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Wikipedia

Plug-in hybrid

April 18, 2023

This article is about hybrid vehicles whose battery may be externally charged. For vehicles that are propelled only by electric motors, using energy stored in rechargeable batteries, see battery electric vehicle. For the more general category of vehicles with plug-in rechargeable capabilities, see plug-in electric vehicle.

A plug-in hybrid electric vehicle (PHEV) is a hybrid electric vehicle whose battery pack can be recharged by plugging a charging cable into an external electric power source, in addition to internally by its on-board internal combustion engine-powered generator. Most PHEVs are passenger cars, but there are also PHEV versions of commercial vehicles and vans, utility trucks, buses, trains, motorcycles, mopeds, and even military vehicles.

The Mitsubishi Outlander PHEV is the world's all-time best-selling plug-in hybrid.[1] Cumulative global sales reached 290,000 units in September 2021.[2]

Similar to all-electric vehicles (BEVs), PHEVs displace greenhouse gas emissions from the car tailpipe exhaust to the power station generators powering the electricity grid. These centralized generators may be of renewable energy (e.g. solar, wind or hydroelectric) and largely emission-free, or have an overall lower emission intensity than individual internal combustion engines. Compared to conventional hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs), PHEVs have a larger battery pack that can be charged from the power grid, which is also more efficient and can cost less than using only the on-board generator, and also often have a more powerful electric output capable of longer and more frequent EV mode driving, helping to reduce operating costs. A PHEV's battery pack is smaller than all-electric vehicles for the same vehicle weight (due to the necessity to still accommodate its combustion engine and hybrid drivetrain), but has the auxiliary option of switching back to using its gasoline/diesel engine like a conventional HEV if the battery runs low, alleviating range anxiety especially for places that lack sufficient charging infrastructure.

Mass-produced PHEVs have been available to the public in China and the United States since 2010,[3][4][5] with the introduction of the Chevrolet Volt which was the best selling PHEV until the end of production in 2019.[citation needed] By the end of 2017, there were over 40 models of highway-legal series-production PHEVs for retail sales, and are available mainly in China, Japan, the United States, Canada and Western Europe. The top-selling models are the Mitsubishi Outlander P-HEV, the Chevrolet Volt family and the Toyota Prius PHV.[6]

As of December 2019, the global stock of PHEVs totaled 2.4 million units, representing one-third of the stock of plug-in electric passenger cars on the world's roads.[7] As of December 2019, China had the world's largest stock of PHEVs with 767,900 units, followed by the United States with 567,740, and the United Kingdom with 159,910.[7]

Terminology

A plug-in hybrid's all-electric range is designated by PHEV-[miles] or PHEV[kilometers]km in which the number represents the distance the vehicle can travel on battery power alone. For example, a PHEV-20 can travel 32 km (20 miles) without using its combustion engine, so it may also be designated as a PHEV32km.[8]

For these cars to be battery operated, they go through charging processes that use different currents. These currents are known as Alternating Current (AC) used for on board chargers and Direct Current (DC) used for external charging.[9]

Other popular terms sometimes used for plug-in hybrids are "grid-connected hybrids", "Gas-Optional Hybrid Electric Vehicle" (GO-HEV) or simply "gas-optional hybrids".[10][11][12] GM calls its Chevrolet Volt series plug-in hybrid an "Extended-Range Electric Vehicle".[13][14]

History

Further information: History of plug-in hybrids
 
The Lohner–Porsche Mixte Hybrid was the first gasoline-electric plug-in hybrid automobile.

Invention and early interest

The Lohner–Porsche Mixte Hybrid, produced as early as 1899, was the first hybrid electric car.[15][16] Early hybrids could be charged from an external source before operation. However, the term "plug-in hybrid" has come to mean a hybrid vehicle that can be charged from a standard electrical wall socket. The term "plug-in hybrid electric vehicle" was coined by UC Davis Professor Andrew Frank,[17] who has been called the "father of the modern plug-in hybrid".[18][19][20]

The July 1969 issue of Popular Science featured an article on the General Motors XP-883 plug-in hybrid. The concept commuter vehicle housed six 12-volt lead–acid batteries in the trunk area and a transverse-mounted DC electric motor turning a front-wheel drive. The car could be plugged into a standard North American 120 volt AC outlet for recharging.[21]

Revival of interest

 
Lithium-ion battery pack, with cover removed, in a CalCars "PRIUS+" plug-in hybrid converted Toyota Prius converted by EnergyCS

In 2003, Renault began selling the Elect'road, a plug-in series hybrid version of their popular Kangoo, in Europe. In addition to its engine, it could be plugged into a standard outlet and recharged to 95% range in about 4 hours.[22] After selling about 500 vehicles, primarily in France, Norway and the UK, the Elect'road was redesigned in 2007.[23]

With the availability of hybrid vehicles and the rising gas prices in the United States starting around 2004, interest in plug-in hybrids increased.[24] Some plug-in hybrids were conversions of existing hybrids; for example, the 2004 CalCars conversion of a Prius to add lead acid batteries and a range of up to 15 km (9 mi) using only electric power.[25]

In 2006, both Toyota and General Motors announced plans for plug-in hybrids.[26][27] GM's Saturn Vue project was cancelled, but the Toyota plug-in was certified for road use in Japan in 2007.[28]

In 2007, Quantum Technologies and Fisker Coachbuild, LLC announced the launch of a joint venture in Fisker Automotive.[29] Fisker intended to build a US$80,000 luxury PHEV-50, the Fisker Karma, initially scheduled for late 2009.[30]

In 2007, Aptera Motors announced their Typ-1 two-seater. However, the company folded in December 2011.[31]

In 2007, Chinese car manufacturer BYD Auto, owned by China's largest mobile phone battery maker, announced it would be introducing a production PHEV-60 sedan in China in the second half of 2008. BYD exhibited it in January 2008 at the North American International Auto Show in Detroit. Based on BYD's midsize F6 sedan, it uses lithium iron phosphate (LiFeP04)-based batteries instead of lithium-ion, and can be recharged to 70% of capacity in 10 minutes.[32]

 
Three plug-in converted Toyota Prius recharging at San Francisco City Hall public charging station

In 2007 Ford delivered the first Ford Escape Plug-in Hybrid of a fleet of 20 demonstration PHEVs to Southern California Edison.[33] As part of this demonstration program Ford also developed the first flexible-fuel plug-in hybrid SUV, which was delivered in June 2008.[34] This demonstration fleet of plug-ins has been in field testing with utility company fleets in the U.S. and Canada,[35] and during the first two years since the program began, the fleet has logged more than 75,000 miles.[36] In August 2009 Ford delivered the first Escape Plug-in equipped with intelligent vehicle-to-grid (V2G) communications and control system technology, and Ford plans to equip all 21 plug-in hybrid Escapes with the vehicle-to-grid communications technology.[36] Sales of the Escape PHEV were scheduled for 2012.[35]

On January 14, 2008, Toyota announced they would start sales of lithium-ion battery PHEVs by 2010,[37][38] but later in the year Toyota indicated they would be offered to commercial fleets in 2009.[39]

On March 27, the California Air Resources Board (CARB) modified their regulations, requiring automobile manufacturers to produce 58,000 plug-in hybrids during 2012 through 2014.[40] This requirement is an asked-for alternative to an earlier mandate to produce 25,000 pure zero-emissions vehicles, reducing that requirement to 5,000.[41] On June 26, Volkswagen announced that they would be introducing production plug-ins based on the Golf compact. Volkswagen uses the term 'TwinDrive' to denote a PHEV.[42] In September, Mazda was reported to be planning PHEVs.[43] On September 23, Chrysler announced that they had prototyped a plug-in Jeep Wrangler and a Chrysler Town and Country mini-van, both PHEV-40s with series powertrains, and an all-electric Dodge sports car, and said that one of the three vehicles would go into production.[44][45]

On October 3, the U.S. enacted the Energy Improvement and Extension Act of 2008. The legislation provided tax credits for the purchase of plug-in electric vehicles of battery capacity over 4 kilowatt-hours.[46][47] The federal tax credits were extended and modified by the American Clean Energy and Security Act of 2009, but now the battery capacity must be over 5 kWh and the credit phases out after the automaker has sold at least 200,000 vehicles in the U.S.[48]

Series production

 
Launched in China in December 2008, the BYD F3DM became the world's first mass-produced plug-in hybrid automobile.[49]
 
The BYD Qin, released in China in December 2013, replaced the F3DM.[50]

On December 15, 2008, BYD Auto began selling its F3DM in China, becoming the first production plug-in hybrid sold in the world, though initially was available only for corporate and government customers.[51][52][53] Sales to the general public began in Shenzhen in March 2010,[3][4] but because the F3DM nearly doubles the price of cars that run on conventional fuel, BYD expects subsidies from the local government to make the plug-in affordable to personal buyers.[3] Toyota tested 600 pre-production Prius Plug-ins in Europe and North America in 2009 and 2010.[54][55]

Volvo Cars built two demonstration versions of Volvo V70 Plug-in Hybrids in 2009 but did not proceed with production. The V60 plug-in hybrid was released in 2011 and was available for sale.

In October 2010 Lotus Engineering unveiled the Lotus CityCar, a plug-in series hybrid concept car designed for flex-fuel operation on ethanol, or methanol as well as regular gasoline.[56][57] The lithium battery pack provides an all-electric range of 60 kilometres (37 mi), and the 1.2-liter flex-fuel engine kicks in to allow to extend the range to more than 500 kilometres (310 mi).[56][57]

GM officially launched the Chevrolet Volt in the U.S. on November 30, 2010, and retail deliveries began in December 2010.[5] Its sibling the Opel/Vauxhall Ampera was launched in Europe between late 2011 and early 2012. The first deliveries of the Fisker Karma took place in July 2011,[58] and deliveries to retail customers began in November 2011. The Toyota Prius Plug-in Hybrid was released in Japan in January 2012,[59] followed by the United States in February 2012.[60] Deliveries of the Prius PHV in Europe began in late June 2012.[61] The Ford C-Max Energi was released in the U.S. in October 2012,[62] the Volvo V60 Plug-in Hybrid in Sweden by late 2012.[63]

The Honda Accord Plug-in Hybrid was released in selected U.S. markets in January 2013,[64] and the Mitsubishi Outlander P-HEV in Japan in January 2013, becoming the first SUV plug-in hybrid in the market.[65] Deliveries of the Ford Fusion Energi began in February 2013.[66][67] BYD Auto stopped production of its BYD F3DM due to low sales,[68] and its successor, the BYD Qin, began sales in Costa Rica in November 2013, with sales in other countries in Latin America scheduled to begin in 2014.[69][70][71] Qin deliveries began in China in mid December 2013.[50]

 
The Toyota Prius Plug-in Hybrid was launched in Japan and the U.S. in early 2012, and Europe by mid-2012.

Deliveries to retail customers of the limited edition McLaren P1 supercar began in the UK in October 2013,[72] and the Porsche Panamera S E-Hybrid began deliveries in the U.S. in November 2013. The first retail deliveries of the Cadillac ELR took place in the U.S. in December 2013.[73] The BMW i8 and the limited edition Volkswagen XL1 were released to retail customers in Germany in June 2014.[74][75] The Porsche 918 Spyder was also released in Europe and the U.S. in 2014. The first units of the Audi A3 Sportback e-tron and Volkswagen Golf GTE were registered in Germany in August 2014.[76]

In December 2014 BMW announced the group is planning to offer plug-in hybrid versions of all its core-brand models using eDrive technology developed for its BMW i brand plug-in vehicles (BMW i3 and BMW i8). The goal of the company is to use plug-in technology to continue offering high performance vehicles while reducing CO2 emissions below 100g/km. At the time of the announcement the carmaker was already testing a BMW 3 Series plug-in hybrid prototype.[77] The first model available for retail sales will be the 2016 BMW X5 eDrive, with the production version unveiled at the 2015 Shanghai Motor Show.[78] The second generation Chevrolet Volt was unveiled at the January 2015 North American International Auto Show,[79] and retail deliveries began in the U.S. and Canada in October 2015.[80][81]

In March 2015 Audi said they planned on making a plug-in hybrid version of every model series, and that they expect plug-in hybrids, together with natural gas vehicles and battery-electric drive systems, to have a key contribution in achieving the company's CO2 targets. The Audi Q7 e-tron will follow the A3 e-tron already in the market.[82] Also in March 2015, Mercedes-Benz announced that the company's main emphasis regarding alternative drives in the next years will be on plug-in hybrids. The carmaker plans to introduce 10 new plug-in hybrid models by 2017, and its next release was the Mercedes-Benz C 350 e, Mercedes' second plug-in hybrid after the S 500 Plug-In Hybrid.[83] Other plug-in hybrid released in 2015 are the BYD Tang, Volkswagen Passat GTE, Volvo XC90 T8, and the Hyundai Sonata PHEV.

Global combined Volt/Ampera family sales passed the 100,000 unit milestone in October 2015.[84] By the end of 2015, over 517,000 highway legal plug-in hybrid electric cars have been sold worldwide since December 2008 out of total global sales of more than 1.25 million light-duty plug-in electric cars.[85][86]

 
Sales of the Porsche 918 Spyder began in Europe in May 2014.
 
The BMW i8 was released in Europe in June 2014.

In February 2016, BMW announced the introduction of the "iPerformance" model designation, which will be given to all BMW plug-in hybrid vehicles from July 2016. The aim is to provide a visible indicator of the transfer of technology from BMW i to the BMW core brand. The new designation will be used first on the plug-in hybrid variants of the new BMW 7 Series, the BMW 740e iPerformance,[87] and the 3 Series, the BMW 330e iPerformance.[88]

Hyundai Motor Company made the official debut of its three model Hyundai Ioniq line-up at the 2016 Geneva Motor Show.[89] The Ioniq family of electric drive vehicles includes the Ioniq Plug-in, which is expected to achieve a fuel economy of 125 mpg‑e (28 kW⋅h/100 mi; 17.1 kW⋅h/100 km) in all-electric mode.[90] The Ioniq Plug-in is scheduled to be released in the U.S. in the fourth quarter of 2017.[91]

The second generation Prius plug-in hybrid, called Prius Prime in the U.S. and Prius PHV in Japan,[92] was unveiled at the 2016 New York International Auto Show. Retail deliveries of the Prius Prime began in the U.S. in November 2016,[93] and is scheduled to be released Japan by the end of 2016.[92][94] The Prime has an EPA-rated all-electric range of 25 mi (40 km), over twice the range of the first generation model, and an EPA rated fuel economy of 133 mpg‑e (25.9 kW⋅h/100 mi) in all-electric mode (EV mode), the highest MPGe rating in EV mode of any vehicle rated by EPA.[95][96] Unlike its predecessor, the Prime runs entirely on electricity in EV mode.[97] Global sales of the Mitsubishi Outlander P-HEV passed the 100,000 unit milestone in March 2016.[98][99] BYD Qin sales in China reached the 50,000 unit milestone in April 2016, becoming the fourth plug-in hybrid to pass that mark.[100]

In June 2016, Nissan announced it will introduce a compact range extender car in Japan before March 2017. The series plug-in hybrid will use a new hybrid system, dubbed e-Power, which debuted with the Nissan Gripz concept crossover showcased at the 2015 Frankfurt Auto Show.[101]

In January 2016, Chrysler debuted its plug-in hybrid minivan, the Chrysler Pacifica Hybrid, with an EPA rated electric-only range of 48 km (30 miles).[102] This was the first hybrid minivan of any type. It was first sold in the United States, Canada, and Mexico in 2017.

In December 2017, Honda began retail deliveries of the Honda Clarity Plug-In Hybrid in the United States and Canada, with an EPA rated electric-only range of 76 km (47 miles).[103]

 
Volkswagen XL driver side with door opened

In 2013, Volkswagen started production on the Volkswagen XL1, a two-person limited production diesel-powered plug-in hybrid vehicle designed to be able to travel 100 km/l (280 mpg‑imp; 235 mpg‑US) on diesel, while still being both roadworthy and practical. The model is built with a 800 cc (49 cu in) TDI twin-cylinder, common-rail 35 kW (47 hp) turbo-diesel and a 20 kW (27 hp) electric motor. The model is unique in that it is one of the only mass produced plug-in diesel hybrid vehicles and one of the only mass produced diesel hybrid vehicles in general.[104][105][106]

Technology

Powertrains

Main article: Hybrid vehicle drivetrains
 
The Chevrolet Volt operates primarily as a series hybrid.

PHEVs are based on the same three basic powertrain architectures of conventional hybrids; a series hybrid is propelled by electric motors only, a parallel hybrid is propelled both by its internal combustion engine and by electric motors operating concurrently, and a series-parallel hybrid operates in either mode. While a plain hybrid vehicle charges its battery from its engine only, a plug-in hybrid can obtain a significant amount of the energy required to recharge its battery from external sources.

Charging systems

The battery charger can be on-board or external to the vehicle. The process for an on-board charger is best explained as AC power being converted into DC power, resulting in the battery being charged.[9] On-board chargers are limited in capacity by their weight and size, and by the limited capacity of general-purpose AC outlets. Dedicated off-board chargers can be as large and powerful as the user can afford, but require returning to the charger; high-speed chargers may be shared by multiple vehicles.

Using the electric motor's inverter allows the motor windings to act as the transformer coils, and the existing high-power inverter as the AC-to-DC charger. As these components are already required on the car, and are designed to handle any practical power capability, they can be used to create a very powerful form of on-board charger with no significant additional weight or size. AC Propulsion uses this charging method, referred to as "reductive charging".[107]

Modes of operation

A plug-in hybrid operates in charge-depleting and charge-sustaining modes. Combinations of these two modes are termed blended mode or mixed-mode. These vehicles can be designed to drive for an extended range in all-electric mode, either at low speeds only or at all speeds. These modes manage the vehicle's battery discharge strategy, and their use has a direct effect on the size and type of battery required:[108]

Charge-depleting mode allows a fully charged PHEV to operate exclusively (or depending on the vehicle, almost exclusively, except during hard acceleration) on electric power until its battery state of charge is depleted to a predetermined level, at which time the vehicle's internal combustion engine or fuel cell will be engaged. This period is the vehicle's all-electric range. This is the only mode that a battery electric vehicle can operate in, hence their limited range.[109]

Mixed mode describes a trip using a combination of multiple modes. For example, a car may begin a trip in low speed charge-depleting mode, then enter onto a freeway and operate in blended mode. The driver might exit the freeway and drive without the internal combustion engine until all-electric range is exhausted. The vehicle can revert to a charge sustaining-mode until the final destination is reached. This contrasts with a charge-depleting trip which would be driven within the limits of a PHEV's all-electric range.

Electric power storage

Further information: Electric vehicle battery and Charging station

The optimum battery size varies depending on whether the aim is to reduce fuel consumption, running costs, or emissions, but a 2009 study[110] concluded that "The best choice of PHEV battery capacity depends critically on the distance that the vehicle will be driven between charges. Our results suggest that for urban driving conditions and frequent charges every 10 miles or less, a low-capacity PHEV sized with an AER (all-electric range) of about 7 miles would be a robust choice for minimizing gasoline consumption, cost, and greenhouse gas emissions. For less frequent charging, every 20–100 miles, PHEVs release fewer GHGs, but HEVs are more cost effective."

PHEVs typically require deeper battery charging and discharging cycles than conventional hybrids. Because the number of full cycles influences battery life, this may be less than in traditional HEVs which do not deplete their batteries as fully. However, some authors argue that PHEVs will soon become standard in the automobile industry.[111] Design issues and trade-offs against battery life, capacity, heat dissipation, weight, costs, and safety need to be solved.[112] Advanced battery technology is under development, promising greater energy densities by both mass and volume,[113] and battery life expectancy is expected to increase.[114]

The cathodes of some early 2007 lithium-ion batteries are made from lithium-cobalt metal oxide. This material is expensive, and cells made with it can release oxygen if overcharged. If the cobalt is replaced with iron phosphates, the cells will not burn or release oxygen under any charge. At early 2007 gasoline and electricity prices, the break-even point is reached after six to ten years of operation. The payback period may be longer for plug-in hybrids, because of their larger, more expensive batteries.[115]

Nickel–metal hydride and lithium-ion batteries can be recycled; Toyota, for example, has a recycling program in place under which dealers are paid a US$200 credit for each battery returned.[116] However, plug-in hybrids typically use larger battery packs than comparable conventional hybrids, and thus require more resources. Pacific Gas and Electric Company (PG&E) has suggested that utilities could purchase used batteries for backup and load leveling purposes. They state that while these used batteries may be no longer usable in vehicles, their residual capacity still has significant value.[117] More recently, General Motors (GM) has said it has been "approached by utilities interested in using recycled Volt batteries as a power storage system, a secondary market that could bring down the cost of the Volt and other plug-in vehicles for consumers".[118]

Ultracapacitors (or "supercapacitors") are used in some plug-in hybrids, such as AFS Trinity's concept prototype, to store rapidly available energy with their high power density, in order to keep batteries within safe resistive heating limits and extend battery life.[119][120] The CSIRO's UltraBattery combines a supercapacitor and a lead acid battery in a single unit, creating a hybrid car battery that lasts longer, costs less and is more powerful than current technologies used in plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs).[121]

Conversions of production vehicles

Further information: Electric vehicle conversion
 
15 lead–acid batteries, PFC charger, and regulators installed into WhiteBird, a PHEV-10 conversion of a Toyota Prius
See also: CalCars

There are several companies that are converting fossil fuel non-hybrid vehicles to plug-in hybrids:[122][123]

Aftermarket conversion of an existing production hybrid to a plug-in hybrid[124] typically involves increasing the capacity of the vehicle's battery pack and adding an on-board AC-to-DC charger. Ideally, the vehicle's powertrain software would be reprogrammed to make full use of the battery pack's additional energy storage capacity and power output.

Many early plug-in hybrid electric vehicle conversions have been based on the Toyota Prius.[125] Some of the systems have involved replacement of the vehicle's original NiMH battery pack and its electronic control unit. Others add an additional battery back onto the original battery pack.[126]

Target market

In recent years, demand for all- electric vehicles, especially in the United States market, has been driven by government incentives through subsidies, lobbyists, and taxes.[127] In particular, American sales of the Nissan Leaf have depended on generous incentives and special treatment in the state of Georgia, the top selling Leaf market.[128] According to international market research, 60% of respondents believe a battery driving range of less than 160 km (99 mi) is unacceptable even though only 2% drive more than that distance per day.[129] Among popular current all-electric vehicles, only the Tesla (with the most expensive version of the Model S offering a 265 miles (426 km) range in the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency 5-cycle test) significantly exceeds this threshold. In 2021, for the 2022 model year, the Nissan Leaf has an EPA rated range of 212 miles (341 km) for the 60 kWh model.

 
All-electric range, in miles, for several popular model year 2013 plug-in hybrids, as observed in testing by Popular Mechanics magazine. Providing greater all-electric range adds cost and entails compromises, so different all-electric ranges may suit different customers' needs.

Plug-in hybrids provide the extended range and potential for refueling of conventional hybrids while enabling drivers to use battery electric power for at least a significant part of their typical daily driving. The average trip to or from work in the United States in 2009 was 11.8 miles (19.0 km),[130] while the average distance commuted to work in England and Wales in 2011 was slightly lower at 9.3 miles (15 km).[131] Since building a PHEV with a longer all-electric range adds weight and cost, and reduces cargo and/or passenger space, there is not a specific all-electric range that is optimal. The accompanying graph shows the observed all-electric range, in miles, for four popular U.S. market plug-in hybrids, as tested by Popular Mechanics magazine.[132]

A key design parameter of the Chevrolet Volt was a target of 40 miles (64 km) for the all-electric range, selected to keep the battery size small and lower costs, and mainly because research showed that 78% of daily commuters in the U.S. travel 40 mi (64 km) or less. This target range would allow most travel to be accomplished electrically driven and the assumption was made that charging will take place at home overnight. This requirement translated using a lithium-ion battery pack with an energy storage capacity of 16 kWh considering that the battery would be used until the state of charge (SOC) of the battery reached 30%.[133][134]

In October 2014 General Motors reported, based on data collected through its OnStar telematics system since Volt deliveries began, and with over 1 billion miles (1.6 billion km) traveled, that Volt owners drive about 62.5% of their trips in all-electric mode.[135] In May 2016, Ford reported, based on data collected from more than 610 million miles (976 million km) logged by its electrified vehicles through its telematics system, that drivers of these vehicles run an average of 13,500 mi (21,700 km) annually on their vehicles, with about half of those miles operating in all-electric mode. A break down of these figures show an average daily commute of 42 mi (68 km) for Ford Energi plug-in hybrid drivers. Ford notes that with the enhanced electric range of the 2017 model year model, the average Fusion Energi commuter could go the entire day using no gasoline, if the car is fully charged both, before leaving for work and before leaving for home. According to Ford data, currently most customers are likely charging their vehicles only at home.[136]

The 2015 edition of the EPA's annual report "Light-Duty Automotive Technology, Carbon Dioxide Emissions, and Fuel Economy Trends" estimates the following utility factors for 2015 model year plug-in hybrids to represent the percentage of miles that will be driven using electricity by an average driver, whether in electric only or blended modes: 83% for the BMW i3 REx, 66% for the Chevrolet Volt, 45% for the Ford Energi models, 43% for the McLaren P1, 37% for the BMW i8, and 29% for the Toyota Prius PHV.[137] A 2014 analysis conducted by the Idaho National Laboratory using a sample of 21,600 all-electric cars and plug-in hybrids, found that Volt owners traveled on average 9,112 miles in all-electric mode (e-miles) per year, while Leaf owners traveled 9,697 e-miles per year, despite the Volt's shorter all-electric range, about half of the Leaf's.[138]

Between January and August 2014, a period during which US sales of conventional hybrids slowed, US sales of plug-in hybrids grew from 28,241 to 40,748 compared to the same period in 2013. US sales of all-electric vehicles also grew during the same period: from 29,917 vehicles in the January to August 2013 period to 40,349 in January to August 2014.[139]

Comparison to non-plug-in hybrids

Fuel efficiency and petroleum displacement

Main articles: Energy conversion efficiency and Well-to-wheel
See also: Plug-in hybrid car energy efficiency and Fuel efficiency
 
Typical fuel economy label for series plug-in hybrid or extended range electric vehicle
 
Typical fuel economy label for blended or series-parallel plug-in hybrid

Plug-in hybrids have the potential to be even more efficient than conventional hybrids because a more limited use of the PHEV's internal combustion engine may allow the engine to be used at closer to its maximum efficiency. While a Toyota Prius is likely to convert fuel to motive energy on average at about 30% efficiency (well below the engine's 38% peak efficiency), the engine of a PHEV-70 would be likely to operate far more often near its peak efficiency because the batteries can serve the modest power needs at times when the combustion engine would be forced to run well below its peak efficiency.[109] The actual efficiency achieved depends on losses from electricity generation, inversion, battery charging/discharging, the motor controller and motor itself, the way a vehicle is used (its duty cycle), and the opportunities to recharge by connecting to the electrical grid.

Each kilowatt hour of battery capacity in use will displace up to 50 U.S. gallons (190 l; 42 imp gal) of petroleum fuels per year (gasoline or diesel).[140] Also, electricity is multi-sourced and, as a result, it gives the greatest degree of energy resilience.[141]

The actual fuel economy for PHEVs depends on their powertrain's operating modes, the all-electric range, and the amount of driving between charges. If no gasoline is used the miles per gallon gasoline equivalent (MPG-e) depends only on the efficiency of the electric system. The first mass production PHEV available in the U.S. market, the 2011 Chevrolet Volt, with an EPA rated all-electric range of 35 mi (56 km) and an additional gasoline-only extended range of 344 mi (554 km), has an EPA combined city/highway fuel economy of 93 MPG-e in all-electric mode, and 37 mpg‑US (6.4 L/100 km; 44 mpg‑imp) in gasoline-only mode, for an overall combined gas-electric fuel economy rating of 60 mpg‑US (3.9 L/100 km; 72 mpg‑imp) equivalent (MPG-e).[142][143] The EPA also included in the Volt's fuel economy label a table showing fuel economy and electricity consumed for five different scenarios: 30, 45, 60 and 75 mi (121 km) driven between a full charge, and a never charge scenario.[143] According to this table the fuel economy goes up to 168 mpg‑US (1.40 L/100 km; 202 mpg‑imp) equivalent (MPG-e) with 45 mi (72 km) driven between full charges.[142]

For the more comprehensive fuel economy and environment label that will be mandatory in the U.S. beginning in model year 2013, the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) and Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) issued two separate fuel economy labels for plug-in hybrids because of their design complexity, as PHEVS can operate in two or three operating modes: all-electric, blended, and gasoline-only.[144][145] One label is for series hybrid or extended range electric vehicle (like the Chevy Volt), with all-electric and gasoline-only modes; and a second label for blended mode or series-parallel hybrid, that includes a combination of both gasoline and plug-in electric operation; and gasoline only, like a conventional hybrid vehicle.[144][145]

The Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) developed their recommended practice in 1999 for testing and reporting the fuel economy of hybrid vehicles and included language to address PHEVs. An SAE committee is currently working to review procedures for testing and reporting the fuel economy of PHEVs.[146] The Toronto Atmospheric Fund tested ten retrofitted plug-in hybrid vehicles that achieved an average of 5.8 litres per 100 kilometre or 40.6 miles per gallon over six months in 2008, which was considered below the technology's potential.[147]

In real world testing using normal drivers, some Prius PHEV conversions may not achieve much better fuel economy than HEVs. For example, a plug-in Prius fleet, each with a 30 miles (48 km) all-electric range, averaged only 51 mpg‑US (4.6 L/100 km; 61 mpg‑imp) in a 17,000-mile (27,000 km) test in Seattle,[148] and similar results with the same kind of conversion battery models at Google's RechargeIT initiative. Moreover, the additional battery pack costs US$10,000–US$11,000.[149][150]

Operating costs

A study published in 2014 by researchers from Lamar University, Iowa State University and Oak Ridge National Laboratory compared the operating costs of PHEVs of various electric ranges (10, 20, 30, and 40 miles) with conventional gasoline vehicles and non-plugin hybrid-electric vehicles (HEVs) for different payback periods, considering different charging infrastructure deployment levels and gasoline prices. The study concluded that:[151]

  • PHEVs save around 60% or 40% in energy costs, compared with conventional gasoline vehicles and HEVs, respectively. However, for drivers with significant daily vehicle miles traveled (DVMT), hybrid vehicles may be even a better choice than plug-in hybrids with a range of 40 mi (64 km), particularly when there is a lack of public charging infrastructure.
  • The incremental battery cost of large-battery plug-in hybrids is difficult to justify based on the incremental savings of PHEVs' operating costs unless a subsidy is offered for large-battery PHEVs.
  • When the price of gasoline increases from US$4 per gallon to US$5 per gallon, the number of drivers who benefit from a larger battery increases significantly. If the gas price is US$3, a plug-in hybrid with a range of 10 mi (16 km) is the least costly option even if the battery cost is $200/kWh.
  • Although quick chargers can reduce charging time, they contribute little to energy cost savings for PHEVs, as opposed to Level-2 chargers.

Cost of batteries

Main article: Electric vehicle battery

Disadvantages of PHEVs include the additional cost, weight and size of a larger battery pack. According to a 2010 study by the National Research Council, the cost of a lithium-ion battery pack is about US$1,700/kW·h of usable energy, and considering that a PHEV-10 requires about 2.0 kW·h and a PHEV-40 about 8 kW·h, the estimated manufacturer cost of the battery pack for a PHEV-10 is around US$3,000 and it goes up to US$14,000 for a PHEV-40.[152][153] According to the same study, even though costs are expected to decline by 35% by 2020, market penetration is expected to be slow and therefore PHEVs are not expected to significantly impact oil consumption or carbon emissions before 2030, unless a fundamental breakthrough in battery technologies occurs.[152][153][154]

Cost comparison between a PHEV-10 and a PHEV-40[152][154]
(prices for 2010)
Plug-in
type by
EV range		 Similar
production
model		 Type of
drivetrain		 Manufacturer
additional cost
compared to conventional
non-hybrid mid-size		 Estimated cost
of battery pack		 Cost of
electric system
upgrade at home		 Expected
gasoline
savings
compared
to a HEV		 Annual
gasoline
savings
compared
to a HEV(2)
PHEV-10
16 km
 Prius Plug-in(1)
Parallel
US$6,300
US$3,300
More than US$1,000
20%
260 L (70 US gal; 58 imp gal)
PHEV-40
64 km
Chevy Volt
Series
US$18,100
US$14,000
More than US$1,000
55%
760 L (200 US gal; 170 imp gal)
Notes: (1) Considers the HEV technology used in the Toyota Prius with a larger battery pack. The Prius Plug-in estimated all-electric range is 23 km (14.5 miles)[155]
(2) Assuming 24,000 km (15,000 miles) per year.

According to the 2010 NRC study, although a mile driven on electricity is cheaper than one driven on gasoline, lifetime fuel savings are not enough to offset plug-ins' high upfront costs, and it will take decades before the break-even point is achieved.[154] Furthermore, hundreds of billions of dollars in government subsidies and incentives are likely to be required to achieve rapid plug-in market penetration in the U.S.[153][154]

A 2013 study by the American Council for an Energy-Efficient Economy reported that battery costs came down from US$1,300 per kilowatt hour in 2007 to US$500 per kilowatt hour in 2012. The U.S. Department of Energy has set cost targets for its sponsored battery research of US$300 per kilowatt hour in 2015 and US$125 per kilowatt hour by 2022. Cost reductions through advances in battery technology and higher production volumes will allow plug-in electric vehicles to be more competitive with conventional internal combustion engine vehicles.[156]

A study published in 2011 by the Belfer Center, Harvard University, found that the gasoline costs savings of PHEVs over the vehicles' lifetimes do not offset their higher purchase prices. This finding was estimated comparing their lifetime net present value at 2010 purchase and operating costs for the U.S. market, and assuming no government subidies.[157][158] According to the study estimates, a PHEV-40 is US$5,377 more expensive than a conventional internal combustion engine, while a battery electric vehicle (BEV) is US$4,819 more expensive. The study also examined how this balance will change over the next 10 to 20 years, assuming that battery costs will decrease while gasoline prices increase. Under the future scenarios considered, the study found that BEVs will be significantly less expensive than conventional cars (US$1,155 to US$7,181 cheaper), while PHEVs, will be more expensive than BEVs in almost all comparison scenarios, and only less expensive than conventional cars in a scenario with very low battery costs and high gasoline prices. BEVs are simpler to build and do not use liquid fuel, while PHEVs have more complicated powertrains and still have gasoline-powered engines.[157]

Emissions shifted to electric plants

Increased pollution is expected to occur in some areas with the adoption of PHEVs, but most areas will experience a decrease.[159] A study by the ACEEE predicts that widespread PHEV use in heavily coal-dependent areas would result in an increase in local net sulfur dioxide and mercury emissions, given emissions levels from most coal plants currently supplying power to the grid.[160] Although clean coal technologies could create power plants which supply grid power from coal without emitting significant amounts of such pollutants, the higher cost of the application of these technologies may increase the price of coal-generated electricity. The net effect on pollution is dependent on the fuel source of the electrical grid (fossil or renewable, for example) and the pollution profile of the power plants themselves. Identifying, regulating and upgrading single point pollution source such as a power plant—or replacing a plant altogether—may also be more practical. From a human health perspective, shifting pollution away from large urban areas may be considered a significant advantage.[161]

According to a 2009 study by The National Academy of Science, "Electric vehicles and grid-dependent (plug-in) hybrid vehicles showed somewhat higher nonclimate damages than many other technologies."[162] Efficiency of plug-in hybrids is also impacted by the overall efficiency of electric power transmission. Transmission and distribution losses in the USA were estimated at 7.2% in 1995[163] and 6.5% in 2007.[164] By life cycle analysis of air pollution emissions, natural gas vehicles are currently the lowest emitter[citation needed].

Tiered rate structure for electric bills

The additional electrical consumption to recharge the plug-in vehicles could push many households in areas that do not have off-peak tariffs into the higher priced tier and negate financial benefits.[165] Customers under such tariffs could see significant savings by being careful about when the vehicle was charged, for example, by using a timer to restrict charging to off-peak hours. Thus, an accurate comparison of the benefit requires each household to evaluate its current electrical usage tier and tariffs weighed against the cost of gasoline and the actual observed operational cost of electric mode vehicle operation.

Greenhouse gas emissions

See also: Greenhouse gas emissions in plug-in electric vehicles

The effect of PHEVs on greenhouse emissions is complex. Plug-in hybrid vehicles operating on all-electric mode do not emit harmful tailpipe pollutants from the onboard source of power. The clean air benefit is usually local because depending on the source of the electricity used to recharge the batteries, air pollutant emissions are shifted to the location of the generation plants.[166] In the same way, PHEVs do not emit greenhouse gases from the onboard source of power, but from the point of view of a well-to-wheel assessment, the extent of the benefit also depends on the fuel and technology used for electricity generation. From the perspective of a full life cycle analysis, the electricity used to recharge the batteries must be generated from zero-emission sources such as renewable (e.g. wind power, solar energy or hydroelectricity) or nuclear power for PEVs to have almost none or zero well-to-wheel emissions.[166][167] On the other hand, when PEVs are recharged from coal-fired plants, they usually produce slightly more greenhouse gas emissions than internal combustion engine vehicles.[166] In the case of plug-in hybrid electric vehicle when operating in hybrid mode with assistance of the internal combustion engine, tailpipe and greenhouse emissions are lower in comparison to conventional cars because of their higher fuel economy.[167]

Life cycle energy and emissions assessments

Argonne

In 2009, researchers at Argonne National Laboratory adapted their GREET model to conduct a full well-to-wheels (WTW) analysis of energy use and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions of plug-in hybrid electric vehicles for several scenarios, considering different on-board fuels and different sources of electricity generation for recharging the vehicle batteries. Three US regions were selected for the analysis, California, New York, and Illinois, as these regions include major metropolitan areas with significant variations in their energy generation mixes. The full cycle analysis results were also reported for the US generation mix and renewable electricity to examine cases of average and clean mixes, respectively[168] This 2009 study showed a wide spread of petroleum use and GHG emissions among the different fuel production technologies and grid generation mixes. The following table summarizes the main results:[168]

PHEV well-to-wheels Petroleum energy use and greenhouse gas emissions
for an all-electric range between 10 and 40 miles (16 and 64 km) with different on-board fuels.(1)
(as a % relative to an internal combustion engine vehicle that uses fossil fuel gasoline)
Analysis Reformulated gasoline
and Ultra-low sulfur diesel		 E85 fuel from
corn and switchgrass		 Fuel cell
hydrogen
Petroleum energy use reduction
40–60%
70–90%
more than 90%
GHG emissions reduction(2)
30–60%
40–80%
10–100%
Source: Center for Transportation Research, Argonne National Laboratory (2009). See Table 1.[168] Notes: (1) Simulations for year 2020
with PHEV model year 2015. (2) No direct or indirect land use changes included in the WTW analysis for bio-mass fuel feedstocks.[169][170]

The Argonne study found that PHEVs offered reductions in petroleum energy use as compared with regular hybrid electric vehicles. More petroleum energy savings and also more GHG emissions reductions were realized as the all-electric range increased, except when electricity used to recharge was dominated by coal or oil-fired power generation. As expected, electricity from renewable sources realized the largest reductions in petroleum energy use and GHG emissions for all PHEVs as the all-electric range increased. The study also concluded that plug-in vehicles that employ biomass-based fuels (biomass-E85 and -hydrogen) may not realize GHG emissions benefits over regular hybrids if power generation is dominated by fossil sources.[168]

Oak Ridge

A 2008 study by researchers at Oak Ridge National Laboratory analyzed oil use and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions of plug-in hybrids relative to hybrid electric vehicles under several scenarios for years 2020 and 2030.[171] The study considered the mix of power sources for 13 U.S. regions that would be used during recharging of vehicles, generally a combination of coal, natural gas and nuclear energy, and to a lesser extent renewable energy.[171][172] A 2010 study conducted at Argonne National Laboratory reached similar findings, concluding that PHEVs will reduce oil consumption but could produce very different greenhouse gas emissions for each region depending on the energy mix used to generate the electricity to recharge the plug-in hybrids.[173][174]

Environmental Protection Agency

In October 2014, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency published the 2014 edition of its annual report Light-Duty Automotive Technology, Carbon Dioxide Emissions, and Fuel Economy Trends. For the first time, the report presents an analysis of the impact of alternative fuel vehicles, with emphasis in plug-in electric vehicles because as their market share is approaching 1%, PEVs began to have a measurable impact on the U.S. overall new vehicle fuel economy and CO2 emissions.[175][176]

EPA's report included the analysis of 12 all-electric passengers cars and 10 plug-in hybrids available in the market as model year 2014. For purposes of an accurate estimation of emissions, the analysis took into consideration the differences in operation between those PHEVs like the Chevrolet Volt that can operate in all-electric mode without using gasoline, and those that operate in a blended mode like the Toyota Prius PHV, which uses both energy stored in the battery and energy from the gasoline tank to propel the vehicle, but that can deliver substantial all-electric driving in blended mode. In addition, since the all-electric range of plug-in hybrids depends on the size of the battery pack, the analysis introduced a utility factor as a projection, on average, of the percentage of miles that will be driven using electricity (in electric only and blended modes) by an average driver. The following table shows the overall EV/hybrid fuel economy expressed in terms of miles per gallon gasoline equivalent (mpg-e) and the utility factor for the ten MY2014 plug-in hybrids available in the U.S. market. The study used the utility factor (since in pure EV mode there are no tailpipe emissions) and the EPA best estimate of the CO2 tailpipe emissions produced by these vehicles in real world city and highway operation based on the EPA 5-cycle label methodology, using a weighted 55% city/45% highway driving. The results are shown in the following table.[175]

In addition, the EPA accounted for the upstream CO2 emissions associated with the production and distribution of electricity required to charge the PHEVs. Since electricity production in the United States varies significantly from region to region, the EPA considered three scenarios/ranges with the low end of the range corresponding to the California powerplant emissions factor, the middle of the range represented by the national average powerplant emissions factor, and the upper end of the range corresponding to the powerplant emissions factor for the Rockies. The EPA estimates that the electricity GHG emission factors for various regions of the country vary from 346 g CO2/kW-hr in California to 986 g CO2/kW-hr in the Rockies, with a national average of 648 g CO2/kW-hr.[175] The following table shows the tailpipe emissions and the combined tailpipe and upstream emissions for each of the 10 MY 2014 PHEVs available in the U.S. market.

Comparison of tailpipe and upstream CO2 emissions(1) estimated by EPA
for the MY 2014 plug-in hybrids available in the U.S. market as of September 2014[175]
Vehicle EPA rating
combined
EV/hybrid
(mpg-e)		 Utility
factor(2)
(share EV
miles)		 Tailpipe CO2
(g/mi)		 Tailpipe + Total Upstream CO2
Low
(g/mi)		 Avg
(g/mi)		 High
(g/mi)
BMW i3 REx(3) 88 0.83 40 134 207 288
Chevrolet Volt 62 0.66 81 180 249 326
Cadillac ELR 54 0.65 91 206 286 377
Ford C-Max Energi 51 0.45 129 219 269 326
Ford Fusion Energi 51 0.45 129 219 269 326
Honda Accord Plug-in Hybrid 57 0.33 130 196 225 257
Toyota Prius Plug-in Hybrid 58 0.29 133 195 221 249
BMW i8 37 0.37 198 303 351 404
Porsche Panamera S E-Hybrid 31 0.39 206 328 389 457
McLaren P1 17 0.43 463 617 650 687
Average gasoline car 24.2 0 367 400 400 400
Notes: (1) Based on 45% highway and 55% city driving. (2) The utility factor represents, on average, the percentage of miles that will be driven using electricity (in electric only and blended modes) by an average driver. (3) The EPA classifies the i3 REx as a series plug-in hybrid[175][177]

National Bureau of Economic Research

Most emission analysis use average emissions rates across regions instead of marginal generation at different times of the day. The former approach does not take into account the generation mix within interconnected electricity markets and shifting load profiles throughout the day.[178][179] An analysis by three economist affiliated with the National Bureau of Economic Research (NBER), published in November 2014, developed a methodology to estimate marginal emissions of electricity demand that vary by location and time of day across the United States. The study used emissions and consumption data for 2007 through 2009, and used the specifications for the Chevrolet Volt (all-electric range of 35 mi (56 km)). The analysis found that marginal emission rates are more than three times as large in the Upper Midwest compared to the Western U.S., and within regions, rates for some hours of the day are more than twice those for others.[179] Applying the results of the marginal analysis to plug-in electric vehicles, the NBER researchers found that the emissions of charging PEVs vary by region and hours of the day. In some regions, such as the Western U.S. and Texas, CO2 emissions per mile from driving PEVs are less than those from driving a hybrid car. However, in other regions, such as the Upper Midwest, charging during the recommended hours of midnight to 4 a.m. implies that PEVs generate more emissions per mile than the average car currently on the road. The results show a fundamental tension between electricity load management and environmental goals as the hours when electricity is the least expensive to produce tend to be the hours with the greatest emissions. This occurs because coal-fired units, which have higher emission rates, are most commonly used to meet base-level and off-peak electricity demand; while natural gas units, which have relatively low emissions rates, are often brought online to meet peak demand. This pattern of fuel shifting explains why emission rates tend to be higher at night and lower during periods of peak demand in the morning and evening.[179]

Production and sales

Main article: list of modern production plug-in electric vehicles

Production models

 
The Chevrolet Volt was the world's top selling plug-in hybrid until September 2018.[180]

Since 2008, plug-in hybrids have been commercially available from both specialty manufacturers and from mainstream producers of internal combustion engine vehicles. The F3DM, released in China in December 2008, was the first production plug-in hybrid sold in the world.[51][52][53] The Chevrolet Volt, launched in the U.S. in December 2010, was the first mass-production plug-in hybrid by a major carmaker.[5]

Sales and main markets

There were 1.2 million plug-in hybrid cars on the world roads at the end of 2017.[181] The stock of plug-in hybrids increased to 1.8 million in 2018, out of a global stock of about 5.1 million plug-in electric passenger cars.[182][181] As of December 2017, the United States ranked as the world's largest plug-in hybrid car market with a stock of 360,510 units, followed by China with 276,580 vehicles, Japan with 100,860 units, the Netherlands with 98,220, and the UK with 88,660.[181]

Global sales of plug-in hybrids grew from over 300 units in 2010 to almost 9,000 in 2011, jumped to over 60,000 in 2012, and reached almost 222,000 in 2015.[85] As of December 2015, the United States was the world's largest plug-in hybrid car market with a stock of 193,770 units.[85] About 279,000 light-duty plug-in hybrids were sold in 2016,[183] raising the global stock to almost 800,000 highway legal plug-in hybrid electric cars at the end of 2016.[184][185] A total of 398,210 plug-in hybrid cars were sold in 2017, with China as the top selling country with 111,000 units, and the global stock of plug-in hybrids passed the one million unit milestone by the end of 2017.[181]

 
Evolution of the ratio between global sales of BEVs and PHEVs between 2011 and 2019[182][186][187]

Global sales of plug-in electric vehicles have been shifting for several years towards fully electric battery cars. The global ratio between all-electrics (BEVs) and plug-in hybrids (PHEVs) went from 56:44 in 2012, to 60:40 in 2015, to 66:34 in 2017, and rose to 69:31 in 2018.[182][186]

By country

The Netherlands, Sweden, the UK, and the United States have the largest shares of plug-in hybrid sales as percentage of total plug-in electric passenger vehicle sales. The Netherlands has the world's largest share of plug-in hybrids among its plug-in electric passenger car stock, with 86,162 plug-in hybrids registered at the end of October 2016, out of 99,945 plug-in electric cars and vans, representing 86.2% of the country's stock of light-duty plug-in electric vehicles.[188]

Sweden ranks next with 16,978 plug-in hybrid cars sold between 2011 and August 2016, representing 71.7% of total plug-in electric passenger car sales registrations.[189][190][191][192][193] Plug-in hybrid registrations in the UK between up to August 2016 totaled 45,130 units representing 61.6% of total plug-in car registrations since 2011.[194] In the United States, plug-in hybrids represent 47.2% of the 506,450 plug-in electric cars sold between 2008 and August 2016.[195]

In November 2013 the Netherlands became the first country where a plug-in hybrid topped the monthly ranking of new car sales. During November sales were led by the Mitsubishi Outlander P-HEV with 2,736 units, capturing a market share of 6.8% of new passenger cars sold that month.[196] Again in December 2013 the Outlander P-HEV ranked as the top selling new car in the country with 4,976 units, representing a 12.6% market share of new car sales.[197][198] These record sales allowed the Netherlands to become the second country, after Norway, where plug-in electric cars have topped the monthly ranking of new car sales.[196][199] As of December 2013, the Netherlands was the country with highest plug-in hybrid market concentration, with 1.45 vehicles registered per 1,000 people.[200]

The following table presents the top ranking countries according to its plug-in hybrid segment market share of total new car sales in 2013:

Top 10 countries by plug-in hybrid market share
of new car sales in 2013[201]
Ranking Country PHEV
market
share(1)
(%) 		Ranking Country PHEV
market
share(1)
(%)
1   Netherlands 4.72% 6   Iceland 0.25%
2   Sweden 0.41% 7   Finland 0.13%
3   Japan 0.40% 8   United Kingdom 0.05%
4   Norway 0.34% 9   France 0.05%
5   United States 0.31% 10   Switzerland 0.05%
Note: (1) Market share of highway-capable plug-in hybrids as percentage of total new car sales in the country in 2013.

By model

According to JATO Dynamics, since December 2018 the Mitsubishi Outlander P-HEV is the world's all-time best selling plug-in hybrid.[1] Since inception, 290,000 units have been sold worldwide through September 2021.[2] Europe is the Outlander P-HEV leading market with 126,617 units sold through January 2019,[202] followed by Japan 42,451 units through March 2018.[203] European sales are led by the UK with 50,000 units by April 2020,[204] followed by the Netherlands with 25,489 units, and Norway with 14,196, both through March 2018.[203]

Combined global sales of the Chevrolet Volt and its variants totaled about 186,000 units by the end of 2018,[205][206][207][208][209] including about 10,000 Opel/Vauxhall Amperas sold in Europe through June 2016,[210] and over 4,300 Buick Velite 5s sold only in China (rebadged second generation Volt) through December 2018.[209] Volt sales are led by the United States with 152,144 units delivered through December 2018,[205] followed by Canada with 17,311 units through November 2018.[207][208] Until September 2018, the Chevrolet Volt was the world's top selling plug-in hybrid.[180]

Ranking third is the Toyota Prius Plug-in Hybrid (Toyota Prius Prime) with about 174,600 units sold worldwide of both generations through December 2018.[182][211] The United States is the leading market with over 93,000 units delivered through December 2018.[205] Japan ranks next with about 61,200 units through December 2018,[212][211] followed by Europe with almost 14,800 units through June 2018.[211][213]

The following table presents plug-in hybrid models with cumulative global sales of around or more than 100,000 units since the introduction of the first modern production plug-in hybrid car, the BYD F3DM, in 2008 up until December 2020:

Top selling highway legal plug-in hybrid electric cars
between 2008 and 2020
Model Market
launch		 Global sales Cumulative
sales through		 Sources
Since inception 2018
Mitsubishi Outlander P-HEV Jan 2013 290,000 - Sep 2021 [2]
Chevrolet Volt(1) Dec 2010 ~186,000 25,108 Dec 2018 [205][206][207][209]
Toyota Prius PHV Jan 2012 174,586 45,686 Dec 2018 [182][211]
BYD Qin(2) Dec 2013 136,818 47,425 Dec 2018 [6][214][215]
BYD Tang(2) Jun 2015 101,518 37,146 Dec 2018 [214][215][216][217]
Notes: (1) In addition to the Volt model sold in North America, combined sales of the Volt/Ampera family includes
about 10,000 Vauxhall/Opel Ampera and 1,750 Volts sold in Europe,[218][84] 246 Holden Volt sold in Australia,[219]
and 4,317 units of the Buick Velite 5 sold only in China (rebadged second generation Volt).[209]
(2) Sales in China only. BYD Qin total does not include sales of the all-electric variant (Qin EV300).

Government support and public deployment

Subsidies and economic incentives

Main article: Government incentives for plug-in electric vehicles

Several countries have established grants and tax credits for the purchase of new plug-in electric vehicles (PEVs) including plug-in hybrid electric vehicles, and usually the economic incentive depends on battery size. The U.S. offers a federal income tax credit up to US$7,500,[220] and several states have additional incentives.[221] The UK offers a Plug-in Car Grant up to a maximum of £5,000 (US$7,600).[222][223] As of April 2011, 15 of the 27 European Union member states provide tax incentives for electrically chargeable vehicles, which includes all Western European countries plus the Czech Republic and Romania. Also 17 countries levy carbon dioxide related taxes on passenger cars as a disincentive. The incentives consist of tax reductions and exemptions, as well as of bonus payments for buyers of all-electric and plug-in hybrid vehicles, hybrid vehicles, and some alternative fuel vehicles.[224][225]

Other government support

United States
 
President Bush with A123Systems CEO on the White House South Lawn examining a Toyota Prius converted to plug-in hybrid with Hymotion technology

Incentives for the development of PHEVs are included in the Energy Independence and Security Act of 2007.[226] The Energy Improvement and Extension Act of 2008, signed into law on October 3, 2008, grants a tax credits for the purchase of PHEVs. President Barack Obama's New Energy for America calls for deployment of 1 million plug-in hybrid vehicles by 2015,[227] and on March 19, 2009, he announced programs directing $2.4 billion to electric vehicle development.[228]

The American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009[229] modifies the tax credits, including a new one for plug-in electric drive conversion kits and for 2 or 3 wheel vehicles.[230] The ultimate total included in the Act that is going to PHEVs is over $6 billion.[231]

In March 2009, as part of the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act, the US Department of Energy announced the release of two competitive solicitations for up to $2 billion in federal funding for competitively awarded cost-shared agreements for manufacturing of advanced batteries and related drive components as well as up to $400 million for transportation electrification demonstration and deployment projects. This announcement will also help meet the President Barack Obama's goal of putting one million plug-in hybrid vehicles on the road by 2015.[232]

 
President Barack Obama behind the wheel of a Chevy Volt during his tour of the General Motors Auto Plant in Hamtramck, Michigan

Public deployments also include:

European Union

Electrification of transport (electromobility) is a priority in the European Union Research Programme. It also figures prominently in the European Economic Recovery Plan presented November 2008, in the frame of the Green Car Initiative. DG TREN will support a large European "electromobility" project on electric vehicles and related infrastructure with a total budget of around €50 million as part of the Green Car Initiative.[240]

Supportive organizations

Organizations that support plug-in hybrids include the World Wide Fund for Nature,[241] National Wildlife Federation,[242] and CalCars.[243]

Other supportive organizations are Plug In America, the Alliance for Climate Protection, Friends of the Earth, the Rainforest Action Network, Rocky Mountain Institute (Project Get Ready),[244] the San Francisco Bay Area Council,[236] the Apollo Alliance, the Set America Free Coalition, the Silicon Valley Leadership Group, and the Plug-in Hybrid Electric School Bus Project.[245]

FPL and Duke Energy has said that by 2020 all new purchases of fleet vehicles will be plug-in hybrid or all-electric.[246]

See also

References

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Further reading

  • American Council for an Energy-Efficient Economy, Plug-in Electric Vehicles: Challenges and Opportunities, June 2013
  • Argonne National Laboratory, Cradle-to-Grave Lifecycle Analysis of U.S. Light-Duty Vehicle-Fuel Pathways: A Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Economic Assessment of Current (2015) and Future (2025–2030) Technologies (includes estimated cost of avoided GHG emissions from BEVs and PHEVs), June 2016.
  • Boschert, Sherry (2007). Plug-in Hybrids: The Cars that will Recharge America (1st ed.). New Society Publishers. ISBN 9780865715714. OCLC 74524214.
  • International Council on Clean Transportation, Driving Electrification – A Global Comparison of Fiscal Incentive Policy for Electric Vehicles, May 2014
  • International Energy Agency (IEA) and Electric Vehicles Initiative (April 2013),
  • International Energy Agency (IEA) – IA-HEV (May 2013), Hybrid and Electric Vehicles – The Electric Drive Gains Traction
  • Lee, Henry, and Grant Lovellette (2011).Will Electric Cars Transform the U.S. Vehicle Market? Belfer Center, Harvard University
  • Nevres, Cefo (2009). Two Cents per Mile: Will President Obama Make it Happen With the Stroke of a Pen?. Nevlin. ISBN 9780615293912. OCLC 463395305.
  • Sandalow, David B., ed. (2009). Plug-In Electric Vehicles: What Role for Washington? (1st. ed.). The Brookings Institution. ISBN 9780815703051. OCLC 895434772.
  • Michalek, Jeremy (February 2015). "CMU team finds regional temperature differences have significant impact on EV efficiency, range and emissions". Green Car Congress.
  • Romm, Joseph J. and Fox-Penne, Peter. (2007). . Progressive Policy Institute.
  • U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Application of Life-Cycle Assessment to Nanoscale Technology: Lithium-ion Batteries for Electric Vehicles, April 2013.
  • US Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy
    • Plug-In Hybrid Electric Vehicle Value Proposition Study Final Report, July 2010.
    • Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicles.
    • Alternative Fuels and Advanced Vehicles Data Center (AFDC), including list of books and publications.
  • US National Highway Traffic Safety Administration
    • Interim Guidance Electric and Hybrid Electric Vehicles Equipped with High Voltage Batteries – Vehicle Owner/General Public
    • Interim Guidance Electric and Hybrid Electric Vehicles Equipped with High Voltage Batteries – Law Enforcement/Emergency Medical Services/Fire Department

External links

 
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Plug-in electric hybrid-powered vehicles.
 
Wikiquote has quotations related to Plug-in hybrid.
  • Plug In America – Non-profit advocacy group.
  • eGallon Calculator: Compare the costs of driving with electricity. U.S. Department of Energy.

April 18, 2023
plug, hybrid, this, article, about, hybrid, vehicles, whose, battery, externally, charged, vehicles, that, propelled, only, electric, motors, using, energy, stored, rechargeable, batteries, battery, electric, vehicle, more, general, category, vehicles, with, p. This article is about hybrid vehicles whose battery may be externally charged For vehicles that are propelled only by electric motors using energy stored in rechargeable batteries see battery electric vehicle For the more general category of vehicles with plug in rechargeable capabilities see plug in electric vehicle A plug in hybrid electric vehicle PHEV is a hybrid electric vehicle whose battery pack can be recharged by plugging a charging cable into an external electric power source in addition to internally by its on board internal combustion engine powered generator Most PHEVs are passenger cars but there are also PHEV versions of commercial vehicles and vans utility trucks buses trains motorcycles mopeds and even military vehicles The Mitsubishi Outlander PHEV is the world s all time best selling plug in hybrid 1 Cumulative global sales reached 290 000 units in September 2021 2 Similar to all electric vehicles BEVs PHEVs displace greenhouse gas emissions from the car tailpipe exhaust to the power station generators powering the electricity grid These centralized generators may be of renewable energy e g solar wind or hydroelectric and largely emission free or have an overall lower emission intensity than individual internal combustion engines Compared to conventional hybrid electric vehicles HEVs PHEVs have a larger battery pack that can be charged from the power grid which is also more efficient and can cost less than using only the on board generator and also often have a more powerful electric output capable of longer and more frequent EV mode driving helping to reduce operating costs A PHEV s battery pack is smaller than all electric vehicles for the same vehicle weight due to the necessity to still accommodate its combustion engine and hybrid drivetrain but has the auxiliary option of switching back to using its gasoline diesel engine like a conventional HEV if the battery runs low alleviating range anxiety especially for places that lack sufficient charging infrastructure Mass produced PHEVs have been available to the public in China and the United States since 2010 3 4 5 with the introduction of the Chevrolet Volt which was the best selling PHEV until the end of production in 2019 citation needed By the end of 2017 there were over 40 models of highway legal series production PHEVs for retail sales and are available mainly in China Japan the United States Canada and Western Europe The top selling models are the Mitsubishi Outlander P HEV the Chevrolet Volt family and the Toyota Prius PHV 6 As of December 2019 update the global stock of PHEVs totaled 2 4 million units representing one third of the stock of plug in electric passenger cars on the world s roads 7 As of December 2019 update China had the world s largest stock of PHEVs with 767 900 units followed by the United States with 567 740 and the United Kingdom with 159 910 7 Contents 1 Terminology 2 History 2 1 Invention and early interest 2 2 Revival of interest 2 3 Series production 3 Technology 3 1 Powertrains 3 2 Charging systems 3 3 Modes of operation 3 4 Electric power storage 3 5 Conversions of production vehicles 4 Target market 5 Comparison to non plug in hybrids 5 1 Fuel efficiency and petroleum displacement 5 2 Operating costs 5 3 Cost of batteries 5 4 Emissions shifted to electric plants 5 5 Tiered rate structure for electric bills 6 Greenhouse gas emissions 7 Life cycle energy and emissions assessments 7 1 Argonne 7 2 Oak Ridge 7 3 Environmental Protection Agency 7 4 National Bureau of Economic Research 8 Production and sales 8 1 Production models 8 2 Sales and main markets 8 2 1 By country 8 2 2 By model 8 3 Government support and public deployment 8 3 1 Subsidies and economic incentives 8 3 2 Other government support 8 4 Supportive organizations 9 See also 10 References 11 Further reading 12 External linksTerminology EditA plug in hybrid s all electric range is designated by PHEV miles or PHEV kilometers km in which the number represents the distance the vehicle can travel on battery power alone For example a PHEV 20 can travel 32 km 20 miles without using its combustion engine so it may also be designated as a PHEV32km 8 For these cars to be battery operated they go through charging processes that use different currents These currents are known as Alternating Current AC used for on board chargers and Direct Current DC used for external charging 9 Other popular terms sometimes used for plug in hybrids are grid connected hybrids Gas Optional Hybrid Electric Vehicle GO HEV or simply gas optional hybrids 10 11 12 GM calls its Chevrolet Volt series plug in hybrid an Extended Range Electric Vehicle 13 14 History EditFurther information History of plug in hybrids The Lohner Porsche Mixte Hybrid was the first gasoline electric plug in hybrid automobile Invention and early interest Edit The Lohner Porsche Mixte Hybrid produced as early as 1899 was the first hybrid electric car 15 16 Early hybrids could be charged from an external source before operation However the term plug in hybrid has come to mean a hybrid vehicle that can be charged from a standard electrical wall socket The term plug in hybrid electric vehicle was coined by UC Davis Professor Andrew Frank 17 who has been called the father of the modern plug in hybrid 18 19 20 The July 1969 issue of Popular Science featured an article on the General Motors XP 883 plug in hybrid The concept commuter vehicle housed six 12 volt lead acid batteries in the trunk area and a transverse mounted DC electric motor turning a front wheel drive The car could be plugged into a standard North American 120 volt AC outlet for recharging 21 Revival of interest Edit Lithium ion battery pack with cover removed in a CalCars PRIUS plug in hybrid converted Toyota Prius converted by EnergyCS In 2003 Renault began selling the Elect road a plug in series hybrid version of their popular Kangoo in Europe In addition to its engine it could be plugged into a standard outlet and recharged to 95 range in about 4 hours 22 After selling about 500 vehicles primarily in France Norway and the UK the Elect road was redesigned in 2007 23 With the availability of hybrid vehicles and the rising gas prices in the United States starting around 2004 interest in plug in hybrids increased 24 Some plug in hybrids were conversions of existing hybrids for example the 2004 CalCars conversion of a Prius to add lead acid batteries and a range of up to 15 km 9 mi using only electric power 25 In 2006 both Toyota and General Motors announced plans for plug in hybrids 26 27 GM s Saturn Vue project was cancelled but the Toyota plug in was certified for road use in Japan in 2007 28 In 2007 Quantum Technologies and Fisker Coachbuild LLC announced the launch of a joint venture in Fisker Automotive 29 Fisker intended to build a US 80 000 luxury PHEV 50 the Fisker Karma initially scheduled for late 2009 30 In 2007 Aptera Motors announced their Typ 1 two seater However the company folded in December 2011 31 In 2007 Chinese car manufacturer BYD Auto owned by China s largest mobile phone battery maker announced it would be introducing a production PHEV 60 sedan in China in the second half of 2008 BYD exhibited it in January 2008 at the North American International Auto Show in Detroit Based on BYD s midsize F6 sedan it uses lithium iron phosphate LiFeP04 based batteries instead of lithium ion and can be recharged to 70 of capacity in 10 minutes 32 Three plug in converted Toyota Prius recharging at San Francisco City Hall public charging station In 2007 Ford delivered the first Ford Escape Plug in Hybrid of a fleet of 20 demonstration PHEVs to Southern California Edison 33 As part of this demonstration program Ford also developed the first flexible fuel plug in hybrid SUV which was delivered in June 2008 34 This demonstration fleet of plug ins has been in field testing with utility company fleets in the U S and Canada 35 and during the first two years since the program began the fleet has logged more than 75 000 miles 36 In August 2009 Ford delivered the first Escape Plug in equipped with intelligent vehicle to grid V2G communications and control system technology and Ford plans to equip all 21 plug in hybrid Escapes with the vehicle to grid communications technology 36 Sales of the Escape PHEV were scheduled for 2012 35 On January 14 2008 Toyota announced they would start sales of lithium ion battery PHEVs by 2010 37 38 but later in the year Toyota indicated they would be offered to commercial fleets in 2009 39 On March 27 the California Air Resources Board CARB modified their regulations requiring automobile manufacturers to produce 58 000 plug in hybrids during 2012 through 2014 40 This requirement is an asked for alternative to an earlier mandate to produce 25 000 pure zero emissions vehicles reducing that requirement to 5 000 41 On June 26 Volkswagen announced that they would be introducing production plug ins based on the Golf compact Volkswagen uses the term TwinDrive to denote a PHEV 42 In September Mazda was reported to be planning PHEVs 43 On September 23 Chrysler announced that they had prototyped a plug in Jeep Wrangler and a Chrysler Town and Country mini van both PHEV 40s with series powertrains and an all electric Dodge sports car and said that one of the three vehicles would go into production 44 45 On October 3 the U S enacted the Energy Improvement and Extension Act of 2008 The legislation provided tax credits for the purchase of plug in electric vehicles of battery capacity over 4 kilowatt hours 46 47 The federal tax credits were extended and modified by the American Clean Energy and Security Act of 2009 but now the battery capacity must be over 5 kWh and the credit phases out after the automaker has sold at least 200 000 vehicles in the U S 48 Series production Edit Launched in China in December 2008 the BYD F3DM became the world s first mass produced plug in hybrid automobile 49 The BYD Qin released in China in December 2013 replaced the F3DM 50 On December 15 2008 BYD Auto began selling its F3DM in China becoming the first production plug in hybrid sold in the world though initially was available only for corporate and government customers 51 52 53 Sales to the general public began in Shenzhen in March 2010 3 4 but because the F3DM nearly doubles the price of cars that run on conventional fuel BYD expects subsidies from the local government to make the plug in affordable to personal buyers 3 Toyota tested 600 pre production Prius Plug ins in Europe and North America in 2009 and 2010 54 55 Volvo Cars built two demonstration versions of Volvo V70 Plug in Hybrids in 2009 but did not proceed with production The V60 plug in hybrid was released in 2011 and was available for sale In October 2010 Lotus Engineering unveiled the Lotus CityCar a plug in series hybrid concept car designed for flex fuel operation on ethanol or methanol as well as regular gasoline 56 57 The lithium battery pack provides an all electric range of 60 kilometres 37 mi and the 1 2 liter flex fuel engine kicks in to allow to extend the range to more than 500 kilometres 310 mi 56 57 GM officially launched the Chevrolet Volt in the U S on November 30 2010 and retail deliveries began in December 2010 5 Its sibling the Opel Vauxhall Ampera was launched in Europe between late 2011 and early 2012 The first deliveries of the Fisker Karma took place in July 2011 58 and deliveries to retail customers began in November 2011 The Toyota Prius Plug in Hybrid was released in Japan in January 2012 59 followed by the United States in February 2012 60 Deliveries of the Prius PHV in Europe began in late June 2012 61 The Ford C Max Energi was released in the U S in October 2012 62 the Volvo V60 Plug in Hybrid in Sweden by late 2012 63 The Honda Accord Plug in Hybrid was released in selected U S markets in January 2013 64 and the Mitsubishi Outlander P HEV in Japan in January 2013 becoming the first SUV plug in hybrid in the market 65 Deliveries of the Ford Fusion Energi began in February 2013 66 67 BYD Auto stopped production of its BYD F3DM due to low sales 68 and its successor the BYD Qin began sales in Costa Rica in November 2013 with sales in other countries in Latin America scheduled to begin in 2014 69 70 71 Qin deliveries began in China in mid December 2013 50 The Toyota Prius Plug in Hybrid was launched in Japan and the U S in early 2012 and Europe by mid 2012 Deliveries to retail customers of the limited edition McLaren P1 supercar began in the UK in October 2013 72 and the Porsche Panamera S E Hybrid began deliveries in the U S in November 2013 The first retail deliveries of the Cadillac ELR took place in the U S in December 2013 73 The BMW i8 and the limited edition Volkswagen XL1 were released to retail customers in Germany in June 2014 74 75 The Porsche 918 Spyder was also released in Europe and the U S in 2014 The first units of the Audi A3 Sportback e tron and Volkswagen Golf GTE were registered in Germany in August 2014 76 In December 2014 BMW announced the group is planning to offer plug in hybrid versions of all its core brand models using eDrive technology developed for its BMW i brand plug in vehicles BMW i3 and BMW i8 The goal of the company is to use plug in technology to continue offering high performance vehicles while reducing CO2 emissions below 100g km At the time of the announcement the carmaker was already testing a BMW 3 Series plug in hybrid prototype 77 The first model available for retail sales will be the 2016 BMW X5 eDrive with the production version unveiled at the 2015 Shanghai Motor Show 78 The second generation Chevrolet Volt was unveiled at the January 2015 North American International Auto Show 79 and retail deliveries began in the U S and Canada in October 2015 80 81 In March 2015 Audi said they planned on making a plug in hybrid version of every model series and that they expect plug in hybrids together with natural gas vehicles and battery electric drive systems to have a key contribution in achieving the company s CO2 targets The Audi Q7 e tron will follow the A3 e tron already in the market 82 Also in March 2015 Mercedes Benz announced that the company s main emphasis regarding alternative drives in the next years will be on plug in hybrids The carmaker plans to introduce 10 new plug in hybrid models by 2017 and its next release was the Mercedes Benz C 350 e Mercedes second plug in hybrid after the S 500 Plug In Hybrid 83 Other plug in hybrid released in 2015 are the BYD Tang Volkswagen Passat GTE Volvo XC90 T8 and the Hyundai Sonata PHEV Global combined Volt Ampera family sales passed the 100 000 unit milestone in October 2015 84 By the end of 2015 over 517 000 highway legal plug in hybrid electric cars have been sold worldwide since December 2008 out of total global sales of more than 1 25 million light duty plug in electric cars 85 86 Sales of the Porsche 918 Spyder began in Europe in May 2014 The BMW i8 was released in Europe in June 2014 In February 2016 BMW announced the introduction of the iPerformance model designation which will be given to all BMW plug in hybrid vehicles from July 2016 The aim is to provide a visible indicator of the transfer of technology from BMW i to the BMW core brand The new designation will be used first on the plug in hybrid variants of the new BMW 7 Series the BMW 740e iPerformance 87 and the 3 Series the BMW 330e iPerformance 88 Hyundai Motor Company made the official debut of its three model Hyundai Ioniq line up at the 2016 Geneva Motor Show 89 The Ioniq family of electric drive vehicles includes the Ioniq Plug in which is expected to achieve a fuel economy of 125 mpg e 28 kW h 100 mi 17 1 kW h 100 km in all electric mode 90 The Ioniq Plug in is scheduled to be released in the U S in the fourth quarter of 2017 91 The second generation Prius plug in hybrid called Prius Prime in the U S and Prius PHV in Japan 92 was unveiled at the 2016 New York International Auto Show Retail deliveries of the Prius Prime began in the U S in November 2016 93 and is scheduled to be released Japan by the end of 2016 92 94 The Prime has an EPA rated all electric range of 25 mi 40 km over twice the range of the first generation model and an EPA rated fuel economy of 133 mpg e 25 9 kW h 100 mi in all electric mode EV mode the highest MPGe rating in EV mode of any vehicle rated by EPA 95 96 Unlike its predecessor the Prime runs entirely on electricity in EV mode 97 Global sales of the Mitsubishi Outlander P HEV passed the 100 000 unit milestone in March 2016 98 99 BYD Qin sales in China reached the 50 000 unit milestone in April 2016 becoming the fourth plug in hybrid to pass that mark 100 In June 2016 Nissan announced it will introduce a compact range extender car in Japan before March 2017 The series plug in hybrid will use a new hybrid system dubbed e Power which debuted with the Nissan Gripz concept crossover showcased at the 2015 Frankfurt Auto Show 101 In January 2016 Chrysler debuted its plug in hybrid minivan the Chrysler Pacifica Hybrid with an EPA rated electric only range of 48 km 30 miles 102 This was the first hybrid minivan of any type It was first sold in the United States Canada and Mexico in 2017 In December 2017 Honda began retail deliveries of the Honda Clarity Plug In Hybrid in the United States and Canada with an EPA rated electric only range of 76 km 47 miles 103 Volkswagen XL driver side with door opened In 2013 Volkswagen started production on the Volkswagen XL1 a two person limited production diesel powered plug in hybrid vehicle designed to be able to travel 100 km l 280 mpg imp 235 mpg US on diesel while still being both roadworthy and practical The model is built with a 800 cc 49 cu in TDI twin cylinder common rail 35 kW 47 hp turbo diesel and a 20 kW 27 hp electric motor The model is unique in that it is one of the only mass produced plug in diesel hybrid vehicles and one of the only mass produced diesel hybrid vehicles in general 104 105 106 Technology EditPowertrains Edit Main article Hybrid vehicle drivetrains The Chevrolet Volt operates primarily as a series hybrid The Toyota Prius Plug in Hybrid is a series parallel hybrid PHEVs are based on the same three basic powertrain architectures of conventional hybrids a series hybrid is propelled by electric motors only a parallel hybrid is propelled both by its internal combustion engine and by electric motors operating concurrently and a series parallel hybrid operates in either mode While a plain hybrid vehicle charges its battery from its engine only a plug in hybrid can obtain a significant amount of the energy required to recharge its battery from external sources Charging systems Edit The battery charger can be on board or external to the vehicle The process for an on board charger is best explained as AC power being converted into DC power resulting in the battery being charged 9 On board chargers are limited in capacity by their weight and size and by the limited capacity of general purpose AC outlets Dedicated off board chargers can be as large and powerful as the user can afford but require returning to the charger high speed chargers may be shared by multiple vehicles Using the electric motor s inverter allows the motor windings to act as the transformer coils and the existing high power inverter as the AC to DC charger As these components are already required on the car and are designed to handle any practical power capability they can be used to create a very powerful form of on board charger with no significant additional weight or size AC Propulsion uses this charging method referred to as reductive charging 107 Modes of operation Edit A plug in hybrid operates in charge depleting and charge sustaining modes Combinations of these two modes are termed blended mode or mixed mode These vehicles can be designed to drive for an extended range in all electric mode either at low speeds only or at all speeds These modes manage the vehicle s battery discharge strategy and their use has a direct effect on the size and type of battery required 108 Charge depleting mode allows a fully charged PHEV to operate exclusively or depending on the vehicle almost exclusively except during hard acceleration on electric power until its battery state of charge is depleted to a predetermined level at which time the vehicle s internal combustion engine or fuel cell will be engaged This period is the vehicle s all electric range This is the only mode that a battery electric vehicle can operate in hence their limited range 109 Mixed mode describes a trip using a combination of multiple modes For example a car may begin a trip in low speed charge depleting mode then enter onto a freeway and operate in blended mode The driver might exit the freeway and drive without the internal combustion engine until all electric range is exhausted The vehicle can revert to a charge sustaining mode until the final destination is reached This contrasts with a charge depleting trip which would be driven within the limits of a PHEV s all electric range Electric power storage Edit Further information Electric vehicle battery and Charging station The optimum battery size varies depending on whether the aim is to reduce fuel consumption running costs or emissions but a 2009 study 110 concluded that The best choice of PHEV battery capacity depends critically on the distance that the vehicle will be driven between charges Our results suggest that for urban driving conditions and frequent charges every 10 miles or less a low capacity PHEV sized with an AER all electric range of about 7 miles would be a robust choice for minimizing gasoline consumption cost and greenhouse gas emissions For less frequent charging every 20 100 miles PHEVs release fewer GHGs but HEVs are more cost effective PHEVs typically require deeper battery charging and discharging cycles than conventional hybrids Because the number of full cycles influences battery life this may be less than in traditional HEVs which do not deplete their batteries as fully However some authors argue that PHEVs will soon become standard in the automobile industry 111 Design issues and trade offs against battery life capacity heat dissipation weight costs and safety need to be solved 112 Advanced battery technology is under development promising greater energy densities by both mass and volume 113 and battery life expectancy is expected to increase 114 The cathodes of some early 2007 lithium ion batteries are made from lithium cobalt metal oxide This material is expensive and cells made with it can release oxygen if overcharged If the cobalt is replaced with iron phosphates the cells will not burn or release oxygen under any charge At early 2007 gasoline and electricity prices the break even point is reached after six to ten years of operation The payback period may be longer for plug in hybrids because of their larger more expensive batteries 115 Nickel metal hydride and lithium ion batteries can be recycled Toyota for example has a recycling program in place under which dealers are paid a US 200 credit for each battery returned 116 However plug in hybrids typically use larger battery packs than comparable conventional hybrids and thus require more resources Pacific Gas and Electric Company PG amp E has suggested that utilities could purchase used batteries for backup and load leveling purposes They state that while these used batteries may be no longer usable in vehicles their residual capacity still has significant value 117 More recently General Motors GM has said it has been approached by utilities interested in using recycled Volt batteries as a power storage system a secondary market that could bring down the cost of the Volt and other plug in vehicles for consumers 118 Ultracapacitors or supercapacitors are used in some plug in hybrids such as AFS Trinity s concept prototype to store rapidly available energy with their high power density in order to keep batteries within safe resistive heating limits and extend battery life 119 120 The CSIRO s UltraBattery combines a supercapacitor and a lead acid battery in a single unit creating a hybrid car battery that lasts longer costs less and is more powerful than current technologies used in plug in hybrid electric vehicles PHEVs 121 Conversions of production vehicles Edit Further information Electric vehicle conversion 15 lead acid batteries PFC charger and regulators installed into WhiteBird a PHEV 10 conversion of a Toyota Prius See also CalCars There are several companies that are converting fossil fuel non hybrid vehicles to plug in hybrids 122 123 Aftermarket conversion of an existing production hybrid to a plug in hybrid 124 typically involves increasing the capacity of the vehicle s battery pack and adding an on board AC to DC charger Ideally the vehicle s powertrain software would be reprogrammed to make full use of the battery pack s additional energy storage capacity and power output Many early plug in hybrid electric vehicle conversions have been based on the Toyota Prius 125 Some of the systems have involved replacement of the vehicle s original NiMH battery pack and its electronic control unit Others add an additional battery back onto the original battery pack 126 Target market EditIn recent years demand for all electric vehicles especially in the United States market has been driven by government incentives through subsidies lobbyists and taxes 127 In particular American sales of the Nissan Leaf have depended on generous incentives and special treatment in the state of Georgia the top selling Leaf market 128 According to international market research 60 of respondents believe a battery driving range of less than 160 km 99 mi is unacceptable even though only 2 drive more than that distance per day 129 Among popular current all electric vehicles only the Tesla with the most expensive version of the Model S offering a 265 miles 426 km range in the U S Environmental Protection Agency 5 cycle test significantly exceeds this threshold In 2021 for the 2022 model year the Nissan Leaf has an EPA rated range of 212 miles 341 km for the 60 kWh model All electric range in miles for several popular model year 2013 plug in hybrids as observed in testing by Popular Mechanics magazine Providing greater all electric range adds cost and entails compromises so different all electric ranges may suit different customers needs Plug in hybrids provide the extended range and potential for refueling of conventional hybrids while enabling drivers to use battery electric power for at least a significant part of their typical daily driving The average trip to or from work in the United States in 2009 was 11 8 miles 19 0 km 130 while the average distance commuted to work in England and Wales in 2011 was slightly lower at 9 3 miles 15 km 131 Since building a PHEV with a longer all electric range adds weight and cost and reduces cargo and or passenger space there is not a specific all electric range that is optimal The accompanying graph shows the observed all electric range in miles for four popular U S market plug in hybrids as tested by Popular Mechanics magazine 132 A key design parameter of the Chevrolet Volt was a target of 40 miles 64 km for the all electric range selected to keep the battery size small and lower costs and mainly because research showed that 78 of daily commuters in the U S travel 40 mi 64 km or less This target range would allow most travel to be accomplished electrically driven and the assumption was made that charging will take place at home overnight This requirement translated using a lithium ion battery pack with an energy storage capacity of 16 kWh considering that the battery would be used until the state of charge SOC of the battery reached 30 133 134 In October 2014 General Motors reported based on data collected through its OnStar telematics system since Volt deliveries began and with over 1 billion miles 1 6 billion km traveled that Volt owners drive about 62 5 of their trips in all electric mode 135 In May 2016 Ford reported based on data collected from more than 610 million miles 976 million km logged by its electrified vehicles through its telematics system that drivers of these vehicles run an average of 13 500 mi 21 700 km annually on their vehicles with about half of those miles operating in all electric mode A break down of these figures show an average daily commute of 42 mi 68 km for Ford Energi plug in hybrid drivers Ford notes that with the enhanced electric range of the 2017 model year model the average Fusion Energi commuter could go the entire day using no gasoline if the car is fully charged both before leaving for work and before leaving for home According to Ford data currently most customers are likely charging their vehicles only at home 136 The 2015 edition of the EPA s annual report Light Duty Automotive Technology Carbon Dioxide Emissions and Fuel Economy Trends estimates the following utility factors for 2015 model year plug in hybrids to represent the percentage of miles that will be driven using electricity by an average driver whether in electric only or blended modes 83 for the BMW i3 REx 66 for the Chevrolet Volt 45 for the Ford Energi models 43 for the McLaren P1 37 for the BMW i8 and 29 for the Toyota Prius PHV 137 A 2014 analysis conducted by the Idaho National Laboratory using a sample of 21 600 all electric cars and plug in hybrids found that Volt owners traveled on average 9 112 miles in all electric mode e miles per year while Leaf owners traveled 9 697 e miles per year despite the Volt s shorter all electric range about half of the Leaf s 138 Between January and August 2014 a period during which US sales of conventional hybrids slowed US sales of plug in hybrids grew from 28 241 to 40 748 compared to the same period in 2013 US sales of all electric vehicles also grew during the same period from 29 917 vehicles in the January to August 2013 period to 40 349 in January to August 2014 139 Comparison to non plug in hybrids EditFuel efficiency and petroleum displacement Edit Main articles Energy conversion efficiency and Well to wheel See also Plug in hybrid car energy efficiency and Fuel efficiency Typical fuel economy label for series plug in hybrid or extended range electric vehicle Typical fuel economy label for blended or series parallel plug in hybrid Plug in hybrids have the potential to be even more efficient than conventional hybrids because a more limited use of the PHEV s internal combustion engine may allow the engine to be used at closer to its maximum efficiency While a Toyota Prius is likely to convert fuel to motive energy on average at about 30 efficiency well below the engine s 38 peak efficiency the engine of a PHEV 70 would be likely to operate far more often near its peak efficiency because the batteries can serve the modest power needs at times when the combustion engine would be forced to run well below its peak efficiency 109 The actual efficiency achieved depends on losses from electricity generation inversion battery charging discharging the motor controller and motor itself the way a vehicle is used its duty cycle and the opportunities to recharge by connecting to the electrical grid Each kilowatt hour of battery capacity in use will displace up to 50 U S gallons 190 l 42 imp gal of petroleum fuels per year gasoline or diesel 140 Also electricity is multi sourced and as a result it gives the greatest degree of energy resilience 141 The actual fuel economy for PHEVs depends on their powertrain s operating modes the all electric range and the amount of driving between charges If no gasoline is used the miles per gallon gasoline equivalent MPG e depends only on the efficiency of the electric system The first mass production PHEV available in the U S market the 2011 Chevrolet Volt with an EPA rated all electric range of 35 mi 56 km and an additional gasoline only extended range of 344 mi 554 km has an EPA combined city highway fuel economy of 93 MPG e in all electric mode and 37 mpg US 6 4 L 100 km 44 mpg imp in gasoline only mode for an overall combined gas electric fuel economy rating of 60 mpg US 3 9 L 100 km 72 mpg imp equivalent MPG e 142 143 The EPA also included in the Volt s fuel economy label a table showing fuel economy and electricity consumed for five different scenarios 30 45 60 and 75 mi 121 km driven between a full charge and a never charge scenario 143 According to this table the fuel economy goes up to 168 mpg US 1 40 L 100 km 202 mpg imp equivalent MPG e with 45 mi 72 km driven between full charges 142 For the more comprehensive fuel economy and environment label that will be mandatory in the U S beginning in model year 2013 the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration NHTSA and Environmental Protection Agency EPA issued two separate fuel economy labels for plug in hybrids because of their design complexity as PHEVS can operate in two or three operating modes all electric blended and gasoline only 144 145 One label is for series hybrid or extended range electric vehicle like the Chevy Volt with all electric and gasoline only modes and a second label for blended mode or series parallel hybrid that includes a combination of both gasoline and plug in electric operation and gasoline only like a conventional hybrid vehicle 144 145 The Society of Automotive Engineers SAE developed their recommended practice in 1999 for testing and reporting the fuel economy of hybrid vehicles and included language to address PHEVs An SAE committee is currently working to review procedures for testing and reporting the fuel economy of PHEVs 146 The Toronto Atmospheric Fund tested ten retrofitted plug in hybrid vehicles that achieved an average of 5 8 litres per 100 kilometre or 40 6 miles per gallon over six months in 2008 which was considered below the technology s potential 147 In real world testing using normal drivers some Prius PHEV conversions may not achieve much better fuel economy than HEVs For example a plug in Prius fleet each with a 30 miles 48 km all electric range averaged only 51 mpg US 4 6 L 100 km 61 mpg imp in a 17 000 mile 27 000 km test in Seattle 148 and similar results with the same kind of conversion battery models at Google s RechargeIT initiative Moreover the additional battery pack costs US 10 000 US 11 000 149 150 Operating costs Edit A study published in 2014 by researchers from Lamar University Iowa State University and Oak Ridge National Laboratory compared the operating costs of PHEVs of various electric ranges 10 20 30 and 40 miles with conventional gasoline vehicles and non plugin hybrid electric vehicles HEVs for different payback periods considering different charging infrastructure deployment levels and gasoline prices The study concluded that 151 PHEVs save around 60 or 40 in energy costs compared with conventional gasoline vehicles and HEVs respectively However for drivers with significant daily vehicle miles traveled DVMT hybrid vehicles may be even a better choice than plug in hybrids with a range of 40 mi 64 km particularly when there is a lack of public charging infrastructure The incremental battery cost of large battery plug in hybrids is difficult to justify based on the incremental savings of PHEVs operating costs unless a subsidy is offered for large battery PHEVs When the price of gasoline increases from US 4 per gallon to US 5 per gallon the number of drivers who benefit from a larger battery increases significantly If the gas price is US 3 a plug in hybrid with a range of 10 mi 16 km is the least costly option even if the battery cost is 200 kWh Although quick chargers can reduce charging time they contribute little to energy cost savings for PHEVs as opposed to Level 2 chargers Cost of batteries Edit Main article Electric vehicle battery Disadvantages of PHEVs include the additional cost weight and size of a larger battery pack According to a 2010 study by the National Research Council the cost of a lithium ion battery pack is about US 1 700 kW h of usable energy and considering that a PHEV 10 requires about 2 0 kW h and a PHEV 40 about 8 kW h the estimated manufacturer cost of the battery pack for a PHEV 10 is around US 3 000 and it goes up to US 14 000 for a PHEV 40 152 153 According to the same study even though costs are expected to decline by 35 by 2020 market penetration is expected to be slow and therefore PHEVs are not expected to significantly impact oil consumption or carbon emissions before 2030 unless a fundamental breakthrough in battery technologies occurs 152 153 154 Cost comparison between a PHEV 10 and a PHEV 40 152 154 prices for 2010 Plug intype byEV range Similarproduction model Type ofdrivetrain Manufacturer additional cost compared to conventionalnon hybrid mid size Estimated cost of battery pack Cost ofelectric systemupgrade at home Expectedgasolinesavingscomparedto a HEV Annualgasolinesavingscomparedto a HEV 2 PHEV 10 16 km Prius Plug in 1 Parallel US 6 300 US 3 300 More than US 1 000 20 260 L 70 US gal 58 imp gal PHEV 40 64 km Chevy Volt Series US 18 100 US 14 000 More than US 1 000 55 760 L 200 US gal 170 imp gal Notes 1 Considers the HEV technology used in the Toyota Prius with a larger battery pack The Prius Plug in estimated all electric range is 23 km 14 5 miles 155 2 Assuming 24 000 km 15 000 miles per year According to the 2010 NRC study although a mile driven on electricity is cheaper than one driven on gasoline lifetime fuel savings are not enough to offset plug ins high upfront costs and it will take decades before the break even point is achieved 154 Furthermore hundreds of billions of dollars in government subsidies and incentives are likely to be required to achieve rapid plug in market penetration in the U S 153 154 A 2013 study by the American Council for an Energy Efficient Economy reported that battery costs came down from US 1 300 per kilowatt hour in 2007 to US 500 per kilowatt hour in 2012 The U S Department of Energy has set cost targets for its sponsored battery research of US 300 per kilowatt hour in 2015 and US 125 per kilowatt hour by 2022 Cost reductions through advances in battery technology and higher production volumes will allow plug in electric vehicles to be more competitive with conventional internal combustion engine vehicles 156 A study published in 2011 by the Belfer Center Harvard University found that the gasoline costs savings of PHEVs over the vehicles lifetimes do not offset their higher purchase prices This finding was estimated comparing their lifetime net present value at 2010 purchase and operating costs for the U S market and assuming no government subidies 157 158 According to the study estimates a PHEV 40 is US 5 377 more expensive than a conventional internal combustion engine while a battery electric vehicle BEV is US 4 819 more expensive The study also examined how this balance will change over the next 10 to 20 years assuming that battery costs will decrease while gasoline prices increase Under the future scenarios considered the study found that BEVs will be significantly less expensive than conventional cars US 1 155 to US 7 181 cheaper while PHEVs will be more expensive than BEVs in almost all comparison scenarios and only less expensive than conventional cars in a scenario with very low battery costs and high gasoline prices BEVs are simpler to build and do not use liquid fuel while PHEVs have more complicated powertrains and still have gasoline powered engines 157 Emissions shifted to electric plants Edit Increased pollution is expected to occur in some areas with the adoption of PHEVs but most areas will experience a decrease 159 A study by the ACEEE predicts that widespread PHEV use in heavily coal dependent areas would result in an increase in local net sulfur dioxide and mercury emissions given emissions levels from most coal plants currently supplying power to the grid 160 Although clean coal technologies could create power plants which supply grid power from coal without emitting significant amounts of such pollutants the higher cost of the application of these technologies may increase the price of coal generated electricity The net effect on pollution is dependent on the fuel source of the electrical grid fossil or renewable for example and the pollution profile of the power plants themselves Identifying regulating and upgrading single point pollution source such as a power plant or replacing a plant altogether may also be more practical From a human health perspective shifting pollution away from large urban areas may be considered a significant advantage 161 According to a 2009 study by The National Academy of Science Electric vehicles and grid dependent plug in hybrid vehicles showed somewhat higher nonclimate damages than many other technologies 162 Efficiency of plug in hybrids is also impacted by the overall efficiency of electric power transmission Transmission and distribution losses in the USA were estimated at 7 2 in 1995 163 and 6 5 in 2007 164 By life cycle analysis of air pollution emissions natural gas vehicles are currently the lowest emitter citation needed Tiered rate structure for electric bills Edit The additional electrical consumption to recharge the plug in vehicles could push many households in areas that do not have off peak tariffs into the higher priced tier and negate financial benefits 165 Customers under such tariffs could see significant savings by being careful about when the vehicle was charged for example by using a timer to restrict charging to off peak hours Thus an accurate comparison of the benefit requires each household to evaluate its current electrical usage tier and tariffs weighed against the cost of gasoline and the actual observed operational cost of electric mode vehicle operation Greenhouse gas emissions EditSee also Greenhouse gas emissions in plug in electric vehicles The effect of PHEVs on greenhouse emissions is complex Plug in hybrid vehicles operating on all electric mode do not emit harmful tailpipe pollutants from the onboard source of power The clean air benefit is usually local because depending on the source of the electricity used to recharge the batteries air pollutant emissions are shifted to the location of the generation plants 166 In the same way PHEVs do not emit greenhouse gases from the onboard source of power but from the point of view of a well to wheel assessment the extent of the benefit also depends on the fuel and technology used for electricity generation From the perspective of a full life cycle analysis the electricity used to recharge the batteries must be generated from zero emission sources such as renewable e g wind power solar energy or hydroelectricity or nuclear power for PEVs to have almost none or zero well to wheel emissions 166 167 On the other hand when PEVs are recharged from coal fired plants they usually produce slightly more greenhouse gas emissions than internal combustion engine vehicles 166 In the case of plug in hybrid electric vehicle when operating in hybrid mode with assistance of the internal combustion engine tailpipe and greenhouse emissions are lower in comparison to conventional cars because of their higher fuel economy 167 Life cycle energy and emissions assessments EditArgonne Edit In 2009 researchers at Argonne National Laboratory adapted their GREET model to conduct a full well to wheels WTW analysis of energy use and greenhouse gas GHG emissions of plug in hybrid electric vehicles for several scenarios considering different on board fuels and different sources of electricity generation for recharging the vehicle batteries Three US regions were selected for the analysis California New York and Illinois as these regions include major metropolitan areas with significant variations in their energy generation mixes The full cycle analysis results were also reported for the US generation mix and renewable electricity to examine cases of average and clean mixes respectively 168 This 2009 study showed a wide spread of petroleum use and GHG emissions among the different fuel production technologies and grid generation mixes The following table summarizes the main results 168 PHEV well to wheels Petroleum energy use and greenhouse gas emissionsfor an all electric range between 10 and 40 miles 16 and 64 km with different on board fuels 1 as a relative to an internal combustion engine vehicle that uses fossil fuel gasoline Analysis Reformulated gasolineand Ultra low sulfur diesel E85 fuel fromcorn and switchgrass Fuel cellhydrogenPetroleum energy use reduction 40 60 70 90 more than 90 GHG emissions reduction 2 30 60 40 80 10 100 Source Center for Transportation Research Argonne National Laboratory 2009 See Table 1 168 Notes 1 Simulations for year 2020with PHEV model year 2015 2 No direct or indirect land use changes included in the WTW analysis for bio mass fuel feedstocks 169 170 The Argonne study found that PHEVs offered reductions in petroleum energy use as compared with regular hybrid electric vehicles More petroleum energy savings and also more GHG emissions reductions were realized as the all electric range increased except when electricity used to recharge was dominated by coal or oil fired power generation As expected electricity from renewable sources realized the largest reductions in petroleum energy use and GHG emissions for all PHEVs as the all electric range increased The study also concluded that plug in vehicles that employ biomass based fuels biomass E85 and hydrogen may not realize GHG emissions benefits over regular hybrids if power generation is dominated by fossil sources 168 Oak Ridge Edit A 2008 study by researchers at Oak Ridge National Laboratory analyzed oil use and greenhouse gas GHG emissions of plug in hybrids relative to hybrid electric vehicles under several scenarios for years 2020 and 2030 171 The study considered the mix of power sources for 13 U S regions that would be used during recharging of vehicles generally a combination of coal natural gas and nuclear energy and to a lesser extent renewable energy 171 172 A 2010 study conducted at Argonne National Laboratory reached similar findings concluding that PHEVs will reduce oil consumption but could produce very different greenhouse gas emissions for each region depending on the energy mix used to generate the electricity to recharge the plug in hybrids 173 174 Environmental Protection Agency Edit In October 2014 the U S Environmental Protection Agency published the 2014 edition of its annual report Light Duty Automotive Technology Carbon Dioxide Emissions and Fuel Economy Trends For the first time the report presents an analysis of the impact of alternative fuel vehicles with emphasis in plug in electric vehicles because as their market share is approaching 1 PEVs began to have a measurable impact on the U S overall new vehicle fuel economy and CO2 emissions 175 176 EPA s report included the analysis of 12 all electric passengers cars and 10 plug in hybrids available in the market as model year 2014 For purposes of an accurate estimation of emissions the analysis took into consideration the differences in operation between those PHEVs like the Chevrolet Volt that can operate in all electric mode without using gasoline and those that operate in a blended mode like the Toyota Prius PHV which uses both energy stored in the battery and energy from the gasoline tank to propel the vehicle but that can deliver substantial all electric driving in blended mode In addition since the all electric range of plug in hybrids depends on the size of the battery pack the analysis introduced a utility factor as a projection on average of the percentage of miles that will be driven using electricity in electric only and blended modes by an average driver The following table shows the overall EV hybrid fuel economy expressed in terms of miles per gallon gasoline equivalent mpg e and the utility factor for the ten MY2014 plug in hybrids available in the U S market The study used the utility factor since in pure EV mode there are no tailpipe emissions and the EPA best estimate of the CO2 tailpipe emissions produced by these vehicles in real world city and highway operation based on the EPA 5 cycle label methodology using a weighted 55 city 45 highway driving The results are shown in the following table 175 In addition the EPA accounted for the upstream CO2 emissions associated with the production and distribution of electricity required to charge the PHEVs Since electricity production in the United States varies significantly from region to region the EPA considered three scenarios ranges with the low end of the range corresponding to the California powerplant emissions factor the middle of the range represented by the national average powerplant emissions factor and the upper end of the range corresponding to the powerplant emissions factor for the Rockies The EPA estimates that the electricity GHG emission factors for various regions of the country vary from 346 g CO2 kW hr in California to 986 g CO2 kW hr in the Rockies with a national average of 648 g CO2 kW hr 175 The following table shows the tailpipe emissions and the combined tailpipe and upstream emissions for each of the 10 MY 2014 PHEVs available in the U S market Comparison of tailpipe and upstream CO2 emissions 1 estimated by EPA for the MY 2014 plug in hybrids available in the U S market as of September 2014 update 175 Vehicle EPA rating combined EV hybrid mpg e Utilityfactor 2 share EVmiles Tailpipe CO2 g mi Tailpipe Total Upstream CO2Low g mi Avg g mi High g mi BMW i3 REx 3 88 0 83 40 134 207 288Chevrolet Volt 62 0 66 81 180 249 326Cadillac ELR 54 0 65 91 206 286 377Ford C Max Energi 51 0 45 129 219 269 326Ford Fusion Energi 51 0 45 129 219 269 326Honda Accord Plug in Hybrid 57 0 33 130 196 225 257Toyota Prius Plug in Hybrid 58 0 29 133 195 221 249BMW i8 37 0 37 198 303 351 404Porsche Panamera S E Hybrid 31 0 39 206 328 389 457McLaren P1 17 0 43 463 617 650 687Average gasoline car 24 2 0 367 400 400 400Notes 1 Based on 45 highway and 55 city driving 2 The utility factor represents on average the percentage of miles that will be driven using electricity in electric only and blended modes by an average driver 3 The EPA classifies the i3 REx as a series plug in hybrid 175 177 National Bureau of Economic Research Edit Most emission analysis use average emissions rates across regions instead of marginal generation at different times of the day The former approach does not take into account the generation mix within interconnected electricity markets and shifting load profiles throughout the day 178 179 An analysis by three economist affiliated with the National Bureau of Economic Research NBER published in November 2014 developed a methodology to estimate marginal emissions of electricity demand that vary by location and time of day across the United States The study used emissions and consumption data for 2007 through 2009 and used the specifications for the Chevrolet Volt all electric range of 35 mi 56 km The analysis found that marginal emission rates are more than three times as large in the Upper Midwest compared to the Western U S and within regions rates for some hours of the day are more than twice those for others 179 Applying the results of the marginal analysis to plug in electric vehicles the NBER researchers found that the emissions of charging PEVs vary by region and hours of the day In some regions such as the Western U S and Texas CO2 emissions per mile from driving PEVs are less than those from driving a hybrid car However in other regions such as the Upper Midwest charging during the recommended hours of midnight to 4 a m implies that PEVs generate more emissions per mile than the average car currently on the road The results show a fundamental tension between electricity load management and environmental goals as the hours when electricity is the least expensive to produce tend to be the hours with the greatest emissions This occurs because coal fired units which have higher emission rates are most commonly used to meet base level and off peak electricity demand while natural gas units which have relatively low emissions rates are often brought online to meet peak demand This pattern of fuel shifting explains why emission rates tend to be higher at night and lower during periods of peak demand in the morning and evening 179 Production and sales EditMain article list of modern production plug in electric vehicles Production models Edit The Chevrolet Volt was the world s top selling plug in hybrid until September 2018 180 Since 2008 plug in hybrids have been commercially available from both specialty manufacturers and from mainstream producers of internal combustion engine vehicles The F3DM released in China in December 2008 was the first production plug in hybrid sold in the world 51 52 53 The Chevrolet Volt launched in the U S in December 2010 was the first mass production plug in hybrid by a major carmaker 5 Sales and main markets Edit There were 1 2 million plug in hybrid cars on the world roads at the end of 2017 181 The stock of plug in hybrids increased to 1 8 million in 2018 out of a global stock of about 5 1 million plug in electric passenger cars 182 181 As of December 2017 update the United States ranked as the world s largest plug in hybrid car market with a stock of 360 510 units followed by China with 276 580 vehicles Japan with 100 860 units the Netherlands with 98 220 and the UK with 88 660 181 Global sales of plug in hybrids grew from over 300 units in 2010 to almost 9 000 in 2011 jumped to over 60 000 in 2012 and reached almost 222 000 in 2015 85 As of December 2015 update the United States was the world s largest plug in hybrid car market with a stock of 193 770 units 85 About 279 000 light duty plug in hybrids were sold in 2016 183 raising the global stock to almost 800 000 highway legal plug in hybrid electric cars at the end of 2016 184 185 A total of 398 210 plug in hybrid cars were sold in 2017 with China as the top selling country with 111 000 units and the global stock of plug in hybrids passed the one million unit milestone by the end of 2017 181 Evolution of the ratio between global sales of BEVs and PHEVs between 2011 and 2019 182 186 187 Global sales of plug in electric vehicles have been shifting for several years towards fully electric battery cars The global ratio between all electrics BEVs and plug in hybrids PHEVs went from 56 44 in 2012 to 60 40 in 2015 to 66 34 in 2017 and rose to 69 31 in 2018 182 186 By country Edit The Netherlands Sweden the UK and the United States have the largest shares of plug in hybrid sales as percentage of total plug in electric passenger vehicle sales The Netherlands has the world s largest share of plug in hybrids among its plug in electric passenger car stock with 86 162 plug in hybrids registered at the end of October 2016 out of 99 945 plug in electric cars and vans representing 86 2 of the country s stock of light duty plug in electric vehicles 188 Sweden ranks next with 16 978 plug in hybrid cars sold between 2011 and August 2016 representing 71 7 of total plug in electric passenger car sales registrations 189 190 191 192 193 Plug in hybrid registrations in the UK between up to August 2016 totaled 45 130 units representing 61 6 of total plug in car registrations since 2011 194 In the United States plug in hybrids represent 47 2 of the 506 450 plug in electric cars sold between 2008 and August 2016 195 In November 2013 the Netherlands became the first country where a plug in hybrid topped the monthly ranking of new car sales During November sales were led by the Mitsubishi Outlander P HEV with 2 736 units capturing a market share of 6 8 of new passenger cars sold that month 196 Again in December 2013 the Outlander P HEV ranked as the top selling new car in the country with 4 976 units representing a 12 6 market share of new car sales 197 198 These record sales allowed the Netherlands to become the second country after Norway where plug in electric cars have topped the monthly ranking of new car sales 196 199 As of December 2013 update the Netherlands was the country with highest plug in hybrid market concentration with 1 45 vehicles registered per 1 000 people 200 The following table presents the top ranking countries according to its plug in hybrid segment market share of total new car sales in 2013 Top 10 countries by plug in hybrid market shareof new car sales in 2013 201 Ranking Country PHEVmarket share 1 Ranking Country PHEVmarket share 1 1 Netherlands 4 72 6 Iceland 0 25 2 Sweden 0 41 7 Finland 0 13 3 Japan 0 40 8 United Kingdom 0 05 4 Norway 0 34 9 France 0 05 5 United States 0 31 10 Switzerland 0 05 Note 1 Market share of highway capable plug in hybrids as percentage of total new car sales in the country in 2013 By model Edit According to JATO Dynamics since December 2018 the Mitsubishi Outlander P HEV is the world s all time best selling plug in hybrid 1 Since inception 290 000 units have been sold worldwide through September 2021 2 Europe is the Outlander P HEV leading market with 126 617 units sold through January 2019 202 followed by Japan 42 451 units through March 2018 203 European sales are led by the UK with 50 000 units by April 2020 204 followed by the Netherlands with 25 489 units and Norway with 14 196 both through March 2018 203 Combined global sales of the Chevrolet Volt and its variants totaled about 186 000 units by the end of 2018 205 206 207 208 209 including about 10 000 Opel Vauxhall Amperas sold in Europe through June 2016 210 and over 4 300 Buick Velite 5s sold only in China rebadged second generation Volt through December 2018 209 Volt sales are led by the United States with 152 144 units delivered through December 2018 205 followed by Canada with 17 311 units through November 2018 207 208 Until September 2018 the Chevrolet Volt was the world s top selling plug in hybrid 180 Ranking third is the Toyota Prius Plug in Hybrid Toyota Prius Prime with about 174 600 units sold worldwide of both generations through December 2018 182 211 The United States is the leading market with over 93 000 units delivered through December 2018 205 Japan ranks next with about 61 200 units through December 2018 212 211 followed by Europe with almost 14 800 units through June 2018 211 213 The following table presents plug in hybrid models with cumulative global sales of around or more than 100 000 units since the introduction of the first modern production plug in hybrid car the BYD F3DM in 2008 up until December 2020 Top selling highway legal plug in hybrid electric cars between 2008 and 2020Model Marketlaunch Global sales Cumulative sales through SourcesSince inception 2018Mitsubishi Outlander P HEV Jan 2013 290 000 Sep 2021 2 Chevrolet Volt 1 Dec 2010 186 000 25 108 Dec 2018 205 206 207 209 Toyota Prius PHV Jan 2012 174 586 45 686 Dec 2018 182 211 BYD Qin 2 Dec 2013 136 818 47 425 Dec 2018 6 214 215 BYD Tang 2 Jun 2015 101 518 37 146 Dec 2018 214 215 216 217 Notes 1 In addition to the Volt model sold in North America combined sales of the Volt Ampera family includes about 10 000 Vauxhall Opel Ampera and 1 750 Volts sold in Europe 218 84 246 Holden Volt sold in Australia 219 and 4 317 units of the Buick Velite 5 sold only in China rebadged second generation Volt 209 2 Sales in China only BYD Qin total does not include sales of the all electric variant Qin EV300 Government support and public deployment Edit Subsidies and economic incentives Edit Main article Government incentives for plug in electric vehicles Several countries have established grants and tax credits for the purchase of new plug in electric vehicles PEVs including plug in hybrid electric vehicles and usually the economic incentive depends on battery size The U S offers a federal income tax credit up to US 7 500 220 and several states have additional incentives 221 The UK offers a Plug in Car Grant up to a maximum of 5 000 US 7 600 222 223 As of April 2011 15 of the 27 European Union member states provide tax incentives for electrically chargeable vehicles which includes all Western European countries plus the Czech Republic and Romania Also 17 countries levy carbon dioxide related taxes on passenger cars as a disincentive The incentives consist of tax reductions and exemptions as well as of bonus payments for buyers of all electric and plug in hybrid vehicles hybrid vehicles and some alternative fuel vehicles 224 225 Other government support Edit United States President Bush with A123Systems CEO on the White House South Lawn examining a Toyota Prius converted to plug in hybrid with Hymotion technology Incentives for the development of PHEVs are included in the Energy Independence and Security Act of 2007 226 The Energy Improvement and Extension Act of 2008 signed into law on October 3 2008 grants a tax credits for the purchase of PHEVs President Barack Obama s New Energy for America calls for deployment of 1 million plug in hybrid vehicles by 2015 227 and on March 19 2009 he announced programs directing 2 4 billion to electric vehicle development 228 The American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009 229 modifies the tax credits including a new one for plug in electric drive conversion kits and for 2 or 3 wheel vehicles 230 The ultimate total included in the Act that is going to PHEVs is over 6 billion 231 In March 2009 as part of the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act the US Department of Energy announced the release of two competitive solicitations for up to 2 billion in federal funding for competitively awarded cost shared agreements for manufacturing of advanced batteries and related drive components as well as up to 400 million for transportation electrification demonstration and deployment projects This announcement will also help meet the President Barack Obama s goal of putting one million plug in hybrid vehicles on the road by 2015 232 President Barack Obama behind the wheel of a Chevy Volt during his tour of the General Motors Auto Plant in Hamtramck Michigan Public deployments also include USDOE s FreedomCAR US Department of Energy announced it would dole out 30 million in funding to three companies over three years to further the development of plug in hybrids 233 USDOE announced the selection of Navistar Corporation for a cost shared award of up to 10 million to develop test and deploy plug in hybrid electric PHEV school buses 234 DOE and Sweden have a MOU to advance market integration of plug in hybrid vehicles 235 PHEV Research Center San Francisco Mayor Gavin Newsom San Jose Mayor Chuck Reed and Oakland California Mayor Ron Dellums announced a nine step policy plan for transforming the Bay Area into the Electric Vehicle EV Capital of the U S 236 and of the world 237 There are partnerships with Coulomb Better Place and others are also advancing The first charging stations went up in San Jose 237 more information in Plug in hybrids in California Washington state PHEV Pilot Project 238 Texas Governor Rick Perry s proposal for a state 5 000 tax credit for PHEVs in non attainment communities Seattle that includes City s public fleet converted vehicles the Port of Seattle King County and the Puget Sound Clean Air Agency 239 European UnionElectrification of transport electromobility is a priority in the European Union Research Programme It also figures prominently in the European Economic Recovery Plan presented November 2008 in the frame of the Green Car Initiative DG TREN will support a large European electromobility project on electric vehicles and related infrastructure with a total budget of around 50 million as part of the Green Car Initiative 240 Supportive organizations Edit Organizations that support plug in hybrids include the World Wide Fund for Nature 241 National Wildlife Federation 242 and CalCars 243 Other supportive organizations are Plug In America the Alliance for Climate Protection Friends of the Earth the Rainforest Action Network Rocky Mountain Institute Project Get Ready 244 the San Francisco Bay Area Council 236 the Apollo Alliance the Set America Free Coalition the Silicon Valley Leadership Group and the Plug in Hybrid Electric School Bus Project 245 FPL and Duke Energy has said that by 2020 all new purchases of fleet vehicles will be plug in hybrid or all electric 246 See also Edit Cars portal Energy portalAdvanced Technology Vehicles Manufacturing Loan Program Electric transportation technology Electric TM4 Fuel economy maximizing behaviors Genset trailer Glossary of automotive design Government incentives for plug in electric vehicles Green vehicle History of the electric vehicle Hymotion Hypercar Inductive charging Patent encumbrance of large automotive NiMH batteries Phase out of fossil 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Europe 33 730 in Japan 2 015 in Australia and 259 in the rest of the world for a total of 101 533 units sold worldwide Cobb Jeff 2016 05 19 China s BYD Qin PHEV Sells 50 000th Unit As Quickly As Did The Chevy Volt HybridCars com Archived from the original on 2016 05 20 Retrieved 2016 05 19 Greimel Hans 2016 06 25 Nissan s to do list Range autonomy Automotive News Retrieved 2016 06 27 Chrysler introduces Pacifica plug in hybrid minivan 80 mpge city 30 mile AER Green Car Congress 11 January 2016 Archived from the original on 28 November 2020 Retrieved 26 January 2021 2018 Honda Clarity Plug in Hybrid Pricing to Start at 33 400 Honda com Press release US 2017 11 16 Archived from the original on 2017 12 28 Retrieved 2017 12 28 XL1 2014 Volkswagen XL1 First Drive 14 June 2013 For Sale Ultra Rare 2015 Volkswagen XL1 Diesel Hybrid Capable of 260 MPG 22 December 2019 AC Propulsion s Reductive Charger Archived 2011 01 07 at the Wayback Machine Plug ins Progress Green Car Congress 2006 09 29 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Los Angeles Times 4 September 2014 Archived from the original on 13 October 2014 Retrieved 13 October 2014 International Humanities Center September 24 2008 Senate OKs Plug In Credits Toyota Frets Free Press Lyrical about Plug Ins Archived 2010 09 19 at the Wayback Machine California Cars Initiative Grove Andy July August 2008 Our Electric Future Archived 2014 08 25 at the Wayback Machine The American American com a b U S Environmental Protection Agency and U S Department of Energy 2011 05 27 2011 Chevrolet Volt Fueleconomy gov Archived from the original on 2011 07 21 Retrieved 2011 05 31 a b Volt receives EPA ratings and label 93 mpg e all electric 37 mpg gas only 60 mpg e combined Green Car Congress 2010 11 24 Archived from the original on 2011 06 15 Retrieved 2011 05 31 a b EPA DOT unveil the next generation of fuel economy labels Green Car Congress 2011 05 25 Archived from the original on 2011 05 29 Retrieved 2011 05 31 a b Fact Sheet New Fuel Economy and Environment Labels for a 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Zhenhong Lin 2014 Cost analysis of plug in hybrid electric vehicles using GPS based longitudinal travel data Energy Policy Volume 68 Pages 206 217 doi 10 1016 j enpol 2013 12 054 a b c National Research Council 2010 Transitions to Alternative Transportation Technologies Plug in Hybrid Electric Vehicles The National Academies Press doi 10 17226 12826 ISBN 978 0 309 14850 4 Archived from the original on 2011 06 07 Retrieved 2010 03 03 a b c Jad Mouawad amp Kate Galbraith 2009 12 14 Study Says Big Impact of the Plug In Hybrid Will Be Decades Away The New York Times Archived from the original on 2014 08 10 Retrieved 2010 03 04 a b c d National Research Council 2009 12 14 Plug In Hybrid Vehicle Costs Likely to Remain High Benefits Modest for Decades U S National Academy of Sciences Archived from the original on 2010 02 01 Retrieved 2010 03 04 Tabuchi Hiroko 2009 12 14 Toyota to Sell Plug In Hybrid in 2011 The New York Times Archived from the original on 2016 02 02 Retrieved 2010 02 03 Siddiq Khan amp Martin Kushler June 2013 Plug in Electric Vehicles Challenges and Opportunities PDF American Council for an Energy Efficient Economy Archived PDF from the original on 2016 05 12 Retrieved 2013 07 09 ACEEE Report Number T133 a b Henry Lee amp Grant Lovellette July 2011 Will Electric Cars Transform the U S Vehicle Market Belfer Center for Science and International Affairs Kennedy School of Government Archived from the original on 2011 08 12 Retrieved 2011 08 07 Henry Lee amp Grant Lovellette July 2011 WillElectricCars Transform the U S Vehicle Market PDF Belfer Center for Science and International Affairs Kennedy School of Government Archived PDF from the original on 2011 08 01 Retrieved 2011 08 07 Discussion Paper 2011 08 Knipping E and Duvall M June 2007 Environmental Assessment of Plug In Hybrid Electric Vehicles Volume 2 United States Air Quality Analysis Based on AEO 2006 Assumptions for 2030 Electric Power Research Institute and Natural Resources Defense Council Retrieved July 21 2007 Clayton M September 25 2006 A reality check on plug in hybrids Archived 2006 10 05 at the Wayback Machine The Christian Science Monitor Kanellos M 2006 04 28 Plug in your hybrid pollute less CNET News Archived from the original on 2012 07 14 a href Template Cite news html title Template Cite news cite news a CS1 maint bot original URL status unknown link Hidden Costs of Energy Unpriced Consequences of Energy Production and Use National Academy of Science 2009 10 19 Archived from the original on 2010 05 25 Retrieved 2010 05 29 Technology Options 2003 Archived 2008 02 16 at the Wayback Machine 2003 US Climate Change Technology Program Question Where can I find data on electricity transmission and distribution losses Frequently Asked Questions Electricity U S Energy Information Administration 2009 11 19 Archived from the original on 2010 04 01 Retrieved 2010 03 28 Bullis K 2006 12 21 How Plug in Hybrids Will Save the Grid Technology Review a b c Sperling Daniel Gordon Deborah 2009 Two billion cars driving toward sustainability Oxford University Press New York pp 22 to 26 and 114 139 ISBN 978 0 19 537664 7 a b David B Sandalow ed 2009 Plug In Electric Vehicles What Role for Washington 1st ed The Brookings Institution ISBN 978 0 8157 0305 1 Archived from the original on 2019 03 28 Retrieved 2019 01 04 pages 2 5 a b c d A Elgowainy A Burnham M Wang J Molburg amp A Rousseau February 2009 Well to Wheels Energy Use and Greenhouse Gas Emissions Analysis of Plug in Hybrid Electric Vehicles PDF Center for Transportation Research Argonne National Laboratory Archived PDF from the original on 2009 05 07 Retrieved 2006 06 01 Report ANL ESD 09 2 Searchinger Timothy et al 2008 02 29 Use of U S Croplands for Biofuels Increases Greenhouse Gases Through Emissions from Land Use Change Science 319 5867 1238 1240 Bibcode 2008Sci 319 1238S doi 10 1126 science 1151861 PMID 18258860 S2CID 52810681 Originally published online in Science Express on 2008 02 07 See Letters to Science by Wang and Haq There are critics to these findings for assuming a worst case scenario Fargione Joseph Hill Jason Tilman D Polasky S Hawthorne P et al 2008 02 29 Land Clearing and the Biofuel Carbon Debt Science 319 5867 1235 1238 Bibcode 2008Sci 319 1235F doi 10 1126 science 1152747 PMID 18258862 S2CID 206510225 Originally published online in Science Express on 2008 02 07 There are rebuttals to these findings for assuming a worst case scenario a b Hadley Stanton W amp Tsvetkova Alexandra January 2008 Potential Impacts of Plug in Hybrid Electric Vehicles on Regional Power Generation PDF Oak Ridge National Laboratory Archived PDF from the original on 2012 10 15 Retrieved 2010 08 23 Report ORNL TM 2007 150 Moyer Michael July 2010 The Dirty Truth about Plug in Hybrids Scientific American Archived from the original on 2010 06 25 Retrieved 2010 08 23 Different energy mixes will fuel plug in hybrid cars Argonne National Laboratory 2010 08 17 Archived from the original on 2010 08 24 Retrieved 2010 08 23 Amgad Elgowainy J Han L Poch M Wang A Vyas M Mahalik amp A Rousseau June 2010 Well to Wheels Analysis of Energy Use and Greenhouse Gas Emissions of Plug in Hybrid Electric Vehicles PDF Argonne National Laboratory Archived PDF from the original on 2011 07 16 Retrieved 2010 08 23 a b c d e U S Environmental Protection Agency October 2014 Light Duty Automotive Technology Carbon Dioxide Emissions and Fuel Economy Trends 1975 Through 2014 PDF EPA Archived PDF from the original on 2015 04 02 Retrieved 2014 10 12 See table 7 3 Overall fuel economy mpg e pp 100 Millikin Mike 2014 10 11 EPA Trends on EVs and PHEVs beginning of a measurable and meaningful impact on new vehicle fuel economy and emissions Green Car Congress Archived from the original on 2014 10 16 Retrieved 2014 10 11 U S Environmental Protection Agency and U S Department of Energy 2014 09 10 Model Year 2014 Fuel Economy Guide Electric vehicles amp Plug in Hybrid Electric Vehicles updated September 2014 PDF fueleconomy gov Archived PDF from the original on 2014 10 14 Retrieved 2014 09 12 pp 33 36 The ZEV s invisible tailpipe Are zero emission vehicles cleaner than petrol cars It all depends The Economist 2014 11 24 Archived from the original on 2014 12 07 Retrieved 2014 12 08 a b c Graff Zivina Joshua S Kotchenb Matthew J Mansur Erin T November 2014 Spatial and temporal heterogeneity of marginal emissions Implications for electric cars and other electricity shifting policies PDF Journal of Economic Behavior and Organization 107 Part A 248 268 doi 10 1016 j jebo 2014 03 010 Archived PDF from the original on 2018 06 02 Retrieved 2019 07 01 Published on line 2014 03 24 See pp 251 a b Pontes Jose 2018 11 30 Global All Time Top 5 Until Oct 18 Updated EVSales com Archived from the original on 2018 12 02 Retrieved 2019 02 01 The sure values Mitsubishi Outlander PHEV and Chevrolet Volt follow the Tesla Model S with the Japanese SUV surpassing the GM hatchback a b c d International Energy Agency IEA Clean Energy Ministerial and Electric Vehicles Initiative EVI May 2018 Global EV Outlook 2017 3 million and counting PDF IEA Publications Archived PDF from the original on 2020 06 16 Retrieved 2018 12 16 a href Template Cite web html title Template Cite web cite web a CS1 maint multiple names authors list link See pp 9 10 19 23 29 28 and Statistical annex pp 107 113 a b c d e Jose Pontes 2019 01 31 Global Top 20 December 2018 EVSales com Archived from the original on 2019 02 01 Retrieved 2019 02 02 Global sales totaled 2 018 247 plug in passenger cars in 2018 with a BEV PHEV ratio of 69 31 and a market share of 2 1 The world s top selling plug in car was the Tesla Model 3 and Tesla was the top selling manufacturer of plug in passenger cars in 2018 followed by BYD Jose Pontes 31 January 2017 World Top 20 December 2016 Updated EVSales com Archived from the original on 5 February 2017 Retrieved 5 February 2017 Global light duty plug in vehicles sales totaled almost 775 000 units in 2016 of which 36 were plug in hybrids Global Plug in Sales for 2016 EV Volumes com February 2017 Archived from the original on 2017 02 05 Retrieved 2017 02 05 Cobb Jeff 2017 01 16 The World Just Bought Its Two Millionth Plug in Car HybridCars com Archived from the original on 2017 01 18 Retrieved 2017 01 17 An estimated 2 032 000 highway legal plug in passenger cars and vans have been sold worldwide at the end of 2016 The top selling markets are China 645 708 new energy cars including imports Europe 638 000 plug in cars and vans and the United States 570 187 plug in cars The top European country markets are Norway 135 276 the Netherlands 113 636 France 108 065 and the UK 91 000 Total Chinese sales of domestically produced new energy vehicles including buses and truck totaled 951 447 vehicles China was the top selling plug in car market in 2016 and also has the world s largest stock of plug in electric cars a b Hertzke Patrick Muller Nicolai Schenk Stephanie Wu Ting May 2018 The global electric vehicle market is amped up and on the rise McKinsey amp Company Archived from the original on 2019 01 28 Retrieved 2019 01 27 See Exhibit 1 Global electric vehicle sales 2010 17 Jose Pontes 2020 01 31 Global Top 20 December 2019 EVSales com Archived from the original on 2020 12 27 Retrieved 2020 05 10 Global sales totaled 2 209 831 plug in passenger cars in 2019 with a BEV to PHEV ratio of 74 26 and a global market share of 2 5 The world s top selling plug in car was the Tesla Model 3 with 300 075 units delivered and Tesla was the top selling manufacturer of plug in passenger cars in 2019 with 367 820 units followed by BYD with 229 506 Cobb Jeff 2016 11 17 The Netherlands Becomes Sixth Country To Buy 100 000 Plug in Vehicles HybridCars com Archived from the original on 2016 11 18 Retrieved 2016 11 18 2012 Full Year Sweden Best Selling Electric Cars amp Plug In Hybrid Models BestSellingCars com 2013 04 02 Archived from the original on 2013 06 05 Retrieved 2013 07 05 Nyregistreringar december 2013 prel New registrations in December 2013 prel in Swedish Bil Sweden 2014 01 02 Archived from the original on 2014 01 03 Retrieved 2014 01 03 Download file Nyregistreringar December 2013 prel pdf see table NYREGISTRERADE SUPERMILJOBILAR DECEMBER 2013 with summary of PEV sales by model for 2013 and 2012 Nyregistreringar december 2014 prel New registrations in December 2014 preliminar in Swedish Bil Sweden 2015 01 02 Archived from the original on 2015 01 04 Retrieved 2015 01 04 Download file Nyregistreringar december 2014 prel see tables Nyregistrerade supermiljobilar december 2014 with summary of plug in passenger car registrations by model for 2013 revised and 2014 and table Nyregistrerade eldrivna latta lastbilar hogst 3 5 ton per modell for plug in utility vans registrations for the same two years A total of 303 866 new passenger vehicles were registered in 2014 and a total of 4 656 super clean cars resulting in a PEV market share of 1 53 of new car sales Nyregistreringar december 2015 def New Registrations December 2015 final in Swedish Bil Sweden 2016 01 04 Archived from the original on 2016 04 15 Retrieved 2016 04 15 Download the pdf file Nyregistreringar december 2015 def PressRel1512 def pdf See table Nyregistrerade miljopersonbilar december 2015 Nyregistreringar augusti 2016 II New Registrations August 2016 II in Swedish Bil Sweden 2016 09 01 Archived from the original on 2016 09 19 Retrieved 2016 09 18 Download the pdf file Nyregistreringar augusti 2016 II PressRel1608II pddf See table Nyregistrerade miljobilar per typ augusti 2016 A total of 6 129 plug in hybrids and 1 627 all electric cars were registered during the first eight months of 2016 December 2013 EV and AFV registrations Society of Motor Manufacturers and Traders SMMT 2014 01 07 Archived from the original on 2014 01 18 Retrieved 2014 01 25 A total of 992 plug in hybrids were registered during 2012 and 1 072 in 2013 Cobb Jeff 2016 09 01 Americans Buy Their Half Millionth Plug in Car HybridCars com Archived from the original on 2016 09 03 Retrieved 2016 09 02 See details in captions and graphs a b Mitsubishi Outlander PHEV top seller Automotive Industry Data AID 2013 12 17 Archived from the original on 2013 12 20 Retrieved 2013 12 26 Pontes Jose 2014 01 04 Netherlands December 2013 EV Sales Archived from the original on 2014 01 06 Retrieved 2014 01 05 Gasnier Mat 2013 12 04 Netherlands November 2013 Mitsubishi Outlander shoots up to pole position Best Selling Cars Blog Archived from the original on 2014 01 06 Retrieved 2013 12 26 Gasnier Mat 2014 01 03 Netherlands December 2013 Mitsubishi Outlander at 12 7 share Volvo V40 and V60 on podium Best Selling Cars Blog Archived from the original on 2014 01 08 Retrieved 2014 01 05 Cobb Jeff 2014 01 16 Top 6 Plug In Vehicle Adopting Countries HybridCars com Archived from the original on 2016 05 10 Retrieved 2016 08 29 Around 1 800 Tesla Roadsters and 1 600 Fisker Karmas had been sold in the U S by the end of 2013 Shahan Zachary 2013 03 07 Electric vehicle market share in 19 countries Plug in Hybrid EV Market Share in 2013 ABB Conversations Archived from the original on 2014 04 13 Retrieved 2014 04 12 Kane Mark 2019 03 13 Outlander PHEV Is Best Selling Mitsubishi In Europe InsideEVs com Archived from the original on 2019 04 16 Retrieved 2019 04 12 a b New MY19 Mitsubishi Outlander PHEV Summer 2018 PDF Press release Mitsubishi Motors 2018 Archived PDF from the original on 2018 10 30 Retrieved 2018 10 31 See tables in pp 3 4 Fossdyke James 2020 04 20 Mitsubishi Outlander PHEV Racks Up 50 000 UK Sales InsideEVs com Archived from the original on 2020 06 17 Retrieved 2020 06 16 a b c d Kane Mark 2019 01 25 Top 3 Plug In Hybrid Cars In U S In 2018 Prius Prime Clarity Volt InsideEVs com Archived from the original on 2019 01 26 Retrieved 2019 01 27 The Chevrolet Volt is the best selling plug in electric car in the U S with 152 144 units sold through the end of 2018 American sales totaled 20 349 units in 2017 and 18 306 in 2018 Combined sales of both generations of the Toyota Prius plug in hybrid totaled more than 93 000 units a b Cobb Jeff 2017 01 09 Nissan s Quarter Millionth Leaf Means It s The Best Selling Plug in Car In History HybridCars com Archived from the original on 2017 01 11 Retrieved 2017 01 10 As of December 2016 update the Nissan Leaf is the world s best selling plug in car in history with more than 250 000 units delivered followed by the Tesla Model S with over 158 000 sales and the Volt Ampera family of vehicles with 134 500 vehicles sold a b c Chevrolet Volt Sales Numbers GM Authority January 2019 Archived from the original on 2019 01 31 Retrieved 2019 02 01 Canadian sales totaled 4 313 units in 2017 and 4 114 in 2018 through November a b Cain Timothy October 2018 Chevrolet Volt Sales Figures Good Car Bad Car Archived from the original on 2017 09 10 Retrieved 2018 12 01 a b c d Buick Velite 5 Chinese Car Sales Data Car Sales Base 17 May 2017 Archived from the original on 2018 07 20 Retrieved 2019 02 01 Buick Velite 5 sales in China totaled 1 629 units in 2017 and 2 688 in 2018 Cobb Jeff 2016 12 12 Chevy Volt and Nissan Leaf Celebrate Their Sixth Year Anniversary HybridCars com Archived from the original on 2016 12 14 Retrieved 2016 12 14 Global cumulative sales of plug in electric vehicles totaled about 1 9 million units through November 2016 The Nissan Leaf is the world s leading plug in car with more than 240 000 units delivered As of November 2016 update the Tesla Model S ranks next with over 151 000 followed by the Vollt Ampera family of vehicles with 130 500 vehicles sold including over 10 000 Opel Vauxhall Amperas sold in Europe the Mitsubishi Outlander PHEV with about 116 500 units and the Toyota Prius PHV with about 76 200 a b c d Toyota sells 1 52 million electrified vehicles in 2017 three years ahead of 2020 target Press release Japan Toyota 2018 02 02 Archived from the original on 2018 10 23 Retrieved 2018 10 29 Pontes Jose 2019 01 29 Japan December 2018 EVSales com Archived from the original on 2019 01 30 Retrieved 2019 02 01 A total of 52 013 plug in cars were sold in Japan in 2018 with a market share of 1 0 The Nissan Leaf was the top selling plug in model with 25 722 units followed by the Prius PHEV with 12 401 units 46 of Toyota Motor Europe TME sales in H1 are self charging hybrid electric vehicles Press release Brussels Toyota Europe Newsroom 2018 07 11 Archived from the original on 2019 02 02 Retrieved 2019 02 01 Toyota sold 1 693 Prius PHEV during the first half of 2018 a b Kane Mark 2019 01 14 BYD Sold Record 37 000 Electric Cars In December 2018 InsideEVs com Archived from the original on 2019 01 14 Retrieved 2019 01 14 BYD Auto sold in China 227 152 plug in cars up 109 from 2017 During 2018 BYD Qin sales totaled 47 425 units and BYD Tang sales totaled 37 146 units a b Kane Mark 2018 01 26 BYD 1 In World For Plug In Electric Car Sales In 2017 Beats Tesla Again InsideEVs com Archived from the original on 2018 08 13 Retrieved 2018 10 31 During 2017 BYD Qin sales totaled 20 738 units and BYD Tang totaled 14 592 units Best selling China made EVs in 2016 China Auto Web 2017 01 19 Archived from the original on 2017 01 25 Retrieved 2017 01 25 Three BYD Auto models topped the Chinese ranking of best selling new energy passenger cars in 2016 The BYD Tang SUV was the top selling plug in electric car in China in 2016 with 31 405 units sold followed by the BYD Qin with 21 868 units sold and ranking third overall in 2016 was the BYD e6 with 20 605 units Best selling China made SUVs in 2015 China Auto Web 2016 02 13 Archived from the original on 2016 01 16 Retrieved 2016 01 17 A total of 18 375 Tangs were sold in China in 2015 Opel bringt 2017 neues Elektroauto Opel brings new electric car in 2017 Autohaus de in German 2016 02 11 Archived from the original on 2018 06 20 Retrieved 2019 02 01 About 10 000 Opel Amperas were sold in Europe by the end of 2015 Costello Mike 2015 04 25 The Holden Volt is dead Car Advice Archived from the original on 2018 09 26 Retrieved 2019 02 01 Notice 2009 89 New Qualified Plug in Electric Drive Motor Vehicle Credit Internal Revenue Service 2009 11 30 Archived from the original on 2010 03 28 Retrieved 2010 04 01 State and Federal Incentives for EVs PHEVs and Charge Stations Plug In America Archived from the original on 2011 07 27 Retrieved 2010 05 29 Hudson Paul 2010 02 28 5 000 grant to buy plug in electric cars The Daily Telegraph London Archived from the original on 2010 06 01 Retrieved 2010 04 23 Ultra low carbon cars Next steps on delivering the 250 million consumer incentive programme for electric and plug in hybrid cars PDF Department for Transport July 2009 Archived PDF from the original on 2009 12 12 Retrieved 2010 04 23 Hockenos Paul 2011 07 29 Europe s Incentive Plans for Spurring E V Sales The New York Times Archived from the original on 2015 01 23 Retrieved 2011 07 31 Overview of Purchase and Tax Incentives for Electric Vehicles in the EU PDF European Automobile Manufacturers Association 2011 03 14 Archived from the original PDF on 2011 09 27 Retrieved 2011 07 31 Evarts E January 11 2008 Charge Fuel economy law promotes plug in hybrids Archived 2008 01 13 at the Wayback Machine Consumer Reports Cars Blog Retrieved January 15 2008 Barack Obama and Joe Biden The Change We Need New Energy for America My barackobama com 2008 06 22 Archived from the original on 2009 04 11 Retrieved 2009 04 11 President Obama Announces 2 4 Billion for Electric Vehicles Apps1 eere energy gov Archived from the original on 2011 07 16 Retrieved 2010 11 27 Loc gov PDF Archived PDF from the original on 2010 11 11 Retrieved 2010 11 27 Conference Results Stunning Expansion of Plug In Tax Credits Calcars org 2009 02 12 Archived from the original on 2009 03 31 Retrieved 2009 04 11 Do You Realize Plug Ins Get 5 10 Billion in Stimulus Package Calcars org 2008 12 31 Archived from the original on 2009 04 04 Retrieved 2009 04 11 EERE News President Obama Announces 2 4 Billion for Electric Vehicles Apps1 eere energy gov 2009 03 19 Archived from the original on 2009 03 20 Retrieved 2009 04 11 Department of Energy DOE Announces 30 Million for Plug in Hybrid Electric Vehicle Projects Archived 2008 06 13 at the Wayback Machine Energy gov Apps1 eere energy gov Archived from the original on 2010 05 27 Retrieved 2010 11 27 Department of Energy and Sweden Sign MOU to Advance Market Integration of Plug in Hybrid Vehicles Archived 2008 07 14 at the Wayback Machine a b Mayors Aim to Make San Francisco Bay Area the Electric Vehicle Capital of the U S San Francisco Office of the Mayor 2008 11 20 Archived from the original on 2009 10 03 a b SF Plug In Vehicle Bonanza Watch Video Read About It Calcars org Archived from the original on 2009 06 06 Retrieved 2009 04 11 Climate Change What are we doing about it in Washington State Electrify Transportation Ecy wa gov Archived from the original on 2011 06 12 Retrieved 2010 11 27 Seattle Mayor Introduces City s First PHEV Green Car Congress 2008 05 31 Archived from the original on 2010 12 31 Retrieved 2010 11 27 Ec europa eu European Commission Archived from the original on 2011 03 19 Retrieved 2010 11 27 Cars should plug in to a new future World Wildlife Foundation 2008 04 02 Archived from the original on 2009 05 14 Retrieved 2008 12 31 Obama s Briefing Sandalow To DOE Automaker News Nat l Wildlife Federation Embraces PHEVs Calcars org 2009 03 27 Archived from the original on 2009 06 04 Retrieved 2009 04 11 Plug In Endorsements Inauguration Senate 09 Freedom Act Calcars org 2009 01 16 Archived from the original on 2009 06 05 Retrieved 2009 04 11 Senate Alert GM Reaches Out EDTA Tracking Carmakers TED Wellinghoff Calcars org Archived from the original on 2009 06 06 Retrieved 2009 04 11 Plug in Hybrid Electric School Bus Advancedenergy org Archived from the original on 2010 07 11 Retrieved 2010 11 27 Businesswire com Businesswire com 2009 09 24 Archived from the original on 2011 06 06 Retrieved 2010 11 27 Further reading EditAmerican Council for an Energy Efficient Economy Plug in Electric Vehicles Challenges and Opportunities June 2013 Argonne National Laboratory Cradle to Grave Lifecycle Analysis of U S Light Duty Vehicle Fuel Pathways A Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Economic Assessment of Current 2015 and Future 2025 2030 Technologies includes estimated cost of avoided GHG emissions from BEVs and PHEVs June 2016 Boschert Sherry 2007 Plug in Hybrids The Cars that will Recharge America 1st ed New Society Publishers ISBN 9780865715714 OCLC 74524214 International Council on Clean Transportation Driving Electrification A Global Comparison of Fiscal Incentive Policy for Electric Vehicles May 2014 International Energy Agency IEA and Electric Vehicles Initiative April 2013 Global EV Outlook 2013 Understanding the Electric Vehicle Landscape to 2020 International Energy Agency IEA IA HEV May 2013 Hybrid and Electric Vehicles The Electric Drive Gains Traction Lee Henry and Grant Lovellette 2011 Will Electric Cars Transform the U S Vehicle Market Belfer Center Harvard University Nevres Cefo 2009 Two Cents per Mile Will President Obama Make it Happen With the Stroke of a Pen Nevlin ISBN 9780615293912 OCLC 463395305 Sandalow David B ed 2009 Plug In Electric Vehicles What Role for Washington 1st ed The Brookings Institution ISBN 9780815703051 OCLC 895434772 Michalek Jeremy February 2015 CMU team finds regional temperature differences have significant impact on EV efficiency range and emissions Green Car Congress Romm Joseph J and Fox Penne Peter 2007 Plugging into the Grid How Plug In Hybrid Electric Vehicles Can Help Break America s Oil Addiction and Slow Global Warming Progressive Policy Institute U S Environmental Protection Agency Application of Life Cycle Assessment to Nanoscale Technology Lithium ion Batteries for Electric Vehicles April 2013 US Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy Plug In Hybrid Electric Vehicle Value Proposition Study Final Report July 2010 Plug in Hybrid Electric Vehicles Alternative Fuels and Advanced Vehicles Data Center AFDC including list of books and publications US National Highway Traffic Safety Administration Interim Guidance Electric and Hybrid Electric Vehicles Equipped with High Voltage Batteries Vehicle Owner General Public Interim Guidance Electric and Hybrid Electric Vehicles Equipped with High Voltage Batteries Law Enforcement Emergency Medical Services Fire DepartmentExternal links Edit Wikimedia Commons has media related to Plug in electric hybrid powered vehicles Wikiquote has quotations related to Plug in hybrid Plug In America Non profit advocacy group eGallon Calculator Compare the costs of driving with electricity U S Department of Energy Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Plug in hybrid amp oldid 1150381196, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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