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Diesel engine

January 20, 2023

Not to be confused with Diesel locomotive or Diesel (game engine).

The diesel engine, named after Rudolf Diesel, is an internal combustion engine in which ignition of the fuel is caused by the elevated temperature of the air in the cylinder due to mechanical compression; thus, the diesel engine is called a compression-ignition engine (CI engine). This contrasts with engines using spark plug-ignition of the air-fuel mixture, such as a petrol engine (gasoline engine) or a gas engine (using a gaseous fuel like natural gas or liquefied petroleum gas).

Diesel engine built by Langen & Wolf under licence, 1898.
1952 Shell Oil film showing the development of the diesel engine from 1877

Diesel engines work by compressing only air, or air plus residual combustion gases from the exhaust (known as exhaust gas recirculation (EGR)). Air is inducted into the chamber during the intake stroke, and compressed during the compression stroke. This increases the air temperature inside the cylinder to such a high degree that atomised diesel fuel injected into the combustion chamber ignites. With the fuel being injected into the air just before combustion, the dispersion of the fuel is uneven; this is called a heterogeneous air-fuel mixture. The torque a diesel engine produces is controlled by manipulating the air-fuel ratio (λ); instead of throttling the intake air, the diesel engine relies on altering the amount of fuel that is injected, and the air-fuel ratio is usually high.

The diesel engine has the highest thermal efficiency (engine efficiency) of any practical internal or external combustion engine due to its very high expansion ratio and inherent lean burn which enables heat dissipation by the excess air. A small efficiency loss is also avoided compared with non-direct-injection gasoline engines since unburned fuel is not present during valve overlap and therefore no fuel goes directly from the intake/injection to the exhaust. Low-speed diesel engines (as used in ships and other applications where overall engine weight is relatively unimportant) can reach effective efficiencies of up to 55%.[1] The combined cycle gas turbine (Brayton and Rankin cycle) is a combustion engine that is more efficient than a diesel engine, but it is, due to its mass and dimensions, unsuited for vehicles, watercraft, or aircraft. The world's largest diesel engines put in service are 14-cylinder, two-stroke marine diesel engines; they produce a peak power of almost 100 MW each.[2]

Diesel engines may be designed as either two-stroke or four-stroke cycles. They were originally used as a more efficient replacement for stationary steam engines. Since the 1910s, they have been used in submarines and ships. Use in locomotives, buses, trucks, heavy equipment, agricultural equipment and electricity generation plants followed later. In the 1930s, they slowly began to be used in a few automobiles. Since the 1970s energy crisis, demand for higher fuel efficiency has resulted in most major automakers, at some point, offering diesel-powered models, even in very small cars.[3][4][5] According to Konrad Reif (2012), the EU average for diesel cars at the time accounted for half of newly registered cars.[6] However, air pollution emissions are harder to control in diesel engines than in gasoline engines, so the use of diesel auto engines in the U.S. is now largely relegated to larger on-road and off-road vehicles.[7][8]

Though aviation has traditionally avoided diesel engines, aircraft diesel engines have become increasingly available in the 21st century. Since the late 1990s, for various reasons -- including the diesel's normal advantages over gasoline engines, but also for recent issues peculiar to aviation -- development and production of diesel engines for aircraft has surged, with over 5000 such engines delivered worldwide between 2002 and 2018, particularly for light airplanes and unmanned aerial vehicles.[9][10]


History

Diesel's idea

 
Rudolf Diesel's 1893 patent on a rational heat motor
 
Diesel's second prototype. It is a modification of the first experimental engine. On 17 February 1894, this engine ran under its own power for the first time.[11]

Effective efficiency 16.6%
Fuel consumption 519 g·kW−1·h−1
 
First fully functional diesel engine, designed by Imanuel Lauster, built from scratch, and finished by October 1896.[12][13][14]

Rated power 13.1 kW
Effective efficiency 26.2%
Fuel consumption 324 g·kW−1·h−1.

In 1878, Rudolf Diesel, who was a student at the "Polytechnikum" in Munich, attended the lectures of Carl von Linde. Linde explained that steam engines are capable of converting just 6–10% of the heat energy into work, but that the Carnot cycle allows conversion of much more of the heat energy into work by means of isothermal change in condition. According to Diesel, this ignited the idea of creating a highly efficient engine that could work on the Carnot cycle.[15] Diesel was also exposed to a fire piston, a traditional fire starter using rapid adiabatic compression principles which Linde had acquired from Southeast Asia.[16] After several years of working on his ideas, Diesel published them in 1893 in the essay Theory and Construction of a Rational Heat Motor.[15]

Diesel was heavily criticised for his essay, but only few found the mistake that he made;[17] his rational heat motor was supposed to utilise a constant temperature cycle (with isothermal compression) that would require a much higher level of compression than that needed for compression ignition. Diesel's idea was to compress the air so tightly that the temperature of the air would exceed that of combustion. However, such an engine could never perform any usable work.[18][19][20] In his 1892 US patent (granted in 1895) #542846, Diesel describes the compression required for his cycle:

"pure atmospheric air is compressed, according to curve 1 2, to such a degree that, before ignition or combustion takes place, the highest pressure of the diagram and the highest temperature are obtained-that is to say, the temperature at which the subsequent combustion has to take place, not the burning or igniting point. To make this more clear, let it be assumed that the subsequent combustion shall take place at a temperature of 700°. Then in that case the initial pressure must be sixty-four atmospheres, or for 800° centigrade the pressure must be ninety atmospheres, and so on. Into the air thus compressed is then gradually introduced from the exterior finely divided fuel, which ignites on introduction, since the air is at a temperature far above the igniting-point of the fuel. The characteristic features of the cycle according to my present invention are therefore, increase of pressure and temperature up to the maximum, not by combustion, but prior to combustion by mechanical compression of air, and there upon the subsequent performance of work without increase of pressure and temperature by gradual combustion during a prescribed part of the stroke determined by the cut-oil".[21]

By June 1893, Diesel had realised his original cycle would not work and he adopted the constant pressure cycle.[22] Diesel describes the cycle in his 1895 patent application. Notice that there is no longer a mention of compression temperatures exceeding the temperature of combustion. Now it is simply stated that the compression must be sufficient to trigger ignition.

"1. In an internal-combustion engine, the combination of a cylinder and piston constructed and arranged to compress air to a degree producing a temperature above the igniting-point of the fuel, a supply for compressed air or gas; a fuel-supply; a distributing-valve for fuel, a passage from the air supply to the cylinder in communication with the fuel-distributing valve, an inlet to the cylinder in communication with the air-supply and with the fuel-valve, and a cut-oil, substantially as described." See US patent # 608845 filed 1895 / granted 1898[23][24][25]

In 1892, Diesel received patents in Germany, Switzerland, the United Kingdom and the United States for "Method of and Apparatus for Converting Heat into Work".[26] In 1894 and 1895, he filed patents and addenda in various countries for his engine; the first patents were issued in Spain (No. 16,654),[27] France (No. 243,531) and Belgium (No. 113,139) in December 1894, and in Germany (No. 86,633) in 1895 and the United States (No. 608,845) in 1898.[28]

Diesel was attacked and criticised over a time period of several years. Critics claimed that Diesel never invented a new motor and that the invention of the diesel engine is fraud. Otto Köhler and Emil Capitaine [de] were two of the most prominent critics of Diesel's time.[29] Köhler had published an essay in 1887, in which he describes an engine similar to the engine Diesel describes in his 1893 essay. Köhler figured that such an engine could not perform any work.[20][30] Emil Capitaine had built a petroleum engine with glow-tube ignition in the early 1890s;[31] he claimed against his own better judgement that his glow-tube ignition engine worked the same way Diesel's engine did. His claims were unfounded and he lost a patent lawsuit against Diesel.[32] Other engines, such as the Akroyd engine and the Brayton engine, also use an operating cycle that is different from the diesel engine cycle.[30][33] Friedrich Sass says that the diesel engine is Diesel's "very own work" and that any "Diesel myth" is "falsification of history".[34]

The first diesel engine

Diesel sought out firms and factories that would build his engine. With the help of Moritz Schröter and Max Gutermuth [de],[35] he succeeded in convincing both Krupp in Essen and the Maschinenfabrik Augsburg.[36] Contracts were signed in April 1893,[37] and in early summer 1893, Diesel's first prototype engine was built in Augsburg. On 10 August 1893, the first ignition took place, the fuel used was petrol. In winter 1893/1894, Diesel redesigned the existing engine, and by 18 January 1894, his mechanics had converted it into the second prototype.[38] During January that year, an air-blast injection system was added to the engine's cylinder head and tested.[39] Friedrich Sass argues that, it can be presumed that Diesel copied the concept of air-blast injection from George B. Brayton,[33] albeit that Diesel substantially improved the system.[40] On 17 February 1894, the redesigned engine ran for 88 revolutions – one minute;[11] with this news, Maschinenfabrik Augsburg's stock rose by 30%, indicative of the tremendous anticipated demands for a more efficient engine.[41] On 26 June 1895, the engine achieved an effective efficiency of 16.6% and had a fuel consumption of 519 g·kW−1·h−1. [42] However, despite proving the concept, the engine caused problems,[43] and Diesel could not achieve any substantial progress.[44] Therefore, Krupp considered rescinding the contract they had made with Diesel.[45] Diesel was forced to improve the design of his engine and rushed to construct a third prototype engine. Between 8 November and 20 December 1895, the second prototype had successfully covered over 111 hours on the test bench. In the January 1896 report, this was considered a success.[46]

In February 1896, Diesel considered supercharging the third prototype.[47] Imanuel Lauster, who was ordered to draw the third prototype "Motor 250/400", had finished the drawings by 30 April 1896. During summer that year the engine was built, it was completed on 6 October 1896.[48] Tests were conducted until early 1897.[49] First public tests began on 1 February 1897.[50] Moritz Schröter's test on 17 February 1897 was the main test of Diesel's engine. The engine was rated 13.1 kW with a specific fuel consumption of 324 g·kW−1·h−1,[51] resulting in an effective efficiency of 26.2%.[52][53] By 1898, Diesel had become a millionaire.[54]

Timeline

1890s

  • 1893: Rudolf Diesel's essay titled Theory and Construction of a Rational Heat Motor appears.[55][56]
  • 1893: February 21, Diesel and the Maschinenfabrik Augsburg sign a contract that allows Diesel to build a prototype engine.[57]
  • 1893: February 23, Diesel obtains a patent (RP 67207) titled "Arbeitsverfahren und Ausführungsart für Verbrennungsmaschinen" (Working Methods and Techniques for Internal Combustion Engines).
  • 1893: April 10, Diesel and Krupp sign a contract that allows Diesel to build a prototype engine.[57]
  • 1893: April 24, both Krupp and the Maschinenfabrik Augsburg decide to collaborate and build just a single prototype in Augsburg.[57][37]
  • 1893: July, the first prototype is completed.[58]
  • 1893: August 10, Diesel injects fuel (petrol) for the first time, resulting in combustion, destroying the indicator.[59]
  • 1893: November 30, Diesel applies for a patent (RP 82168) for a modified combustion process. He obtains it on 12 July 1895.[60][61][62]
  • 1894: January 18, after the first prototype had been modified to become the second prototype, testing with the second prototype begins.[38]
  • 1894: February 17, The second prototype runs for the first time.[11]
  • 1895: March 30, Diesel applies for a patent (RP 86633) for a starting process with compressed air.[63]
  • 1895: June 26, the second prototype passes brake testing for the first time.[42]
  • 1895: Diesel applies for a second patent US Patent # 608845[64]
  • 1895: November 8 – December 20, a series of tests with the second prototype is conducted. In total, 111 operating hours are recorded.[46]
  • 1896: April 30, Imanuel Lauster completes the third and final prototype's drawings.[48]
  • 1896: October 6, the third and final prototype engine is completed.[12]
  • 1897: February 1, Diesel's prototype engine is running and finally ready for efficiency testing and production.[50]
  • 1897: October 9, Adolphus Busch licenses rights to the diesel engine for the US and Canada.[54][65]
  • 1897: 29 October, Rudolf Diesel obtains a patent (DRP 95680) on supercharging the diesel engine.[47]
  • 1898: February 1, the Diesel Motoren-Fabrik Actien-Gesellschaft is registered.[66]
  • 1898: March, the first commercial diesel engine, rated 2×30 PS (2×22 kW), is installed in the Kempten plant of the Vereinigte Zündholzfabriken A.G.[67][68]
  • 1898: September 17, the Allgemeine Gesellschaft für Dieselmotoren A.-G. is founded.[69]
  • 1899: The first two-stroke diesel engine, invented by Hugo Güldner, is built.[53]

1900s

 
An MAN DM trunk piston diesel engine built in 1906. The MAN DM series is considered to be one of the first commercially successful diesel engines.[70]
  • 1901: Imanuel Lauster designs the first trunk piston diesel engine (DM 70).[70]
  • 1901: By 1901, MAN had produced 77 diesel engine cylinders for commercial use.[71]
  • 1903: Two first diesel-powered ships are launched, both for river and canal operations: The Vandal naphtha tanker and the Sarmat.[72]
  • 1904: The French launch the first diesel submarine, the Aigrette.[73]
  • 1905: January 14: Diesel applies for a patent on unit injection (L20510I/46a).[74]
  • 1905: The first diesel engine turbochargers and intercoolers are manufactured by Büchi.[75]
  • 1906: The Diesel Motoren-Fabrik Actien-Gesellschaft is dissolved.[29]
  • 1908: Diesel's patents expire.[76]
  • 1908: The first lorry (truck) with a diesel engine appears.[77]
  • 1909: March 14, Prosper L'Orange applies for a patent on precombustion chamber injection.[78] He later builds the first diesel engine with this system.[79][80]

1910s

  • 1910: MAN starts making two-stroke diesel engines.[81]
  • 1910: November 26, James McKechnie applies for a patent on unit injection.[82] Unlike Diesel, he managed to successfully build working unit injectors.[74][83]
  • 1911: November 27, the Allgemeine Gesellschaft für Dieselmotoren A.-G. is dissolved.[66]
  • 1911: The Germania shipyard in Kiel builds 850 PS (625 kW) diesel engines for German submarines. These engines are installed in 1914.[84]
  • 1912: MAN builds the first double-acting piston two-stroke diesel engine.[85]
  • 1912: The first locomotive with a diesel engine is used on the Swiss Winterthur-Romanshorn railroad.[86]
  • 1912: The Selandia is the first ocean-going ship with diesel engines.[87]
  • 1913: NELSECO diesels are installed on commercial ships and US Navy submarines.[88]
  • 1913: September 29, Rudolf Diesel dies mysteriously when crossing the English Channel on the SS Dresden.[89]
  • 1914: MAN builds 900 PS (662 kW) two-stroke engines for Dutch submarines.[90]
  • 1919: Prosper L'Orange obtains a patent on a Precombustion chamber insert incorporating a needle injection nozzle.[91][92][80] First diesel engine from Cummins.[93][94]

1920s

 
Fairbanks Morse model 32
  • 1923: At the Königsberg DLG exhibition, the first agricultural tractor with a diesel engine, the prototype Benz-Sendling S6, is presented.[95][better source needed]
  • 1923: December 15, the first lorry with a direct-injected diesel engine is tested by MAN. The same year, Benz builds a lorry with a pre-combustion chamber injected diesel engine.[96]
  • 1923: The first two-stroke diesel engine with counterflow scavenging appears.[97]
  • 1924: Fairbanks-Morse introduces the two-stroke Y-VA (later renamed to Model 32).[98]
  • 1925: Sendling starts mass-producing a diesel-powered agricultural tractor.[99]
  • 1927: Bosch introduces the first inline injection pump for motor vehicle diesel engines.[100]
  • 1929: The first passenger car with a diesel engine appears. Its engine is an Otto engine modified to use the diesel principle and Bosch's injection pump. Several other diesel car prototypes follow.[101]

1930s

  • 1933: Junkers Motorenwerke in Germany start production of the most successful mass-produced aviation diesel engine of all time, the Jumo 205. By the outbreak of World War II, over 900 examples are produced. Its rated take-off power is 645 kW.[102]
  • 1933: General Motors uses its new roots-blown, unit-injected two-stroke Winton 201A diesel engine to power its automotive assembly exhibit at the Chicago World's Fair (A Century of Progress).[103] The engine is offered in several versions ranging from 600 to 900 hp (447–671 kW).[104]
  • 1934: The Budd Company builds the first diesel–electric passenger train in the US, the Pioneer Zephyr 9900, using a Winton engine.[103]
  • 1935: The Citroën Rosalie is fitted with an early swirl chamber injected diesel engine for testing purposes.[105] Daimler-Benz starts manufacturing the Mercedes-Benz OM 138, the first mass-produced diesel engine for passenger cars, and one of the few marketable passenger car diesel engines of its time. It is rated 45 PS (33 kW).[106]
  • 1936: March 4, the airship LZ 129 Hindenburg, the biggest aircraft ever made, takes off for the first time. She is powered by four V16 Daimler-Benz LOF 6 diesel engines, rated 1200 PS (883 kW) each.[107]
  • 1936: Manufacture of the first mass-produced passenger car with a diesel engine (Mercedes-Benz 260 D) begins.[101]
  • 1937: Konstantin Fyodorovich Chelpan develops the V-2 diesel engine, later used in the Soviet T-34 tanks, widely regarded as the best tank chassis of World War II.[108]
  • 1938: General Motors forms the GM Diesel Division, later to become Detroit Diesel, and introduces the Series 71 inline high-speed medium-horsepower two-stroke engine, suitable for road vehicles and marine use.[109]

1940s

  • 1946: Clessie Cummins obtains a patent on a fuel feeding and injection apparatus for oil-burning engines that incorporates separate components for generating injection pressure and injection timing.[110]
  • 1946: Klöckner-Humboldt-Deutz (KHD) introduces an air-cooled mass-production diesel engine to the market.[111]

1950s

 
Piston of an MAN M-System centre sphere combustion chamber type diesel engine (4 VD 14,5/12-1 SRW)
  • 1950s: KHD becomes the air-cooled diesel engine global market leader.[112]
  • 1951: J. Siegfried Meurer obtains a patent on the M-System, a design that incorporates a central sphere combustion chamber in the piston (DBP 865683).[113]
  • 1953: First mass-produced swirl chamber injected passenger car diesel engine (Borgward/Fiat).[82]
  • 1954: Daimler-Benz introduces the Mercedes-Benz OM 312 A, a 4.6 litre straight-6 series-production industrial diesel engine with a turbocharger, rated 115 PS (85 kW). It proves to be unreliable.[114]
  • 1954: Volvo produces a small batch series of 200 units of a turbocharged version of the TD 96 engine. This 9.6 litre engine is rated 136 kW.[115]
  • 1955: Turbocharging for MAN two-stroke marine diesel engines becomes standard.[97]
  • 1959: The Peugeot 403 becomes the first mass-produced passenger sedan/saloon manufactured outside West Germany to be offered with a diesel engine option.[116]

1960s

 
Mercedes-Benz OM 352, one of the first direct injected Mercedes-Benz diesel engines. It was introduced in 1963, but mass production only started in summer 1964.[117]

1970s

  • 1972: KHD introduces the AD-System, Allstoff-Direkteinspritzung, (anyfuel direct-injection), for its diesel engines. AD-diesels can operate on virtually any kind of liquid fuel, but they are fitted with an auxiliary spark plug that fires if the ignition quality of the fuel is too low.[120]
  • 1976: Development of the common rail injection begins at the ETH Zürich.[121]
  • 1976: The Volkswagen Golf becomes the first compact passenger sedan/saloon to be offered with a diesel engine option.[122][123]
  • 1978: Daimler-Benz produces the first passenger car diesel engine with a turbocharger (Mercedes-Benz OM 617).[124]
  • 1979: First prototype of a low-speed two-stroke crosshead engine with common rail injection.[125]

1980s

 
BMW E28 524td, the first mass-produced passenger car with an electronically controlled injection pump
  • 1981/82: Uniflow scavenging for two-stroke marine diesel engines becomes standard.[126]
  • 1985: December, road testing of a common rail injection system for lorries using a modified 6VD 12,5/12 GRF-E engine in an IFA W50 takes place.[127]
  • 1986: The BMW E28 524td is the world's first passenger car equipped with an electronically controlled injection pump (developed by Bosch).[82][128]
  • 1987: Daimler-Benz introduces the electronically controlled injection pump for lorry diesel engines.[82]
  • 1988: The Fiat Croma becomes the first mass-produced passenger car in the world to have a direct injected diesel engine.[82]
  • 1989: The Audi 100 is the first passenger car in the world with a turbocharged, direct injected, and electronically controlled diesel engine.[82]

1990s

  • 1992: 1 July, the Euro 1 emission standard comes into effect.[129]
  • 1993: First passenger car diesel engine with four valves per cylinder, the Mercedes-Benz OM 604.[124]
  • 1994: Unit injector system by Bosch for lorry diesel engines.[130]
  • 1996: First diesel engine with direct injection and four valves per cylinder, used in the Opel Vectra.[131][82]
  • 1996: First radial piston distributor injection pump by Bosch.[130]
  • 1997: First mass-produced common rail diesel engine for a passenger car, the Fiat 1.9 JTD.[82][124]
  • 1998: BMW wins the 24 Hours Nürburgring race with a modified BMW E36. The car, called 320d, is powered by a 2-litre, straight-four diesel engine with direct injection and a helix-controlled distributor injection pump (Bosch VP 44), producing 180 kW. The fuel consumption is 23 L/100 km, only half the fuel consumption of a similar Otto-powered car.[132]
  • 1998: Volkswagen introduces the VW EA188 Pumpe-Düse engine (1.9 TDI), with Bosch-developed electronically controlled unit injectors.[124]
  • 1999: Daimler-Chrysler presents the first common rail three-cylinder diesel engine used in a passenger car (the Smart City Coupé).[82]

2000s

 
Audi R10 TDI, 2006 24 Hours of Le Mans winner.
  • 2000: Peugeot introduces the diesel particulate filter for passenger cars.[82][124]
  • 2002: Piezoelectric injector technology by Siemens.[133]
  • 2003: Piezoelectric injector technology by Bosch,[134] and Delphi.[135]
  • 2004: BMW introduces dual-stage turbocharging with the BMW M57 engine.[124]
  • 2006: The world's most powerful diesel engine, the Wärtsilä RT-flex96C, is produced. It is rated 80,080 kW.[136]
  • 2006: Audi R10 TDI, equipped with a 5.5-litre V12-TDI engine, rated 476 kW, wins the 2006 24 Hours of Le Mans.[82]
  • 2006: Daimler-Chrysler launches the first series-production passenger car engine with selective catalytic reduction exhaust gas treatment, the Mercedes-Benz OM 642. It is fully complying with the Tier2Bin8 emission standard.[124]
  • 2008: Volkswagen introduces the LNT catalyst for passenger car diesel engines with the VW 2.0 TDI engine.[124]
  • 2008: Volkswagen starts series production of the biggest passenger car diesel engine, the Audi 6-litre V12 TDI.[124]
  • 2008: Subaru introduces the first horizontally opposed diesel engine to be fitted to a passenger car. It is a 2-litre common rail engine, rated 110 kW.[137]

2010s

Operating principle

Overview

The characteristics of a diesel engine are[142]

  • Use of compression ignition, instead of an ignition apparatus such as a spark plug.
  • Internal mixture formation. In diesel engines, the mixture of air and fuel is only formed inside the combustion chamber.
  • Quality torque control. The amount of torque a diesel engine produces is not controlled by throttling the intake air (unlike a traditional spark-ignition petrol engine, where the airflow is reduced in order to regulate the torque output), instead, the volume of air entering the engine is maximised at all times, and the torque output is regulated solely by controlling the amount of injected fuel.
  • High air-fuel ratio. Diesel engines run at global air-fuel ratios significantly leaner than the stoichiometric ratio.
  • Diffusion flame: At combustion, oxygen first has to diffuse into the flame, rather than having oxygen and fuel already mixed before combustion, which would result in a premixed flame.
  • Heterogeneous air-fuel mixture: In diesel engines, there is no even dispersion of fuel and air inside the cylinder. That is because the combustion process begins at the end of the injection phase, before a homogeneous mixture of air and fuel can be formed.
  • Preference for the fuel to have a high ignition performance (Cetane number), rather than a high knocking resistance (octane rating) that is preferred for petrol engines.

Thermodynamic cycle

 
Diesel engine model, left side
 
Diesel engine model, right side
See also: Diesel cycle and Reciprocating internal combustion engine

The diesel internal combustion engine differs from the gasoline powered Otto cycle by using highly compressed hot air to ignite the fuel rather than using a spark plug (compression ignition rather than spark ignition).

In the diesel engine, only air is initially introduced into the combustion chamber. The air is then compressed with a compression ratio typically between 15:1 and 23:1. This high compression causes the temperature of the air to rise. At about the top of the compression stroke, fuel is injected directly into the compressed air in the combustion chamber. This may be into a (typically toroidal) void in the top of the piston or a pre-chamber depending upon the design of the engine. The fuel injector ensures that the fuel is broken down into small droplets, and that the fuel is distributed evenly. The heat of the compressed air vaporises fuel from the surface of the droplets. The vapour is then ignited by the heat from the compressed air in the combustion chamber, the droplets continue to vaporise from their surfaces and burn, getting smaller, until all the fuel in the droplets has been burnt. Combustion occurs at a substantially constant pressure during the initial part of the power stroke. The start of vaporisation causes a delay before ignition and the characteristic diesel knocking sound as the vapour reaches ignition temperature and causes an abrupt increase in pressure above the piston (not shown on the P-V indicator diagram). When combustion is complete the combustion gases expand as the piston descends further; the high pressure in the cylinder drives the piston downward, supplying power to the crankshaft.

As well as the high level of compression allowing combustion to take place without a separate ignition system, a high compression ratio greatly increases the engine's efficiency. Increasing the compression ratio in a spark-ignition engine where fuel and air are mixed before entry to the cylinder is limited by the need to prevent pre-ignition, which would cause engine damage. Since only air is compressed in a diesel engine, and fuel is not introduced into the cylinder until shortly before top dead centre (TDC), premature detonation is not a problem and compression ratios are much higher.

 
pV diagram for the ideal diesel cycle (which follows the numbers 1–4 in clockwise direction). The horizontal axis is the cylinder volume. In the diesel cycle the combustion occurs at almost constant pressure. On this diagram the work that is generated for each cycle corresponds to the area within the loop.

The pressure–volume diagram (pV) diagram is a simplified and idealised representation of the events involved in a diesel engine cycle, arranged to illustrate the similarity with a Carnot cycle. Starting at 1, the piston is at bottom dead centre and both valves are closed at the start of the compression stroke; the cylinder contains air at atmospheric pressure. Between 1 and 2 the air is compressed adiabatically – that is without heat transfer to or from the environment – by the rising piston. (This is only approximately true since there will be some heat exchange with the cylinder walls.) During this compression, the volume is reduced, the pressure and temperature both rise. At or slightly before 2 (TDC) fuel is injected and burns in the compressed hot air. Chemical energy is released and this constitutes an injection of thermal energy (heat) into the compressed gas. Combustion and heating occur between 2 and 3. In this interval the pressure remains constant since the piston descends, and the volume increases; the temperature rises as a consequence of the energy of combustion. At 3 fuel injection and combustion are complete, and the cylinder contains gas at a higher temperature than at 2. Between 3 and 4 this hot gas expands, again approximately adiabatically. Work is done on the system to which the engine is connected. During this expansion phase the volume of the gas rises, and its temperature and pressure both fall. At 4 the exhaust valve opens, and the pressure falls abruptly to atmospheric (approximately). This is unresisted expansion and no useful work is done by it. Ideally the adiabatic expansion should continue, extending the line 3–4 to the right until the pressure falls to that of the surrounding air, but the loss of efficiency caused by this unresisted expansion is justified by the practical difficulties involved in recovering it (the engine would have to be much larger). After the opening of the exhaust valve, the exhaust stroke follows, but this (and the following induction stroke) are not shown on the diagram. If shown, they would be represented by a low-pressure loop at the bottom of the diagram. At 1 it is assumed that the exhaust and induction strokes have been completed, and the cylinder is again filled with air. The piston-cylinder system absorbs energy between 1 and 2 – this is the work needed to compress the air in the cylinder, and is provided by mechanical kinetic energy stored in the flywheel of the engine. Work output is done by the piston-cylinder combination between 2 and 4. The difference between these two increments of work is the indicated work output per cycle, and is represented by the area enclosed by the pV loop. The adiabatic expansion is in a higher pressure range than that of the compression because the gas in the cylinder is hotter during expansion than during compression. It is for this reason that the loop has a finite area, and the net output of work during a cycle is positive.[143]

Efficiency

The fuel efficiency of diesel engines is better than most other types of combustion engines,[144][145] due to their high compression ratio, high air–fuel equivalence ratio (λ),[146] and the lack of intake air restrictions (i.e. throttle valves). Theoretically, the highest possible efficiency for a diesel engine is 75%.[147] However, in practice the efficiency is much lower, with efficiencies of up to 43% for passenger car engines,[148] up to 45% for large truck and bus engines, and up to 55% for large two-stroke marine engines.[1][149] The average efficiency over a motor vehicle driving cycle is lower than the diesel engine's peak efficiency (for example, a 37% average efficiency for an engine with a peak efficiency of 44%).[150] That is because the fuel efficiency of a diesel engine drops at lower loads, however, it does not drop quite as fast as the Otto (spark ignition) engine's.[151]

Emissions

See also: Diesel exhaust

Diesel engines are combustion engines and, therefore, emit combustion products in their exhaust gas. Due to incomplete combustion,[152] diesel engine exhaust gases include carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons, particulate matter, and nitrogen oxides pollutants. About 90 per cent of the pollutants can be removed from the exhaust gas using exhaust gas treatment technology.[153][154] Road vehicle diesel engines have no sulphur dioxide emissions, because motor vehicle diesel fuel has been sulphur free since 2003.[155] Helmut Tschöke argues that particulate matter emitted from motor vehicles has negative impacts on human health.[156]

The particulate matter in diesel exhaust emissions is sometimes classified as a carcinogen or "probable carcinogen" and is known to increase the risk of heart and respiratory diseases.[157]

Electrical system

In principle, a diesel engine does not require any sort of electrical system. However, most modern diesel engines are equipped with an electrical fuel pump, and an electronic engine control unit.

However, there is no high-voltage electrical ignition system present in a diesel engine. This eliminates a source of radio frequency emissions (which can interfere with navigation and communication equipment), which is why only diesel-powered vehicles are allowed in some parts of the American National Radio Quiet Zone.[158]

Torque control

To control the torque output at any given time (i.e. when the driver of a car adjusts the accelerator pedal), a governor adjusts the amount of fuel injected into the engine. Mechanical governors have been used in the past, however electronic governors are more common on modern engines. Mechanical governors are usually driven by the engine's accessory belt or a gear-drive system[159][160] and use a combination of springs and weights to control fuel delivery relative to both load and speed.[159] Electronically-governed engines use an electronic control unit (ECU) or electronic control module (ECM) to control the fuel delivery. The ECM/ECU uses various sensors (such as engine speed signal, intake manifold pressure and fuel temperature) to determine the amount of fuel injected into the engine.

Due to the amount of air being constant (for a given RPM) while the amount of fuel varies, very high ("lean") air-fuel ratios are used in situations where minimal torque output is required. This differs from a petrol engine, where a throttle is used to also reduce the amount of intake air as part of regulating the engine's torque output. Controlling the timing of the start of injection of fuel into the cylinder is similar to controlling the ignition timing in a petrol engine. It is therefore a key factor in controlling the power output, fuel consumption and exhaust emissions.

Classification

There are several different ways of categorising diesel engines, as outlined in the following sections.

RPM operating range

Günter Mau categorises diesel engines by their rotational speeds into three groups:[161]

  • High-speed engines (> 1,000 rpm),
  • Medium-speed engines (300–1,000 rpm), and
  • Slow-speed engines (< 300 rpm).
High-speed diesel engines

High-speed engines are used to power trucks (lorries), buses, tractors, cars, yachts, compressors, pumps and small electrical generators.[162] As of 2018, most high-speed engines have direct injection. Many modern engines, particularly in on-highway applications, have common rail direct injection.[163] On bigger ships, high-speed diesel engines are often used for powering electric generators.[164] The highest power output of high-speed diesel engines is approximately 5 MW.[165]

Medium-speed diesel engines
 
Stationary 12 cylinder turbo-diesel engine coupled to a generator set for auxiliary power

Medium-speed engines are used in large electrical generators, railway diesel locomotives, ship propulsion and mechanical drive applications such as large compressors or pumps. Medium speed diesel engines operate on either diesel fuel or heavy fuel oil by direct injection in the same manner as low-speed engines. Usually, they are four-stroke engines with trunk pistons;[166] a notable exception being the EMD 567, 645, and 710 engines, which are all two-stroke.[167]

The power output of medium-speed diesel engines can be as high as 21,870 kW,[168] with the effective efficiency being around 47...48% (1982).[169] Most larger medium-speed engines are started with compressed air direct on pistons, using an air distributor, as opposed to a pneumatic starting motor acting on the flywheel, which tends to be used for smaller engines.[170]

Medium-speed engines intended for marine applications are usually used to power (ro-ro) ferries, passenger ships or small freight ships. Using medium-speed engines reduces the cost of smaller ships and increases their transport capacity. In addition to that, a single ship can use two smaller engines instead of one big engine, which increases the ship's safety.[166]

Low-speed diesel engines
 
The MAN B&W 5S50MC, a two-stroke, low-speed, inline five-cylinder marine diesel engine onboard a 29,000 tonne chemical carrier

Low-speed diesel engines are usually very large in size and mostly used to power ships. There are two different types of low-speed engines that are commonly used: Two-stroke engines with a crosshead, and four-stroke engines with a regular trunk-piston. Two-stroke engines have a limited rotational frequency and their charge exchange is more difficult, which means that they are usually bigger than four-stroke engines and used to directly power a ship's propeller.

Four-stroke engines on ships are usually used to power an electric generator. An electric motor powers the propeller.[161] Both types are usually very undersquare, meaning the bore is smaller than the stroke.[171] Low-speed diesel engines (as used in ships and other applications where overall engine weight is relatively unimportant) often have an effective efficiency of up to 55%.[1] Like medium-speed engines, low-speed engines are started with compressed air, and they use heavy oil as their primary fuel.[170]

Combustion cycle

 
Schematic of a two-stroke diesel engine with a roots blower
 
Detroit Diesel timing

Four-stroke engines use the combustion cycle described earlier.

Two-stroke engines use a combustion cycle which is completed in two strokes instead of four strokes. Filling the cylinder with air and compressing it takes place in one stroke, and the power and exhaust strokes are combined. The compression in a two-stroke diesel engine is similar to the compression that takes place in a four-stroke diesel engine: As the piston passes through bottom centre and starts upward, compression commences, culminating in fuel injection and ignition. Instead of a full set of valves, two-stroke diesel engines have simple intake ports, and exhaust ports (or exhaust valves). When the piston approaches bottom dead centre, both the intake and the exhaust ports are "open", which means that there is atmospheric pressure inside the cylinder. Therefore, some sort of pump is required to blow the air into the cylinder and the combustion gasses into the exhaust. This process is called scavenging. The pressure required is approximately 10 - 30 kPa.[172]

Due to the lack of discrete exhaust and intake strokes, all two-stroke diesel engines use a scavenge blower or some form of compressor to charge the cylinders with air and assist in scavenging.[172] Roots-type superchargers were used for ship engines until the mid-1950s, however since 1955 they have been widely replaced by turbochargers.[173] Usually, a two-stroke ship diesel engine has a single-stage turbocharger with a turbine that has an axial inflow and a radial outflow.[174]

Scavenging in two-stroke engines

In general, there are three types of scavenging possible:

Crossflow scavenging is incomplete and limits the stroke, yet some manufacturers used it.[175] Reverse flow scavenging is a very simple way of scavenging, and it was popular amongst manufacturers until the early 1980s. Uniflow scavenging is more complicated to make but allows the highest fuel efficiency; since the early 1980s, manufacturers such as MAN and Sulzer have switched to this system.[126] It is standard for modern marine two-stroke diesel engines.[2]

Fuel used

Main article: Bi-fuel vehicle § Diesel conversions

So-called dual-fuel diesel engines or gas diesel engines burn two different types of fuel simultaneously, for instance, a gaseous fuel and diesel engine fuel. The diesel engine fuel auto-ignites due to compression ignition, and then ignites the gaseous fuel. Such engines do not require any type of spark ignition and operate similar to regular diesel engines.[176]

Fuel injection

The fuel is injected at high pressure into either the combustion chamber, the "swirl chamber" or the "pre-chamber"[142] (unlike older petrol engines where the fuel is added in the inlet manifold or carburettor). Engines where the fuel is injected into the main combustion chamber are called "direct injection" (DI) engines, while those which use a swirl chamber or pre-chamber are called "indirect injection" (IDI) engines.[177]

Direct injection

 
Different types of piston bowls
Main article: Direct fuel injection

Most direct injection diesel engines have a combustion cup in the top of the piston where the fuel is sprayed. Many different methods of injection can be used. Usually, an engine with helix-controlled mechanic direct injection has either an inline or a distributor injection pump.[159] For each engine cylinder, the corresponding plunger in the fuel pump measures out the correct amount of fuel and determines the timing of each injection. These engines use injectors that are very precise spring-loaded valves that open and close at a specific fuel pressure. Separate high-pressure fuel lines connect the fuel pump with each cylinder. Fuel volume for each single combustion is controlled by a slanted groove in the plunger which rotates only a few degrees releasing the pressure and is controlled by a mechanical governor, consisting of weights rotating at engine speed constrained by springs and a lever. The injectors are held open by the fuel pressure. On high-speed engines the plunger pumps are together in one unit.[178] The length of fuel lines from the pump to each injector is normally the same for each cylinder in order to obtain the same pressure delay. Direct injected diesel engines usually use orifice-type fuel injectors.[179]

Electronic control of the fuel injection transformed the direct injection engine by allowing much greater control over the combustion.[180]

Common rail

Common rail (CR) direct injection systems do not have the fuel metering, pressure-raising and delivery functions in a single unit, as in the case of a Bosch distributor-type pump, for example. A high-pressure pump supplies the CR. The requirements of each cylinder injector are supplied from this common high pressure reservoir of fuel. An Electronic Diesel Control (EDC) controls both rail pressure and injections depending on engine operating conditions. The injectors of older CR systems have solenoid-driven plungers for lifting the injection needle, whilst newer CR injectors use plungers driven by piezoelectric actuators that have fewer moving mass and therefore allow even more injections in a very short period of time.[181] Early common rail system were controlled by mechanical means.

The injection pressure of modern CR systems ranges from 140 MPa to 270 MPa.[182]

Indirect injection

 
Ricardo Comet indirect injection chamber
Main article: Indirect injection

An indirect diesel injection system (IDI) engine delivers fuel into a small chamber called a swirl chamber, precombustion chamber, pre chamber or ante-chamber, which is connected to the cylinder by a narrow air passage. Generally the goal of the pre chamber is to create increased turbulence for better air / fuel mixing. This system also allows for a smoother, quieter running engine, and because fuel mixing is assisted by turbulence, injector pressures can be lower. Most IDI systems use a single orifice injector. The pre-chamber has the disadvantage of lowering efficiency due to increased heat loss to the engine's cooling system, restricting the combustion burn, thus reducing the efficiency by 5–10%. IDI engines are also more difficult to start and usually require the use of glow plugs. IDI engines may be cheaper to build but generally require a higher compression ratio than the DI counterpart. IDI also makes it easier to produce smooth, quieter running engines with a simple mechanical injection system since exact injection timing is not as critical. Most modern automotive engines are DI which have the benefits of greater efficiency and easier starting; however, IDI engines can still be found in the many ATV and small diesel applications.[183] Indirect injected diesel engines use pintle-type fuel injectors.[179]

Air-blast injection

 
Typical early 20th century air-blast injected diesel engine, rated at 59 kW.
Main article: Air-blast injection

Early diesel engines injected fuel with the assistance of compressed air, which atomised the fuel and forced it into the engine through a nozzle (a similar principle to an aerosol spray). The nozzle opening was closed by a pin valve actuated by the camshaft. Although the engine was also required to drive an air compressor used for air-blast injection, the efficiency was nonetheless better than other combustion engines of the time.[53] However the system was heavy and it was slow to react to changing torque demands, making it unsuitable for road vehicles.[184]

Unit injectors

Main article: Unit Injector

A unit injector system, also known as "Pumpe-Düse" (pump-nozzle in German) combines the injector and fuel pump into a single component, which is positioned above each cylinder. This eliminates the high-pressure fuel lines and achieves a more consistent injection. Under full load, the injection pressure can reach up to 220 MPa.[185] Unit injectors are operated by a cam and the quantity of fuel injected is controlled either mechanically (by a rack or lever) or electronically.

Due to increased performance requirementss, unit injectors have been largely replaced by common-rail injection systems.[163]

Diesel engine particularities

Mass

The average diesel engine has a poorer power-to-mass ratio than an equivalent petrol engine. The lower engine speeds (RPM) of typical diesel engines results in a lower power output.[186] Also, the mass of a diesel engine is typically higher, since the higher operating pressure inside the combustion chamber increases the internal forces, which requires stronger (and therefore heavier) parts to withstand these forces.[187]

Noise ('diesel clatter')

Engine noise of a 1950s MWM AKD 112 Z two-cylinder diesel engine at idle

The distinctive noise of a diesel engine, particularly at idling speeds, is sometimes called "diesel clatter". This noise is largely caused by the sudden ignition of the diesel fuel when injected into the combustion chamber, which causes a pressure wave that sounds like knocking.

Engine designers can reduce diesel clatter through: indirect injection; pilot or pre-injection;[188] injection timing; injection rate; compression ratio; turbo boost; and exhaust gas recirculation (EGR).[189] Common rail diesel injection systems permit multiple injection events as an aid to noise reduction. Through measures such as these, diesel clatter noise is greatly reduced in modern engines. Diesel fuels with a higher cetane rating are more likely to ignite and hence reduce diesel clatter.[190]

Cold weather starting

In warmer climates, diesel engines do not require any starting aid (aside from the starter motor). However, many diesel engines include some form of preheating for the combustion chamber, to assist starting in cold conditions. Engines with a displacement of less than 1 litre per cylinder usually have glowplugs, whilst larger heavy-duty engines have flame-start systems.[191] The minimum starting temperature that allows starting without pre-heating is 40 °C for precombustion chamber engines, 20 °C for swirl chamber engines, and 0 °C for direct injected engines.

In the past, a wider variety of cold-start methods were used. Some engines, such as Detroit Diesel engines used[when?] a system to introduce small amounts of ether into the inlet manifold to start combustion.[192] Instead of glowplugs, some diesel engines are equipped with starting aid systems that change valve timing. The simplest way this can be done is with a decompression lever. Activating the decompression lever locks the outlet valves in a slight down position, resulting in the engine not having any compression and thus allowing for turning the crankshaft over with significantly less resistance. When the crankshaft reaches a higher speed, flipping the decompression lever back into its normal position will abruptly re-activate the outlet valves, resulting in compression − the flywheel's mass moment of inertia then starts the engine.[193] Other diesel engines, such as the precombustion chamber engine XII Jv 170/240 made by Ganz & Co., have a valve timing changing system that is operated by adjusting the inlet valve camshaft, moving it into a slight "late" position. This will make the inlet valves open with a delay, forcing the inlet air to heat up when entering the combustion chamber.[194]

Supercharging & turbocharging

 
1980s BMW M21 passenger car turbo-diesel engine
See also: Turbo-diesel

Forced induction, especially turbocharging is commonly used on diesel engines because it greatly increases efficiency, and torque output.[195] Diesel engines are well suited for forced induction setups due to their operating principle which is characterised by wide ignition limits[142] and the absence of fuel during the compression stroke. Therefore, knocking, pre-ignition or detonation cannot occur, and a lean mixture caused by excess supercharging air inside the combustion chamber does not negatively affect combustion.[196]

Fuel and fluid characteristics

Main article: Diesel fuel

Diesel engines can combust a huge variety of fuels, including several fuel oils that have advantages over fuels such as petrol. These advantages include:

    • Low fuel costs, as fuel oils are relatively cheap
    • Good lubrication properties
    • High energy density
    • Low risk of catching fire, as they do not form a flammable vapour
    • Biodiesel is an easily synthesised, non-petroleum-based fuel (through transesterification) which can run directly in many diesel engines, while gasoline engines either need adaptation to run synthetic fuels or else use them as an additive to gasoline (e.g., ethanol added to gasohol).

In diesel engines, a mechanical injector system atomizes the fuel directly into the combustion chamber (as opposed to a Venturi jet in a carburetor, or a fuel injector in a manifold injection system atomizing fuel into the intake manifold or intake runners as in a petrol engine). Because only air is inducted into the cylinder in a diesel engine, the compression ratio can be much higher as there is no risk of pre-ignition provided the injection process is accurately timed.[196] This means that cylinder temperatures are much higher in a diesel engine than a petrol engine, allowing less volatile fuels to be used.

 
The MAN 630's M-System diesel engine is a petrol engine (designed to run on NATO F 46/F 50 petrol), but it also runs on jet fuel, (NATO F 40/F 44), kerosene, (NATO F 58), and diesel engine fuel (NATO F 54/F 75)

Therefore, diesel engines can operate on a huge variety of different fuels. In general, fuel for diesel engines should have a proper viscosity, so that the injection pump can pump the fuel to the injection nozzles without causing damage to itself or corrosion of the fuel line. At injection, the fuel should form a good fuel spray, and it should not have a coking effect upon the injection nozzles. To ensure proper engine starting and smooth operation, the fuel should be willing to ignite and hence not cause a high ignition delay, (this means that the fuel should have a high cetane number). Diesel fuel should also have a high lower heating value.[197]

Inline mechanical injector pumps generally tolerate poor-quality or bio-fuels better than distributor-type pumps. Also, indirect injection engines generally run more satisfactorily on fuels with a high ignition delay (for instance, petrol) than direct injection engines.[198] This is partly because an indirect injection engine has a much greater 'swirl' effect, improving vaporisation and combustion of fuel, and because (in the case of vegetable oil-type fuels) lipid depositions can condense on the cylinder walls of a direct-injection engine if combustion temperatures are too low (such as starting the engine from cold). Direct-injected engines with an MAN centre sphere combustion chamber rely on fuel condensing on the combustion chamber walls. The fuel starts vaporising only after ignition sets in, and it burns relatively smoothly. Therefore, such engines also tolerate fuels with poor ignition delay characteristics, and, in general, they can operate on petrol rated 86 RON.[199]

Fuel types

In his 1893 work Theory and Construction of a Rational Heat Motor, Rudolf Diesel considers using coal dust as fuel for the diesel engine. However, Diesel just considered using coal dust (as well as liquid fuels and gas); his actual engine was designed to operate on petroleum, which was soon replaced with regular petrol and kerosene for further testing purposes, as petroleum proved to be too viscous.[200] In addition to kerosene and petrol, Diesel's engine could also operate on ligroin.[201]

Before diesel engine fuel was standardised, fuels such as petrol, kerosene, gas oil, vegetable oil and mineral oil, as well as mixtures of these fuels, were used.[202] Typical fuels specifically intended to be used for diesel engines were petroleum distillates and coal-tar distillates such as the following; these fuels have specific lower heating values of:

  • Diesel oil: 10,200 kcal·kg−1 (42.7 MJ·kg−1) up to 10,250 kcal·kg−1 (42.9 MJ·kg−1)
  • Heating oil: 10,000 kcal·kg−1 (41.8 MJ·kg−1) up to 10,200 kcal·kg−1 (42.7 MJ·kg−1)
  • Coal-tar creosote: 9,150 kcal·kg−1 (38.3 MJ·kg−1) up to 9,250 kcal·kg−1 (38.7 MJ·kg−1)
  • Kerosene: up to 10,400 kcal·kg−1 (43.5 MJ·kg−1)

Source:[203]

The first diesel fuel standards were the DIN 51601, VTL 9140-001, and NATO F 54, which appeared after World War II.[202] The modern European EN 590 diesel fuel standard was established in May 1993; the modern version of the NATO F 54 standard is mostly identical with it. The DIN 51628 biodiesel standard was rendered obsolete by the 2009 version of the EN 590; FAME biodiesel conforms to the EN 14214 standard. Watercraft diesel engines usually operate on diesel engine fuel that conforms to the ISO 8217 standard (Bunker C). Also, some diesel engines can operate on gasses (such as LNG).[204]

Modern diesel fuel properties

Modern diesel fuel properties[205]
EN 590 (as of 2009) EN 14214 (as of 2010)
Ignition performance ≥ 51 CN ≥ 51 CN
Density at 15 °C 820...845 kg·m−3 860...900 kg·m−3
Sulphur content ≤10 mg·kg−1 ≤10 mg·kg−1
Water content ≤200 mg·kg−1 ≤500 mg·kg−1
Lubricity 460 µm 460 µm
Viscosity at 40 °C 2.0...4.5 mm2·s−1 3.5...5.0 mm2·s−1
FAME content ≤7.0% ≥96.5%
Molar H/C ratio – 1.69
Lower heating value – 37.1 MJ·kg−1

Gelling

DIN 51601 diesel fuel was prone to waxing or gelling in cold weather; both are terms for the solidification of diesel oil into a partially crystalline state. The crystals build up in the fuel system (especially in fuel filters), eventually starving the engine of fuel and causing it to stop running.[206] Low-output electric heaters in fuel tanks and around fuel lines were used to solve this problem. Also, most engines have a spill return system, by which any excess fuel from the injector pump and injectors is returned to the fuel tank. Once the engine has warmed, returning warm fuel prevents waxing in the tank. Before direct injection diesel engines, some manufacturers, such as BMW, recommended mixing up to 30% petrol in with the diesel by fuelling diesel cars with petrol to prevent the fuel from gelling when the temperatures dropped below −15 °C.[207]

Safety

Fuel flammability

Diesel fuel is less flammable than petrol, because its flash point is 55 °C,[206][208] leading to a lower risk of fire caused by fuel in a vehicle equipped with a diesel engine.

Diesel fuel can create an explosive air/vapour mix under the right conditions. However, compared with petrol, it is less prone due to its lower vapour pressure, which is an indication of evaporation rate. The Material Safety Data Sheet[209] for ultra-low sulfur diesel fuel indicates a vapour explosion hazard for diesel fuel indoors, outdoors, or in sewers.

Cancer

Diesel exhaust has been classified as an IARC Group 1 carcinogen. It causes lung cancer and is associated with an increased risk for bladder cancer.[210]

Engine runaway (uncontrollable overspeeding)

See diesel engine runaway.

Applications

The characteristics of diesel have different advantages for different applications.

Passenger cars

See also: History of the diesel car

Diesel engines have long been popular in bigger cars and have been used in smaller cars such as superminis in Europe since the 1980s. They were popular in larger cars earlier, as the weight and cost penalties were less noticeable.[211] Smooth operation as well as high low-end torque are deemed important for passenger cars and small commercial vehicles. The introduction of electronically controlled fuel injection significantly improved the smooth torque generation, and starting in the early 1990s, car manufacturers began offering their high-end luxury vehicles with diesel engines. Passenger car diesel engines usually have between three and twelve cylinders, and a displacement ranging from 0.8 to 6.0 litres. Modern powerplants are usually turbocharged and have direct injection.[162]

Diesel engines do not suffer from intake-air throttling, resulting in very low fuel consumption especially at low partial load[212] (for instance: driving at city speeds). One fifth of all passenger cars worldwide have diesel engines, with many of them being in Europe, where approximately 47% of all passenger cars are diesel-powered.[213] Daimler-Benz in conjunction with Robert Bosch GmbH produced diesel-powered passenger cars starting in 1936.[82] The popularity of diesel-powered passenger cars in markets such as India, South Korea and Japan is increasing (as of 2018).[214]

Commercial vehicles and lorries

Lifespan of Mercedes-Benz diesel engines[215]

In 1893, Rudolf Diesel suggested that the diesel engine could possibly power ‘wagons’ (lorries).[216] The first lorries with diesel engines were brought to market in 1924.[82]

Modern diesel engines for lorries have to be both extremely reliable and very fuel efficient. Common-rail direct injection, turbocharging and four valves per cylinder are standard. Displacements range from 4.5 to 15.5 litres, with power-to-mass ratios of 2.5–3.5 kg·kW−1 for heavy duty and 2.0–3.0 kg·kW−1 for medium duty engines. V6 and V8 engines used to be common, due to the relatively low engine mass the V configuration provides. Recently, the V configuration has been abandoned in favour of straight engines. These engines are usually straight-6 for heavy and medium duties and straight-4 for medium duty. Their undersquare design causes lower overall piston speeds which results in increased lifespan of up to 1,200,000 kilometres (750,000 mi).[217] Compared with 1970s diesel engines, the expected lifespan of modern lorry diesel engines has more than doubled.[215]

Railroad rolling stock

Diesel engines for locomotives are built for continuous operation between refuelings and may need to be designed to use poor quality fuel in some circumstances.[218] Some locomotives use two-stroke diesel engines.[219] Diesel engines have replaced steam engines on all non-electrified railroads in the world. The first diesel locomotives appeared in 1913,[82] and diesel multiple units soon after. Nearly all modern diesel locomotives are more correctly known as diesel–electric locomotives because they use an electric transmission: the diesel engine drives an electric generator which powers electric traction motors.[220] While electric locomotives have replaced the diesel locomotive for passenger services in many areas diesel traction is widely used for cargo-hauling freight trains and on tracks where electrification is not economically viable.

In the 1940s, road vehicle diesel engines with power outputs of 150–200 metric horsepower (110–150 kW; 150–200 hp) were considered reasonable for DMUs. Commonly, regular truck powerplants were used. The height of these engines had to be less than 1 metre (3 ft 3 in) to allow underfloor installation. Usually, the engine was mated with a pneumatically operated mechanical gearbox, due to the low size, mass, and production costs of this design. Some DMUs used hydraulic torque converters instead. Diesel–electric transmission was not suitable for such small engines.[221] In the 1930s, the Deutsche Reichsbahn standardised its first DMU engine. It was a 30.3 litres (1,850 cu in), 12-cylinder boxer unit, producing 275 metric horsepower (202 kW; 271 hp). Several German manufacturers produced engines according to this standard.[222]

Watercraft

 
One of the eight-cylinder 3200 I.H.P. Harland and Wolff – Burmeister & Wain diesel engines installed in the motorship Glenapp. This was the highest powered diesel engine yet (1920) installed in a ship. Note man standing lower right for size comparison.
Hand-cranking a boat diesel motor in Inle Lake (Myanmar).

The requirements for marine diesel engines vary, depending on the application. For military use and medium-size boats, medium-speed four-stroke diesel engines are most suitable. These engines usually have up to 24 cylinders and come with power outputs in the one-digit Megawatt region.[218] Small boats may use lorry diesel engines. Large ships use extremely efficient, low-speed two-stroke diesel engines. They can reach efficiencies of up to 55%. Unlike most regular diesel engines, two-stroke watercraft engines use highly viscous fuel oil.[1] Submarines are usually diesel–electric.[220]

The first diesel engines for ships were made by A. B. Diesels Motorer Stockholm in 1903. These engines were three-cylinder units of 120 PS (88 kW) and four-cylinder units of 180 PS (132 kW) and used for Russian ships. In World War I, especially submarine diesel engine development advanced quickly. By the end of the War, double acting piston two-stroke engines with up to 12,200 PS (9 MW) had been made for marine use.[223]

Aviation

Main article: Aircraft diesel engine

Early

Diesel engines had been used in aircraft before World War II, for instance, in the rigid airship LZ 129 Hindenburg, which was powered by four Daimler-Benz DB 602 diesel engines,[224] or in several Junkers aircraft, which had Jumo 205 engines installed.[102]

In 1929, in the United States, the Packard Motor Company developed America's first aircraft diesel engine, the Packard DR-980 -- an air-cooled, 9-cylinder radial engine. They installed it in various aircraft of the era -- some of which were used in record-breaking distance or endurance flights,[225][226][227][228] and in the first successful demonstration of ground-to-air radiophone communications (voice radio having been previously unintelligible in aircraft equipped with spark-ignition engines, due to electromagnetic interference).[226][227] Additional advantages cited, at the time, included a lower risk of post-crash fire, and superior performance at high altitudes.[226]

On March 6, 1930, the engine received an Approved Type Certificate -- first ever for an aircraft diesel engine -- from the U.S. Department of Commerce.[229] However, noxious exhaust fumes, cold-start and vibration problems, engine structural failures, the death of its developer, and the industrial economic contraction of the Great Depression, combined to kill the program.[226]

Modern

From then, until the late 1970s, there had not been many applications of the diesel engine in aircraft. In 1978, Piper Cherokee co-designer Karl H. Bergey argued that “the likelihood of a general aviation diesel in the near future is remote.”[230]

However, with the 1970s energy crisis and environmental movement, and resulting pressures for greater fuel economy, reduced carbon and lead in the atmosphere, and other issues, there was a resurgence of interest in diesel engines for aircraft. High-compression piston aircraft engines that run on aviation gasoline ("avgas") generally require the addition of toxic Tetraethyl lead to avgas, to avoid engine pre-ignition and detonation; but diesel engines do not require leaded fuel. Also, biodiesel can, theoretically, provide a net reduction in atmospheric carbon compared to avgas. For these reasons, the general aviation community has begun to fear the possible banning or discontinuance of leaded avgas.[9][231][232][233]

Additionally, avgas is a specialty fuel in very low (and declining) demand, compared to other fuels, and its makers are susceptible to costly aviation-crash lawsuits, reducing refiners' interest in producing it. Outside the United States, avgas has already become increasingly difficult to find at airports (and generally), than less-expensive, diesel-compatible fuels like Jet-A and other jet fuels.[9][231][232][233]

By the late 1990s / early 2000s, diesel engines were beginning to appear in light aircraft. Most notably, Frank Thielert and his Austrian engine enterprise, began developing diesel engines to replace the 100 horsepower (75 kW) - 350 horsepower (260 kW) gasoline/piston engines in common light aircraft use.[234] First successful application of the Theilerts to production aircraft was in the Diamond DA42 Twin Star light twin, which exhibited exceptional fuel efficiency surpassing anything in its class,[9][10][235] and its single-seat predecessor, the Diamond DA40 Diamond Star.[9][10][234]

In subsequent years, several other companies have developed aircraft diesel engines, or have begun to[234] -- most notably Continental Aerospace Technologies which, by 2018, was reporting it had sold over 5,000 such engines worldwide.[9][10][236]

The United States' Federal Aviation Administration has reported that "by 2007, various jet-fueled piston aircraft had logged well over 600,000 hours of service".[234] In early 2019, AOPA reported that a diesel engine model for general aviation aircraft is “approaching the finish line.”[237] By late 2022, Continental was reporting that its "Jet-A" fueled engines had exceeded "2,000... in operation today," with over "9 million hours," and were being "specified by major OEMs" for Cessna, Piper, Diamond, Mooney, Tecnam, Glasair and Robin aircraft.[236]

In recent years (2016), diesel engines have also found use in unmanned aircraft (UAV), due to their reliability, durability, and low fuel consumption.[238][239][240]

Non-road diesel engines

 
Air-cooled diesel engine of a 1959 Porsche 218

Non-road diesel engines are commonly used for construction equipment and agricultural machinery. Fuel efficiency, reliability and ease of maintenance are very important for such engines, whilst high power output and quiet operation are negligible. Therefore, mechanically controlled fuel injection and air-cooling are still very common. The common power outputs of non-road diesel engines vary a lot, with the smallest units starting at 3 kW, and the most powerful engines being heavy duty lorry engines.[218]

Stationary diesel engines

 
Three English Electric 7SRL diesel-alternator sets being installed at the Saateni Power Station, Zanzibar 1955

Stationary diesel engines are commonly used for electricity generation, but also for powering refrigerator compressors, or other types of compressors or pumps. Usually, these engines either run continuously with partial load, or intermittently with full load. Stationary diesel engines powering electric generators that put out an alternating current, usually operate with alternating load, but fixed rotational frequency. This is due to the mains' fixed frequency of either 50 Hz (Europe), or 60 Hz (United States). The engine's crankshaft rotational frequency is chosen so that the mains' frequency is a multiple of it. For practical reasons, this results in crankshaft rotational frequencies of either 25 Hz (1500 per minute) or 30 Hz (1800 per minute).[241]

Low heat rejection engines

A special class of prototype internal combustion piston engines has been developed over several decades with the goal of improving efficiency by reducing heat loss.[242] These engines are variously called adiabatic engines; due to better approximation of adiabatic expansion; low heat rejection engines, or high temperature engines.[243] They are generally piston engines with combustion chamber parts lined with ceramic thermal barrier coatings.[244] Some make use of pistons and other parts made of titanium which has a low thermal conductivity[245] and density. Some designs are able to eliminate the use of a cooling system and associated parasitic losses altogether.[246] Developing lubricants able to withstand the higher temperatures involved has been a major barrier to commercialization.[247]

Future developments

In mid-2010s literature, main development goals for future diesel engines are described as improvements of exhaust emissions, reduction of fuel consumption, and increase of lifespan (2014).[248][162] It is said that the diesel engine, especially the diesel engine for commercial vehicles, will remain the most important vehicle powerplant until the mid-2030s. Editors assume that the complexity of the diesel engine will increase further (2014).[249] Some editors expect a future convergency of diesel and Otto engines' operating principles due to Otto engine development steps made towards homogeneous charge compression ignition (2017).[250]

See also

References

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External links

 
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Diesel engines.
 
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Rudolf Diesel.
 
Wikisource has the text of the 1921 Collier's Encyclopedia article Diesel Engine.
  • "Diesel Information Hub". Association for Emissions Control by Catalyst.
  • The short film The Diesel Story (1952) is available for free download at the Internet Archive.
  • "Introduction to Two Stroke Marine Diesel Engine" on YouTube
  • "The Engine That Powers the World" BBC Documentary on YouTube

Patents

  • Method of and Apparatus for Converting Heat into Work. # 542846 filed 1892
  • Internal Combustion Engine #608845 filed 1895

January 20, 2023
diesel, engine, confused, with, diesel, locomotive, diesel, game, engine, diesel, engine, named, after, rudolf, diesel, internal, combustion, engine, which, ignition, fuel, caused, elevated, temperature, cylinder, mechanical, compression, thus, diesel, engine,. Not to be confused with Diesel locomotive or Diesel game engine The diesel engine named after Rudolf Diesel is an internal combustion engine in which ignition of the fuel is caused by the elevated temperature of the air in the cylinder due to mechanical compression thus the diesel engine is called a compression ignition engine CI engine This contrasts with engines using spark plug ignition of the air fuel mixture such as a petrol engine gasoline engine or a gas engine using a gaseous fuel like natural gas or liquefied petroleum gas Diesel engine built by Langen amp Wolf under licence 1898 source source source source source source 1952 Shell Oil film showing the development of the diesel engine from 1877 Diesel engines work by compressing only air or air plus residual combustion gases from the exhaust known as exhaust gas recirculation EGR Air is inducted into the chamber during the intake stroke and compressed during the compression stroke This increases the air temperature inside the cylinder to such a high degree that atomised diesel fuel injected into the combustion chamber ignites With the fuel being injected into the air just before combustion the dispersion of the fuel is uneven this is called a heterogeneous air fuel mixture The torque a diesel engine produces is controlled by manipulating the air fuel ratio l instead of throttling the intake air the diesel engine relies on altering the amount of fuel that is injected and the air fuel ratio is usually high The diesel engine has the highest thermal efficiency engine efficiency of any practical internal or external combustion engine due to its very high expansion ratio and inherent lean burn which enables heat dissipation by the excess air A small efficiency loss is also avoided compared with non direct injection gasoline engines since unburned fuel is not present during valve overlap and therefore no fuel goes directly from the intake injection to the exhaust Low speed diesel engines as used in ships and other applications where overall engine weight is relatively unimportant can reach effective efficiencies of up to 55 1 The combined cycle gas turbine Brayton and Rankin cycle is a combustion engine that is more efficient than a diesel engine but it is due to its mass and dimensions unsuited for vehicles watercraft or aircraft The world s largest diesel engines put in service are 14 cylinder two stroke marine diesel engines they produce a peak power of almost 100 MW each 2 Diesel engines may be designed as either two stroke or four stroke cycles They were originally used as a more efficient replacement for stationary steam engines Since the 1910s they have been used in submarines and ships Use in locomotives buses trucks heavy equipment agricultural equipment and electricity generation plants followed later In the 1930s they slowly began to be used in a few automobiles Since the 1970s energy crisis demand for higher fuel efficiency has resulted in most major automakers at some point offering diesel powered models even in very small cars 3 4 5 According to Konrad Reif 2012 the EU average for diesel cars at the time accounted for half of newly registered cars 6 However air pollution emissions are harder to control in diesel engines than in gasoline engines so the use of diesel auto engines in the U S is now largely relegated to larger on road and off road vehicles 7 8 Though aviation has traditionally avoided diesel engines aircraft diesel engines have become increasingly available in the 21st century Since the late 1990s for various reasons including the diesel s normal advantages over gasoline engines but also for recent issues peculiar to aviation development and production of diesel engines for aircraft has surged with over 5000 such engines delivered worldwide between 2002 and 2018 particularly for light airplanes and unmanned aerial vehicles 9 10 Contents 1 History 1 1 Diesel s idea 1 2 The first diesel engine 1 3 Timeline 1 3 1 1890s 1 3 2 1900s 1 3 3 1910s 1 3 4 1920s 1 3 5 1930s 1 3 6 1940s 1 3 7 1950s 1 3 8 1960s 1 3 9 1970s 1 3 10 1980s 1 3 11 1990s 1 3 12 2000s 1 3 13 2010s 2 Operating principle 2 1 Overview 2 2 Thermodynamic cycle 2 3 Efficiency 2 4 Emissions 2 5 Electrical system 2 6 Torque control 3 Classification 3 1 RPM operating range 3 2 Combustion cycle 3 2 1 Scavenging in two stroke engines 3 3 Fuel used 4 Fuel injection 4 1 Direct injection 4 2 Indirect injection 4 3 Air blast injection 4 4 Unit injectors 5 Diesel engine particularities 5 1 Mass 5 2 Noise diesel clatter 5 3 Cold weather starting 5 4 Supercharging amp turbocharging 6 Fuel and fluid characteristics 6 1 Fuel types 6 2 Modern diesel fuel properties 6 3 Gelling 7 Safety 7 1 Fuel flammability 7 2 Cancer 7 3 Engine runaway uncontrollable overspeeding 8 Applications 8 1 Passenger cars 8 2 Commercial vehicles and lorries 8 3 Railroad rolling stock 8 4 Watercraft 8 5 Aviation 8 5 1 Early 8 5 2 Modern 8 6 Non road diesel engines 8 7 Stationary diesel engines 9 Low heat rejection engines 10 Future developments 11 See also 12 References 13 External links 13 1 PatentsHistory EditDiesel s idea Edit Rudolf Diesel s 1893 patent on a rational heat motor Diesel s second prototype It is a modification of the first experimental engine On 17 February 1894 this engine ran under its own power for the first time 11 Effective efficiency 16 6 Fuel consumption 519 g kW 1 h 1 First fully functional diesel engine designed by Imanuel Lauster built from scratch and finished by October 1896 12 13 14 Rated power 13 1 kWEffective efficiency 26 2 Fuel consumption 324 g kW 1 h 1 In 1878 Rudolf Diesel who was a student at the Polytechnikum in Munich attended the lectures of Carl von Linde Linde explained that steam engines are capable of converting just 6 10 of the heat energy into work but that the Carnot cycle allows conversion of much more of the heat energy into work by means of isothermal change in condition According to Diesel this ignited the idea of creating a highly efficient engine that could work on the Carnot cycle 15 Diesel was also exposed to a fire piston a traditional fire starter using rapid adiabatic compression principles which Linde had acquired from Southeast Asia 16 After several years of working on his ideas Diesel published them in 1893 in the essay Theory and Construction of a Rational Heat Motor 15 Diesel was heavily criticised for his essay but only few found the mistake that he made 17 his rational heat motor was supposed to utilise a constant temperature cycle with isothermal compression that would require a much higher level of compression than that needed for compression ignition Diesel s idea was to compress the air so tightly that the temperature of the air would exceed that of combustion However such an engine could never perform any usable work 18 19 20 In his 1892 US patent granted in 1895 542846 Diesel describes the compression required for his cycle pure atmospheric air is compressed according to curve 1 2 to such a degree that before ignition or combustion takes place the highest pressure of the diagram and the highest temperature are obtained that is to say the temperature at which the subsequent combustion has to take place not the burning or igniting point To make this more clear let it be assumed that the subsequent combustion shall take place at a temperature of 700 Then in that case the initial pressure must be sixty four atmospheres or for 800 centigrade the pressure must be ninety atmospheres and so on Into the air thus compressed is then gradually introduced from the exterior finely divided fuel which ignites on introduction since the air is at a temperature far above the igniting point of the fuel The characteristic features of the cycle according to my present invention are therefore increase of pressure and temperature up to the maximum not by combustion but prior to combustion by mechanical compression of air and there upon the subsequent performance of work without increase of pressure and temperature by gradual combustion during a prescribed part of the stroke determined by the cut oil 21 By June 1893 Diesel had realised his original cycle would not work and he adopted the constant pressure cycle 22 Diesel describes the cycle in his 1895 patent application Notice that there is no longer a mention of compression temperatures exceeding the temperature of combustion Now it is simply stated that the compression must be sufficient to trigger ignition 1 In an internal combustion engine the combination of a cylinder and piston constructed and arranged to compress air to a degree producing a temperature above the igniting point of the fuel a supply for compressed air or gas a fuel supply a distributing valve for fuel a passage from the air supply to the cylinder in communication with the fuel distributing valve an inlet to the cylinder in communication with the air supply and with the fuel valve and a cut oil substantially as described See US patent 608845 filed 1895 granted 1898 23 24 25 In 1892 Diesel received patents in Germany Switzerland the United Kingdom and the United States for Method of and Apparatus for Converting Heat into Work 26 In 1894 and 1895 he filed patents and addenda in various countries for his engine the first patents were issued in Spain No 16 654 27 France No 243 531 and Belgium No 113 139 in December 1894 and in Germany No 86 633 in 1895 and the United States No 608 845 in 1898 28 Diesel was attacked and criticised over a time period of several years Critics claimed that Diesel never invented a new motor and that the invention of the diesel engine is fraud Otto Kohler and Emil Capitaine de were two of the most prominent critics of Diesel s time 29 Kohler had published an essay in 1887 in which he describes an engine similar to the engine Diesel describes in his 1893 essay Kohler figured that such an engine could not perform any work 20 30 Emil Capitaine had built a petroleum engine with glow tube ignition in the early 1890s 31 he claimed against his own better judgement that his glow tube ignition engine worked the same way Diesel s engine did His claims were unfounded and he lost a patent lawsuit against Diesel 32 Other engines such as the Akroyd engine and the Brayton engine also use an operating cycle that is different from the diesel engine cycle 30 33 Friedrich Sass says that the diesel engine is Diesel s very own work and that any Diesel myth is falsification of history 34 The first diesel engine Edit Diesel sought out firms and factories that would build his engine With the help of Moritz Schroter and Max Gutermuth de 35 he succeeded in convincing both Krupp in Essen and the Maschinenfabrik Augsburg 36 Contracts were signed in April 1893 37 and in early summer 1893 Diesel s first prototype engine was built in Augsburg On 10 August 1893 the first ignition took place the fuel used was petrol In winter 1893 1894 Diesel redesigned the existing engine and by 18 January 1894 his mechanics had converted it into the second prototype 38 During January that year an air blast injection system was added to the engine s cylinder head and tested 39 Friedrich Sass argues that it can be presumed that Diesel copied the concept of air blast injection from George B Brayton 33 albeit that Diesel substantially improved the system 40 On 17 February 1894 the redesigned engine ran for 88 revolutions one minute 11 with this news Maschinenfabrik Augsburg s stock rose by 30 indicative of the tremendous anticipated demands for a more efficient engine 41 On 26 June 1895 the engine achieved an effective efficiency of 16 6 and had a fuel consumption of 519 g kW 1 h 1 42 However despite proving the concept the engine caused problems 43 and Diesel could not achieve any substantial progress 44 Therefore Krupp considered rescinding the contract they had made with Diesel 45 Diesel was forced to improve the design of his engine and rushed to construct a third prototype engine Between 8 November and 20 December 1895 the second prototype had successfully covered over 111 hours on the test bench In the January 1896 report this was considered a success 46 In February 1896 Diesel considered supercharging the third prototype 47 Imanuel Lauster who was ordered to draw the third prototype Motor 250 400 had finished the drawings by 30 April 1896 During summer that year the engine was built it was completed on 6 October 1896 48 Tests were conducted until early 1897 49 First public tests began on 1 February 1897 50 Moritz Schroter s test on 17 February 1897 was the main test of Diesel s engine The engine was rated 13 1 kW with a specific fuel consumption of 324 g kW 1 h 1 51 resulting in an effective efficiency of 26 2 52 53 By 1898 Diesel had become a millionaire 54 Timeline Edit 1890s Edit 1893 Rudolf Diesel s essay titled Theory and Construction of a Rational Heat Motor appears 55 56 1893 February 21 Diesel and the Maschinenfabrik Augsburg sign a contract that allows Diesel to build a prototype engine 57 1893 February 23 Diesel obtains a patent RP 67207 titled Arbeitsverfahren und Ausfuhrungsart fur Verbrennungsmaschinen Working Methods and Techniques for Internal Combustion Engines 1893 April 10 Diesel and Krupp sign a contract that allows Diesel to build a prototype engine 57 1893 April 24 both Krupp and the Maschinenfabrik Augsburg decide to collaborate and build just a single prototype in Augsburg 57 37 1893 July the first prototype is completed 58 1893 August 10 Diesel injects fuel petrol for the first time resulting in combustion destroying the indicator 59 1893 November 30 Diesel applies for a patent RP 82168 for a modified combustion process He obtains it on 12 July 1895 60 61 62 1894 January 18 after the first prototype had been modified to become the second prototype testing with the second prototype begins 38 1894 February 17 The second prototype runs for the first time 11 1895 March 30 Diesel applies for a patent RP 86633 for a starting process with compressed air 63 1895 June 26 the second prototype passes brake testing for the first time 42 1895 Diesel applies for a second patent US Patent 608845 64 1895 November 8 December 20 a series of tests with the second prototype is conducted In total 111 operating hours are recorded 46 1896 April 30 Imanuel Lauster completes the third and final prototype s drawings 48 1896 October 6 the third and final prototype engine is completed 12 1897 February 1 Diesel s prototype engine is running and finally ready for efficiency testing and production 50 1897 October 9 Adolphus Busch licenses rights to the diesel engine for the US and Canada 54 65 1897 29 October Rudolf Diesel obtains a patent DRP 95680 on supercharging the diesel engine 47 1898 February 1 the Diesel Motoren Fabrik Actien Gesellschaft is registered 66 1898 March the first commercial diesel engine rated 2 30 PS 2 22 kW is installed in the Kempten plant of the Vereinigte Zundholzfabriken A G 67 68 1898 September 17 the Allgemeine Gesellschaft fur Dieselmotoren A G is founded 69 1899 The first two stroke diesel engine invented by Hugo Guldner is built 53 1900s Edit An MAN DM trunk piston diesel engine built in 1906 The MAN DM series is considered to be one of the first commercially successful diesel engines 70 1901 Imanuel Lauster designs the first trunk piston diesel engine DM 70 70 1901 By 1901 MAN had produced 77 diesel engine cylinders for commercial use 71 1903 Two first diesel powered ships are launched both for river and canal operations The Vandal naphtha tanker and the Sarmat 72 1904 The French launch the first diesel submarine the Aigrette 73 1905 January 14 Diesel applies for a patent on unit injection L20510I 46a 74 1905 The first diesel engine turbochargers and intercoolers are manufactured by Buchi 75 1906 The Diesel Motoren Fabrik Actien Gesellschaft is dissolved 29 1908 Diesel s patents expire 76 1908 The first lorry truck with a diesel engine appears 77 1909 March 14 Prosper L Orange applies for a patent on precombustion chamber injection 78 He later builds the first diesel engine with this system 79 80 1910s Edit 1910 MAN starts making two stroke diesel engines 81 1910 November 26 James McKechnie applies for a patent on unit injection 82 Unlike Diesel he managed to successfully build working unit injectors 74 83 1911 November 27 the Allgemeine Gesellschaft fur Dieselmotoren A G is dissolved 66 1911 The Germania shipyard in Kiel builds 850 PS 625 kW diesel engines for German submarines These engines are installed in 1914 84 1912 MAN builds the first double acting piston two stroke diesel engine 85 1912 The first locomotive with a diesel engine is used on the Swiss Winterthur Romanshorn railroad 86 1912 The Selandia is the first ocean going ship with diesel engines 87 1913 NELSECO diesels are installed on commercial ships and US Navy submarines 88 1913 September 29 Rudolf Diesel dies mysteriously when crossing the English Channel on the SS Dresden 89 1914 MAN builds 900 PS 662 kW two stroke engines for Dutch submarines 90 1919 Prosper L Orange obtains a patent on a Precombustion chamber insert incorporating a needle injection nozzle 91 92 80 First diesel engine from Cummins 93 94 1920s Edit Fairbanks Morse model 32 1923 At the Konigsberg DLG exhibition the first agricultural tractor with a diesel engine the prototype Benz Sendling S6 is presented 95 better source needed 1923 December 15 the first lorry with a direct injected diesel engine is tested by MAN The same year Benz builds a lorry with a pre combustion chamber injected diesel engine 96 1923 The first two stroke diesel engine with counterflow scavenging appears 97 1924 Fairbanks Morse introduces the two stroke Y VA later renamed to Model 32 98 1925 Sendling starts mass producing a diesel powered agricultural tractor 99 1927 Bosch introduces the first inline injection pump for motor vehicle diesel engines 100 1929 The first passenger car with a diesel engine appears Its engine is an Otto engine modified to use the diesel principle and Bosch s injection pump Several other diesel car prototypes follow 101 1930s Edit 1933 Junkers Motorenwerke in Germany start production of the most successful mass produced aviation diesel engine of all time the Jumo 205 By the outbreak of World War II over 900 examples are produced Its rated take off power is 645 kW 102 1933 General Motors uses its new roots blown unit injected two stroke Winton 201A diesel engine to power its automotive assembly exhibit at the Chicago World s Fair A Century of Progress 103 The engine is offered in several versions ranging from 600 to 900 hp 447 671 kW 104 1934 The Budd Company builds the first diesel electric passenger train in the US the Pioneer Zephyr 9900 using a Winton engine 103 1935 The Citroen Rosalie is fitted with an early swirl chamber injected diesel engine for testing purposes 105 Daimler Benz starts manufacturing the Mercedes Benz OM 138 the first mass produced diesel engine for passenger cars and one of the few marketable passenger car diesel engines of its time It is rated 45 PS 33 kW 106 1936 March 4 the airship LZ 129 Hindenburg the biggest aircraft ever made takes off for the first time She is powered by four V16 Daimler Benz LOF 6 diesel engines rated 1200 PS 883 kW each 107 1936 Manufacture of the first mass produced passenger car with a diesel engine Mercedes Benz 260 D begins 101 1937 Konstantin Fyodorovich Chelpan develops the V 2 diesel engine later used in the Soviet T 34 tanks widely regarded as the best tank chassis of World War II 108 1938 General Motors forms the GM Diesel Division later to become Detroit Diesel and introduces the Series 71 inline high speed medium horsepower two stroke engine suitable for road vehicles and marine use 109 1940s Edit 1946 Clessie Cummins obtains a patent on a fuel feeding and injection apparatus for oil burning engines that incorporates separate components for generating injection pressure and injection timing 110 1946 Klockner Humboldt Deutz KHD introduces an air cooled mass production diesel engine to the market 111 1950s Edit Piston of an MAN M System centre sphere combustion chamber type diesel engine 4 VD 14 5 12 1 SRW 1950s KHD becomes the air cooled diesel engine global market leader 112 1951 J Siegfried Meurer obtains a patent on the M System a design that incorporates a central sphere combustion chamber in the piston DBP 865683 113 1953 First mass produced swirl chamber injected passenger car diesel engine Borgward Fiat 82 1954 Daimler Benz introduces the Mercedes Benz OM 312 A a 4 6 litre straight 6 series production industrial diesel engine with a turbocharger rated 115 PS 85 kW It proves to be unreliable 114 1954 Volvo produces a small batch series of 200 units of a turbocharged version of the TD 96 engine This 9 6 litre engine is rated 136 kW 115 1955 Turbocharging for MAN two stroke marine diesel engines becomes standard 97 1959 The Peugeot 403 becomes the first mass produced passenger sedan saloon manufactured outside West Germany to be offered with a diesel engine option 116 1960s Edit Mercedes Benz OM 352 one of the first direct injected Mercedes Benz diesel engines It was introduced in 1963 but mass production only started in summer 1964 117 1964 Summer Daimler Benz switches from precombustion chamber injection to helix controlled direct injection 118 113 1962 65 A diesel compression braking system eventually to be manufactured by the Jacobs Manufacturing Company and nicknamed the Jake Brake is invented and patented by Clessie Cummins 119 1970s Edit 1972 KHD introduces the AD System Allstoff Direkteinspritzung anyfuel direct injection for its diesel engines AD diesels can operate on virtually any kind of liquid fuel but they are fitted with an auxiliary spark plug that fires if the ignition quality of the fuel is too low 120 1976 Development of the common rail injection begins at the ETH Zurich 121 1976 The Volkswagen Golf becomes the first compact passenger sedan saloon to be offered with a diesel engine option 122 123 1978 Daimler Benz produces the first passenger car diesel engine with a turbocharger Mercedes Benz OM 617 124 1979 First prototype of a low speed two stroke crosshead engine with common rail injection 125 1980s Edit BMW E28 524td the first mass produced passenger car with an electronically controlled injection pump 1981 82 Uniflow scavenging for two stroke marine diesel engines becomes standard 126 1985 December road testing of a common rail injection system for lorries using a modified 6VD 12 5 12 GRF E engine in an IFA W50 takes place 127 1986 The BMW E28 524td is the world s first passenger car equipped with an electronically controlled injection pump developed by Bosch 82 128 1987 Daimler Benz introduces the electronically controlled injection pump for lorry diesel engines 82 1988 The Fiat Croma becomes the first mass produced passenger car in the world to have a direct injected diesel engine 82 1989 The Audi 100 is the first passenger car in the world with a turbocharged direct injected and electronically controlled diesel engine 82 1990s Edit 1992 1 July the Euro 1 emission standard comes into effect 129 1993 First passenger car diesel engine with four valves per cylinder the Mercedes Benz OM 604 124 1994 Unit injector system by Bosch for lorry diesel engines 130 1996 First diesel engine with direct injection and four valves per cylinder used in the Opel Vectra 131 82 1996 First radial piston distributor injection pump by Bosch 130 1997 First mass produced common rail diesel engine for a passenger car the Fiat 1 9 JTD 82 124 1998 BMW wins the 24 Hours Nurburgring race with a modified BMW E36 The car called 320d is powered by a 2 litre straight four diesel engine with direct injection and a helix controlled distributor injection pump Bosch VP 44 producing 180 kW The fuel consumption is 23 L 100 km only half the fuel consumption of a similar Otto powered car 132 1998 Volkswagen introduces the VW EA188 Pumpe Duse engine 1 9 TDI with Bosch developed electronically controlled unit injectors 124 1999 Daimler Chrysler presents the first common rail three cylinder diesel engine used in a passenger car the Smart City Coupe 82 2000s Edit Audi R10 TDI 2006 24 Hours of Le Mans winner 2000 Peugeot introduces the diesel particulate filter for passenger cars 82 124 2002 Piezoelectric injector technology by Siemens 133 2003 Piezoelectric injector technology by Bosch 134 and Delphi 135 2004 BMW introduces dual stage turbocharging with the BMW M57 engine 124 2006 The world s most powerful diesel engine the Wartsila RT flex96C is produced It is rated 80 080 kW 136 2006 Audi R10 TDI equipped with a 5 5 litre V12 TDI engine rated 476 kW wins the 2006 24 Hours of Le Mans 82 2006 Daimler Chrysler launches the first series production passenger car engine with selective catalytic reduction exhaust gas treatment the Mercedes Benz OM 642 It is fully complying with the Tier2Bin8 emission standard 124 2008 Volkswagen introduces the LNT catalyst for passenger car diesel engines with the VW 2 0 TDI engine 124 2008 Volkswagen starts series production of the biggest passenger car diesel engine the Audi 6 litre V12 TDI 124 2008 Subaru introduces the first horizontally opposed diesel engine to be fitted to a passenger car It is a 2 litre common rail engine rated 110 kW 137 2010s Edit 2010 Mitsubishi developed and started mass production of its 4N13 1 8 L DOHC I4 the world s first passenger car diesel engine that features a variable valve timing system 128 2012 BMW introduces dual stage turbocharging with three turbochargers for the BMW N57 engine 124 2015 Common rail systems working with pressures of 2 500 bar launched 82 2015 In the Volkswagen emissions scandal the US EPA issued a notice of violation of the Clean Air Act to Volkswagen Group after it was found that Volkswagen had intentionally programmed turbocharged direct injection TDI diesel engines to activate certain emissions controls only during laboratory emissions testing 138 139 140 141 Operating principle EditOverview Edit The characteristics of a diesel engine are 142 Use of compression ignition instead of an ignition apparatus such as a spark plug Internal mixture formation In diesel engines the mixture of air and fuel is only formed inside the combustion chamber Quality torque control The amount of torque a diesel engine produces is not controlled by throttling the intake air unlike a traditional spark ignition petrol engine where the airflow is reduced in order to regulate the torque output instead the volume of air entering the engine is maximised at all times and the torque output is regulated solely by controlling the amount of injected fuel High air fuel ratio Diesel engines run at global air fuel ratios significantly leaner than the stoichiometric ratio Diffusion flame At combustion oxygen first has to diffuse into the flame rather than having oxygen and fuel already mixed before combustion which would result in a premixed flame Heterogeneous air fuel mixture In diesel engines there is no even dispersion of fuel and air inside the cylinder That is because the combustion process begins at the end of the injection phase before a homogeneous mixture of air and fuel can be formed Preference for the fuel to have a high ignition performance Cetane number rather than a high knocking resistance octane rating that is preferred for petrol engines Thermodynamic cycle Edit This section may be too technical for most readers to understand Please help improve it to make it understandable to non experts without removing the technical details July 2022 Learn how and when to remove this template message Diesel engine model left side Diesel engine model right side See also Diesel cycle and Reciprocating internal combustion engine The diesel internal combustion engine differs from the gasoline powered Otto cycle by using highly compressed hot air to ignite the fuel rather than using a spark plug compression ignition rather than spark ignition In the diesel engine only air is initially introduced into the combustion chamber The air is then compressed with a compression ratio typically between 15 1 and 23 1 This high compression causes the temperature of the air to rise At about the top of the compression stroke fuel is injected directly into the compressed air in the combustion chamber This may be into a typically toroidal void in the top of the piston or a pre chamber depending upon the design of the engine The fuel injector ensures that the fuel is broken down into small droplets and that the fuel is distributed evenly The heat of the compressed air vaporises fuel from the surface of the droplets The vapour is then ignited by the heat from the compressed air in the combustion chamber the droplets continue to vaporise from their surfaces and burn getting smaller until all the fuel in the droplets has been burnt Combustion occurs at a substantially constant pressure during the initial part of the power stroke The start of vaporisation causes a delay before ignition and the characteristic diesel knocking sound as the vapour reaches ignition temperature and causes an abrupt increase in pressure above the piston not shown on the P V indicator diagram When combustion is complete the combustion gases expand as the piston descends further the high pressure in the cylinder drives the piston downward supplying power to the crankshaft As well as the high level of compression allowing combustion to take place without a separate ignition system a high compression ratio greatly increases the engine s efficiency Increasing the compression ratio in a spark ignition engine where fuel and air are mixed before entry to the cylinder is limited by the need to prevent pre ignition which would cause engine damage Since only air is compressed in a diesel engine and fuel is not introduced into the cylinder until shortly before top dead centre TDC premature detonation is not a problem and compression ratios are much higher pV diagram for the ideal diesel cycle which follows the numbers 1 4 in clockwise direction The horizontal axis is the cylinder volume In the diesel cycle the combustion occurs at almost constant pressure On this diagram the work that is generated for each cycle corresponds to the area within the loop The pressure volume diagram pV diagram is a simplified and idealised representation of the events involved in a diesel engine cycle arranged to illustrate the similarity with a Carnot cycle Starting at 1 the piston is at bottom dead centre and both valves are closed at the start of the compression stroke the cylinder contains air at atmospheric pressure Between 1 and 2 the air is compressed adiabatically that is without heat transfer to or from the environment by the rising piston This is only approximately true since there will be some heat exchange with the cylinder walls During this compression the volume is reduced the pressure and temperature both rise At or slightly before 2 TDC fuel is injected and burns in the compressed hot air Chemical energy is released and this constitutes an injection of thermal energy heat into the compressed gas Combustion and heating occur between 2 and 3 In this interval the pressure remains constant since the piston descends and the volume increases the temperature rises as a consequence of the energy of combustion At 3 fuel injection and combustion are complete and the cylinder contains gas at a higher temperature than at 2 Between 3 and 4 this hot gas expands again approximately adiabatically Work is done on the system to which the engine is connected During this expansion phase the volume of the gas rises and its temperature and pressure both fall At 4 the exhaust valve opens and the pressure falls abruptly to atmospheric approximately This is unresisted expansion and no useful work is done by it Ideally the adiabatic expansion should continue extending the line 3 4 to the right until the pressure falls to that of the surrounding air but the loss of efficiency caused by this unresisted expansion is justified by the practical difficulties involved in recovering it the engine would have to be much larger After the opening of the exhaust valve the exhaust stroke follows but this and the following induction stroke are not shown on the diagram If shown they would be represented by a low pressure loop at the bottom of the diagram At 1 it is assumed that the exhaust and induction strokes have been completed and the cylinder is again filled with air The piston cylinder system absorbs energy between 1 and 2 this is the work needed to compress the air in the cylinder and is provided by mechanical kinetic energy stored in the flywheel of the engine Work output is done by the piston cylinder combination between 2 and 4 The difference between these two increments of work is the indicated work output per cycle and is represented by the area enclosed by the pV loop The adiabatic expansion is in a higher pressure range than that of the compression because the gas in the cylinder is hotter during expansion than during compression It is for this reason that the loop has a finite area and the net output of work during a cycle is positive 143 Efficiency Edit The fuel efficiency of diesel engines is better than most other types of combustion engines 144 145 due to their high compression ratio high air fuel equivalence ratio l 146 and the lack of intake air restrictions i e throttle valves Theoretically the highest possible efficiency for a diesel engine is 75 147 However in practice the efficiency is much lower with efficiencies of up to 43 for passenger car engines 148 up to 45 for large truck and bus engines and up to 55 for large two stroke marine engines 1 149 The average efficiency over a motor vehicle driving cycle is lower than the diesel engine s peak efficiency for example a 37 average efficiency for an engine with a peak efficiency of 44 150 That is because the fuel efficiency of a diesel engine drops at lower loads however it does not drop quite as fast as the Otto spark ignition engine s 151 Emissions Edit See also Diesel exhaust Diesel engines are combustion engines and therefore emit combustion products in their exhaust gas Due to incomplete combustion 152 diesel engine exhaust gases include carbon monoxide hydrocarbons particulate matter and nitrogen oxides pollutants About 90 per cent of the pollutants can be removed from the exhaust gas using exhaust gas treatment technology 153 154 Road vehicle diesel engines have no sulphur dioxide emissions because motor vehicle diesel fuel has been sulphur free since 2003 155 Helmut Tschoke argues that particulate matter emitted from motor vehicles has negative impacts on human health 156 The particulate matter in diesel exhaust emissions is sometimes classified as a carcinogen or probable carcinogen and is known to increase the risk of heart and respiratory diseases 157 Electrical system Edit In principle a diesel engine does not require any sort of electrical system However most modern diesel engines are equipped with an electrical fuel pump and an electronic engine control unit However there is no high voltage electrical ignition system present in a diesel engine This eliminates a source of radio frequency emissions which can interfere with navigation and communication equipment which is why only diesel powered vehicles are allowed in some parts of the American National Radio Quiet Zone 158 Torque control Edit To control the torque output at any given time i e when the driver of a car adjusts the accelerator pedal a governor adjusts the amount of fuel injected into the engine Mechanical governors have been used in the past however electronic governors are more common on modern engines Mechanical governors are usually driven by the engine s accessory belt or a gear drive system 159 160 and use a combination of springs and weights to control fuel delivery relative to both load and speed 159 Electronically governed engines use an electronic control unit ECU or electronic control module ECM to control the fuel delivery The ECM ECU uses various sensors such as engine speed signal intake manifold pressure and fuel temperature to determine the amount of fuel injected into the engine Due to the amount of air being constant for a given RPM while the amount of fuel varies very high lean air fuel ratios are used in situations where minimal torque output is required This differs from a petrol engine where a throttle is used to also reduce the amount of intake air as part of regulating the engine s torque output Controlling the timing of the start of injection of fuel into the cylinder is similar to controlling the ignition timing in a petrol engine It is therefore a key factor in controlling the power output fuel consumption and exhaust emissions Classification EditThere are several different ways of categorising diesel engines as outlined in the following sections RPM operating range Edit Gunter Mau categorises diesel engines by their rotational speeds into three groups 161 High speed engines gt 1 000 rpm Medium speed engines 300 1 000 rpm and Slow speed engines lt 300 rpm High speed diesel enginesHigh speed engines are used to power trucks lorries buses tractors cars yachts compressors pumps and small electrical generators 162 As of 2018 most high speed engines have direct injection Many modern engines particularly in on highway applications have common rail direct injection 163 On bigger ships high speed diesel engines are often used for powering electric generators 164 The highest power output of high speed diesel engines is approximately 5 MW 165 Medium speed diesel engines Stationary 12 cylinder turbo diesel engine coupled to a generator set for auxiliary power Medium speed engines are used in large electrical generators railway diesel locomotives ship propulsion and mechanical drive applications such as large compressors or pumps Medium speed diesel engines operate on either diesel fuel or heavy fuel oil by direct injection in the same manner as low speed engines Usually they are four stroke engines with trunk pistons 166 a notable exception being the EMD 567 645 and 710 engines which are all two stroke 167 The power output of medium speed diesel engines can be as high as 21 870 kW 168 with the effective efficiency being around 47 48 1982 169 Most larger medium speed engines are started with compressed air direct on pistons using an air distributor as opposed to a pneumatic starting motor acting on the flywheel which tends to be used for smaller engines 170 Medium speed engines intended for marine applications are usually used to power ro ro ferries passenger ships or small freight ships Using medium speed engines reduces the cost of smaller ships and increases their transport capacity In addition to that a single ship can use two smaller engines instead of one big engine which increases the ship s safety 166 Low speed diesel engines The MAN B amp W 5S50MC a two stroke low speed inline five cylinder marine diesel engine onboard a 29 000 tonne chemical carrier Low speed diesel engines are usually very large in size and mostly used to power ships There are two different types of low speed engines that are commonly used Two stroke engines with a crosshead and four stroke engines with a regular trunk piston Two stroke engines have a limited rotational frequency and their charge exchange is more difficult which means that they are usually bigger than four stroke engines and used to directly power a ship s propeller Four stroke engines on ships are usually used to power an electric generator An electric motor powers the propeller 161 Both types are usually very undersquare meaning the bore is smaller than the stroke 171 Low speed diesel engines as used in ships and other applications where overall engine weight is relatively unimportant often have an effective efficiency of up to 55 1 Like medium speed engines low speed engines are started with compressed air and they use heavy oil as their primary fuel 170 Combustion cycle Edit Schematic of a two stroke diesel engine with a roots blower Detroit Diesel timing Four stroke engines use the combustion cycle described earlier Two stroke engines use a combustion cycle which is completed in two strokes instead of four strokes Filling the cylinder with air and compressing it takes place in one stroke and the power and exhaust strokes are combined The compression in a two stroke diesel engine is similar to the compression that takes place in a four stroke diesel engine As the piston passes through bottom centre and starts upward compression commences culminating in fuel injection and ignition Instead of a full set of valves two stroke diesel engines have simple intake ports and exhaust ports or exhaust valves When the piston approaches bottom dead centre both the intake and the exhaust ports are open which means that there is atmospheric pressure inside the cylinder Therefore some sort of pump is required to blow the air into the cylinder and the combustion gasses into the exhaust This process is called scavenging The pressure required is approximately 10 30 kPa 172 Due to the lack of discrete exhaust and intake strokes all two stroke diesel engines use a scavenge blower or some form of compressor to charge the cylinders with air and assist in scavenging 172 Roots type superchargers were used for ship engines until the mid 1950s however since 1955 they have been widely replaced by turbochargers 173 Usually a two stroke ship diesel engine has a single stage turbocharger with a turbine that has an axial inflow and a radial outflow 174 Scavenging in two stroke engines Edit In general there are three types of scavenging possible Uniflow scavenging Crossflow scavenging Reverse flow scavengingCrossflow scavenging is incomplete and limits the stroke yet some manufacturers used it 175 Reverse flow scavenging is a very simple way of scavenging and it was popular amongst manufacturers until the early 1980s Uniflow scavenging is more complicated to make but allows the highest fuel efficiency since the early 1980s manufacturers such as MAN and Sulzer have switched to this system 126 It is standard for modern marine two stroke diesel engines 2 Fuel used Edit Main article Bi fuel vehicle Diesel conversions So called dual fuel diesel engines or gas diesel engines burn two different types of fuel simultaneously for instance a gaseous fuel and diesel engine fuel The diesel engine fuel auto ignites due to compression ignition and then ignites the gaseous fuel Such engines do not require any type of spark ignition and operate similar to regular diesel engines 176 Fuel injection EditThe fuel is injected at high pressure into either the combustion chamber the swirl chamber or the pre chamber 142 unlike older petrol engines where the fuel is added in the inlet manifold or carburettor Engines where the fuel is injected into the main combustion chamber are called direct injection DI engines while those which use a swirl chamber or pre chamber are called indirect injection IDI engines 177 Direct injection Edit Different types of piston bowls Main article Direct fuel injection Most direct injection diesel engines have a combustion cup in the top of the piston where the fuel is sprayed Many different methods of injection can be used Usually an engine with helix controlled mechanic direct injection has either an inline or a distributor injection pump 159 For each engine cylinder the corresponding plunger in the fuel pump measures out the correct amount of fuel and determines the timing of each injection These engines use injectors that are very precise spring loaded valves that open and close at a specific fuel pressure Separate high pressure fuel lines connect the fuel pump with each cylinder Fuel volume for each single combustion is controlled by a slanted groove in the plunger which rotates only a few degrees releasing the pressure and is controlled by a mechanical governor consisting of weights rotating at engine speed constrained by springs and a lever The injectors are held open by the fuel pressure On high speed engines the plunger pumps are together in one unit 178 The length of fuel lines from the pump to each injector is normally the same for each cylinder in order to obtain the same pressure delay Direct injected diesel engines usually use orifice type fuel injectors 179 Electronic control of the fuel injection transformed the direct injection engine by allowing much greater control over the combustion 180 Common railCommon rail CR direct injection systems do not have the fuel metering pressure raising and delivery functions in a single unit as in the case of a Bosch distributor type pump for example A high pressure pump supplies the CR The requirements of each cylinder injector are supplied from this common high pressure reservoir of fuel An Electronic Diesel Control EDC controls both rail pressure and injections depending on engine operating conditions The injectors of older CR systems have solenoid driven plungers for lifting the injection needle whilst newer CR injectors use plungers driven by piezoelectric actuators that have fewer moving mass and therefore allow even more injections in a very short period of time 181 Early common rail system were controlled by mechanical means The injection pressure of modern CR systems ranges from 140 MPa to 270 MPa 182 Indirect injection Edit Ricardo Comet indirect injection chamber Main article Indirect injection An indirect diesel injection system IDI engine delivers fuel into a small chamber called a swirl chamber precombustion chamber pre chamber or ante chamber which is connected to the cylinder by a narrow air passage Generally the goal of the pre chamber is to create increased turbulence for better air fuel mixing This system also allows for a smoother quieter running engine and because fuel mixing is assisted by turbulence injector pressures can be lower Most IDI systems use a single orifice injector The pre chamber has the disadvantage of lowering efficiency due to increased heat loss to the engine s cooling system restricting the combustion burn thus reducing the efficiency by 5 10 IDI engines are also more difficult to start and usually require the use of glow plugs IDI engines may be cheaper to build but generally require a higher compression ratio than the DI counterpart IDI also makes it easier to produce smooth quieter running engines with a simple mechanical injection system since exact injection timing is not as critical Most modern automotive engines are DI which have the benefits of greater efficiency and easier starting however IDI engines can still be found in the many ATV and small diesel applications 183 Indirect injected diesel engines use pintle type fuel injectors 179 Air blast injection Edit Typical early 20th century air blast injected diesel engine rated at 59 kW Main article Air blast injection Early diesel engines injected fuel with the assistance of compressed air which atomised the fuel and forced it into the engine through a nozzle a similar principle to an aerosol spray The nozzle opening was closed by a pin valve actuated by the camshaft Although the engine was also required to drive an air compressor used for air blast injection the efficiency was nonetheless better than other combustion engines of the time 53 However the system was heavy and it was slow to react to changing torque demands making it unsuitable for road vehicles 184 Unit injectors Edit Main article Unit Injector A unit injector system also known as Pumpe Duse pump nozzle in German combines the injector and fuel pump into a single component which is positioned above each cylinder This eliminates the high pressure fuel lines and achieves a more consistent injection Under full load the injection pressure can reach up to 220 MPa 185 Unit injectors are operated by a cam and the quantity of fuel injected is controlled either mechanically by a rack or lever or electronically Due to increased performance requirementss unit injectors have been largely replaced by common rail injection systems 163 Diesel engine particularities EditMass Edit The average diesel engine has a poorer power to mass ratio than an equivalent petrol engine The lower engine speeds RPM of typical diesel engines results in a lower power output 186 Also the mass of a diesel engine is typically higher since the higher operating pressure inside the combustion chamber increases the internal forces which requires stronger and therefore heavier parts to withstand these forces 187 Noise diesel clatter Edit source source source source source source source source source source source source source source Engine noise of a 1950s MWM AKD 112 Z two cylinder diesel engine at idle The distinctive noise of a diesel engine particularly at idling speeds is sometimes called diesel clatter This noise is largely caused by the sudden ignition of the diesel fuel when injected into the combustion chamber which causes a pressure wave that sounds like knocking Engine designers can reduce diesel clatter through indirect injection pilot or pre injection 188 injection timing injection rate compression ratio turbo boost and exhaust gas recirculation EGR 189 Common rail diesel injection systems permit multiple injection events as an aid to noise reduction Through measures such as these diesel clatter noise is greatly reduced in modern engines Diesel fuels with a higher cetane rating are more likely to ignite and hence reduce diesel clatter 190 Cold weather starting Edit In warmer climates diesel engines do not require any starting aid aside from the starter motor However many diesel engines include some form of preheating for the combustion chamber to assist starting in cold conditions Engines with a displacement of less than 1 litre per cylinder usually have glowplugs whilst larger heavy duty engines have flame start systems 191 The minimum starting temperature that allows starting without pre heating is 40 C for precombustion chamber engines 20 C for swirl chamber engines and 0 C for direct injected engines In the past a wider variety of cold start methods were used Some engines such as Detroit Diesel engines used when a system to introduce small amounts of ether into the inlet manifold to start combustion 192 Instead of glowplugs some diesel engines are equipped with starting aid systems that change valve timing The simplest way this can be done is with a decompression lever Activating the decompression lever locks the outlet valves in a slight down position resulting in the engine not having any compression and thus allowing for turning the crankshaft over with significantly less resistance When the crankshaft reaches a higher speed flipping the decompression lever back into its normal position will abruptly re activate the outlet valves resulting in compression the flywheel s mass moment of inertia then starts the engine 193 Other diesel engines such as the precombustion chamber engine XII Jv 170 240 made by Ganz amp Co have a valve timing changing system that is operated by adjusting the inlet valve camshaft moving it into a slight late position This will make the inlet valves open with a delay forcing the inlet air to heat up when entering the combustion chamber 194 Supercharging amp turbocharging Edit 1980s BMW M21 passenger car turbo diesel engine See also Turbo diesel Forced induction especially turbocharging is commonly used on diesel engines because it greatly increases efficiency and torque output 195 Diesel engines are well suited for forced induction setups due to their operating principle which is characterised by wide ignition limits 142 and the absence of fuel during the compression stroke Therefore knocking pre ignition or detonation cannot occur and a lean mixture caused by excess supercharging air inside the combustion chamber does not negatively affect combustion 196 Fuel and fluid characteristics EditMain article Diesel fuel Diesel engines can combust a huge variety of fuels including several fuel oils that have advantages over fuels such as petrol These advantages include Low fuel costs as fuel oils are relatively cheap Good lubrication properties High energy density Low risk of catching fire as they do not form a flammable vapour Biodiesel is an easily synthesised non petroleum based fuel through transesterification which can run directly in many diesel engines while gasoline engines either need adaptation to run synthetic fuels or else use them as an additive to gasoline e g ethanol added to gasohol In diesel engines a mechanical injector system atomizes the fuel directly into the combustion chamber as opposed to a Venturi jet in a carburetor or a fuel injector in a manifold injection system atomizing fuel into the intake manifold or intake runners as in a petrol engine Because only air is inducted into the cylinder in a diesel engine the compression ratio can be much higher as there is no risk of pre ignition provided the injection process is accurately timed 196 This means that cylinder temperatures are much higher in a diesel engine than a petrol engine allowing less volatile fuels to be used The MAN 630 s M System diesel engine is a petrol engine designed to run on NATO F 46 F 50 petrol but it also runs on jet fuel NATO F 40 F 44 kerosene NATO F 58 and diesel engine fuel NATO F 54 F 75 Therefore diesel engines can operate on a huge variety of different fuels In general fuel for diesel engines should have a proper viscosity so that the injection pump can pump the fuel to the injection nozzles without causing damage to itself or corrosion of the fuel line At injection the fuel should form a good fuel spray and it should not have a coking effect upon the injection nozzles To ensure proper engine starting and smooth operation the fuel should be willing to ignite and hence not cause a high ignition delay this means that the fuel should have a high cetane number Diesel fuel should also have a high lower heating value 197 Inline mechanical injector pumps generally tolerate poor quality or bio fuels better than distributor type pumps Also indirect injection engines generally run more satisfactorily on fuels with a high ignition delay for instance petrol than direct injection engines 198 This is partly because an indirect injection engine has a much greater swirl effect improving vaporisation and combustion of fuel and because in the case of vegetable oil type fuels lipid depositions can condense on the cylinder walls of a direct injection engine if combustion temperatures are too low such as starting the engine from cold Direct injected engines with an MAN centre sphere combustion chamber rely on fuel condensing on the combustion chamber walls The fuel starts vaporising only after ignition sets in and it burns relatively smoothly Therefore such engines also tolerate fuels with poor ignition delay characteristics and in general they can operate on petrol rated 86 RON 199 Fuel types Edit In his 1893 work Theory and Construction of a Rational Heat Motor Rudolf Diesel considers using coal dust as fuel for the diesel engine However Diesel just considered using coal dust as well as liquid fuels and gas his actual engine was designed to operate on petroleum which was soon replaced with regular petrol and kerosene for further testing purposes as petroleum proved to be too viscous 200 In addition to kerosene and petrol Diesel s engine could also operate on ligroin 201 Before diesel engine fuel was standardised fuels such as petrol kerosene gas oil vegetable oil and mineral oil as well as mixtures of these fuels were used 202 Typical fuels specifically intended to be used for diesel engines were petroleum distillates and coal tar distillates such as the following these fuels have specific lower heating values of Diesel oil 10 200 kcal kg 1 42 7 MJ kg 1 up to 10 250 kcal kg 1 42 9 MJ kg 1 Heating oil 10 000 kcal kg 1 41 8 MJ kg 1 up to 10 200 kcal kg 1 42 7 MJ kg 1 Coal tar creosote 9 150 kcal kg 1 38 3 MJ kg 1 up to 9 250 kcal kg 1 38 7 MJ kg 1 Kerosene up to 10 400 kcal kg 1 43 5 MJ kg 1 Source 203 The first diesel fuel standards were the DIN 51601 VTL 9140 001 and NATO F 54 which appeared after World War II 202 The modern European EN 590 diesel fuel standard was established in May 1993 the modern version of the NATO F 54 standard is mostly identical with it The DIN 51628 biodiesel standard was rendered obsolete by the 2009 version of the EN 590 FAME biodiesel conforms to the EN 14214 standard Watercraft diesel engines usually operate on diesel engine fuel that conforms to the ISO 8217 standard Bunker C Also some diesel engines can operate on gasses such as LNG 204 Modern diesel fuel properties Edit Modern diesel fuel properties 205 EN 590 as of 2009 EN 14214 as of 2010 Ignition performance 51 CN 51 CNDensity at 15 C 820 845 kg m 3 860 900 kg m 3Sulphur content 10 mg kg 1 10 mg kg 1Water content 200 mg kg 1 500 mg kg 1Lubricity 460 µm 460 µmViscosity at 40 C 2 0 4 5 mm2 s 1 3 5 5 0 mm2 s 1FAME content 7 0 96 5 Molar H C ratio 1 69Lower heating value 37 1 MJ kg 1Gelling Edit DIN 51601 diesel fuel was prone to waxing or gelling in cold weather both are terms for the solidification of diesel oil into a partially crystalline state The crystals build up in the fuel system especially in fuel filters eventually starving the engine of fuel and causing it to stop running 206 Low output electric heaters in fuel tanks and around fuel lines were used to solve this problem Also most engines have a spill return system by which any excess fuel from the injector pump and injectors is returned to the fuel tank Once the engine has warmed returning warm fuel prevents waxing in the tank Before direct injection diesel engines some manufacturers such as BMW recommended mixing up to 30 petrol in with the diesel by fuelling diesel cars with petrol to prevent the fuel from gelling when the temperatures dropped below 15 C 207 Safety EditFuel flammability Edit Diesel fuel is less flammable than petrol because its flash point is 55 C 206 208 leading to a lower risk of fire caused by fuel in a vehicle equipped with a diesel engine Diesel fuel can create an explosive air vapour mix under the right conditions However compared with petrol it is less prone due to its lower vapour pressure which is an indication of evaporation rate The Material Safety Data Sheet 209 for ultra low sulfur diesel fuel indicates a vapour explosion hazard for diesel fuel indoors outdoors or in sewers Cancer Edit Diesel exhaust has been classified as an IARC Group 1 carcinogen It causes lung cancer and is associated with an increased risk for bladder cancer 210 Engine runaway uncontrollable overspeeding Edit See diesel engine runaway Applications EditThe characteristics of diesel have different advantages for different applications Passenger cars Edit See also History of the diesel car Diesel engines have long been popular in bigger cars and have been used in smaller cars such as superminis in Europe since the 1980s They were popular in larger cars earlier as the weight and cost penalties were less noticeable 211 Smooth operation as well as high low end torque are deemed important for passenger cars and small commercial vehicles The introduction of electronically controlled fuel injection significantly improved the smooth torque generation and starting in the early 1990s car manufacturers began offering their high end luxury vehicles with diesel engines Passenger car diesel engines usually have between three and twelve cylinders and a displacement ranging from 0 8 to 6 0 litres Modern powerplants are usually turbocharged and have direct injection 162 Diesel engines do not suffer from intake air throttling resulting in very low fuel consumption especially at low partial load 212 for instance driving at city speeds One fifth of all passenger cars worldwide have diesel engines with many of them being in Europe where approximately 47 of all passenger cars are diesel powered 213 Daimler Benz in conjunction with Robert Bosch GmbH produced diesel powered passenger cars starting in 1936 82 The popularity of diesel powered passenger cars in markets such as India South Korea and Japan is increasing as of 2018 214 Commercial vehicles and lorries Edit Lifespan of Mercedes Benz diesel engines 215 In 1893 Rudolf Diesel suggested that the diesel engine could possibly power wagons lorries 216 The first lorries with diesel engines were brought to market in 1924 82 Modern diesel engines for lorries have to be both extremely reliable and very fuel efficient Common rail direct injection turbocharging and four valves per cylinder are standard Displacements range from 4 5 to 15 5 litres with power to mass ratios of 2 5 3 5 kg kW 1 for heavy duty and 2 0 3 0 kg kW 1 for medium duty engines V6 and V8 engines used to be common due to the relatively low engine mass the V configuration provides Recently the V configuration has been abandoned in favour of straight engines These engines are usually straight 6 for heavy and medium duties and straight 4 for medium duty Their undersquare design causes lower overall piston speeds which results in increased lifespan of up to 1 200 000 kilometres 750 000 mi 217 Compared with 1970s diesel engines the expected lifespan of modern lorry diesel engines has more than doubled 215 Railroad rolling stock Edit Diesel engines for locomotives are built for continuous operation between refuelings and may need to be designed to use poor quality fuel in some circumstances 218 Some locomotives use two stroke diesel engines 219 Diesel engines have replaced steam engines on all non electrified railroads in the world The first diesel locomotives appeared in 1913 82 and diesel multiple units soon after Nearly all modern diesel locomotives are more correctly known as diesel electric locomotives because they use an electric transmission the diesel engine drives an electric generator which powers electric traction motors 220 While electric locomotives have replaced the diesel locomotive for passenger services in many areas diesel traction is widely used for cargo hauling freight trains and on tracks where electrification is not economically viable In the 1940s road vehicle diesel engines with power outputs of 150 200 metric horsepower 110 150 kW 150 200 hp were considered reasonable for DMUs Commonly regular truck powerplants were used The height of these engines had to be less than 1 metre 3 ft 3 in to allow underfloor installation Usually the engine was mated with a pneumatically operated mechanical gearbox due to the low size mass and production costs of this design Some DMUs used hydraulic torque converters instead Diesel electric transmission was not suitable for such small engines 221 In the 1930s the Deutsche Reichsbahn standardised its first DMU engine It was a 30 3 litres 1 850 cu in 12 cylinder boxer unit producing 275 metric horsepower 202 kW 271 hp Several German manufacturers produced engines according to this standard 222 Watercraft Edit One of the eight cylinder 3200 I H P Harland and Wolff Burmeister amp Wain diesel engines installed in the motorship Glenapp This was the highest powered diesel engine yet 1920 installed in a ship Note man standing lower right for size comparison source source source source source source source source source source Hand cranking a boat diesel motor in Inle Lake Myanmar The requirements for marine diesel engines vary depending on the application For military use and medium size boats medium speed four stroke diesel engines are most suitable These engines usually have up to 24 cylinders and come with power outputs in the one digit Megawatt region 218 Small boats may use lorry diesel engines Large ships use extremely efficient low speed two stroke diesel engines They can reach efficiencies of up to 55 Unlike most regular diesel engines two stroke watercraft engines use highly viscous fuel oil 1 Submarines are usually diesel electric 220 The first diesel engines for ships were made by A B Diesels Motorer Stockholm in 1903 These engines were three cylinder units of 120 PS 88 kW and four cylinder units of 180 PS 132 kW and used for Russian ships In World War I especially submarine diesel engine development advanced quickly By the end of the War double acting piston two stroke engines with up to 12 200 PS 9 MW had been made for marine use 223 Aviation Edit Main article Aircraft diesel engine Early Edit Diesel engines had been used in aircraft before World War II for instance in the rigid airship LZ 129 Hindenburg which was powered by four Daimler Benz DB 602 diesel engines 224 or in several Junkers aircraft which had Jumo 205 engines installed 102 In 1929 in the United States the Packard Motor Company developed America s first aircraft diesel engine the Packard DR 980 an air cooled 9 cylinder radial engine They installed it in various aircraft of the era some of which were used in record breaking distance or endurance flights 225 226 227 228 and in the first successful demonstration of ground to air radiophone communications voice radio having been previously unintelligible in aircraft equipped with spark ignition engines due to electromagnetic interference 226 227 Additional advantages cited at the time included a lower risk of post crash fire and superior performance at high altitudes 226 On March 6 1930 the engine received an Approved Type Certificate first ever for an aircraft diesel engine from the U S Department of Commerce 229 However noxious exhaust fumes cold start and vibration problems engine structural failures the death of its developer and the industrial economic contraction of the Great Depression combined to kill the program 226 Modern Edit From then until the late 1970s there had not been many applications of the diesel engine in aircraft In 1978 Piper Cherokee co designer Karl H Bergey argued that the likelihood of a general aviation diesel in the near future is remote 230 However with the 1970s energy crisis and environmental movement and resulting pressures for greater fuel economy reduced carbon and lead in the atmosphere and other issues there was a resurgence of interest in diesel engines for aircraft High compression piston aircraft engines that run on aviation gasoline avgas generally require the addition of toxic Tetraethyl lead to avgas to avoid engine pre ignition and detonation but diesel engines do not require leaded fuel Also biodiesel can theoretically provide a net reduction in atmospheric carbon compared to avgas For these reasons the general aviation community has begun to fear the possible banning or discontinuance of leaded avgas 9 231 232 233 Additionally avgas is a specialty fuel in very low and declining demand compared to other fuels and its makers are susceptible to costly aviation crash lawsuits reducing refiners interest in producing it Outside the United States avgas has already become increasingly difficult to find at airports and generally than less expensive diesel compatible fuels like Jet A and other jet fuels 9 231 232 233 By the late 1990s early 2000s diesel engines were beginning to appear in light aircraft Most notably Frank Thielert and his Austrian engine enterprise began developing diesel engines to replace the 100 horsepower 75 kW 350 horsepower 260 kW gasoline piston engines in common light aircraft use 234 First successful application of the Theilerts to production aircraft was in the Diamond DA42 Twin Star light twin which exhibited exceptional fuel efficiency surpassing anything in its class 9 10 235 and its single seat predecessor the Diamond DA40 Diamond Star 9 10 234 In subsequent years several other companies have developed aircraft diesel engines or have begun to 234 most notably Continental Aerospace Technologies which by 2018 was reporting it had sold over 5 000 such engines worldwide 9 10 236 The United States Federal Aviation Administration has reported that by 2007 various jet fueled piston aircraft had logged well over 600 000 hours of service 234 In early 2019 AOPA reported that a diesel engine model for general aviation aircraft is approaching the finish line 237 By late 2022 Continental was reporting that its Jet A fueled engines had exceeded 2 000 in operation today with over 9 million hours and were being specified by major OEMs for Cessna Piper Diamond Mooney Tecnam Glasair and Robin aircraft 236 In recent years 2016 diesel engines have also found use in unmanned aircraft UAV due to their reliability durability and low fuel consumption 238 239 240 Non road diesel engines Edit Air cooled diesel engine of a 1959 Porsche 218 Non road diesel engines are commonly used for construction equipment and agricultural machinery Fuel efficiency reliability and ease of maintenance are very important for such engines whilst high power output and quiet operation are negligible Therefore mechanically controlled fuel injection and air cooling are still very common The common power outputs of non road diesel engines vary a lot with the smallest units starting at 3 kW and the most powerful engines being heavy duty lorry engines 218 Stationary diesel engines Edit Three English Electric 7SRL diesel alternator sets being installed at the Saateni Power Station Zanzibar 1955 Stationary diesel engines are commonly used for electricity generation but also for powering refrigerator compressors or other types of compressors or pumps Usually these engines either run continuously with partial load or intermittently with full load Stationary diesel engines powering electric generators that put out an alternating current usually operate with alternating load but fixed rotational frequency This is due to the mains fixed frequency of either 50 Hz Europe or 60 Hz United States The engine s crankshaft rotational frequency is chosen so that the mains frequency is a multiple of it For practical reasons this results in crankshaft rotational frequencies of either 25 Hz 1500 per minute or 30 Hz 1800 per minute 241 Low heat rejection engines EditA special class of prototype internal combustion piston engines has been developed over several decades with the goal of improving efficiency by reducing heat loss 242 These engines are variously called adiabatic engines due to better approximation of adiabatic expansion low heat rejection engines or high temperature engines 243 They are generally piston engines with combustion chamber parts lined with ceramic thermal barrier coatings 244 Some make use of pistons and other parts made of titanium which has a low thermal conductivity 245 and density Some designs are able to eliminate the use of a cooling system and associated parasitic losses altogether 246 Developing lubricants able to withstand the higher temperatures involved has been a major barrier to commercialization 247 Future developments EditIn mid 2010s literature main development goals for future diesel engines are described as improvements of exhaust emissions reduction of fuel consumption and increase of lifespan 2014 248 162 It is said that the diesel engine especially the diesel engine for commercial vehicles will remain the most important vehicle powerplant until the mid 2030s Editors assume that the complexity of the diesel engine will increase further 2014 249 Some editors expect a future convergency of diesel and Otto engines operating principles due to Otto engine development steps made towards homogeneous charge compression ignition 2017 250 See also EditAircraft diesel engine Diesel locomotive Diesel automobile racing Diesel electric transmission Diesel cycle Diesel exhaust DieselHouse Diesel generator Dieselisation History of the internal combustion engine Indirect injection Partially premixed combustion Reactivity controlled compression ignitionReferences Edit a b c d Konrad Reif ed Dieselmotor Management im Uberblick 2nd edition Springer Wiesbaden 2014 ISBN 978 3 658 06554 6 p 13 a b Karl Heinrich Grote Beate Bender Dietmar Gohlich ed Dubbel Taschenbuch fur den Maschinenbau 25th edition Springer Heidelberg 2018 ISBN 978 3 662 54804 2 1205 pp P93 Ramey Jay 10 Diesel Cars That Time Forgot April 13 2021 Autoweek retrieved December 5 2022 Critical evaluation of the European diesel car boom global comparison environmental effects and various national strategies 2013 Environmental Sciences Europe volume 25 Article number 15 retrieved December 5 2022 List of diesel automobiles Wikipedia retrieved December 5 2022 Konrad Reif ed Dieselmotor Management Systeme Komponenten und Regelung 5th edition Springer Wiesbaden 2012 ISBN 978 3 8348 1715 0 p 286 Huffman John Pearley Every New 2021 Diesel for Sale in the U S Today March 6 2021 Car and Driver retrieved December 5 2022 Gorzelany Jim The Best 15 Best Diesel Vehicles of 2021 April 23 2021 U S News retrieved December 5 2022 a b c d e f Inside the Diesel Revolution August 1 2018 Flying retrieved December 5 2022 a b c d O Connor Kate Diamond Rolls Out 500th DA40 NG December 30 2020 Updated December 31 2020 Avweb retrieved December 5 2022 a b c Rudolf Diesel Die Entstehung des Dieselmotors Springer Berlin 1913 ISBN 978 3 642 64940 0 p 22 a b Rudolf Diesel Die Entstehung des Dieselmotors Springer Berlin 1913 ISBN 978 3 642 64940 0 p 64 Rudolf Diesel Die Entstehung des Dieselmotors Springer Berlin 1913 ISBN 978 3 642 64940 0 p 75 Rudolf Diesel Die Entstehung des Dieselmotors Springer Berlin 1913 ISBN 978 3 642 64940 0 p 78 a b Rudolf Diesel Die Entstehung des Dieselmotors Springer Berlin 1913 ISBN 978 3 642 64940 0 p 1 Ogata Masanori Shimotsuma Yorikazu October 20 21 2002 Origin of Diesel Engine is in Fire Piston of Mountainous People Lived in Southeast Asia First International Conference on Business and technology Transfer Japan Society of Mechanical Engineers Archived from the original on May 23 2007 Retrieved May 28 2007 Sittauer Hans L 1990 Nicolaus August Otto Rudolf Diesel Biographien hervorragender Naturwissenschaftler Techniker und Mediziner in German 32 4th ed Leipzig DDR Springer BSB Teubner ISBN 978 3 322 00762 9 p 70 Sittauer Hans L 1990 Nicolaus August Otto Rudolf Diesel Biographien hervorragender Naturwissenschaftler Techniker und Mediziner in German 32 4th ed Leipzig DDR Springer BSB Teubner ISBN 978 3 322 00762 9 p 71 Friedrich Sass Geschichte des deutschen Verbrennungsmotorenbaus von 1860 bis 1918 Springer Berlin Heidelberg 1962 ISBN 978 3 662 11843 6 p 398 a b Friedrich Sass Geschichte des deutschen Verbrennungsmotorenbaus von 1860 bis 1918 Springer Berlin Heidelberg 1962 ISBN 978 3 662 11843 6 p 399 US patent granted in 1895 542846 pdfpiw uspto gov Friedrich Sass Geschichte des deutschen Verbrennungsmotorenbaus von 1860 bis 1918 Springer Berlin Heidelberg 1962 ISBN 978 3 662 11843 6 p 402 Patent Images Pdfpiw uspto gov Retrieved October 28 2017 Diesel Rudolf October 28 1897 Diesel s Rational Heat Motor A Lecture Progressive Age Publishing Company Retrieved October 28 2017 diesel rational heat motor Archived copy Archived from the original on July 29 2017 Retrieved September 4 2016 a href Template Cite web html title Template Cite web cite web a CS1 maint archived copy as title link Method Of and Apparatus For Converting Heat Into Work United States Patent No 542 846 Filed Aug 26 1892 Issued July 16 1895 Inventor Rudolf Diesel of Berlin Germany ES 16654 Perfeccionamientos en los motores de combustion interior Internal Combustion Engine U S Patent number 608845 Filed Jul 15 1895 Issued August 9 1898 Inventor Rudolf Diesel Assigned to the Diesel Motor Company of America New York a b Friedrich Sass Geschichte des deutschen Verbrennungsmotorenbaus von 1860 bis 1918 Springer Berlin Heidelberg 1962 ISBN 978 3 662 11843 6 p 486 a b Friedrich Sass Geschichte des deutschen Verbrennungsmotorenbaus von 1860 bis 1918 Springer Berlin Heidelberg 1962 ISBN 978 3 662 11843 6 p 400 Friedrich Sass Geschichte des deutschen Verbrennungsmotorenbaus von 1860 bis 1918 Springer Berlin Heidelberg 1962 ISBN 978 3 662 11843 6 p 412 Friedrich Sass Geschichte des deutschen Verbrennungsmotorenbaus von 1860 bis 1918 Springer Berlin Heidelberg 1962 ISBN 978 3 662 11843 6 p 487 a b Friedrich Sass Geschichte des deutschen Verbrennungsmotorenbaus von 1860 bis 1918 Springer Berlin Heidelberg 1962 ISBN 978 3 662 11843 6 p 414 Friedrich Sass Geschichte des deutschen Verbrennungsmotorenbaus von 1860 bis 1918 Springer Berlin Heidelberg 1962 ISBN 978 3 662 11843 6 p 518 Friedrich Sass Geschichte des deutschen Verbrennungsmotorenbaus von 1860 bis 1918 Springer Berlin Heidelberg 1962 ISBN 978 3 662 11843 6 p 395 Sittauer Hans L 1990 Nicolaus August Otto Rudolf Diesel Biographien hervorragender Naturwissenschaftler Techniker und Mediziner in German 32 4th ed Leipzig DDR Springer BSB Teubner ISBN 978 3 322 00762 9 p 74 a b Friedrich Sass Geschichte des deutschen Verbrennungsmotorenbaus von 1860 bis 1918 Springer Berlin Heidelberg 1962 ISBN 978 3 662 11843 6 p 559 a b Rudolf Diesel Die Entstehung des Dieselmotors Springer Berlin 1913 ISBN 978 3 642 64940 0 p 17 Friedrich Sass Geschichte des deutschen Verbrennungsmotorenbaus von 1860 bis 1918 Springer Berlin Heidelberg 1962 ISBN 978 3 662 11843 6 p 444 Friedrich Sass Geschichte des deutschen Verbrennungsmotorenbaus von 1860 bis 1918 Springer Berlin Heidelberg 1962 ISBN 978 3 662 11843 6 p 415 Moon John F 1974 Rudolf Diesel and the Diesel Engine London Priory Press ISBN 978 0 85078 130 4 a b Helmut Tschoke Klaus Mollenhauer Rudolf Maier ed Handbuch Dieselmotoren 8th edition Springer Wiesbaden 2018 ISBN 978 3 658 07696 2 p 6 Friedrich Sass Geschichte des deutschen Verbrennungsmotorenbaus von 1860 bis 1918 Springer Berlin Heidelberg 1962 ISBN 978 3 662 11843 6 p 462 Friedrich Sass Geschichte des deutschen Verbrennungsmotorenbaus von 1860 bis 1918 Springer Berlin Heidelberg 1962 ISBN 978 3 662 11843 6 p 463 Friedrich Sass Geschichte des deutschen Verbrennungsmotorenbaus von 1860 bis 1918 Springer Berlin Heidelberg 1962 ISBN 978 3 662 11843 6 p 464 a b Friedrich Sass Geschichte des deutschen Verbrennungsmotorenbaus von 1860 bis 1918 Springer Berlin Heidelberg 1962 ISBN 978 3 662 11843 6 p 466 a b Friedrich Sass Geschichte des deutschen Verbrennungsmotorenbaus von 1860 bis 1918 Springer Berlin Heidelberg 1962 ISBN 978 3 662 11843 6 p 467 a b Friedrich Sass Geschichte des deutschen Verbrennungsmotorenbaus von 1860 bis 1918 Springer Berlin Heidelberg 1962 ISBN 978 3 662 11843 6 p 474 Friedrich Sass Geschichte des deutschen Verbrennungsmotorenbaus von 1860 bis 1918 Springer Berlin Heidelberg 1962 ISBN 978 3 662 11843 6 p 475 a b Friedrich Sass Geschichte des deutschen Verbrennungsmotorenbaus von 1860 bis 1918 Springer Berlin Heidelberg 1962 ISBN 978 3 662 11843 6 p 479 Friedrich Sass Geschichte des deutschen Verbrennungsmotorenbaus von 1860 bis 1918 Springer Berlin Heidelberg 1962 ISBN 978 3 662 11843 6 p 480 Helmut Tschoke Klaus Mollenhauer Rudolf Maier ed Handbuch Dieselmotoren 8th edition Springer Wiesbaden 2018 ISBN 978 3 658 07696 2 p 7 a b c Gunter Mau Handbuch Dieselmotoren im Kraftwerks und Schiffsbetrieb Vieweg Springer Braunschweig Wiesbaden 1984 ISBN 978 3 528 14889 8 p 7 a b Friedrich Sass Geschichte des deutschen Verbrennungsmotorenbaus von 1860 bis 1918 Springer Berlin Heidelberg 1962 ISBN 978 3 662 11843 6 p 484 Diesel Rudolf August 23 1894 Theory and Construction of a Rational Heat Motor E amp F N Spon Rudolf Diesel Theorie und Konstruktion eines rationellen Warmemotors zum Ersatz der Dampfmaschine und der heute bekannten Verbrennungsmotoren Springer Berlin 1893 ISBN 978 3 642 64949 3 a b c Rudolf Diesel Die Entstehung des Dieselmotors Springer Berlin 1913 ISBN 978 3 642 64940 0 p 6 Rudolf Diesel Die Entstehung des Dieselmotors Springer Berlin 1913 ISBN 978 3 642 64940 0 p 8 Rudolf Diesel Die Entstehung des Dieselmotors Springer Berlin 1913 ISBN 978 3 642 64940 0 p 13 Rudolf Diesel Die Entstehung des Dieselmotors Springer Berlin 1913 ISBN 978 3 642 64940 0 p 21 DE 82168 Verbrennungskraftmaschine mit veranderlicher Dauer der unter wechselndem Uberdruck stattfindenden Brennstoffeinfuhrung Friedrich Sass Geschichte des deutschen Verbrennungsmotorenbaus von 1860 bis 1918 Springer Berlin Heidelberg 1962 ISBN 978 3 662 11843 6 p 408 Rudolf Diesel Die Entstehung des Dieselmotors Springer Berlin 1913 ISBN 978 3 642 64940 0 p 38 Patent Images Pdfpiw uspto gov The Diesel engine Busch Sulzer Bros Diesel Engine Company St Louis Busch 1913 a b Friedrich Sass Geschichte des deutschen Verbrennungsmotorenbaus von 1860 bis 1918 Springer Berlin Heidelberg 1962 ISBN 978 3 662 11843 6 p 485 Friedrich Sass Geschichte des deutschen Verbrennungsmotorenbaus von 1860 bis 1918 Springer Berlin Heidelberg 1962 ISBN 978 3 662 11843 6 p 505 Friedrich Sass Geschichte des deutschen Verbrennungsmotorenbaus von 1860 bis 1918 Springer Berlin Heidelberg 1962 ISBN 978 3 662 11843 6 p 506 Friedrich Sass Geschichte des deutschen Verbrennungsmotorenbaus von 1860 bis 1918 Springer Berlin Heidelberg 1962 ISBN 978 3 662 11843 6 p 493 a b Friedrich Sass Geschichte des deutschen Verbrennungsmotorenbaus von 1860 bis 1918 Springer Berlin Heidelberg 1962 ISBN 978 3 662 11843 6 p 524 Friedrich Sass Geschichte des deutschen Verbrennungsmotorenbaus von 1860 bis 1918 Springer Berlin Heidelberg 1962 ISBN 978 3 662 11843 6 p 523 Friedrich Sass Geschichte des deutschen Verbrennungsmotorenbaus von 1860 bis 1918 Springer Berlin Heidelberg 1962 ISBN 978 3 662 11843 6 p 532 Spencer C Tucker 2014 World War I The Definitive Encyclopedia and Document Collection 5 volumes The Definitive Encyclopedia and Document Collection ABC CLIO pp 1506 ISBN 978 1 85109 965 8 a b Friedrich Sass Geschichte des deutschen Verbrennungsmotorenbaus von 1860 bis 1918 Springer Berlin Heidelberg 1962 ISBN 978 3 662 11843 6 p 501 Jeff Hartman Turbocharging Performance Handbook MotorBooks International pp 2 ISBN 978 1 61059 231 4 Friedrich Sass Geschichte des deutschen Verbrennungsmotorenbaus von 1860 bis 1918 Springer Berlin Heidelberg 1962 ISBN 978 3 662 11843 6 p 530 Konrad Reif ed Ottomotor Management Steuerung Regelung und Uberwachung Springer Wiesbaden 2014 ISBN 978 3 8348 1416 6 p 7 Friedrich Sass Geschichte des deutschen Verbrennungsmotorenbaus von 1860 bis 1918 Springer Berlin Heidelberg 1962 ISBN 978 3 662 11843 6 p 610 Olaf von Fersen ed Ein Jahrhundert Automobiltechnik Personenwagen Springer Dusseldorf 1986 ISBN 978 3 642 95773 4 p 272 a b Gunter P Merker Rudiger Teichmann ed Grundlagen Verbrennungsmotoren Funktionsweise Simulation Messtechnik 7th edition Springer Wiesbaden 2014 ISBN 978 3 658 03194 7 p 382 Gunter Mau Handbuch Dieselmotoren im Kraftwerks und Schiffsbetrieb Vieweg Springer Braunschweig Wiesbaden 1984 ISBN 978 3 528 14889 8 p 8 a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o Helmut Tschoke Klaus Mollenhauer Rudolf Maier ed Handbuch Dieselmotoren 8th edition Springer Wiesbaden 2018 ISBN 978 3 658 07696 2 p 10 Friedrich Sass Geschichte des deutschen Verbrennungsmotorenbaus von 1860 bis 1918 Springer Berlin Heidelberg 1962 ISBN 978 3 662 11843 6 p 502 Friedrich Sass Geschichte des deutschen Verbrennungsmotorenbaus von 1860 bis 1918 Springer Berlin Heidelberg 1962 ISBN 978 3 662 11843 6 p 569 Friedrich Sass Geschichte des deutschen Verbrennungsmotorenbaus von 1860 bis 1918 Springer Berlin Heidelberg 1962 ISBN 978 3 662 11843 6 p 545 John W Klooster 2009 Icons of Invention The Makers of the Modern World from Gutenberg to Gates ABC CLIO pp 245 ISBN 978 0 313 34743 6 Helmut Tschoke Klaus Mollenhauer Rudolf Maier ed Handbuch Dieselmotoren 8th edition Springer Wiesbaden 2018 ISBN 978 3 658 07696 2 p 9 Rivers and Harbors 1921 pp 590 Brian Solomon American Diesel Locomotives Voyageur Press pp 34 ISBN 978 1 61060 605 9 Friedrich Sass Geschichte des deutschen Verbrennungsmotorenbaus von 1860 bis 1918 Springer Berlin Heidelberg 1962 ISBN 978 3 662 11843 6 p 541 John Pease 2003 The History of J amp H McLaren of Leeds Steam amp Diesel Engine Makers Landmark Pub ISBN 978 1 84306 105 2 Automobile Quarterly Automobile Quarterly 1974 Sean Bennett 2016 Medium Heavy Duty Truck Engines Fuel amp Computerized Management Systems Cengage Learning pp 97 ISBN 978 1 305 57855 5 International Directory of Company Histories St James Press 1996 ISBN 978 1 55862 327 9 History of the DLG Agritechnica s organizer November 2 2017 Retrieved February 19 2019 Wilfried Lochte auth Vorwort in Nutzfahrzeuge AG ed Leistung und Weg Zur Geschichte des MAN Nutzfahrzeugbaus Springer Berlin Heidelberg 1991 ISBN 978 3 642 93490 2 p XI a b Gunter Mau Handbuch Dieselmotoren im Kraftwerks und Schiffsbetrieb Vieweg Springer Braunschweig Wiesbaden 1984 ISBN 978 3 528 14889 8 p 17 Pearce William September 1 2012 Fairbanks Morse Model 32 Stationary Engine Friedrich Sass Geschichte des deutschen Verbrennungsmotorenbaus von 1860 bis 1918 Springer Berlin Heidelberg 1962 ISBN 978 3 662 11843 6 p 644 Konrad Reif ed Dieselmotor Management im Uberblick 2nd edition Springer Wiesbaden 2014 ISBN 978 3 658 06554 6 p 31 a b Olaf von Fersen ed Ein Jahrhundert Automobiltechnik Personenwagen Springer Dusseldorf 1986 ISBN 978 3 642 95773 4 p 274 a b Konrad Reif ed Dieselmotor Management Systeme Komponenten und Regelung 5th edition Springer Wiesbaden 2012 ISBN 978 3 8348 1715 0 p 103 a b Kevin EuDaly Mike Schafer Steve Jessup Jim Boyd Andrew McBride Steve Glischinski The Complete Book of North American Railroading Book Sales 2016 ISBN 978 0785833895 p 160 Hans Kremser auth Der Aufbau schnellaufender Verbrennungskraftmaschinen fur Kraftfahrzeuge und Triebwagen In Hans List ed Die Verbrennungskraftmaschine Vol 11 Springer Wien 1942 ISBN 978 3 7091 5016 0 p 24 Lance Cole Citroen The Complete Story The Crowood Press Ramsbury 2014 ISBN 978 1 84797 660 4 p 64 Hans Kremser auth Der Aufbau schnellaufender Verbrennungskraftmaschinen fur Kraftfahrzeuge und Triebwagen In Hans List ed Die Verbrennungskraftmaschine V 11 Springer Wien 1942 ISBN 978 3 7091 5016 0 p 125 Barbara Waibel Die Hindenburg Gigant der Lufte Sutton 2016 ISBN 978 3954007226 p 159 Anthony Tucker Jones T 34 The Red Army s Legendary Medium Tank Pen and Sword 2015 ISBN 978 1473854703 p 36 and 37 Fleet Owner Volume 59 Primedia Business Magazines amp Media Incorporated 1964 p 107 US Patent 2 408 298 filed April 1943 awarded Sept 24 1946 E Flatz Der neue luftgekuhlte Deutz Fahrzeug Dieselmotor MTZ 8 33 38 1946 Helmut Tschoke Klaus Mollenhauer Rudolf Maier ed Handbuch Dieselmotoren 8th edition Springer Wiesbaden 2018 ISBN 978 3 658 07696 2 p 666 a b Hans Christian Graf von Seherr Thoss auth Die Technik des MAN Nutzfahrzeugbaus in MAN Nutzfahrzeuge AG ed Leistung und Weg Zur Geschichte des MAN Nutzfahrzeugbaus Springer Berlin Heidelberg 1991 ISBN 978 3 642 93490 2 p 465 Daimler AG Die Geburt einer Legende Die Baureihe 300 ist ein grosser Wurf 22 April 2009 retrieved 23 February 2019 Olaf von Fersen ed Ein Jahrhundert Automobiltechnik Nutzfahrzeuge Springer Heidelberg 1987 ISBN 978 3 662 01120 1 p 156 Andrew Roberts July 10 2007 Peugeot 403 The 403 launched half a century ago established Peugeot as a global brand The Independent London Retrieved February 28 2019 Carl Heinz Vogler Unimog 406 Typengeschichte und Technik Geramond Munchen 2016 ISBN 978 3 86245 576 8 p 34 Daimler Media Vorkammer Adieu Im Jahr 1964 kommen erste Direkteinspritzer bei Lkw und Bus 12 Februar 2009 retrieved 22 February 2019 US Patent 3 220 392 filed June 4 1962 granted Nov 30 1965 Richard van Basshuysen ed Ottomotor mit Direkteinspritzung und Direkteinblasung Ottokraftstoffe Erdgas Methan Wasserstoff 4th edition Springer Wiesbaden 2017 ISBN 978 3658122157 pp 24 25 Richard van Basshuysen ed Ottomotor mit Direkteinspritzung und Direkteinblasung Ottokraftstoffe Erdgas Methan Wasserstoff 4th edition Springer Wiesbaden 2017 ISBN 978 3658122157 p 141 Blauer Rauch Der VW Konzern prasentiert seine neuesten Golf Variante den ersten Wolfsburger Personenwagen mit Dieselmotor Vol 40 1976 Der Spiegel online September 27 1976 Retrieved February 28 2019 Georg Auer May 21 2001 How Volkswagen built a diesel dynasty Automotive News Europe Crain Communications Inc Detroit MI Retrieved February 28 2019 a b c d e f g h i j Gunter P Merker Rudiger Teichmann ed Grundlagen Verbrennungsmotoren Funktionsweise Simulation Messtechnik 7th edition Springer Wiesbaden 2014 ISBN 978 3 658 03194 7 p 179 Gunter P Merker Rudiger Teichmann ed Grundlagen Verbrennungsmotoren Funktionsweise Simulation Messtechnik 7th edition Springer Wiesbaden 2014 ISBN 978 3 658 03194 7 p 276 a b Gunter Mau Handbuch Dieselmotoren im Kraftwerks und Schiffsbetrieb Vieweg Springer Braunschweig Wiesbaden 1984 ISBN 978 3 528 14889 8 p 16 Peter Diehl Auto Service Praxis magazine 06 2013 pp 100 a b Brian Long Zero Carbon Car Green Technology and the Automotive Industry Crowood 2013 ISBN 978 1847975140 Konrad Reif ed Dieselmotor Management im Uberblick 2nd edition Springer Wiesbaden 2014 ISBN 978 3 658 06554 6 p 182 a b Konrad Reif ed Dieselmotor Management Systeme Komponenten und Regelung 5th edition Springer Wiesbaden 2012 ISBN 978 3 8348 1715 0 p 271 Hua Zhao Advanced Direct Injection Combustion Engine Technologies and Development Diesel Engines Elsevier 2009 ISBN 978 1845697457 p 8 Konrad Reif ed Dieselmotor Management Systeme Komponenten und Regelung 5th edition Springer Wiesbaden 2012 ISBN 978 3 8348 1715 0 p 223 Klaus Egger Johann Warga Wendelin Klugl auth Neues Common Rail Einspritzsystem mit Piezo Aktorik fur Pkw Dieselmotoren in MTZ Motortechnische Zeitschrift Springer September 2002 Volume 63 Issue 9 pp 696 704 Peter Speck Employability Herausforderungen fur die strategische Personalentwicklung Konzepte fur eine flexible innovationsorientierte Arbeitswelt von morgen 2nd edition Springer 2005 ISBN 978 3409226837 p 21 Perfect piezo The Engineer November 6 2003 Retrieved May 4 2016 At the recent Frankfurt motor show Siemens Bosch and Delphi all launched piezoelectric fuel injection systems Helmut Tschoke Klaus Mollenhauer Rudolf Maier ed Handbuch Dieselmotoren 8th edition Springer Wiesbaden 2018 ISBN 978 3 658 07696 2 p 1110 Hua Zhao Advanced Direct Injection Combustion Engine Technologies and Development Diesel Engines Elsevier 2009 ISBN 978 1845697457 p 45 and 46 Jordans Frank September 21 2015 EPA Volkswagon sic Thwarted Pollution Regulations For 7 Years CBS Detroit Associated Press Retrieved September 24 2015 EPA California Notify Volkswagen of Clean Air Act Violations Carmaker allegedly used software that circumvents emissions testing for certain air pollutants US EPA September 18 2015 Retrieved July 1 2016 It Was Installed For This Purpose VW s U S CEO Tells Congress About Defeat Device NPR October 8 2015 Retrieved October 19 2015 Abgasaffare VW Chef Muller spricht von historischer Krise Der Spiegel Reuters September 28 2015 Retrieved September 28 2015 a b c Stefan Pischinger Ulrich Seiffert ed Vieweg Handbuch Kraftfahrzeugtechnik 8th edition Springer Wiesbaden 2016 ISBN 978 3 658 09528 4 p 348 Konrad Reif ed Dieselmotor Management im Uberblick 2nd edition Springer Wiesbaden 2014 ISBN 978 3 658 06554 6 p 18 Wolfgang Beitz Karl Heinz Kuttner ed Dubbel Taschenbuch fur den Maschinenbau 14th edition Springer Berlin Heidelberg 1981 ISBN 978 3 662 28196 3 p 712 Konrad Reif ed Dieselmotor Management im Uberblick 2nd edition Springer Wiesbaden 2014 ISBN 978 3 658 06554 6 p 10 Pischinger Rudolf Kell Manfred Sams Theodor 2009 Thermodynamik der Verbrennungskraftmaschine in German Wien Springer Verlag pp 137 138 ISBN 978 3 211 99277 7 OCLC 694772436 Hemmerlein Norbert Korte Volker Richter Herwig Schroder Gunter February 1 1991 Performance Exhaust Emissions and Durability of Modern Diesel Engines Running on Rapeseed Oil SAE Technical Paper Series 1 doi 10 4271 910848 Richard van Basshuysen ed Fred Schafer ed Handbuch Verbrennungsmotor Grundlagen Komponenten Systeme Perspektiven 8th edition Springer Wiesbaden 2017 ISBN 978 3 658 10901 1 p 755 Medium and Heavy Duty Diesel Vehicle Modeling Using a Fuel Consumption Methodology PDF US EPA 2004 Archived PDF from the original on October 10 2006 Retrieved April 25 2017 Michael Soimar April 2000 The Challenge Of CVTs In Current Heavy Duty Powertrains Diesel Progress North American Edition Archived from the original on December 7 2008 Karle Anton 2015 Elektromobilitat Grundlagen und Praxis mit 21 Tabellen in German Munchen p 53 ISBN 978 3 446 44339 6 OCLC 898294813 Hans List Thermodynamik der Verbrennungskraftmaschine In Hans List ed Die Verbrennungskraftmaschine Vol 2 Springer Wien 1939 ISBN 978 3 7091 5197 6 p 1 Karl Heinrich Grote Beate Bender Dietmar Gohlich ed Dubbel Taschenbuch fur den Maschinenbau 25th edition Springer Heidelberg 2018 ISBN 978 3 662 54804 2 1191 pp P79 Reif Konrad 2014 Diesel engine management systems and components Wiesbaden Springer Verlag p 329 ISBN 978 3 658 03981 3 OCLC 884504346 Reif Konrad 2014 Diesel engine management systems and components Wiesbaden Springer Verlag p 331 ISBN 978 3 658 03981 3 OCLC 884504346 Tschoke Helmut Mollenhauer Klaus Maier Rudolf 2018 Handbuch Dieselmotoren in German Wiesbaden Springer Vieweg p 813 ISBN 978 3 658 07697 9 OCLC 1011252252 What Are Diesel Emissions Diesel Engine Exhaust Emissions www NettTechnologies com Retrieved July 9 2022 NRAO Green Bank Site RFI Regulations for Visitors PDF National Radio Astronomy Observatory p 2 Archived PDF from the original on May 4 2006 Retrieved October 14 2016 a b c Archived copy Archived from the original on January 23 2010 Retrieved January 8 2009 a href Template Cite web html title Template Cite web cite web a CS1 maint archived copy as title link Archived copy Archived from the original on January 7 2009 Retrieved January 11 2009 a href Template Cite web html title Template Cite web cite web a CS1 maint archived copy as title link a b Gunter Mau Handbuch Dieselmotoren im Kraftwerks und Schiffsbetrieb Vieweg Springer Braunschweig Wiesbaden 1984 ISBN 978 3 528 14889 8 p 15 a b c Konrad Reif ed Dieselmotor Management im Uberblick 2nd edition Springer Wiesbaden 2014 ISBN 978 3 658 06554 6 p 11 a b Helmut Tschoke Klaus Mollenhauer Rudolf Maier ed Handbuch Dieselmotoren 8th edition Springer Wiesbaden 2018 ISBN 978 3 658 07696 2 p 295 Gunter Mau Handbuch Dieselmotoren im Kraftwerks und Schiffsbetrieb Vieweg Springer Braunschweig Wiesbaden 1984 ISBN 978 3 528 14889 8 p 42 Gunter Mau Handbuch Dieselmotoren im Kraftwerks und Schiffsbetrieb Vieweg Springer Braunschweig Wiesbaden 1984 ISBN 978 3 528 14889 8 p 43 a b Gunter Mau Handbuch Dieselmotoren im Kraftwerks und Schiffsbetrieb Vieweg Springer Braunschweig Wiesbaden 1984 ISBN 978 3 528 14889 8 p 33 Kettering E W November 29 1951 History and Development of the 567 Series General Motors Locomotive Engine ASME 1951 Annual Meeting Atlantic City New Jersey Electro Motive Division General Motors Corporation Gunter Mau Handbuch Dieselmotoren im Kraftwerks und Schiffsbetrieb Vieweg Springer Braunschweig Wiesbaden 1984 ISBN 978 3 528 14889 8 p 136 Gunter Mau Handbuch Dieselmotoren im Kraftwerks und Schiffsbetrieb Vieweg Springer Braunschweig Wiesbaden 1984 ISBN 978 3 528 14889 8 p 121 a b Gunter P Merker Rudiger Teichmann ed Grundlagen Verbrennungsmotoren Funktionsweise Simulation Messtechnik 7th edition Springer Wiesbaden 2014 ISBN 978 3 658 03194 7 p 280 Gunter Mau Handbuch Dieselmotoren im Kraftwerks und Schiffsbetrieb Vieweg Springer Braunschweig Wiesbaden 1984 ISBN 978 3 528 14889 8 p 129 a b Gunter Mau Handbuch Dieselmotoren im Kraftwerks und Schiffsbetrieb Vieweg Springer Braunschweig Wiesbaden 1984 ISBN 978 3 528 14889 8 p 50 Gunter Mau Handbuch Dieselmotoren im Kraftwerks und Schiffsbetrieb Vieweg Springer Braunschweig Wiesbaden 1984 ISBN 978 3 528 14889 8 p 23 Gunter Mau Handbuch Dieselmotoren im Kraftwerks und Schiffsbetrieb Vieweg Springer Braunschweig Wiesbaden 1984 ISBN 978 3 528 14889 8 pp 53 Gunter Mau Handbuch Dieselmotoren im Kraftwerks und Schiffsbetrieb Vieweg Springer Braunschweig Wiesbaden 1984 ISBN 978 3 528 14889 8 p 148 Ghazi A Karim Dual fuel Diesel engines CRC Press Boca Raton London New York 2015 ISBN 978 1 4987 0309 3 p 2 Konrad Reif ed Dieselmotor Management im Uberblick 2nd edition Springer Wiesbaden 2014 ISBN 978 3 658 06554 6 p 28 Diesel injection pumps Diesel injectors Diesel fuel pumps turbochargers Diesel trucks all at First Diesel Injection LTD Firstdiesel com Archived from the original on February 3 2011 Retrieved May 11 2009 a b Konrad Reif ed Dieselmotor Management im Uberblick 2nd edition Springer Wiesbaden 2014 ISBN 978 3 658 06554 6 p 140 Diesel Fuel Injection How It Works Diesel Power June 2007 Retrieved November 24 2012 Konrad Reif ed Dieselmotor Management im Uberblick 2nd edition Springer Wiesbaden 2014 ISBN 978 3 658 06554 6 p 70 Helmut Tschoke Klaus Mollenhauer Rudolf Maier ed Handbuch Dieselmotoren 8th edition Springer Wiesbaden 2018 ISBN 978 3 658 07696 2 p 310 IDI vs DI Diesel hub Gunter P Merker Rudiger Teichmann ed Grundlagen Verbrennungsmotoren Funktionsweise Simulation Messtechnik 7th edition Springer Wiesbaden 2014 ISBN 978 3 658 03194 7 p 381 Reif Konrad Springer Fachmedien Wiesbaden 2020 Dieselmotor Management Systeme Komponenten Steuerung und Regelung in German Wiesbaden p 393 ISBN 978 3 658 25072 0 OCLC 1156847338 Hans Hermann Braess ed Ulrich Seiffert ed Vieweg Handbuch Kraftfahrzeugtechnik 6th edition Springer Wiesbaden 2012 ISBN 978 3 8348 8298 1 p 225 Klaus Schreiner Basiswissen Verbrennungsmotor Fragen rechnen verstehen bestehen Springer Wiesbaden 2014 ISBN 978 3 658 06187 6 p 22 Alfred Boge Wolfgang Boge ed Handbuch Maschinenbau Grundlagen und Anwendungen der Maschinenbau Technik 23rd edition Springer Wiesbaden 2017 ISBN 978 3 658 12528 8 p 1150 Engine amp fuel engineering Diesel Noise Retrieved November 1 2008 Combustion in IC Internal Combustion Engines Slide 37 Archived from the original on August 16 2005 Retrieved November 1 2008 a href Template Cite journal html title Template Cite journal cite journal a Cite journal requires journal help Konrad Reif ed Dieselmotor Management im Uberblick 2nd edition Springer Wiesbaden 2014 ISBN 978 3 658 06554 6 p 136 The Free Library 1 Detroit Diesel Introduces DDEC Ether Start March 13 1995 accessed March 14 2011 Ellison Hawks How it works and how it s done Odhams Press London 1939 p 73 Hans Kremser auth Der Aufbau schnellaufender Verbrennungskraftmaschinen fur Kraftfahrzeuge und Triebwagen In Hans List ed Die Verbrennungskraftmaschine Vol 11 Springer Wien 1942 ISBN 978 3 7091 5016 0 p 190 Konrad Reif ed Dieselmotor Management im Uberblick 2nd edition Springer Wiesbaden 2014 ISBN 978 3 658 06554 6 p 41 a b Konrad Reif ed Grundlagen Fahrzeug und Motorentechnik Springer Fachmedien Wiesbaden 2017 ISBN 978 3 658 12635 3 pp 16 A v Philippovich auth Die Betriebsstoffe fur Verbrennungskraftmaschinen In Hans List ed Die Verbrennungskraftmaschine Vol 1 Springer Wien 1939 ISBN 978 3 662 27981 6 p 41 A v Philippovich auth Die Betriebsstoffe fur Verbrennungskraftmaschinen In Hans List ed Die Verbrennungskraftmaschine Vol 1 Springer Wien 1939 ISBN 978 3 662 27981 6 p 45 Hans Christian Graf von Seherr Thoss auth Die Technik des MAN Nutzfahrzeugbaus in MAN Nutzfahrzeuge AG ed Leistung und Weg Zur Geschichte des MAN Nutzfahrzeugbaus Springer Berlin Heidelberg 1991 ISBN 978 3 642 93490 2 p 438 Rudolf Diesel Die Entstehung des Dieselmotors Springer Berlin 1913 ISBN 978 3 642 64940 0 p 107 Rudolf Diesel Die Entstehung des Dieselmotors Springer Berlin 1913 ISBN 978 3 642 64940 0 p 110 a b Hans Christian Graf von Seherr Thoss auth Die Technik des MAN Nutzfahrzeugbaus in MAN Nutzfahrzeuge AG ed Leistung und Weg Zur Geschichte des MAN Nutzfahrzeugbaus Springer Berlin Heidelberg 1991 ISBN 978 3 642 93490 2 p 436 A v Philippovich auth Die Betriebsstoffe fur Verbrennungskraftmaschinen In Hans List ed Die Verbrennungskraftmaschine Vol 1 Springer Wien 1939 ISBN 978 3 662 27981 6 p 43 Christian Schwarz Rudiger Teichmann Grundlagen Verbrennungsmotoren Funktionsweise Simulation Messtechnik Springer Wiesbaden 2012 ISBN 978 3 8348 1987 1 p 102 Konrad Reif ed Dieselmotor Management im Uberblick 2nd edition Springer Wiesbaden 2014 ISBN 978 3 658 06554 6 p 53 a b Richard van Basshuysen ed Fred Schafer ed Handbuch Verbrennungsmotor Grundlagen Komponenten Systeme Perspektiven 8th edition Springer Wiesbaden 2017 ISBN 978 3 658 10901 1 p 1018 BMW AG ed BMW E28 owner s manual 1985 section 4 20 A v Philippovich auth Die Betriebsstoffe fur Verbrennungskraftmaschinen In Hans List ed Die Verbrennungskraftmaschine Vol 1 Springer Wien 1939 ISBN 978 3 662 27981 6 p 42 MSDS Low Sulfur Diesel 2 doc PDF Archived PDF from the original on July 15 2011 Retrieved December 21 2010 IARC Diesel Engine Exhaust Carcinogenic PDF International Agency for Research on Cancer IARC Archived from the original Press release on September 12 2012 Retrieved June 12 2012 June 12 2012 After a week long meeting of international experts the International Agency for Research on Cancer IARC which is part of the World Health Organization WHO today classified diesel engine exhaust as carcinogenic to humans Group 1 based on sufficient evidence that exposure is associated with an increased risk for bladder cancer Pirotte Marcel July 5 1984 Gedetailleerde Test Citroen BX19 TRD Detailed Test De AutoGids in Flemish Brussels Belgium 5 125 6 Konrad Reif ed Dieselmotor Management im Uberblick 2nd edition Springer Wiesbaden 2014 ISBN 978 3 658 06554 6 p 23 Helmut Tschoke Klaus Mollenhauer Rudolf Maier ed Handbuch Dieselmotoren 8th edition Springer Wiesbaden 2018 ISBN 978 3 658 07696 2 p 1000 Helmut Tschoke Klaus Mollenhauer Rudolf Maier ed Handbuch Dieselmotoren 8th edition Springer Wiesbaden 2018 ISBN 978 3 658 07696 2 p 981 a b Gunter P Merker Rudiger Teichmann ed Grundlagen Verbrennungsmotoren Funktionsweise Simulation Messtechnik 7th edition Springer Wiesbaden 2014 ISBN 978 3 658 03194 7 p 264 Rudolf Diesel Theorie und Konstruktion eines rationellen Warmemotors zum Ersatz der Dampfmaschine und der heute bekannten Verbrennungsmotoren Springer Berlin 1893 ISBN 978 3 642 64949 3 p 91 Gunter P Merker Rudiger Teichmann ed Grundlagen Verbrennungsmotoren Funktionsweise Simulation Messtechnik 7th edition Springer Wiesbaden 2014 ISBN 978 3 658 03194 7 p 48 a b c Konrad Reif ed Dieselmotor Management im Uberblick 2nd edition Springer Wiesbaden 2014 ISBN 978 3 658 06554 6 p 12 Gunter P Merker Rudiger Teichmann ed Grundlagen Verbrennungsmotoren Funktionsweise Simulation Messtechnik 7th edition Springer Wiesbaden 2014 ISBN 978 3 658 03194 7 p 284 a b Richard van Basshuysen ed Fred Schafer ed Handbuch Verbrennungsmotor Grundlagen Komponenten Systeme Perspektiven 8th edition Springer Wiesbaden 2017 ISBN 978 3 658 10901 1 p 1289 Hans Kremser auth Der Aufbau schnellaufender Verbrennungskraftmaschinen fur Kraftfahrzeuge und Triebwagen In Hans List ed Die Verbrennungskraftmaschine Vol 11 Springer Wien 1942 ISBN 978 3 7091 5016 0 p 22 Hans Kremser auth Der Aufbau schnellaufender Verbrennungskraftmaschinen fur Kraftfahrzeuge und Triebwagen In Hans List ed Die Verbrennungskraftmaschine Vol 11 Springer Wien 1942 ISBN 978 3 7091 5016 0 p 23 Gunter Mau Handbuch Dieselmotoren im Kraftwerks und Schiffsbetrieb Vieweg Springer Braunschweig Wiesbaden 1984 ISBN 978 3 528 14889 8 pp 9 11 Kyrill von Gersdorff Kurt Grasmann Flugmotoren und Strahltriebwerke Entwicklungsgeschichte der deutschen Luftfahrtantriebe von den Anfangen bis zu den internationalen Gemeinschaftsentwicklungen Bernard amp Graefe 1985 ISBN 9783763752836 p 14 FLIES 700 MILES FUEL COST 4 68 Diesel Motored Packard Plane Goes From Michigan to Langley Field in Under Seven Hours ENGINE HAS NINE CYLINDERS Oil Burner Is Exhibited Before Aviation Leaders Met for Conference Woolson Reports on Flight Packard Motor Stocks Rise May 15 1929 New York Times retrieved December 5 2022 a b c d The Packard DR 980 Radial Aircraft Diesel First in Flight Diesel Engines May 24 2019 Diesel World magazine retrieved December 5 2022 a b Packard Diesel Powered Buhl Air Sedan 1930 reproductions of early media articles and photos with added information Early Birds of Aviation retrieved December 5 2022 Aircraft Engine Historical Society Diesels Archived 2012 02 12 at the Wayback Machine Retrieved 30 January 2009 Wilkinson Paul H Diesel Aviation Engines 1940 reproduced at Aviation Engine Historical Society retrieved December 5 2022 Karl H Bergey Assessment of New Technology for General Aviation Aircraft Report for U S Department of Transportation September 1978 p 19 a b Wood Janice editor Congressman urges FAA to expand use of existing unleaded fuel October 24 2012 General Aviation News retrieved December 6 2022 a b Hanke Kurt F engineer Turbocraft Inc Diesels are the Way for GA to Go July 21 2006 Ge eral Aviation News retrieved December 6 2022 a b Biodiesel Just the Basics PDF Final United States Department of Energy 2003 Archived from the original PDF on September 18 2007 Retrieved August 24 2007 a href Template Cite journal html title Template Cite journal cite journal a Cite journal requires journal help a b c d Powerplant in Chapter 7 Aircraft Systems Pilot s Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge Federal Aviation Administration retrieved December 5 2022 Collins Peter FLIGHT TEST Diamond Aircraft DA42 Sparkling performer July 12 2004 FlightGLobal retrieved December 5 2022 a b Certified Jet A Engines Continental Aerospace Technologies retrieved December 5 2022 EPS gives certification update on diesel engine January 23 2019 AOPA Retrieved November 1 2019 Rik D Meininger et al Knock criteria for aviation diesel engines International Journal of Engine Research Vol 18 Issue 7 2017 doi 10 1177 Army awards Warrior long range UAV contract Army News Service August 5 2005 Archived from the original on January 2 2007 ERMP Extended Range Multi Purpose UAV Defense Update 1 November 2006 Archived from the original on 13 May 2008 Retrieved 11 May 2007 Helmut Tschoke Klaus Mollenhauer Rudolf Maier ed Handbuch Dieselmotoren 8th edition Springer Wiesbaden 2018 ISBN 978 3 658 07696 2 p 1066 Browse Papers on Adiabatic engines Topic Results topics sae org SAE International Archived from the original on August 23 2017 Retrieved April 30 2018 Schwarz Ernest Reid Michael Bryzik Walter Danielson Eugene March 1 1993 Combustion and Performance Characteristics of a Low Heat Rejection Engine SAE Technical Paper Series Vol 1 doi 10 4271 930988 via papers sae org Bryzik Walter Schwarz Ernest Kamo Roy Woods Melvin March 1 1993 Low Heat Rejection From High Output Ceramic Coated Diesel Engine and Its Impact on Future Design SAE Technical Paper Series Vol 1 doi 10 4271 931021 via papers sae org Danielson Eugene Turner David Elwart Joseph Bryzik Walter March 1 1993 Thermomechanical Stress Analysis of Novel Low Heat Rejection Cylinder Head Designs SAE Technical Paper Series Vol 1 doi 10 4271 930985 via papers sae org Nanlin Zhang Shengyuan Zhong Jingtu Feng Jinwen Cai Qinan Pu Yuan Fan March 1 1993 Development of Model 6105 Adiabatic Engine SAE Technical Paper Series Vol 1 doi 10 4271 930984 via papers sae org Kamo Lloyd Kleyman Ardy Bryzik Walter Schwarz Ernest February 1 1995 Recent Development of Tribological Coatings for High Temperature Engines SAE Technical Paper Series Vol 1 doi 10 4271 950979 via papers sae org Gunter P Merker Rudiger Teichmann ed Grundlagen Verbrennungsmotoren Funktionsweise Simulation Messtechnik 7th edition Springer Wiesbaden 2014 ISBN 978 3 658 03194 7 p 58 Gunter P Merker Rudiger Teichmann ed Grundlagen Verbrennungsmotoren Funktionsweise Simulation Messtechnik 7th edition Springer Wiesbaden 2014 ISBN 978 3 658 03194 7 p 273 Cornel Stan Thermodynamik des Kraftfahrzeugs Grundlagen und Anwendungen mit Prozesssimulationen Springer Berlin Heidelberg 2017 ISBN 978 3 662 53722 0 p 252External links Edit Wikimedia Commons has media related to Diesel engines Wikimedia Commons has media related to Rudolf Diesel Wikisource has the text of the 1921 Collier s Encyclopedia article Diesel Engine Diesel Information Hub Association for Emissions Control by Catalyst The short film The Diesel Story 1952 is available for free download at the Internet Archive Introduction to Two Stroke Marine Diesel Engine on YouTube The Engine That Powers the World BBC Documentary on YouTubePatents Edit Method of and Apparatus for Converting Heat into Work 542846 filed 1892 Internal Combustion Engine 608845 filed 1895 Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Diesel engine amp oldid 1134076121, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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