, Kaykaus II (1246–1260), assumed the rule in the area west of the river Kızılırmak. His younger brothers, Kilij Arslan IV (1248–1265) and Kayqubad II (1249–1257), were set to rule the regions east of the river under Mongol administration. In October 1256, Bayju defeated Kaykaus II near Aksaray and all of Anatolia became officially subject to Möngke Khan. In 1260 Kaykaus II fled from Konya to Crimea where he died in 1279. Kilij Arslan IV was executed in 1265, and Kaykhusraw III (1265–1284) became the nominal ruler of all of Anatolia, with the tangible power exercised either by the Mongols or the sultan's influential regents.

Disintegration

The Seljuk state had started to split into small emirates (beyliks) that increasingly distanced themselves from both Mongol and Seljuk control. In 1277, responding to a call from Anatolia, the Mamluk Sultan Baibars raided Anatolia and defeated the Mongols at the Battle of Elbistan,[18] temporarily replacing them as the administrator of the Seljuk realm. But since the native forces who had called him to Anatolia did not manifest themselves for the defense of the land, he had to return to his home base in Egypt, and the Mongol administration was re-assumed, officially and severely. Also, the Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia captured the Mediterranean coast from Selinos to Seleucia, as well as the cities of Marash and Behisni, from the Seljuk in the 1240s.

Near the end of his reign, Kaykhusraw III could claim direct sovereignty only over lands around Konya. Some of the beyliks (including the early Ottoman state) and Seljuk governors of Anatolia continued to recognize, albeit nominally, the supremacy of the sultan in Konya, delivering the khutbah in the name of the sultans in Konya in recognition of their sovereignty, and the sultans continued to call themselves Fahreddin, the Pride of Islam. When Kaykhusraw III was executed in 1284, the Seljuk dynasty suffered another blow from internal struggles which lasted until 1303 when the son of Kaykaus II, Mesud II, established himself as sultan in Kayseri. He was murdered in 1308 and his son Mesud III soon afterwards. A distant relative to the Seljuk dynasty momentarily installed himself as emir of Konya, but he was defeated and his lands conquered by the Karamanids in 1328. The sultanate's monetary sphere of influence lasted slightly longer and coins of Seljuk mint, generally considered to be of reliable value, continued to be used throughout the 14th century, once again, including by the Ottomans.

 
The Sultanate of Rûm and surrounding states, c. 1200.
 
The sultanate expanded towards the east during the reign of Kayqubad I.
 
The declining Sultanate of Rûm, vassal of the Mongols, and the emerging beyliks, c. 1300
 
Hanabad caravanserai in Çardak (1230)

Culture and society

Further information: Seljuk architecture

The Seljuk dynasty of Rum, as successors to the Great Seljuks, based its political, religious and cultural heritage on the Perso-Islamic tradition and Greco-Roman tradition,[45] even to the point of naming their sons with Persian names.[46] As an expression of Turko-Persian culture,[47] Rum Seljuks patronized Persian art, architecture, and literature.[48] Unlike the Seljuk Empire, the Seljuk sultans of Rum had Persian names such as Kay-Khusraw, Kay-Qubadh and Kay-Ka'us. The bureaucrats and religious elite of their realm was of Persian stock.[49] In the 13th-century, the majority of the Muslim inhabitants in major Anatolian urban hubs reportedly spoke Persian as their main language.[50] It was in this century that the proneness of imitating Iran in terms of administration, religion and culture reached its zenith, resulting in the creation of a "second Iran" in Anatolia.[51]

Despite their Turkic origins, the Seljuks used Persian for administrative purposes, even their histories, which replaced Arabic, were in Persian.[48] Their usage of Turkish was hardly promoted at all.[48] Even Sultan Kilij Arslan II, as a child, spoke to courtiers in Persian.[48] Khanbaghi states the Anatolian Seljuks were even more Persianized than the Seljuks that ruled the Iranian plateau.[48] The Rahat al-sudur, the history of the Great Seljuk Empire and its breakup, written in Persian by Muhammad bin Ali Rawandi, was dedicated to Sultan Kaykhusraw I.[52] Even the Tārikh-i Āl-i Saldjūq, an anonymous history of the Sultanate of Rum, was written in Persian.[53]

One of its most famous Persian writers, Rumi, took his name from the name of the state. Moreover, Byzantine influence in the Sultanate was also significant, since Byzantine Greek aristocracy remained part of the Seljuk nobility, and the native Byzantine (Rûm) peasants remained numerous in the region.[54][55] Cultural Turkification in Anatolia first started during the 14th-century, particularly during the gradual rise of the Ottomans.[51]

 
Kızıl Kule (Red Tower) built between 1221 and 1226 by Kayqubad I in Alanya.

In their construction of caravanserais, madrasas and mosques, the Rum Seljuks translated the Iranian Seljuk architecture of bricks and plaster into the use of stone.[56] Among these, the caravanserais (or hans), used as stops, trading posts and defense for caravans, and of which about a hundred structures were built during the Anatolian Seljuk period, are particularly remarkable. Along with Persian influences, which had an indisputable effect,[57] Seljuk architecture was inspired by local Byzantine (Rûm) architects, for example the Gök Medrese (Sivas), and by Armenians.[58] As such, Anatolian architecture represents some of the most distinctive and impressive constructions in the entire history of Islamic architecture. Later, this Anatolian architecture would be inherited by the Sultanate of India.[59]

 
Ince Minaret Medrese, a 13th-century madrasa located in Konya, Turkey

The largest caravanserai is the Sultan Han (built in 1229) on the road between the cities of Konya and Aksaray, in the township of Sultanhanı, covering 3,900 m2 (42,000 sq ft). There are two caravanserais that carry the name "Sultan Han", the other one being between Kayseri and Sivas. Furthermore, apart from Sultanhanı, five other towns across Turkey owe their names to caravanserais built there. These are Alacahan in Kangal, Durağan, Hekimhan and Kadınhanı, as well as the township of Akhan within the Denizli metropolitan area. The caravanserai of Hekimhan is unique in having, underneath the usual inscription in Arabic with information relating to the edifice, two further inscriptions in Armenian and Syriac, since it was constructed by the sultan Kayqubad I's doctor (hekim) who is thought to have been a former Christian who converted to Islam. There are other particular cases like the settlement in Kalehisar (contiguous to an ancient Hittite site) near Alaca, founded by the Seljuk commander Hüsameddin Temurlu, who had taken refuge in the region after the defeat in the Battle of Köse Dağ and had founded a township comprising a castle, a madrasa, a habitation zone and a caravanserai, which were later abandoned apparently around the 16th century. All but the caravanserai, which remains undiscovered, was explored in the 1960s by the art historian Oktay Aslanapa, and the finds as well as a number of documents attest to the existence of a vivid settlement in the site, such as a 1463 Ottoman firman which instructs the headmaster of the madrasa to lodge not in the school but in the caravanserai.[citation needed]

 
Gök Medrese (Celestial Madrasa) of Sivas, built by a Greek (Rûm) subject in the periodic capital of the Sultanate of Rum

The Seljuk palaces, as well as their armies, were staffed with ghulams (plural ghilmân, Arabic: غِلْمَان), enslaved youths taken from non-Muslim communities, mainly Greeks from former Byzantine territories. The practice of keeping ghulams may have offered a model for the later devşirme during the time of the Ottoman Empire.[60]

Dynasty

Main articles: Anatolian Seljuks family tree and Seljuk dynasty
 
Dirham of Kaykhusraw II, minted at Sivas 1240–1241 AD

As regards the names of the sultans, there are variants in form and spelling depending on the preferences displayed by one source or the other, either for fidelity in transliterating the Persian variant of the Arabic script which the sultans used, or for a rendering corresponding to the modern Turkish phonology and orthography. Some sultans had two names that they chose to use alternatively in reference to their legacy. While the two palaces built by Alaeddin Keykubad I carry the names Kubadabad Palace and Keykubadiye Palace, he named his mosque in Konya as Alâeddin Mosque and the port city of Alanya he had captured as "Alaiye". Similarly, the medrese built by Kaykhusraw I in Kayseri, within the complex (külliye) dedicated to his sister Gevher Nesibe, was named Gıyasiye Medrese, and the one built by Kaykaus I in Sivas as Izzediye Medrese.[citation needed]

Sultan Reign Notes
1. Qutalmish 1060–1064 Contended with Alp Arslan for succession to the Imperial Seljuk throne.
2. Suleiman ibn Qutulmish 1075–1077 de facto rules Turkmen around İznik and İzmit;
1077–1086 recognised Sultan of Rûm by Malik-Shah I of the Great Seljuks 		Founder of Anatolian Seljuk Sultanate with capital in İznik
3. Kilij Arslan I 1092–1107 First sultan in Konya
4. Malik Shah 1107–1116
5. Masud I 1116–1156
6. 'Izz al-Din Kilij Arslan II 1156–1192
7. Giyath al-Din Kaykhusraw I 1192–1196 First reign
8. Rukn al-Din Suleiman II 1196–1204
9. Kilij Arslan III 1204–1205
(7.) Giyath al-Din Kaykhusraw I 1205–1211 Second reign
10. 'Izz al-Din Kayka'us I 1211–1220
11. 'Ala al-Din Kayqubad I 1220–1237
12. Giyath al-Din Kaykhusraw II 1237–1246 After his death, sultanate split until 1260 when Kilij Arslan IV remained the sole ruler
13. 'Izz al-Din Kayka'us II 1246–1262
14. Rukn al-Din Kilij Arslan IV 1249–1266
15. 'Ala al-Din Kayqubad II 1249–1254
16. Giyath al-Din Kaykhusraw III 1266–1284
17. Giyath al-Din Masud II 1282–1296 First reign
18. 'Ala al-Din Kayqubad III 1298–1302
(17.) Giyath al-Din Masud II 1303–1308 Second reign

See also

Notes

  1. ^ Modernly referred to as Anatolian Seljuk Sultanate (Persian: سلجوقیان روم, romanized: Saljuqiyān-i Rum, lit. 'Seljuks of Rum'), Sultanate of Iconium, Anatolian Seljuk State (Turkish: Anadolu Selçuklu Devleti) or Seljuks of Turkey (Turkish: Türkiye Selçukluları)[6]

Footnotes

  1. ^ Grand Vizier Sāhīp Shams ad-Dīn Īsfahānī ruled the country on behalf of ʿIzz ad-Dīn Kay Kāwus II between 1246 and 1249
  2. ^ Grand Vizier Parwāna Mu‘in al-Din Suleyman ruled the country on behalf of Ghiyāth ad-Dīn Kay Khusraw III between 1266 and 2 August 1277 (1 Rabi' al-awwal 676)
  3. ^ Between 1246 and 1249 ʿIzz ad-Dīn Kay Kāwus II reigned alone
  4. ^ ʿIzz ad-Dīn Kay Kāwus II was defeated on October 14, 1256 in Sultanhanı (Sultan Han, Aksaray) and he acceded to the throne on May 1, 1257 again after the departure of Baiju Noyan from Anatolia
  5. ^ Between 1262 and 1266 Rukn ad-Dīn Kilij Arslan IV reigned alone
  6. ^ Between 1249 and 1254 triple reign of three brothers
  7. ^ According to İbn Bîbî, el-Evâmirü’l-ʿAlâʾiyye, p. 727. (10 Dhu al-Hijjah 675 - 17 Muharram 676)
  8. ^ According to Yazıcıoğlu Ali, Tevârih-i Âl-i Selçuk, p. 62. (10 Dhu al-Hijjah 677 - 17 Muharram 678)

References

  1. ^ Mecit 2013, p. 82.
  2. ^ Andrew Peacock and Sara Nur Yildiz, The Seljuks of Anatolia: Court and Society in the Medieval Middle East, (I.B. Tauris, 2013), 132; "The official use of the Greek language by the Seljuk chancery is well known".
  3. ^ Mehmed Fuad Koprulu (2006). Early Mystics in Turkish Literature. p. 207.
  4. ^ Grousset, Rene, The Empire of the Steppes: A History of Central Asia, (Rutgers University Press, 2002), 157; "...the Seljuk court at Konya adopted Persian as its official language."
  5. ^ Bernard Lewis, Istanbul and the Civilization of the Ottoman Empire, (University of Oklahoma Press, 1963), 29; "The literature of Seljuk Anatolia was almost entirely in Persian...".
  6. ^ Beihammer, Alexander Daniel (2017). Byzantium and the Emergence of Muslim-Turkish Anatolia, ca. 1040-1130. New York: Routledge. p. 15.
  7. ^ Alexander Kazhdan, "Rūm" The Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium (Oxford University Press, 1991), vol. 3, p. 1816. Paul Wittek, Rise of the Ottoman Empire, Royal Asiatic Society Books, Routledge (2013), p. 81: "This state too bore the name of Rûm, if not officially, then at least in everyday usage, and its princes appear in the Eastern chronicles under the name 'Seljuks of Rûm' (Ar.: Salâjika ar-Rûm). A. Christian Van Gorder, Christianity in Persia and the Status of Non-muslims in Iran p. 215: "The Seljuqs called the lands of their sultanate Rum because it had been established on territory long considered 'Roman', i.e. Byzantine, by Muslim armies."
  8. ^ Shukurov 2020, p. 145.
  9. ^ a b John Joseph Saunders, The History of the Mongol Conquests, (University of Pennsylvania Press, 1971), 79.
  10. ^ Sicker, Martin, The Islamic world in ascendancy: from the Arab conquests to the siege of Vienna , (Greenwood Publishing Group, 2000), 63-64.
  11. ^ a b Anatolia in the period of the Seljuks and the "beyliks", Osman Turan, The Cambridge History of Islam, Vol. 1A, ed. P.M. Holt, Ann K.S. Lambton and Bernard Lewis, (Cambridge University Press, 1995), 244-245.
  12. ^ A.C.S. Peacock and Sara Nur Yildiz, The Seljuks of Anatolia: Court and Society in the Medieval Middle East, (I.B. Tauris, 2015), 29.
  13. ^ Alexander Mikaberidze, Historical Dictionary of Georgia, (Rowman & Littlefield, 2015), 184.
  14. ^ a b c Claude Cahen, The Formation of Turkey: The Seljukid Sultanate of Rum: Eleventh to Fourteenth, transl. & ed. P.M. Holt, (Pearson Education Limited, 2001), 42.
  15. ^ Tricht 2011, p. 355.
  16. ^ Ring, Watson & Schellinger 1995, p. 651.
  17. ^ A.C.S. Peacock, "The Saliūq Campaign against the Crimea and the Expansionist Policy of the Early Reign of'Alā' al-Dīn Kayqubād", Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, Vol. 16 (2006), pp. 133-149.
  18. ^ Kastritsis 2013, p. 26.
  19. ^ Zahîrüddîn-i Nîsâbûrî, Selcûḳnâme, (Muhammed Ramazânî Publications), Tahran 1332, p. 10.
  20. ^ Reşîdüddin Fazlullāh-ı Hemedânî, Câmiʿu’t-tevârîḫ, (Ahmed Ateş Publications), Ankara 1960, vol. II/5, p. 5.
  21. ^ Râvendî, Muhammed b. Ali, Râhatü’s-sudûr, (Ateş Publications), vol. I, p. 85.
  22. ^ Müstevfî, Târîḫ-i Güzîde, (Nevâî Publications), p. 426.
  23. ^ Osman Gazi Özgüdenli (2016). MÛSÂ YABGU. Vol. EK-2. Istanbul: TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi. pp. 324–325.
  24. ^ a b c d Sevim, Ali (2010). SÜLEYMAN ŞAH I (PDF). Vol. 38. Istanbul: TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi. pp. 103–105. ISBN 978-9-7538-9590-3.
  25. ^ a b c Faruk Sümer (2002). KUTALMIŞ (PDF). Vol. 26. Istanbul: TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi. pp. 480–481. ISBN 978-9-7538-9406-7.
  26. ^ a b Osman Gazi Özgüdenli (2016). "MÛSÂ YABGU". TDV Encyclopedia of Islam, Supplement 2 (Kâfûr, Ebü'l-Misk – Züreyk, Kostantin) (in Turkish). Istanbul: Turkiye Diyanet Foundation, Centre for Islamic Studies. pp. 324–325. ISBN 978-975-389-889-8.
  27. ^ Beyhakī, Târîḫ, (Behmenyâr), p. 71.
  28. ^ a b c d e f g h Sümer, Faruk (2009). ANADOLU SELÇUKLULARI (PDF). Vol. 36. Istanbul: TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi. pp. 380–384. ISBN 978-9-7538-9566-8.
  29. ^ Sevim, Ali (1993). "ÇAĞRI BEY" (PDF). TDV Encyclopedia of Islam, Vol. 8 (Ci̇lve – Dârünnedve) (in Turkish). Istanbul: Turkiye Diyanet Foundation, Centre for Islamic Studies. pp. 183–186. ISBN 978-975-389-435-7.
  30. ^ Sümer, Faruk (2009). "SELÇUKLULAR" (PDF). TDV Encyclopedia of Islam, Vol. 36 (Sakal – Sevm) (in Turkish). Istanbul: Turkiye Diyanet Foundation, Centre for Islamic Studies. pp. 365–371. ISBN 978-975-389-566-8.
  31. ^ Özaydın, Abdülkerim (2002). KAVURD BEY (PDF). Vol. 25. Istanbul: TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi. pp. 73–74. ISBN 978-9-7538-9403-6.
  32. ^ a b c d e f Sümer, Faruk (2009). Kirman Selçuks (PDF). Vol. 36. Istanbul: TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi. pp. 377–379. ISBN 978-9-7538-9566-8.
  33. ^ Bezer, Gülay Öğün (2011). "TERKEN HATUN, the mother of MAHMÛD I" (PDF). TDV Encyclopedia of Islam, Vol. 40 (Tanzi̇mat – Teveccüh) (in Turkish). Istanbul: Turkiye Diyanet Foundation, Centre for Islamic Studies. p. 510. ISBN 978-975-389-652-8. Terken Khatun (wife of Malik-Shah I).
  34. ^ Özaydın, Abdülkerim (2004). "MELİKŞAH" (PDF). TDV Encyclopedia of Islam, Vol. 29 (Mekteb – Misir Mevlevîhânesi̇) (in Turkish). Istanbul: Turkiye Diyanet Foundation, Centre for Islamic Studies. pp. 54–57. ISBN 978-975-389-415-9.
  35. ^ Özaydın, Abdülkerim (1992). "BERKYARUK" (PDF). TDV Encyclopedia of Islam, Vol. 5 (Balaban – Beşi̇r Ağa) (in Turkish). Istanbul: Turkiye Diyanet Foundation, Centre for Islamic Studies. pp. 514–516. ISBN 978-975-389-432-6.
  36. ^ Sümer, Faruk (2009). SELÇUKLULAR (PDF). Vol. 36. Istanbul: TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi. pp. 365–371. ISBN 978-9-7538-9566-8.
  37. ^ Enverî, Düstûrnâme-i Enverî, pp. 78-80, 1464.
  38. ^ a b c d e f g h i Sümer, Faruk (2009). "IRAK SELÇUKLULARI" (PDF). TDV Encyclopedia of Islam, Vol. 36 (Sakal – Sevm) (in Turkish). Istanbul: Turkiye Diyanet Foundation, Centre for Islamic Studies. p. 387. ISBN 978-975-389-566-8.
  39. ^ Özaydın, Abdülkerim (2003). "MAHMÛD b. MUHAMMED TAPAR" (PDF). TDV Encyclopedia of Islam, Vol. 27 (Kütahya Mevlevîhânesi̇ – Mani̇sa) (in Turkish). Istanbul: Turkiye Diyanet Foundation, Centre for Islamic Studies. pp. 371–372. ISBN 978-975-389-408-1.
  40. ^ Sümer, Faruk (2012). "TUĞRUL I" (PDF). TDV Encyclopedia of Islam, Vol. 41 (Tevekkül – Tüsterî) (in Turkish). Istanbul: Turkiye Diyanet Foundation, Centre for Islamic Studies. pp. 341–342. ISBN 978-975-389-713-6.
  41. ^ Sümer, Faruk (2004). "MES'ÛD b. MUHAMMED TAPAR" (PDF). TDV Encyclopedia of Islam, Vol. 29 (Mekteb – Misir Mevlevîhânesi̇) (in Turkish). Istanbul: Turkiye Diyanet Foundation, Centre for Islamic Studies. pp. 349–351. ISBN 978-975-389-415-9.
  42. ^ Sümer, Faruk (1991). "ARSLANŞAH b. TUĞRUL" (PDF). TDV Encyclopedia of Islam, Vol. 3 (Amasya – Âşik Mûsi̇ki̇si̇) (in Turkish). Istanbul: Turkiye Diyanet Foundation, Centre for Islamic Studies. pp. 404–406. ISBN 978-975-389-430-2.
  43. ^ Sümer, Faruk (2012). "Ebû Tâlib TUĞRUL b. ARSLANŞAH b. TUĞRUL" (PDF). TDV Encyclopedia of Islam, Vol. 41 (Tevekkül – Tüsterî) (in Turkish). Istanbul: Turkiye Diyanet Foundation, Centre for Islamic Studies. pp. 342–344. ISBN 978-975-389-713-6.
  44. ^ Shukurov, Rustam (2016). The Byzantine Turks, 1204-1461. BRILL. pp. 108–109. ISBN 978-9004307759.
  45. ^ Saljuqs: Saljuqs of Anatolia, Robert Hillenbrand, The Dictionary of Art, Vol.27, Ed. Jane Turner, (Macmillan Publishers Limited, 1996), 632.
  46. ^ Rudi Paul Lindner, Explorations in Ottoman Prehistory, (University of Michigan Press, 2003), 3.
  47. ^ Lewis, Bernard, Istanbul and the Civilization of the Ottoman Empire, p. 29, Even when the land of Rum became politically independent, it remained a colonial extension of Turco-Persian culture which had its centers in Iran and Central Asia ... The literature of Seljuk Anatolia was almost entirely in Persian ...
  48. ^ a b c d e Khanbaghi 2016, p. 202.
  49. ^ Hillenbrand 2020, p. 15.
  50. ^ Shukurov 2020, p. 155.
  51. ^ a b Hillenbrand 2021, p. 211.
  52. ^ Richards & Robinson 2003, p. 265.
  53. ^ Crane 1993, p. 2.
  54. ^ Shukurov, Rustam (2011), "The Oriental Margins of the Byzantine World: a Prosopographical Perspective", in Herrin, Judith; Saint-Guillain, Guillaume (eds.), Identities and Allegiances in the Eastern Mediterranean After 1204, Ashgate Publishing, Ltd., pp. 181–191, ISBN 978-1-4094-1098-0
  55. ^ Korobeinikov, Dimitri (2007), "A sultan in Constantinople: the feasts of Ghiyath al-Din Kay-Khusraw I", in Brubaker, Leslie; Linardou, Kallirroe (eds.), Eat, Drink, and be Merry (Luke 12:19): Food and Wine in Byzantium: Papers of the 37th Annual Spring Symposium of Byzantine Studies, in Honour of Professor A.A.M. Bryer, Ashgate Publishing, Ltd., p. 96, ISBN 978-0-7546-6119-1
  56. ^ Blair, Sheila; Bloom, Jonathan (2004), "West Asia: 1000-1500", in Onians, John (ed.), Atlas of World Art, Laurence King Publishing, p. 130
  57. ^ Architecture (Muhammadan), H. Saladin, Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics, Vol.1, Ed. James Hastings and John Alexander, (Charles Scribner's son, 1908), 753.
  58. ^ Armenia during the Seljuk and Mongol Periods, Robert Bedrosian, The Armenian People From Ancient to Modern Times: The Dynastic Periods from Antiquity to the Fourteenth Century, Vol. I, Ed. Richard Hovannisian, (St. Martin's Press, 1999), 250.
  59. ^ Lost in Translation: Architecture, Taxonomy, and the "Eastern Turks", Finbarr Barry Flood, Muqarnas: History and Ideology: Architectural Heritage of the "Lands of Rum, 96.
  60. ^ Rodriguez, Junius P. (1997). The Historical Encyclopedia of World Slavery. ABC-CLIO. p. 306. ISBN 978-0-87436-885-7., page 306

Sources

  • Bosworth, C. E. (2004). The New Islamic Dynasties: a Chronological and Genealogical Manual. Edinburgh University Press. ISBN 0-7486-2137-7.
  • Bektaş, Cengiz (1999). Selcuklu Kervansarayları, Korunmaları Ve Kullanlmaları üzerine bir öneri: A Proposal regarding the Seljuk Caravanserais, Their Protection and Use (in Turkish and English). ISBN 975-7438-75-8.
  • Crane, H. (1993). "Notes on Saldjūq Architectural Patronage in Thirteenth Century Anatolia". Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient. 36 (1): 1–57. doi:10.1163/156852093X00010.
  • Hillenbrand, Carole (2020). "What is Special about Seljuq History?". In Canby, Sheila; Beyazit, Deniz; Rugiadi, Martina (eds.). The Seljuqs and their Successors: Art, Culture and History. Edinburgh University Press. pp. 6–16. ISBN 978-1474450348.
  • Hillenbrand, Carole (2021). The Medieval Turks: Collected Essays. Edinburgh University Press. ISBN 978-1474485944.
  • Kastritsis, Dimitris (2013). "The Historical Epic "Ahval-i Sultan Mehemmed" (The Tales of Sultan Mehmed) in the Context of Early Ottoman Historiography". Writing History at the Ottoman Court: Editing the Past, Fashioning the Future. Indiana University Press.
  • Mecit, Songul (2013). The Rum Seljuqs: Evolution of a Dynasty. Taylor & Francis.82
  • Richards, Donald S.; Robinson, Chase F. (2003). Texts, documents, and Artefacts. BRILL.
  • Ring, Trudy; Watson, Noelle; Schellinger, Paul, eds. (1995). Southern Europe: International Dictionary of Historic Places. Vol. 3. Routledge.
  • Shukurov, Rustam (2020). "Grasping the Magnitude: Saljuq Rum between Byzantium and Persia". In Canby, Sheila; Beyazit, Deniz; Rugiadi, Martina (eds.). The Seljuqs and their Successors: Art, Culture and History. Edinburgh University Press. pp. 144–162. ISBN 978-1474450348.
  • Tricht, Filip Van (2011). The Latin Renovatio of Byzantium: The Empire of Constantinople (1204-1228). Translated by Longbottom, Peter. Brill.
  • Khanbaghi, Aptin (2016). "Champions of the Persian Language: The Mongols or the Turks?". In De Nicola, Bruno; Melville, Charles (eds.). The Mongols' Middle East: Continuity and Transformation in Ilkhanid Iran. Brill.

External links

  • Yavuz, Ayşıl Tükel. (PDF). ArchNet. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2007-07-04.
  • . ArchNet. Archived from the original on 2007-04-05.
  • Katharine Branning. "Examples of caravanserais built by the Anatolian Seljuk Sultanate". Turkish Hans.

January 20, 2023
sultanate, culturally, turco, persian, sunni, muslim, state, established, over, conquered, byzantine, territories, peoples, rûm, anatolia, seljuk, turks, following, their, entry, into, anatolia, after, battle, manzikert, 1071, name, rûm, synonym, medieval, eas. The Sultanate of Rum a was a culturally Turco Persian Sunni Muslim state established over conquered Byzantine territories and peoples Rum of Anatolia by the Seljuk Turks following their entry into Anatolia after the Battle of Manzikert 1071 The name Rum was a synonym for the medieval Eastern Roman Empire and its peoples as it remains in modern Turkish 7 The name is derived from the Aramaic rhpmE and Parthian frwm names for ancient Rome itself ultimately a loan from Greek Ῥwmaῖoi 8 Sultanate of RumTurkish Anadolu Selcuklu DevletiPersian سلجوقیان روم Saljuqiyan i Rum 1077 1308Double headed eagle used by the Rum Seljuks Lion and Sun adopted by Kaykhusraw IIExpansion of the Sultanate c 1100 1240StatusIndependent sultanate 1077 1243 Mongol vassal 1243 1256 Ilkhanid vassal 1256 1308 CapitalNicaea Iznik 1077 1096 Iconium Konya 1096 1308 Sebastia Sivas 1211 1220 Common languagesArabic numismatics 1 Byzantine Greek chancery 2 Old Anatolian Turkish spoken 3 Persian official court literature spoken 4 5 ReligionSunni Islam official Greek Orthodox subjects GovernmentHereditary monarchyTriarchy 1249 1254 Diarchy 1257 1262 Sultan 1077 1086Suleiman ibn Qutalmish first 1303 1308Mesud II last History Battle of Manzikert1071 Division from the Seljuk Empire1077 Battle of Kose Dag1243 Karamanid conquest1308Preceded by Succeeded byByzantine EmpireSeljuk EmpireDanishmendsMengujekidsSaltukidsArtuqids Anatolian beyliksIlkhanateToday part ofTurkeySeljuk Sultanate of Rum in 1190 Conquest of the Seljuks The Sultanate of Rum seceded from the Great Seljuk Empire under Suleiman ibn Qutalmish in 1077 just six years after the Byzantine provinces of central Anatolia were conquered at the Battle of Manzikert 1071 It had its capital first at Nicaea and then at Iconium It reached the height of its power during the late 12th and early 13th century when it succeeded in taking key Byzantine ports on the Mediterranean and Black Sea coasts In the east the sultanate reached Lake Van Trade through Anatolia from Iran and Central Asia was developed by a system of caravanserai Especially strong trade ties with the Genoese formed during this period The increased wealth allowed the sultanate to absorb other Turkish states that had been established following the conquest of Byzantine Anatolia Danishmendids House of Mengujek Saltukids Artuqids The Seljuk sultans bore the brunt of the Crusades and eventually succumbed to the Mongol invasion at the 1243 Battle of Kose Dag For the remainder of the 13th century the Seljuks acted as vassals of the Ilkhanate 9 Their power disintegrated during the second half of the 13th century The last of the Seljuk vassal sultans of the Ilkhanate Mesud II was murdered in 1308 The dissolution of the Seljuk state left behind many small Anatolian beyliks Turkish principalities among them that of the Ottoman dynasty which eventually conquered the rest and reunited Anatolia to become the Ottoman Empire Contents 1 History 1 1 Establishment 1 2 Crusades 1 3 Mongol conquest 1 4 Disintegration 2 Culture and society 3 Dynasty 4 See also 5 Notes 6 Footnotes 7 References 8 Sources 9 External linksHistory EditFurther information Timeline of the Seljuk Sultanate of Rum Establishment Edit In the 1070s after the battle of Manzikert the Seljuk commander Suleiman ibn Qutulmish a distant cousin of Alp Arslan and a former contender for the throne of the Seljuk Empire came to power in western Anatolia In 1075 he captured the Byzantine cities of Nicaea present day Iznik and Nicomedia present day Izmit Two years later he declared himself sultan of an independent Seljuk state and established his capital at Iznik 10 Suleiman was killed in Antioch in 1086 by Tutush I the Seljuk ruler of Syria and Suleiman s son Kilij Arslan I was imprisoned When Malik Shah died in 1092 Kilij Arslan was released and immediately established himself in his father s territories citation needed Crusades Edit Kilij Arslan although victorious in the People s Crusade of 1096 was defeated by soldiers of the First Crusade and driven back into south central Anatolia where he set up his state with capital in Konya He defeated three Crusade contingents in the 1101 Crusade In 1107 he ventured east and captured Mosul but died the same year fighting Malik Shah s son Mehmed Tapar He was the first Muslim commander against the crusades citation needed Meanwhile another Rum Seljuk Malik Shah not to be confused with the Seljuk sultan of the same name captured Konya In 1116 Kilij Arslan s son Mesud I took the city with the help of the Danishmends citation needed Upon Mesud s death in 1156 the sultanate controlled nearly all of central Anatolia Mesud s son Kilij Arslan II captured the remaining territories around Sivas and Malatya from the last of the Danishmends At the Battle of Myriokephalon in 1176 Kilij Arslan II also defeated a Byzantine army led by Manuel I Komnenos Despite a temporary occupation of Konya in 1190 by the Holy Roman Empire s forces of the Third Crusade the sultanate was quick to recover and consolidate its power 11 During the last years of Kilij Arslan II s reign the sultanate experienced a civil war with Kaykhusraw I fighting to retain control and losing to his brother Suleiman II in 1196 11 12 Suleiman II rallied his vassal emirs and marched against Georgia with an army of 150 000 400 000 and encamped in the Basiani valley Tamar of Georgia quickly marshaled an army throughout her possessions and put it under command of her consort David Soslan Georgian troops under David Soslan made a sudden advance into Basiani and assailed the enemy s camp in 1203 or 1204 In a pitched battle the Seljukid forces managed to roll back several attacks of the Georgians but were eventually overwhelmed and defeated Loss of the sultan s banner to the Georgians resulted in a panic within the Seljuk ranks Suleymanshah himself was wounded and withdrew to Erzurum Both the Rum Seljuk and Georgian armies suffered heavy casualties but coordinated flanking attacks won the battle for the Georgians 13 better source needed Suleiman II died in 1204 14 and was succeeded by his son Kilij Arslan III whose reign was unpopular 14 Kaykhusraw I seized Konya in 1205 reestablishing his reign 14 Under his rule and those of his two successors Kaykaus I and Kayqubad I Seljuk power in Anatolia reached its apogee Kaykhusraw s most important achievement was the capture of the harbour of Attalia Antalya on the Mediterranean coast in 1207 His son Kaykaus captured Sinop 15 and made the Empire of Trebizond his vassal in 1214 16 He also subjugated Cilician Armenia but in 1218 was forced to surrender the city of Aleppo acquired from al Kamil Kayqubad continued to acquire lands along the Mediterranean coast from 1221 to 1225 citation needed In the 1220s he sent an expeditionary force across the Black Sea to Crimea 17 In the east he defeated the Mengujekids and began to put pressure on the Artuqids citation needed Mongol conquest Edit Kaykhusraw II 1237 1246 began his reign by capturing the region around Diyarbakir but in 1239 he had to face an uprising led by a popular preacher named Baba Ishak After three years when he had finally quelled the revolt the Crimean foothold was lost and the state and the sultanate s army had weakened It is in these conditions that he had to face a far more dangerous threat that of the expanding Mongols The forces of the Mongol Empire took Erzurum in 1242 and in 1243 the sultan was crushed by Baiju in the Battle of Kose Dag a mountain between the cities of Sivas and Erzincan and the Seljuk Turks were forced to swear allegiance to the Mongols and became their vassals 9 The sultan himself had fled to Antalya after the 1243 battle where he died in 1246 his death starting a period of tripartite and then dual rule that lasted until 1260 The Seljuk realm was divided among Kaykhusraw s three sons The eldest Kaykaus II 1246 1260 assumed the rule in the area west of the river Kizilirmak His younger brothers Kilij Arslan IV 1248 1265 and Kayqubad II 1249 1257 were set to rule the regions east of the river under Mongol administration In October 1256 Bayju defeated Kaykaus II near Aksaray and all of Anatolia became officially subject to Mongke Khan In 1260 Kaykaus II fled from Konya to Crimea where he died in 1279 Kilij Arslan IV was executed in 1265 and Kaykhusraw III 1265 1284 became the nominal ruler of all of Anatolia with the tangible power exercised either by the Mongols or the sultan s influential regents Disintegration Edit The Seljuk state had started to split into small emirates beyliks that increasingly distanced themselves from both Mongol and Seljuk control In 1277 responding to a call from Anatolia the Mamluk Sultan Baibars raided Anatolia and defeated the Mongols at the Battle of Elbistan 18 temporarily replacing them as the administrator of the Seljuk realm But since the native forces who had called him to Anatolia did not manifest themselves for the defense of the land he had to return to his home base in Egypt and the Mongol administration was re assumed officially and severely Also the Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia captured the Mediterranean coast from Selinos to Seleucia as well as the cities of Marash and Behisni from the Seljuk in the 1240s Near the end of his reign Kaykhusraw III could claim direct sovereignty only over lands around Konya Some of the beyliks including the early Ottoman state and Seljuk governors of Anatolia continued to recognize albeit nominally the supremacy of the sultan in Konya delivering the khutbah in the name of the sultans in Konya in recognition of their sovereignty and the sultans continued to call themselves Fahreddin the Pride of Islam When Kaykhusraw III was executed in 1284 the Seljuk dynasty suffered another blow from internal struggles which lasted until 1303 when the son of Kaykaus II Mesud II established himself as sultan in Kayseri He was murdered in 1308 and his son Mesud III soon afterwards A distant relative to the Seljuk dynasty momentarily installed himself as emir of Konya but he was defeated and his lands conquered by the Karamanids in 1328 The sultanate s monetary sphere of influence lasted slightly longer and coins of Seljuk mint generally considered to be of reliable value continued to be used throughout the 14th century once again including by the Ottomans The comparative genealogy of the Sultanate of Rum with their contemporary neighbors in Central AsiaTuqaq TemurBegCommander in chief of the Oghuz armyMa munid rulers in Chorasmia r 995 1117 Seljuk BegThe founder of Seljuk dynastyAltun Tash 1017 1032 Arslan YabguChief of Seljuk dynastyMikail ibn SeljukThe mother ofToghrul I Chaghri Ibrahim amp ArtashYusuf Inal 19 20 Yunus 21 22 Musa 23 Inanc YabguHarun r 1032 1035 Ismail Khandan r 1035 1041 Rasul Tagin 24 Qutalmish 25 Father of the founder of Anatolian Seljuk SultanateToghrul BegFirst sultan ofthe Seljuks r 1037 1063 Chaghri BegCo ruler ofthe Seljuk dynastyIbrahim Inal 25 Artash Inal 26 Abu Ali Hasan Yabgu 26 25 Yusuf 27 Kara Arslan Abu Bakr Umar Bori amp DawlatshahShah Malik r 1041 1042 Mansur 24 24 Suleyman I Shah of Rum 28 r 1077 1086 Alp Ilig and Dawlat 24 Suleiman 29 r 1063 30 Alp Arslan r 1063 1072 Kavurt 31 Beg r 1048 1073 Kirman SeljuksSeljuk rule in Khwarazm r 1042 1077 Abu l Qasim Iznik r 1086 1092 Abu l Ghazi Hasan Bey Kayseri Malik Shah I r 1072 1092 Kirman 32 Shah r 1073 1074 Sultan Shah 32 r 1074 1085 Turan I Shah 32 r 1085 1097 Anush Tekin r 1077 1097 Ayisha 28 Khatun r in Malatya Kilij Arslan I r 1092 1107 Kulan Arslan Davud 28 Mahmud I 33 34 35 r 1092 1094 Barkiyaruq 36 r 1092 1104 Arslan Shah I r 1101 1142 Muhammad I Malik Shah r 1142 1156 Iranshah r 1097 1101 Ekinchi r 1097 Toghrul Arslan 28 r 1107 1124 Malik Shah of Rum r 1110 1116 Muhammad I Tapar r 1105 1118 Malik Shah II r 1104 1105 Toghrul Shah 32 r 1156 1170 Bahram Shah r 1170 1175 32 Arslan II Shah r 1170 1177 32 Turan II Shah r 1177 1183 Muhammad II r 1183 1187 Qutbu d DinMuhammad r 1097 1127 Gunduz Alp 37 Rukn ad Din Mas ud I r 1116 1156 Malik Arab 28 r 1116 1127 in AnkaraAhmad Sanjar r 1118 1153 Last Sultan of The Great SeljukMahmud II 38 39 r 1118 1131 First sultan ofThe Iraqi SeljuksToghrul II 38 40 r 1132 1134 Masud 38 41 r 1134 1152 Suleiman Shah 38 r 1159 1160 Qizil Arslan r 1191 de facto ruler of Toghrul IIIAtabeg of the EldiguzidsʿAlaʾ ad Din Atsiz r 1127 1156 Danismendli Grooms Yagibasan Sivas amp ZunNun Kayseri ʿIzz ad DinKilij Arslan II r 1156 1192 Malik Shahin Shah Ankara Cankiri Kastamonu DaulatDawud 38 r 1131 1132 Malik Shah III 38 r 1152 1153 Muhammad II 38 r 1153 1159 Arslan Shah 38 42 r 1160 1177 Toghrul III 38 43 r 1177 1191 1192 1194 Last sultanTerken KhatunTaj ad DinIl Arslan r 1156 1172 Rukn ad Din Suleyman II Shah of Rum r 1196 1204 The mothers ofʿIzz ad DinKay Kawus I andJalal ad Din Kay FaridunGhiyath ad DinKay Khusraw I r 1192 1196 amp r 1205 1211 Dawlat Raziya KhatunMalika Ismetu d DinGevher Nesibe SultanQutbu d DinMalik Shah Sivas Aksaray Arslan Shah Nigde Terken Khatunde facto ruler of MuhammadʿAlaʾ ad Din Takish r 1172 1200 Jalal ad Din Sultan Shah r 1172 1193 Kilij Arslan III r 1204 1205 ʿIzz ad DinKay Kawus I r 1211 1220 Hunad Mah Pari Khatun of Kir Fard of Alanya CastleʿAlaʾ ad DinKay Qubad I r 1220 1237 Malika Adila Ghaziya Khatun of AyyubidsMuhyi d Din Masud Shah Ankara Cankiri Eskisehir Nuru d Din Mahmud Sultan Shah Kayseri ʿAlaʾ ad Din Muhammad r 1200 1220 Jalal ad Din Mangubardi r 1220 1231 Jalal ad DinKay Faridun Koyulhisar Sahip Shamsad Din isfahani 1246 1249 Note 1 Barduliya Khatun Prodoulia Ghiyath ad DinKay Khusraw II r 1237 1246 Gurju Khatun Bagrationi dynasty of Georgians Mu in ad Din Suleyman Note 2 Parwana ʿIzz ad DinKilij Arslan Rukn ad Din and two daughtersMugisu d Din Toghrul Shah Elbistan Muizu d Din Kaysar Shah Malatya Ogedei established the Mongol rulein Khwarezmia r 1229 1241 Karim ad Din Karaman Bey r 1256 1263 KaramanogullariAnatolian Beylik Unknown son 44 ʿIzz ad DinKay Kawus II 1246 1249 Note 3 r 1249 1254 amp r 1254 1262 Note 4 Rukn ad DinKilij Arslan IV r 1249 1254 amp r 1257 1262 amp 1262 1266 Note 5 ʿAlaʾ ad Din Kay Qubad II Note 6 r 1249 1254 Pervaneogullari Anatolian Beylik established inSinop in 1277 Nizamu d Din Argun Shah Amasya Sanjar Shah Eregli Nasiru d Din Barkyaruk Shah Niksar Koyulhisar Mongke appointed Hulagu the son of Tolui as Il khan of the Mongol Empire in 1253Karamanoglu Shams ad Din Mehmed Bey Grand Vizier of ʿAlaʾ ad Din Siyavus ʿAlaʾ ad Din Siyavus 15 May 1277 20 June 1277 Note 7 or Note 8 24 April 1279 30 May 1279 Ghiyath ad Din Mas ud II r 1282 1284 amp r 1284 1296 FaramurzGhiyath ad DinKay Khusraw III r 1266 1282 amp r 1282 1284 Mu in ad Din Mehmed r 1277 1297 Mu hazzabud Din AliKubilai endorsed Abaqa the son of Hulagu as Il Khan in 1270 r 1265 1282 Ahmad Tagudar r 1282 1284 Uc Beylik of Osman establishedʿAlaʾ ad Din Kay Qubad III r 1298 1302 28 Mu hazzabud Din Masud r 1297 1300 TaraqayArghun r 1284 1291 Gaykhatu r 1291 1295 Osman of Ottomans r 1299 1323 4 Ghiyath ad Din Mas ud II r 1303 1308 28 Gazi Chelebi r 1300 1322 Baydu r 1295 Ghazan r 1295 1304 Oljaitu r 1304 1316 The list of important historical events Chaghri Beg defeated Shah Malik ibn Ali in Makran in 1042 and ended Ghaznevid rule in Khwarazm Establishment Alp Arslan defeated Byzantine Emperor Romanos IV Diogenes in the Battle of Malazgirt in 1071 The First Crusade Crusade of 1101 Second Crusade ʿIzz ad Din Kilij Arslan defeated Manuel I Komnenos in the Battle of Myriokephalon Third Crusade Ala ad Din Tekish Khwarazmshah ended The Great Seljuk Empire in Ray Khorasan in 1194 Zenith of Anatolian Seljuks Kayqubad the Great defeated Jalal ad Din Mingburnu in the Battle of Yassicimen in 1230 Chormaqan defeated Mangubarti in the Battle of Indus on August 1231 and ended Khwarazmshahs Babai Revolt Baiju Noyan defeated Kay Khusraw II in the Battle of Kosedag in 1243 and Anatolian Seljuks became a vassal state of Mongol Empire Guyuk designated Kilij Arslan IV the Sultan of Rum in 1248 Triple reign 1249 1254 28 Hulagu captured Alamut in 1256 Anatolian Seljuks were divided into two by a firman of Mongke Khan in 1258 1259 Ilkhanate gained independence from the Mongol Empire in 1295 after the demise of Kublai Khan on February 18 1294 Ottoman State emerged in Sogut Bilecik in 1299 Disestablishment period of The Anatolian Seljuks Ilkhanate disintegrated after 1336 The Sultanate of Rum and surrounding states c 1200 The sultanate expanded towards the east during the reign of Kayqubad I The declining Sultanate of Rum vassal of the Mongols and the emerging beyliks c 1300 Hanabad caravanserai in Cardak 1230 Culture and society EditFurther information Seljuk architecture The Seljuk dynasty of Rum as successors to the Great Seljuks based its political religious and cultural heritage on the Perso Islamic tradition and Greco Roman tradition 45 even to the point of naming their sons with Persian names 46 As an expression of Turko Persian culture 47 Rum Seljuks patronized Persian art architecture and literature 48 Unlike the Seljuk Empire the Seljuk sultans of Rum had Persian names such as Kay Khusraw Kay Qubadh and Kay Ka us The bureaucrats and religious elite of their realm was of Persian stock 49 In the 13th century the majority of the Muslim inhabitants in major Anatolian urban hubs reportedly spoke Persian as their main language 50 It was in this century that the proneness of imitating Iran in terms of administration religion and culture reached its zenith resulting in the creation of a second Iran in Anatolia 51 Despite their Turkic origins the Seljuks used Persian for administrative purposes even their histories which replaced Arabic were in Persian 48 Their usage of Turkish was hardly promoted at all 48 Even Sultan Kilij Arslan II as a child spoke to courtiers in Persian 48 Khanbaghi states the Anatolian Seljuks were even more Persianized than the Seljuks that ruled the Iranian plateau 48 The Rahat al sudur the history of the Great Seljuk Empire and its breakup written in Persian by Muhammad bin Ali Rawandi was dedicated to Sultan Kaykhusraw I 52 Even the Tarikh i Al i Saldjuq an anonymous history of the Sultanate of Rum was written in Persian 53 One of its most famous Persian writers Rumi took his name from the name of the state Moreover Byzantine influence in the Sultanate was also significant since Byzantine Greek aristocracy remained part of the Seljuk nobility and the native Byzantine Rum peasants remained numerous in the region 54 55 Cultural Turkification in Anatolia first started during the 14th century particularly during the gradual rise of the Ottomans 51 Kizil Kule Red Tower built between 1221 and 1226 by Kayqubad I in Alanya In their construction of caravanserais madrasas and mosques the Rum Seljuks translated the Iranian Seljuk architecture of bricks and plaster into the use of stone 56 Among these the caravanserais or hans used as stops trading posts and defense for caravans and of which about a hundred structures were built during the Anatolian Seljuk period are particularly remarkable Along with Persian influences which had an indisputable effect 57 Seljuk architecture was inspired by local Byzantine Rum architects for example the Gok Medrese Sivas and by Armenians 58 As such Anatolian architecture represents some of the most distinctive and impressive constructions in the entire history of Islamic architecture Later this Anatolian architecture would be inherited by the Sultanate of India 59 Ince Minaret Medrese a 13th century madrasa located in Konya Turkey The largest caravanserai is the Sultan Han built in 1229 on the road between the cities of Konya and Aksaray in the township of Sultanhani covering 3 900 m2 42 000 sq ft There are two caravanserais that carry the name Sultan Han the other one being between Kayseri and Sivas Furthermore apart from Sultanhani five other towns across Turkey owe their names to caravanserais built there These are Alacahan in Kangal Duragan Hekimhan and Kadinhani as well as the township of Akhan within the Denizli metropolitan area The caravanserai of Hekimhan is unique in having underneath the usual inscription in Arabic with information relating to the edifice two further inscriptions in Armenian and Syriac since it was constructed by the sultan Kayqubad I s doctor hekim who is thought to have been a former Christian who converted to Islam There are other particular cases like the settlement in Kalehisar contiguous to an ancient Hittite site near Alaca founded by the Seljuk commander Husameddin Temurlu who had taken refuge in the region after the defeat in the Battle of Kose Dag and had founded a township comprising a castle a madrasa a habitation zone and a caravanserai which were later abandoned apparently around the 16th century All but the caravanserai which remains undiscovered was explored in the 1960s by the art historian Oktay Aslanapa and the finds as well as a number of documents attest to the existence of a vivid settlement in the site such as a 1463 Ottoman firman which instructs the headmaster of the madrasa to lodge not in the school but in the caravanserai citation needed Gok Medrese Celestial Madrasa of Sivas built by a Greek Rum subject in the periodic capital of the Sultanate of Rum The Seljuk palaces as well as their armies were staffed with ghulams plural ghilman Arabic غ ل م ان enslaved youths taken from non Muslim communities mainly Greeks from former Byzantine territories The practice of keeping ghulams may have offered a model for the later devsirme during the time of the Ottoman Empire 60 Dynasty EditMain articles Anatolian Seljuks family tree and Seljuk dynasty Dirham of Kaykhusraw II minted at Sivas 1240 1241 AD As regards the names of the sultans there are variants in form and spelling depending on the preferences displayed by one source or the other either for fidelity in transliterating the Persian variant of the Arabic script which the sultans used or for a rendering corresponding to the modern Turkish phonology and orthography Some sultans had two names that they chose to use alternatively in reference to their legacy While the two palaces built by Alaeddin Keykubad I carry the names Kubadabad Palace and Keykubadiye Palace he named his mosque in Konya as Alaeddin Mosque and the port city of Alanya he had captured as Alaiye Similarly the medrese built by Kaykhusraw I in Kayseri within the complex kulliye dedicated to his sister Gevher Nesibe was named Giyasiye Medrese and the one built by Kaykaus I in Sivas as Izzediye Medrese citation needed Sultan Reign Notes1 Qutalmish 1060 1064 Contended with Alp Arslan for succession to the Imperial Seljuk throne 2 Suleiman ibn Qutulmish 1075 1077 de facto rules Turkmen around Iznik and Izmit 1077 1086 recognised Sultan of Rum by Malik Shah I of the Great Seljuks Founder of Anatolian Seljuk Sultanate with capital in Iznik3 Kilij Arslan I 1092 1107 First sultan in Konya4 Malik Shah 1107 11165 Masud I 1116 11566 Izz al Din Kilij Arslan II 1156 11927 Giyath al Din Kaykhusraw I 1192 1196 First reign8 Rukn al Din Suleiman II 1196 12049 Kilij Arslan III 1204 1205 7 Giyath al Din Kaykhusraw I 1205 1211 Second reign10 Izz al Din Kayka us I 1211 122011 Ala al Din Kayqubad I 1220 123712 Giyath al Din Kaykhusraw II 1237 1246 After his death sultanate split until 1260 when Kilij Arslan IV remained the sole ruler13 Izz al Din Kayka us II 1246 126214 Rukn al Din Kilij Arslan IV 1249 126615 Ala al Din Kayqubad II 1249 125416 Giyath al Din Kaykhusraw III 1266 128417 Giyath al Din Masud II 1282 1296 First reign18 Ala al Din Kayqubad III 1298 1302 17 Giyath al Din Masud II 1303 1308 Second reignSee also EditTimeline of the Seljuk Sultanate of Rum Babai Revolt Byzantine Seljuk Wars List of battles involving the Seljuk Empire Rum Province Ottoman EmpireNotes Edit Modernly referred to as Anatolian Seljuk Sultanate Persian سلجوقیان روم romanized Saljuqiyan i Rum lit Seljuks of Rum Sultanate of Iconium Anatolian Seljuk State Turkish Anadolu Selcuklu Devleti or Seljuks of Turkey Turkish Turkiye Selcuklulari 6 Footnotes Edit Grand Vizier Sahip Shams ad Din isfahani ruled the country on behalf of ʿIzz ad Din Kay Kawus II between 1246 and 1249 Grand Vizier Parwana Mu in al Din Suleyman ruled the country on behalf of Ghiyath ad Din Kay Khusraw III between 1266 and 2 August 1277 1 Rabi al awwal 676 Between 1246 and 1249 ʿIzz ad Din Kay Kawus II reigned alone ʿIzz ad Din Kay Kawus II was defeated on October 14 1256 in Sultanhani Sultan Han Aksaray and he acceded to the throne on May 1 1257 again after the departure of Baiju Noyan from Anatolia Between 1262 and 1266 Rukn ad Din Kilij Arslan IV reigned alone Between 1249 and 1254 triple reign of three brothers According to Ibn Bibi el Evamiru l ʿAlaʾiyye p 727 10 Dhu al Hijjah 675 17 Muharram 676 According to Yazicioglu Ali Tevarih i Al i Selcuk p 62 10 Dhu al Hijjah 677 17 Muharram 678 References Edit Mecit 2013 p 82 Andrew Peacock and Sara Nur Yildiz The Seljuks of Anatolia Court and Society in the Medieval Middle East I B Tauris 2013 132 The official use of the Greek language by the Seljuk chancery is well known Mehmed Fuad Koprulu 2006 Early Mystics in Turkish Literature p 207 Grousset Rene The Empire of the Steppes A History of Central Asia Rutgers University Press 2002 157 the Seljuk court at Konya adopted Persian as its official language Bernard Lewis Istanbul and the Civilization of the Ottoman Empire University of Oklahoma Press 1963 29 The literature of Seljuk Anatolia was almost entirely in Persian Beihammer Alexander Daniel 2017 Byzantium and the Emergence of Muslim Turkish Anatolia ca 1040 1130 New York Routledge p 15 Alexander Kazhdan Rum The Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium Oxford University Press 1991 vol 3 p 1816 Paul Wittek Rise of the Ottoman Empire Royal Asiatic Society Books Routledge 2013 p 81 This state too bore the name of Rum if not officially then at least in everyday usage and its princes appear in the Eastern chronicles under the name Seljuks of Rum Ar Salajika ar Rum A Christian Van Gorder Christianity in Persia and the Status of Non muslims in Iran p 215 The Seljuqs called the lands of their sultanate Rum because it had been established on territory long considered Roman i e Byzantine by Muslim armies Shukurov 2020 p 145 a b John Joseph Saunders The History of the Mongol Conquests University of Pennsylvania Press 1971 79 Sicker Martin The Islamic world in ascendancy from the Arab conquests to the siege of Vienna Greenwood Publishing Group 2000 63 64 a b Anatolia in the period of the Seljuks and the beyliks Osman Turan The Cambridge History of Islam Vol 1A ed P M Holt Ann K S Lambton and Bernard Lewis Cambridge University Press 1995 244 245 A C S Peacock and Sara Nur Yildiz The Seljuks of Anatolia Court and Society in the Medieval Middle East I B Tauris 2015 29 Alexander Mikaberidze Historical Dictionary of Georgia Rowman amp Littlefield 2015 184 a b c Claude Cahen The Formation of Turkey The Seljukid Sultanate of Rum Eleventh to Fourteenth transl amp ed P M Holt Pearson Education Limited 2001 42 Tricht 2011 p 355 Ring Watson amp Schellinger 1995 p 651 A C S Peacock The Saliuq Campaign against the Crimea and the Expansionist Policy of the Early Reign of Ala al Din Kayqubad Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society Vol 16 2006 pp 133 149 Kastritsis 2013 p 26 Zahiruddin i Nisaburi Selcuḳname Muhammed Ramazani Publications Tahran 1332 p 10 Residuddin Fazlullah i Hemedani Camiʿu t tevariḫ Ahmed Ates Publications Ankara 1960 vol II 5 p 5 Ravendi Muhammed b Ali Rahatu s sudur Ates Publications vol I p 85 Mustevfi Tariḫ i Guzide Nevai Publications p 426 Osman Gazi Ozgudenli 2016 MUSA YABGU Vol EK 2 Istanbul TDV Islam Ansiklopedisi pp 324 325 a b c d Sevim Ali 2010 SULEYMAN SAH I PDF Vol 38 Istanbul TDV Islam Ansiklopedisi pp 103 105 ISBN 978 9 7538 9590 3 a b c Faruk Sumer 2002 KUTALMIS PDF Vol 26 Istanbul TDV Islam Ansiklopedisi pp 480 481 ISBN 978 9 7538 9406 7 a b Osman Gazi Ozgudenli 2016 MUSA YABGU TDV Encyclopedia of Islam Supplement 2 Kafur Ebu l Misk Zureyk Kostantin in Turkish Istanbul Turkiye Diyanet Foundation Centre for Islamic Studies pp 324 325 ISBN 978 975 389 889 8 Beyhaki Tariḫ Behmenyar p 71 a b c d e f g h Sumer Faruk 2009 ANADOLU SELCUKLULARI PDF Vol 36 Istanbul TDV Islam Ansiklopedisi pp 380 384 ISBN 978 9 7538 9566 8 Sevim Ali 1993 CAGRI BEY PDF TDV Encyclopedia of Islam Vol 8 Ci lve Darunnedve in Turkish Istanbul Turkiye Diyanet Foundation Centre for Islamic Studies pp 183 186 ISBN 978 975 389 435 7 Sumer Faruk 2009 SELCUKLULAR PDF TDV Encyclopedia of Islam Vol 36 Sakal Sevm in Turkish Istanbul Turkiye Diyanet Foundation Centre for Islamic Studies pp 365 371 ISBN 978 975 389 566 8 Ozaydin Abdulkerim 2002 KAVURD BEY PDF Vol 25 Istanbul TDV Islam Ansiklopedisi pp 73 74 ISBN 978 9 7538 9403 6 a b c d e f Sumer Faruk 2009 Kirman Selcuks PDF Vol 36 Istanbul TDV Islam Ansiklopedisi pp 377 379 ISBN 978 9 7538 9566 8 Bezer Gulay Ogun 2011 TERKEN HATUN the mother of MAHMUD I PDF TDV Encyclopedia of Islam Vol 40 Tanzi mat Teveccuh in Turkish Istanbul Turkiye Diyanet Foundation Centre for Islamic Studies p 510 ISBN 978 975 389 652 8 Terken Khatun wife of Malik Shah I Ozaydin Abdulkerim 2004 MELIKSAH PDF TDV Encyclopedia of Islam Vol 29 Mekteb Misir Mevlevihanesi in Turkish Istanbul Turkiye Diyanet Foundation Centre for Islamic Studies pp 54 57 ISBN 978 975 389 415 9 Ozaydin Abdulkerim 1992 BERKYARUK PDF TDV Encyclopedia of Islam Vol 5 Balaban Besi r Aga in Turkish Istanbul Turkiye Diyanet Foundation Centre for Islamic Studies pp 514 516 ISBN 978 975 389 432 6 Sumer Faruk 2009 SELCUKLULAR PDF Vol 36 Istanbul TDV Islam Ansiklopedisi pp 365 371 ISBN 978 9 7538 9566 8 Enveri Dusturname i Enveri pp 78 80 1464 a b c d e f g h i Sumer Faruk 2009 IRAK SELCUKLULARI PDF TDV Encyclopedia of Islam Vol 36 Sakal Sevm in Turkish Istanbul Turkiye Diyanet Foundation Centre for Islamic Studies p 387 ISBN 978 975 389 566 8 Ozaydin Abdulkerim 2003 MAHMUD b MUHAMMED TAPAR PDF TDV Encyclopedia of Islam Vol 27 Kutahya Mevlevihanesi Mani sa in Turkish Istanbul Turkiye Diyanet Foundation Centre for Islamic Studies pp 371 372 ISBN 978 975 389 408 1 Sumer Faruk 2012 TUGRUL I PDF TDV Encyclopedia of Islam Vol 41 Tevekkul Tusteri in Turkish Istanbul Turkiye Diyanet Foundation Centre for Islamic Studies pp 341 342 ISBN 978 975 389 713 6 Sumer Faruk 2004 MES UD b MUHAMMED TAPAR PDF TDV Encyclopedia of Islam Vol 29 Mekteb Misir Mevlevihanesi in Turkish Istanbul Turkiye Diyanet Foundation Centre for Islamic Studies pp 349 351 ISBN 978 975 389 415 9 Sumer Faruk 1991 ARSLANSAH b TUGRUL PDF TDV Encyclopedia of Islam Vol 3 Amasya Asik Musi ki si in Turkish Istanbul Turkiye Diyanet Foundation Centre for Islamic Studies pp 404 406 ISBN 978 975 389 430 2 Sumer Faruk 2012 Ebu Talib TUGRUL b ARSLANSAH b TUGRUL PDF TDV Encyclopedia of Islam Vol 41 Tevekkul Tusteri in Turkish Istanbul Turkiye Diyanet Foundation Centre for Islamic Studies pp 342 344 ISBN 978 975 389 713 6 Shukurov Rustam 2016 The Byzantine Turks 1204 1461 BRILL pp 108 109 ISBN 978 9004307759 Saljuqs Saljuqs of Anatolia Robert Hillenbrand The Dictionary of Art Vol 27 Ed Jane Turner Macmillan Publishers Limited 1996 632 Rudi Paul Lindner Explorations in Ottoman Prehistory University of Michigan Press 2003 3 Lewis Bernard Istanbul and the Civilization of the Ottoman Empire p 29 Even when the land of Rum became politically independent it remained a colonial extension of Turco Persian culture which had its centers in Iran and Central Asia The literature of Seljuk Anatolia was almost entirely in Persian a b c d e Khanbaghi 2016 p 202 Hillenbrand 2020 p 15 Shukurov 2020 p 155 a b Hillenbrand 2021 p 211 Richards amp Robinson 2003 p 265 Crane 1993 p 2 Shukurov Rustam 2011 The Oriental Margins of the Byzantine World a Prosopographical Perspective in Herrin Judith Saint Guillain Guillaume eds Identities and Allegiances in the Eastern Mediterranean After 1204 Ashgate Publishing Ltd pp 181 191 ISBN 978 1 4094 1098 0 Korobeinikov Dimitri 2007 A sultan in Constantinople the feasts of Ghiyath al Din Kay Khusraw I in Brubaker Leslie Linardou Kallirroe eds Eat Drink and be Merry Luke 12 19 Food and Wine in Byzantium Papers of the 37th Annual Spring Symposium of Byzantine Studies in Honour of Professor A A M Bryer Ashgate Publishing Ltd p 96 ISBN 978 0 7546 6119 1 Blair Sheila Bloom Jonathan 2004 West Asia 1000 1500 in Onians John ed Atlas of World Art Laurence King Publishing p 130 Architecture Muhammadan H Saladin Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics Vol 1 Ed James Hastings and John Alexander Charles Scribner s son 1908 753 Armenia during the Seljuk and Mongol Periods Robert Bedrosian The Armenian People From Ancient to Modern Times The Dynastic Periods from Antiquity to the Fourteenth Century Vol I Ed Richard Hovannisian St Martin s Press 1999 250 Lost in Translation Architecture Taxonomy and the Eastern Turks Finbarr Barry Flood Muqarnas History and Ideology Architectural Heritage of the Lands of Rum 96 Rodriguez Junius P 1997 The Historical Encyclopedia of World Slavery ABC CLIO p 306 ISBN 978 0 87436 885 7 page 306Sources EditBosworth C E 2004 The New Islamic Dynasties a Chronological and Genealogical Manual Edinburgh University Press ISBN 0 7486 2137 7 Bektas Cengiz 1999 Selcuklu Kervansaraylari Korunmalari Ve Kullanlmalari uzerine bir oneri A Proposal regarding the Seljuk Caravanserais Their Protection and Use in Turkish and English ISBN 975 7438 75 8 Crane H 1993 Notes on Saldjuq Architectural Patronage in Thirteenth Century Anatolia Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient 36 1 1 57 doi 10 1163 156852093X00010 Hillenbrand Carole 2020 What is Special about Seljuq History In Canby Sheila Beyazit Deniz Rugiadi Martina eds The Seljuqs and their Successors Art Culture and History Edinburgh University Press pp 6 16 ISBN 978 1474450348 Hillenbrand Carole 2021 The Medieval Turks Collected Essays Edinburgh University Press ISBN 978 1474485944 Kastritsis Dimitris 2013 The Historical Epic Ahval i Sultan Mehemmed The Tales of Sultan Mehmed in the Context of Early Ottoman Historiography Writing History at the Ottoman Court Editing the Past Fashioning the Future Indiana University Press Mecit Songul 2013 The Rum Seljuqs Evolution of a Dynasty Taylor amp Francis 82 Richards Donald S Robinson Chase F 2003 Texts documents and Artefacts BRILL Ring Trudy Watson Noelle Schellinger Paul eds 1995 Southern Europe International Dictionary of Historic Places Vol 3 Routledge Shukurov Rustam 2020 Grasping the Magnitude Saljuq Rum between Byzantium and Persia In Canby Sheila Beyazit Deniz Rugiadi Martina eds The Seljuqs and their Successors Art Culture and History Edinburgh University Press pp 144 162 ISBN 978 1474450348 Tricht Filip Van 2011 The Latin Renovatio of Byzantium The Empire of Constantinople 1204 1228 Translated by Longbottom Peter Brill Khanbaghi Aptin 2016 Champions of the Persian Language The Mongols or the Turks In De Nicola Bruno Melville Charles eds The Mongols Middle East Continuity and Transformation in Ilkhanid Iran Brill External links EditYavuz Aysil Tukel The concepts that shape Anatolian Seljuq caravanserais PDF ArchNet Archived from the original PDF on 2007 07 04 List of Seljuk edifices ArchNet Archived from the original on 2007 04 05 Katharine Branning Examples of caravanserais built by the Anatolian Seljuk Sultanate Turkish Hans Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Sultanate of Rum amp oldid 1133766382, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

article

, read, download, free, free download, mp3, video, mp4, 3gp, jpg, jpeg, gif, png, picture, music, song, movie, book, game, games.