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Hydrogen vehicle

February 16, 2024

A hydrogen vehicle is a vehicle that uses hydrogen fuel for motive power. Hydrogen vehicles include road vehicles, rail vehicles and hydrogen-fueled space rockets, as well as hydrogen-powered ships and aircraft. Motive power is generated by converting the chemical energy of hydrogen to mechanical energy, either by reacting hydrogen with oxygen in a fuel cell to power electric motors or, less commonly, by hydrogen internal combustion.[4]

The 2015 Toyota Mirai is the world's first mass-produced and commercially marketed dedicated hydrogen fuel cell vehicles that is not a modification of an existing model.[1][2] The Mirai is based on the Toyota fuel cell vehicle (FCV) concept car (shown).[3]

As of 2021, there are two models of hydrogen cars publicly available in select markets: the Toyota Mirai (2014–), which is the world's first commercially produced dedicated fuel cell electric vehicle (FCEV),[1][2][5] and the Hyundai Nexo (2018–). There are also fuel cell buses. Hydrogen aircraft are not expected to carry many passengers long haul before the 2030s at the earliest.[6][7]

As of 2019, 98% of hydrogen is produced by steam methane reforming, which emits carbon dioxide.[8] It can be produced by electrolysis of water, or by thermochemical or pyrolytic means using renewable feedstocks, but the processes are currently expensive.[9] Various technologies are being developed that aim to deliver costs low enough, and quantities great enough, to compete with hydrogen production using natural gas.[10]

Vehicles running on hydrogen technology benefit from a long range on a single refuelling, but are subject to several drawbacks: high carbon emissions when hydrogen is produced from natural gas, capital cost burden, high energy inputs in production, low energy content per unit volume at ambient conditions, production and compression of hydrogen, the investment required to build refuelling infrastructure around the world to dispense hydrogen, and transportation of hydrogen.[11][12][13] In addition, leaked hydrogen has a global warming effect 11.6 times stronger than CO₂.[14]

For light duty vehicles including passenger cars, hydrogen adoption is behind that of battery electric vehicles. A 2022 study found that technological developments and economies of scale in BEVs, compared with the evolution of the use of hydrogen, have made it unlikely for hydrogen light-duty vehicles to play a significant role in the future.[15]

Vehicles edit

 
The Honda FCX, along with the Toyota FCHV, is the world's first government-certified commercial hydrogen fuel cell vehicle.[16][17]
Further information: Fuel cell vehicle

Rationale and context edit

The rationale for hydrogen vehicles lies in their potential to reduce reliance on fossil fuels, associated greenhouse gas emissions and localised air pollution from transportation.[18] This would require hydrogen to be produced cleanly, for use in sectors and applications where cheaper and more energy efficient mitigation alternatives are limited.

Aeroplanes edit

Further information: Hydrogen planes
 
The Boeing Fuel Cell Demonstrator powered by a hydrogen fuel cell

Companies such as Boeing, Lange Aviation, and the German Aerospace Center pursue hydrogen as fuel for crewed and uncrewed aeroplanes. In February 2008 Boeing tested a crewed flight of a small aircraft powered by a hydrogen fuel cell. Uncrewed hydrogen planes have also been tested.[19] For large passenger aeroplanes, The Times reported that "Boeing said that hydrogen fuel cells were unlikely to power the engines of large passenger jet aeroplanes but could be used as backup or auxiliary power units onboard."[20]

In July 2010, Boeing unveiled its hydrogen-powered Phantom Eye UAV, powered by two Ford internal-combustion engines that have been converted to run on hydrogen.[21]

Automobiles edit

As of 2021, there are two hydrogen cars publicly available in select markets: the Toyota Mirai and the Hyundai Nexo.[22] The Honda Clarity was produced from 2016 to 2021.[23] Hydrogen combustion cars are not commercially available.[citation needed]

In the light road vehicle segment, by the end of 2022, 70,200 fuel cell electric vehicles had been sold worldwide,[24] compared with 26 million plug-in electric vehicles.[25] With the rapid rise of electric vehicles and associated battery technology and infrastructure, the global scope for hydrogen's role in cars is shrinking relative to earlier expectations.[15][26]

The first road vehicle powered by a hydrogen fuel cell was the Chevrolet Electrovan, introduced by General Motors in 1966.[27]

The Toyota FCHV and Honda FCX, which began leasing on December 2, 2002, became the world's first government-certified commercial hydrogen fuel cell vehicles,[17][16][28] and the Honda FCX Clarity, which began leasing in 2008, was the world's first hydrogen fuel cell vehicle designed for mass production rather than adapting an existing model.[29] Honda established the world's first fuel cell vehicle dealer network in 2008, and at the time was the only company able to lease hydrogen fuel cell vehicles to private customers.[30][31]

 
The Hyundai Nexo is a hydrogen fuel cell-powered crossover SUV

The 2013 Hyundai Tucson FCEV, a modified Tucson, was introduced to the market as a lease-only vehicle,[32][33] and Hyundai Motors claimed it was the world's first mass-produced hydrogen fuel cell vehicle.[34][35][36] However, due to high prices and a lack of charging infrastructure, sales fell far short of initial plans, with only 273 units sold by the end of May 2015.[34] Hyundai Nexo, which succeeded the Tucson in 2018, was selected as the "safest SUV" by the Euro NCAP in 2018.[37]

Toyota launched the world's first dedicated mass-produced fuel cell vehicle (FCV), the Mirai, in Japan at the end of 2014[1][2][5] and began sales in California, mainly the Los Angeles area and also in selected markets in Europe, the UK, Germany and Denmark[38] later in 2015.[39] The car has a range of 312 mi (502 km) and takes about five minutes to refill its hydrogen tank. The initial sale price in Japan was about 7 million yen ($69,000).[40] Former European Parliament President Pat Cox estimated that Toyota would initially lose about $100,000 on each Mirai sold.[41] At the end of 2019, Toyota had sold over 10,000 Mirais.[42][8] Many automobile companies have introduced demonstration models in limited numbers (see List of fuel cell vehicles and List of hydrogen internal combustion engine vehicles).[43][44]

In 2013 BMW leased hydrogen technology from Toyota, and a group formed by Ford Motor Company, Daimler AG, and Nissan announced a collaboration on hydrogen technology development.[45]

In 2015, Toyota announced that it would offer all 5,680 patents related to hydrogen fuel cell vehicles and hydrogen fuel cell charging station technology, which it has been researching for over 20 years, to its competitors free of charge in order to stimulate the market for hydrogen-powered vehicles.[46]

By 2017, however, Daimler had abandoned hydrogen vehicle development,[47] and most of the automobile companies developing hydrogen cars had switched their focus to battery electric vehicles.[48] By 2020, all but three automobile companies had abandoned plans to manufacture hydrogen cars.[49]

Auto racing edit

A record of 207.297 miles per hour (333.612 km/h) was set by a prototype Ford Fusion Hydrogen 999 Fuel Cell Race Car at the Bonneville Salt Flats, in August 2007, using a large compressed oxygen tank to increase power.[50] The land-speed record for a hydrogen-powered vehicle of 286.476 miles per hour (461.038 km/h) was set by Ohio State University's Buckeye Bullet 2, which achieved a "flying-mile" speed of 280.007 miles per hour (450.628 km/h) at the Bonneville Salt Flats in August 2008.

In 2007, the Hydrogen Electric Racing Federation was formed as a racing organization for hydrogen fuel cell-powered vehicles. The organization sponsored the Hydrogen 500, a 500-mile race.[51]

Buses edit

Main article: Fuel cell bus
 
A Solaris Urbino 12 bus near its factory in Bolechowo, Poland

Fuel-cell buses have been trialed by several manufacturers in different locations, for example, the Ursus Lublin.[52] Solaris Bus & Coach introduced its Urbino 12 hydrogen electric buses in 2019. Several dozen were ordered.[53] In 2022, the city of Montpellier, France, cancelled a contract to procure 51 buses powered by hydrogen fuel cells, when it found that "the cost of operation for hydrogen [buses] is 6 times the cost of electricity".[54]

Trams and trains edit

External videos
  China rolls out its first hydrogen fuel cell hybrid locomotive, Xinhua, 28 January 2021

In the International Energy Agency’s 2022 Net Zero Emissions Scenario, hydrogen is forecast to account for 2% of rail energy demand in 2050, while 90% of rail travel is expected to be electrified by then (up from 45% today). Hydrogen’s role in rail would likely be focused on lines that prove difficult or costly to electrify.[55]

In March 2015, China South Rail Corporation (CSR) demonstrated the world's first hydrogen fuel cell-powered tramcar at an assembly facility in Qingdao.[56] Tracks for the new vehicle have been built in seven Chinese cities.[57]

In northern Germany in 2018 the first fuel-cell powered Coradia iLint trains were placed into service; excess power is stored in lithium-ion batteries.[58]

Ships edit

Main article: Hydrogen-powered ship

As of 2019 Hydrogen fuel cells are not suitable for propulsion in large long-distance ships, but they are being considered as a range-extender for smaller, short-distance, low-speed electric vessels, such as ferries.[59] Hydrogen in ammonia is being considered as a long-distance fuel.[60]

Bicycles and stand-up scooters edit

 
PHB hydrogen bicycle

In 2007, Pearl Hydrogen Power Source Technology Co of Shanghai, China, demonstrated a PHB hydrogen bicycle.[61][62] In 2014, Australian scientists from the University of New South Wales presented their Hy-Cycle model.[63] The same year, Canyon Bicycles started to work on the Eco Speed concept bicycle.[64]

In 2017, Pragma Industries of France developed a bicycle that was able to travel 100 km on a single hydrogen cylinder.[65] In 2019, Pragma announced that the product, "Alpha Bike", has been improved to offer an electrically assisted pedalling range of 150 km, and the first 200 of the bikes are to be provided to journalists covering the 45th G7 summit in Biarritz, France.[66]

In 2020, Alles over Waterstof[67] developed a 2-wheel hydrogen powered stand-up scooter. The stand-up scooter has a range of over 20 km on 15 grams of hydrogen. It uses a swappable 1 litre 200 bar hydrogen cylinder. In 2021 the company developed a hydrogen powered cargo-bike, using a static 3 litre 300 bar refillable hydrogen cylinder. The HydroCargo bike has a range of up to 100 km on 80 grams of hydrogen.[68]

Lloyd Alter of TreeHugger responded to the announcement, asking "why … go through the trouble of using electricity to make hydrogen, only to turn it back into electricity to charge a battery to run the e-bike [or] pick a fuel that needs an expensive filling station that can only handle 35 bikes a day, when you can charge a battery powered bike anywhere. [If] you were a captive fleet operator, why [not] just swap out batteries to get the range and the fast turnover?"[69]

Military vehicles edit

General Motors' military division, GM Defense, focuses on hydrogen fuel cell vehicles.[70] Its SURUS (Silent Utility Rover Universal Superstructure) is a flexible fuel cell electric platform with autonomous capabilities. Since April 2017, the U.S. Army has been testing the commercial Chevrolet Colorado ZH2 on its U.S. bases to determine the viability of hydrogen-powered vehicles in military mission tactical environments.[71]

Motorcycles and scooters edit

ENV develops electric motorcycles powered by a hydrogen fuel cell, including the Crosscage and Biplane. Other manufacturers as Vectrix are working on hydrogen scooters.[72] Finally, hydrogen-fuel-cell-electric-hybrid scooters are being made such as the Suzuki Burgman fuel-cell scooter[73] and the FHybrid.[74] The Burgman received "whole vehicle type" approval in the EU.[75] The Taiwanese company APFCT conducted a live street test with 80 fuel-cell scooters for Taiwan's Bureau of Energy.[76]

Auto rickshaws edit

Hydrogen auto rickshaw concept vehicles have been built by Mahindra HyAlfa and Bajaj Auto.[77][78]

Quads and tractors edit

Autostudi S.r.l's H-Due[79] is a hydrogen-powered quad, capable of transporting 1-3 passengers. A concept for a hydrogen-powered tractor has been proposed.[80][81]

Fork trucks edit

A hydrogen internal combustion engine (or "HICE") forklift or HICE lift truck is a hydrogen fueled, internal combustion engine-powered industrial forklift truck used for lifting and transporting materials. The first production HICE forklift truck based on the Linde X39 Diesel was presented at an exposition in Hannover on May 27, 2008. It used a 2.0 litre, 43 kW (58 hp) diesel internal combustion engine converted to use hydrogen as a fuel with the use of a compressor and direct injection.[82][83]

In 2013 there were over 4,000 fuel cell forklifts used in material handling in the US.[84] As of 2024, approximately 50,000 hydrogen forklifts are in operation worldwide (the bulk of which are in the U.S.), as compared with 1.2 million battery electric forklifts that were purchased in 2021.[85]

Most companies in Europe and the US do not use petroleum powered forklifts, as these vehicles work indoors where emissions must be controlled and instead use electric forklifts.[86][87] Fuel-cell-powered forklifts can be refueled in 3 minutes. They can be used in refrigerated warehouses, as their performance is not degraded by lower temperatures. The fuel cell units are often designed as drop-in replacements.[88][89]

Rockets edit

 
Centaur (rocket stage) was the first to use liquid hydrogen

Many large rockets use liquid hydrogen as fuel, with liquid oxygen as an oxidizer (LH2/LOX). An advantage of hydrogen rocket fuel is the high effective exhaust velocity compared to kerosene/LOX or UDMH/NTO engines. According to the Tsiolkovsky rocket equation, a rocket with higher exhaust velocity uses less propellant to accelerate. Also the energy density of hydrogen is greater than any other fuel.[90] LH2/LOX also yields the greatest efficiency in relation to the amount of propellant consumed, of any known rocket propellant.[91]

A disadvantage of LH2/LOX engines is the low density and low temperature of liquid hydrogen, which means bigger and insulated and thus heavier fuel tanks are needed. This increases the rocket's structural mass which reduces its delta-v significantly. Another disadvantage is the poor storability of LH2/LOX-powered rockets: Due to the constant hydrogen boil-off, the rocket must be fueled shortly before launch, which makes cryogenic engines unsuitable for ICBMs and other rocket applications with the need for short launch preparations.

Overall, the delta-v of a hydrogen stage is typically not much different from that of a dense fuelled stage, but the weight of a hydrogen stage is much less, which makes it particularly effective for upper stages, since they are carried by the lower stages. For first stages, dense fuelled rockets in studies may show a small advantage, due to the smaller vehicle size and lower air drag.[92]

LH2/LOX were also used in the Space Shuttle to run the fuel cells that power the electrical systems.[93] The byproduct of the fuel cell is water, which is used for drinking and other applications that require water in space.

Heavy trucks edit

The International Energy Agency's 2022 net-zero emissions scenario sees hydrogen meeting approximately 30% of heavy truck energy demand in 2050, mainly for long-distance heavy freight (with battery electric power accounting for around 60%).[94]

United Parcel Service began testing of a hydrogen powered delivery vehicle in 2017.[95] In 2020, Hyundai began commercial production of its Xcient fuel cell trucks and shipped ten of them to Switzerland.[96][97][98]

In 2022 in Australia, five hydrogen fuel cell class 8 trucks were placed into use to transport zinc from Sun Metals' Townsville mine to the Port of Townsville, Queensland, to be shipped around the world.[99]

Internal combustion vehicle edit

Main articles: Hydrogen internal combustion engine vehicle and List of hydrogen internal combustion engine vehicles

Hydrogen internal combustion engine cars are different from hydrogen fuel cell cars. The hydrogen internal combustion car is a slightly modified version of the traditional gasoline internal combustion engine car. These hydrogen engines burn fuel in the same manner that gasoline engines do; the main difference is the exhaust product. Gasoline combustion results in emissions of mostly carbon dioxide and water, plus trace amounts of carbon monoxide, NOx, particulates and unburned hydrocarbons,[100] while the main exhaust product of hydrogen combustion is water vapor.

In 1807 François Isaac de Rivaz designed the first hydrogen-fueled internal combustion engine.[101] In 1965, Roger E. Billings, then a high school student, converted a Model A to run on hydrogen.[102] In 1970 Paul Dieges patented a modification to internal combustion engines which allowed a gasoline-powered engine to run on hydrogen.[103]

Mazda has developed Wankel engines burning hydrogen, which are used in the Mazda RX-8 Hydrogen RE. The advantage of using an internal combustion engine, like Wankel and piston engines, is the lower cost of retooling for production.[104]

Fuel cell edit

Further information: Fuel cell

Fuel cell cost edit

Hydrogen fuel cells are relatively expensive to produce, as their designs require rare substances, such as platinum, as a catalyst.[105] In 2014, former European Parliament President Pat Cox estimated that Toyota would initially lose about $100,000 on each Mirai sold.[41] In 2020, researchers at the University of Copenhagen's Department of Chemistry are developing a new type of catalyst that they hope will decrease the cost of fuel cells.[106] This new catalyst uses far less platinum because the platinum nano-particles are not coated over carbon which, in conventional hydrogen fuel cells, keeps the nano-particles in place but also causes the catalyst to become unstable and denatures it slowly, requiring even more platinum. The new technology uses durable nanowires instead of the nano-particles. "The next step for the researchers is to scale up their results so that the technology can be implemented in hydrogen vehicles."[107]

Freezing conditions edit

The problems in early fuel-cell designs at low temperatures concerning range and cold start capabilities have been addressed so that they "cannot be seen as show-stoppers anymore".[108] Users in 2014 said that their fuel cell vehicles perform flawlessly in temperatures below zero, even with the heaters blasting, without significantly reducing range.[109] Studies using neutron radiography on unassisted cold-start indicate ice formation in the cathode,[110] three stages in cold start[111] and Nafion ionic conductivity.[112] A parameter, defined as coulomb of charge, was also defined to measure cold start capability.[113]

Service life edit

The service life of fuel cells is comparable to that of other vehicles.[114][clarification needed] Polymer-electrolyte membrane (PEM) fuel cell service life is 7,300 hours under cycling conditions.[115]

Hydrogen edit

Further information: hydrogen economy

Hydrogen does not exist in convenient reservoirs or deposits like fossil fuels or helium.[116] It is produced from feedstocks such as natural gas and biomass or electrolyzed from water.[117] A suggested benefit of large-scale deployment of hydrogen vehicles is that it could lead to decreased emissions of greenhouse gases and ozone precursors.[118] However, as of 2014, 95% of hydrogen is made from methane. It can be produced by thermochemical or pyrolitic means using renewable feedstocks, but that is an expensive process.[9]

Renewable electricity can however be used to power the conversion of water into hydrogen: Integrated wind-to-hydrogen (power to gas) plants, using electrolysis of water, are exploring technologies to deliver costs low enough, and quantities great enough, to compete with traditional energy sources.[119] The challenges facing the use of hydrogen in vehicles include its storage on board the vehicle. As of September 2023, hydrogen cost $36 per kilogram at public fueling stations in California, 14 times as much per mile for a Mirai as compared with a Tesla Model 3.[120]

Production edit

Further information: Hydrogen production

The molecular hydrogen needed as an onboard fuel for hydrogen vehicles can be obtained through many thermochemical methods utilizing natural gas, coal (by a process known as coal gasification), liquefied petroleum gas, biomass (biomass gasification), by a process called thermolysis, or as a microbial waste product called biohydrogen or Biological hydrogen production. 95% of hydrogen is produced using natural gas.[121] Hydrogen can be produced from water by electrolysis at working efficiencies of 65–70%.[122] Hydrogen can be made by chemical reduction using chemical hydrides or aluminum.[123] Current technologies for manufacturing hydrogen use energy in various forms, totaling between 25 and 50 percent of the higher heating value of the hydrogen fuel, used to produce, compress or liquefy, and transmit the hydrogen by pipeline or truck.[124]

Environmental consequences of the production of hydrogen from fossil energy resources include the emission of greenhouse gasses, a consequence that would also result from the on-board reforming of methanol into hydrogen.[125] Hydrogen production using renewable energy resources would not create such emissions, but the scale of renewable energy production would need to be expanded to be used in producing hydrogen for a significant part of transportation needs.[126] In a few countries, renewable sources are being used more widely to produce energy and hydrogen. For example, Iceland is using geothermal power to produce hydrogen,[127] and Denmark is using wind.[128]

Storage edit

Further information: Hydrogen storage
 
Compressed hydrogen storage mark

Compressed hydrogen in hydrogen tanks at 350 bar (5,000 psi) and 700 bar (10,000 psi) is used for hydrogen tank systems in vehicles, based on type IV carbon-composite technology.[129]

Hydrogen has a very low volumetric energy density at ambient conditions, compared with gasoline and other vehicle fuels.[130] It must be stored in a vehicle either as a super-cooled liquid or as highly compressed gas, which require additional energy to accomplish.[131] In 2018, researchers at CSIRO in Australia powered a Toyota Mirai and Hyundai Nexo with hydrogen separated from ammonia using a membrane technology. Ammonia is easier to transport safely in tankers than pure hydrogen.[132]

Infrastructure edit

 
Hydrogen car fueling
Further information: Hydrogen infrastructure
Further information: Hydrogen station
 
The refueling of a Hydrogen-powered vehicle. The vehicle is a Hyundai Nexo. Note the condensation around the handle; this is because of the hydrogen gas expanding, causing the handle to freeze.

To enable the delivery of hydrogen fuel to transport end-users, a broad range of investments are needed, including, according to the International Energy Agency (IEA), the "construction and operation of new port infrastructure, buffer storage, pipelines, ships, refueling stations and plants to convert the hydrogen into a more readily transportable commodity (and potentially back to hydrogen)".[133] In particular, the IEA notes that refueling stations will be needed in locations that are suitable for long‐distance trucking such as industrial hubs and identifies the need for investment in airport infrastructure for the storage and delivery of hydrogen. The IEA deems the infrastructure requirements for hydrogen in shipping more challenging, drawing attention to the "need for major investments and co‐ordinated efforts among fuel suppliers, ports, shipbuilders and shippers".[134]

As of 2021, there were 49 publicly accessible hydrogen refueling stations in the US, 48 of which were located in California (compared with 42,830 electric charging stations).[135][136] By 2017, there were 91 hydrogen fueling stations in Japan.[137]

Codes and standards edit

Hydrogen codes and standards, as well as codes and technical standards for hydrogen safety and the storage of hydrogen, have been an institutional barrier to deploying hydrogen technologies. To enable the commercialization of hydrogen in consumer products, new codes and standards must be developed and adopted by federal, state and local governments.[138]

Official support edit

U.S. initiatives edit

Fuel cell buses are supported.[139]

The New York State Energy Research and Development Authority (NYSERDA) has created incentives for hydrogen fuel cell electric trucks and buses.[140]

Criticism edit

Critics claim the time frame for overcoming the technical and economic challenges to implementing wide-scale use of hydrogen in cars is likely to be at least several decades.[141][142] They argue that the focus on the use of the hydrogen car is a dangerous detour from more readily available solutions to reducing the use of fossil fuels in vehicles.[143] In 2008, Wired News reported that "experts say it will be 40 years or more before hydrogen has any meaningful impact on gasoline consumption or global warming, and we can't afford to wait that long. In the meantime, fuel cells are diverting resources from more immediate solutions."[144]

In the 2006 documentary, Who Killed the Electric Car?, former U.S. Department of Energy official Joseph Romm said: "A hydrogen car is one of the least efficient, most expensive ways to reduce greenhouse gases."[145] He also argued that the cost to build out a nationwide network of hydrogen refueling stations would be prohibitive.[146] He held the same views in 2014.[147][148] In 2009, the Los Angeles Times wrote that "hydrogen is a lousy way to move cars."[149] Robert Zubrin, the author of Energy Victory, stated: "Hydrogen is 'just about the worst possible vehicle fuel'".[150] The Economist noted that most hydrogen is produced through steam methane reformation, which creates at least as much emission of carbon per mile as some of today's gasoline cars, but that if the hydrogen could be produced using renewable energy, "it would surely be easier simply to use this energy to charge the batteries of all-electric or plug-in hybrid vehicles."[150] Over their lifetimes, hydrogen vehicles will emit more carbon than gasoline vehicles.[151][13] The Washington Post asked in 2009, "[W]hy would you want to store energy in the form of hydrogen and then use that hydrogen to produce electricity for a motor, when electrical energy is already waiting to be sucked out of sockets all over America and stored in auto batteries"?[121][152]

Volkswagen's Rudolf Krebs said in 2013 that "no matter how excellent you make the cars themselves, the laws of physics hinder their overall efficiency. The most efficient way to convert energy to mobility is electricity." He elaborated: "Hydrogen mobility only makes sense if you use green energy", but ... you need to convert it first into hydrogen "with low efficiencies" where "you lose about 40 percent of the initial energy". You then must compress the hydrogen and store it under high pressure in tanks, which uses more energy. "And then you have to convert the hydrogen back to electricity in a fuel cell with another efficiency loss". Krebs continued: "in the end, from your original 100 percent of electric energy, you end up with 30 to 40 percent."[153] In 2015, CleanTechnica listed some of the disadvantages of hydrogen fuel cell vehicles[154][155] A 2016 study in Energy by scientists at Stanford University and the Technical University of Munich concluded that, even assuming local hydrogen production, "investing in all-electric battery vehicles is a more economical choice for reducing carbon dioxide emissions".[156]

A 2017 analysis published in Green Car Reports concluded that the best hydrogen-fuel-cell vehicles consume "more than three times more electricity per mile than an electric vehicle ... generate more greenhouse gas emissions than other powertrain technologies ... [and have] very high fuel costs. ... Considering all the obstacles and requirements for new infrastructure (estimated to cost as much as $400 billion), fuel-cell vehicles seem likely to be a niche technology at best, with little impact on U.S. oil consumption.[137] The US Department of Energy agrees, for fuel produced by grid electricity via electrolysis, but not for most other pathways for generation.[157] A 2019 video by Real Engineering noted that, notwithstanding the introduction of vehicles that run on hydrogen, using hydrogen as a fuel for cars does not help to reduce carbon emissions from transportation. The 95% of hydrogen still produced from fossil fuels releases carbon dioxide, and producing hydrogen from water is an energy-consuming process. Storing hydrogen requires more energy either to cool it down to the liquid state or to put it into tanks under high pressure, and delivering the hydrogen to fueling stations requires more energy and may release more carbon. The hydrogen needed to move a FCV a kilometer costs approximately 8 times as much as the electricity needed to move a BEV the same distance.[158] Also in 2019, Katsushi Inoue, the president of Honda Europe, stated, "Our focus is on hybrid and electric vehicles now. Maybe hydrogen fuel cell cars will come, but that's a technology for the next era."[159]

Assessments since 2020 have concluded that hydrogen vehicles are still only 38% efficient, while battery EVs are from 80% to 95% efficient.[160][161] A 2021 assessment by CleanTechnica concluded that while hydrogen cars are far less efficient than electric cars, the vast majority of hydrogen being produced is polluting grey hydrogen, and delivering hydrogen would require building a vast and expensive new infrastructure, the remaining two "advantages of fuel cell vehicles – longer range and fast fueling times – are rapidly being eroded by improving battery and charging technology."[49] A 2022 study in Nature Electronics agreed.[162] Another 2022 article, in Recharge News, stated that ships are more likely to be powered by ammonia or methanol than hydrogen.[163] Also in 2022, Germany's Fraunhofer Institute concluded that hydrogen is unlikely to play a major role in road transport.[26]

A 2023 study by the Centre for International Climate and Environmental Research (CICERO) estimated that leaked hydrogen has a global warming effect 11.6 times stronger than CO₂.[14]

Safety and supply edit

Main article: Hydrogen safety

Hydrogen fuel is hazardous because of the low ignition energy (see also autoignition temperature) and high combustion energy of hydrogen, and because it tends to leak easily from tanks due to its small molecular size.[164] Hydrogen embrittlement is also a concern for the storage tank material, as well as the car parts surrounding the tank if chronic leakage is present. Hydrogen is odorless so leakages are not easily picked up without specialized detectors.[165]

Explosions at hydrogen filling stations have been reported.[166] Hydrogen fuelling stations generally receive deliveries of hydrogen by truck from hydrogen suppliers. An interruption at a hydrogen supply facility can shut down multiple hydrogen fuelling stations.[167]

Comparison with other types of alternative fuel vehicle edit

Main article: Alternative fuel vehicle

Hydrogen vehicles compete with various proposed alternatives to the modern fossil fuel internal combustion engine (ICE) vehicle infrastructure.[105]

Natural gas edit

Main article: Natural gas vehicle

ICE-based compressed natural gas(CNG), HCNG, LPG or LNG vehicles, collectively called natural gas vehicles (NGVs), use methane harvested from natural gas or Biogas as a fuel source. Methane has a higher energy density than hydrogen, and NGVs from Biogas are nearly carbon neutral.[168] Unlike hydrogen vehicles, CNG vehicle technology has been available for many decades, and there is sufficient infrastructure in existing filling stations to provide both commercial and home refueling. Worldwide, there were 14.8 million natural gas vehicles by the end of 2011, mostly in the form of bi-fuel vehicles.[169] The other use for natural gas is in steam reforming which is the common way to produce hydrogen gas for use in electric cars with fuel cells.[8]

Methane is also an alternative rocket fuel.[170]

Plug-in electric edit

Main article: Plug-in electric vehicle

Plug-in hybrid edit

Main article: Plug-in hybrid electric vehicle

Plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs) are hybrid electric vehicles that can be plugged into the electric grid to recharge the on-board battery pack, rather than relying purely on the internal combustion engine to drive a generator to power the electric motor and battery pack as in conventional hybrid vehicles. The PHEV concept augments the vehicle's fuel efficiency by allowing more EV mode driving, at the same time alleviating range anxiety by having the internal combustion engine (typically a turbo petrol engine) as an auxiliary powerplant or range extender.

Battery electric edit

Main article: Battery electric vehicle

In the light road vehicle segment, by 2023, 26 million battery electric vehicles had been sold worldwide,[25] and there were 65,730 public charging stations in North America, in addition to the availability of home and workplace charging via AC power plugs and sockets.[171] Long distance electric trucks require more megawatt charging infrastructure.[172]

See also edit

References edit

  1. ^ a b c . The Wall Street Journal. 15 December 2014. Archived from the original on 26 May 2018.
  2. ^ a b c . The Japan Times. 23 January 2015. Archived from the original on 6 July 2015.
  3. ^ "Toyota Unveils 2015 Fuel Cell Sedan, Will Retail in Japan For Around ¥7 Million". transportevolved.com. 2014-06-25. from the original on 2018-11-19. Retrieved 2014-06-26.
  4. ^ "A portfolio of power-trains for Europe: a fact-based analysis" (PDF). iphe.net. (PDF) from the original on 15 October 2017. Retrieved 15 April 2018.
  5. ^ a b . 20 January 2017. Archived from the original on 16 May 2022. Retrieved 8 March 2023.
  6. ^ "Planes running on batteries and hydrogen to become a reality under new group of aviation experts". GOV.UK. Retrieved 2022-05-18.
  7. ^ Frangoul, Anmar (2022-02-17). "Airbus CEO says hydrogen plane is 'the ultimate solution' but cautions a lot of work lies ahead". CNBC. Retrieved 2022-05-18.
  8. ^ a b c "Realising the hydrogen economy",Power Technology, 11 October 2019
  9. ^ a b Romm, Joseph. Tesla Trumps Toyota: Why Hydrogen Cars Can’t Compete With Pure Electric Cars" 2014-08-21 at the Wayback Machine, ThinkProgress, August 5, 2014.
  10. ^ . Hydrogen and Fuel Cells Research. Golden, CO: National Renewable Energy Laboratory, U.S. Department of Energy. September 2009. Archived from the original on 26 August 2009. Retrieved 7 January 2010.. See also Energy Department Launches Public-Private Partnership to Deploy Hydrogen Infrastructure 2014-06-07 at the Wayback Machine, US Dept. of Energy, accessed November 15, 2014
  11. ^ Berman, Bradley (2013-11-22). "Fuel Cells at Center Stage". The New York Times. from the original on 2014-11-07. Retrieved 2013-11-26.
  12. ^ Davies, Alex (2013-11-22). "Honda Is Working On Hydrogen Technology That Will Generate Power Inside Your Car". The Business Insider. from the original on 2013-11-25. Retrieved 2013-11-26.
  13. ^ a b Cox, Julian. "Time To Come Clean About Hydrogen Fuel Cell Vehicles" July 15, 2014, at the Wayback Machine, CleanTechnica.com, June 4, 2014
  14. ^ a b Bjørnæs, Christian. "Global warming potential of hydrogen estimated", Centre for International Climate and Environmental Research, June 7, 2023. Retrieved June 15, 2023
  15. ^ a b Plötz, Patrick (January 2022). "Hydrogen technology is unlikely to play a major role in sustainable road transport". Nature Electronics. 5 (1): 8–10. doi:10.1038/s41928-021-00706-6. ISSN 2520-1131. S2CID 246465284.
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External links edit

 
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Hydrogen vehicles.
  • California Fuel Cell Partnership homepage
  • Fuel Cell Today - Market-based intelligence on the fuel cell industry
  • U.S. Dept. of Energy hydrogen pages
  • Inside world's first hydrogen-powered production car BBC News, 14 September 2010
  • Toyota Ecopark Hydrogen Demonstration ARENAWIRE, 22 March 2019

February 16, 2024
hydrogen, vehicle, hydrogen, vehicle, vehicle, that, uses, hydrogen, fuel, motive, power, include, road, vehicles, rail, vehicles, hydrogen, fueled, space, rockets, well, hydrogen, powered, ships, aircraft, motive, power, generated, converting, chemical, energ. A hydrogen vehicle is a vehicle that uses hydrogen fuel for motive power Hydrogen vehicles include road vehicles rail vehicles and hydrogen fueled space rockets as well as hydrogen powered ships and aircraft Motive power is generated by converting the chemical energy of hydrogen to mechanical energy either by reacting hydrogen with oxygen in a fuel cell to power electric motors or less commonly by hydrogen internal combustion 4 The 2015 Toyota Mirai is the world s first mass produced and commercially marketed dedicated hydrogen fuel cell vehicles that is not a modification of an existing model 1 2 The Mirai is based on the Toyota fuel cell vehicle FCV concept car shown 3 As of 2021 update there are two models of hydrogen cars publicly available in select markets the Toyota Mirai 2014 which is the world s first commercially produced dedicated fuel cell electric vehicle FCEV 1 2 5 and the Hyundai Nexo 2018 There are also fuel cell buses Hydrogen aircraft are not expected to carry many passengers long haul before the 2030s at the earliest 6 7 As of 2019 98 of hydrogen is produced by steam methane reforming which emits carbon dioxide 8 It can be produced by electrolysis of water or by thermochemical or pyrolytic means using renewable feedstocks but the processes are currently expensive 9 Various technologies are being developed that aim to deliver costs low enough and quantities great enough to compete with hydrogen production using natural gas 10 Vehicles running on hydrogen technology benefit from a long range on a single refuelling but are subject to several drawbacks high carbon emissions when hydrogen is produced from natural gas capital cost burden high energy inputs in production low energy content per unit volume at ambient conditions production and compression of hydrogen the investment required to build refuelling infrastructure around the world to dispense hydrogen and transportation of hydrogen 11 12 13 In addition leaked hydrogen has a global warming effect 11 6 times stronger than CO 14 For light duty vehicles including passenger cars hydrogen adoption is behind that of battery electric vehicles A 2022 study found that technological developments and economies of scale in BEVs compared with the evolution of the use of hydrogen have made it unlikely for hydrogen light duty vehicles to play a significant role in the future 15 Contents 1 Vehicles 1 1 Rationale and context 1 2 Aeroplanes 1 3 Automobiles 1 3 1 Auto racing 1 4 Buses 1 5 Trams and trains 1 6 Ships 1 7 Bicycles and stand up scooters 1 8 Military vehicles 1 9 Motorcycles and scooters 1 10 Auto rickshaws 1 11 Quads and tractors 1 12 Fork trucks 1 13 Rockets 1 14 Heavy trucks 2 Internal combustion vehicle 3 Fuel cell 3 1 Fuel cell cost 3 2 Freezing conditions 3 3 Service life 4 Hydrogen 4 1 Production 4 2 Storage 4 3 Infrastructure 4 4 Codes and standards 5 Official support 5 1 U S initiatives 6 Criticism 7 Safety and supply 8 Comparison with other types of alternative fuel vehicle 8 1 Natural gas 8 2 Plug in electric 8 2 1 Plug in hybrid 8 2 2 Battery electric 9 See also 10 References 11 External linksVehicles edit nbsp The Honda FCX along with the Toyota FCHV is the world s first government certified commercial hydrogen fuel cell vehicle 16 17 Further information Fuel cell vehicle Rationale and context edit The rationale for hydrogen vehicles lies in their potential to reduce reliance on fossil fuels associated greenhouse gas emissions and localised air pollution from transportation 18 This would require hydrogen to be produced cleanly for use in sectors and applications where cheaper and more energy efficient mitigation alternatives are limited Aeroplanes edit Further information Hydrogen planes nbsp The Boeing Fuel Cell Demonstrator powered by a hydrogen fuel cellCompanies such as Boeing Lange Aviation and the German Aerospace Center pursue hydrogen as fuel for crewed and uncrewed aeroplanes In February 2008 Boeing tested a crewed flight of a small aircraft powered by a hydrogen fuel cell Uncrewed hydrogen planes have also been tested 19 For large passenger aeroplanes The Times reported that Boeing said that hydrogen fuel cells were unlikely to power the engines of large passenger jet aeroplanes but could be used as backup or auxiliary power units onboard 20 In July 2010 Boeing unveiled its hydrogen powered Phantom Eye UAV powered by two Ford internal combustion engines that have been converted to run on hydrogen 21 Automobiles edit As of 2021 update there are two hydrogen cars publicly available in select markets the Toyota Mirai and the Hyundai Nexo 22 The Honda Clarity was produced from 2016 to 2021 23 Hydrogen combustion cars are not commercially available citation needed In the light road vehicle segment by the end of 2022 70 200 fuel cell electric vehicles had been sold worldwide 24 compared with 26 million plug in electric vehicles 25 With the rapid rise of electric vehicles and associated battery technology and infrastructure the global scope for hydrogen s role in cars is shrinking relative to earlier expectations 15 26 The first road vehicle powered by a hydrogen fuel cell was the Chevrolet Electrovan introduced by General Motors in 1966 27 The Toyota FCHV and Honda FCX which began leasing on December 2 2002 became the world s first government certified commercial hydrogen fuel cell vehicles 17 16 28 and the Honda FCX Clarity which began leasing in 2008 was the world s first hydrogen fuel cell vehicle designed for mass production rather than adapting an existing model 29 Honda established the world s first fuel cell vehicle dealer network in 2008 and at the time was the only company able to lease hydrogen fuel cell vehicles to private customers 30 31 nbsp The Hyundai Nexo is a hydrogen fuel cell powered crossover SUVThe 2013 Hyundai Tucson FCEV a modified Tucson was introduced to the market as a lease only vehicle 32 33 and Hyundai Motors claimed it was the world s first mass produced hydrogen fuel cell vehicle 34 35 36 However due to high prices and a lack of charging infrastructure sales fell far short of initial plans with only 273 units sold by the end of May 2015 34 Hyundai Nexo which succeeded the Tucson in 2018 was selected as the safest SUV by the Euro NCAP in 2018 37 Toyota launched the world s first dedicated mass produced fuel cell vehicle FCV the Mirai in Japan at the end of 2014 1 2 5 and began sales in California mainly the Los Angeles area and also in selected markets in Europe the UK Germany and Denmark 38 later in 2015 39 The car has a range of 312 mi 502 km and takes about five minutes to refill its hydrogen tank The initial sale price in Japan was about 7 million yen 69 000 40 Former European Parliament President Pat Cox estimated that Toyota would initially lose about 100 000 on each Mirai sold 41 At the end of 2019 Toyota had sold over 10 000 Mirais 42 8 Many automobile companies have introduced demonstration models in limited numbers see List of fuel cell vehicles and List of hydrogen internal combustion engine vehicles 43 44 In 2013 BMW leased hydrogen technology from Toyota and a group formed by Ford Motor Company Daimler AG and Nissan announced a collaboration on hydrogen technology development 45 In 2015 Toyota announced that it would offer all 5 680 patents related to hydrogen fuel cell vehicles and hydrogen fuel cell charging station technology which it has been researching for over 20 years to its competitors free of charge in order to stimulate the market for hydrogen powered vehicles 46 By 2017 however Daimler had abandoned hydrogen vehicle development 47 and most of the automobile companies developing hydrogen cars had switched their focus to battery electric vehicles 48 By 2020 all but three automobile companies had abandoned plans to manufacture hydrogen cars 49 Auto racing edit A record of 207 297 miles per hour 333 612 km h was set by a prototype Ford Fusion Hydrogen 999 Fuel Cell Race Car at the Bonneville Salt Flats in August 2007 using a large compressed oxygen tank to increase power 50 The land speed record for a hydrogen powered vehicle of 286 476 miles per hour 461 038 km h was set by Ohio State University s Buckeye Bullet 2 which achieved a flying mile speed of 280 007 miles per hour 450 628 km h at the Bonneville Salt Flats in August 2008 In 2007 the Hydrogen Electric Racing Federation was formed as a racing organization for hydrogen fuel cell powered vehicles The organization sponsored the Hydrogen 500 a 500 mile race 51 Buses edit Main article Fuel cell bus nbsp A Solaris Urbino 12 bus near its factory in Bolechowo PolandFuel cell buses have been trialed by several manufacturers in different locations for example the Ursus Lublin 52 Solaris Bus amp Coach introduced its Urbino 12 hydrogen electric buses in 2019 Several dozen were ordered 53 In 2022 the city of Montpellier France cancelled a contract to procure 51 buses powered by hydrogen fuel cells when it found that the cost of operation for hydrogen buses is 6 times the cost of electricity 54 Trams and trains edit External videos nbsp China rolls out its first hydrogen fuel cell hybrid locomotive Xinhua 28 January 2021In the International Energy Agency s 2022 Net Zero Emissions Scenario hydrogen is forecast to account for 2 of rail energy demand in 2050 while 90 of rail travel is expected to be electrified by then up from 45 today Hydrogen s role in rail would likely be focused on lines that prove difficult or costly to electrify 55 In March 2015 China South Rail Corporation CSR demonstrated the world s first hydrogen fuel cell powered tramcar at an assembly facility in Qingdao 56 Tracks for the new vehicle have been built in seven Chinese cities 57 In northern Germany in 2018 the first fuel cell powered Coradia iLint trains were placed into service excess power is stored in lithium ion batteries 58 Ships edit Main article Hydrogen powered ship As of 2019 update Hydrogen fuel cells are not suitable for propulsion in large long distance ships but they are being considered as a range extender for smaller short distance low speed electric vessels such as ferries 59 Hydrogen in ammonia is being considered as a long distance fuel 60 Bicycles and stand up scooters edit nbsp PHB hydrogen bicycleIn 2007 Pearl Hydrogen Power Source Technology Co of Shanghai China demonstrated a PHB hydrogen bicycle 61 62 In 2014 Australian scientists from the University of New South Wales presented their Hy Cycle model 63 The same year Canyon Bicycles started to work on the Eco Speed concept bicycle 64 In 2017 Pragma Industries of France developed a bicycle that was able to travel 100 km on a single hydrogen cylinder 65 In 2019 Pragma announced that the product Alpha Bike has been improved to offer an electrically assisted pedalling range of 150 km and the first 200 of the bikes are to be provided to journalists covering the 45th G7 summit in Biarritz France 66 In 2020 Alles over Waterstof 67 developed a 2 wheel hydrogen powered stand up scooter The stand up scooter has a range of over 20 km on 15 grams of hydrogen It uses a swappable 1 litre 200 bar hydrogen cylinder In 2021 the company developed a hydrogen powered cargo bike using a static 3 litre 300 bar refillable hydrogen cylinder The HydroCargo bike has a range of up to 100 km on 80 grams of hydrogen 68 Lloyd Alter of TreeHugger responded to the announcement asking why go through the trouble of using electricity to make hydrogen only to turn it back into electricity to charge a battery to run the e bike or pick a fuel that needs an expensive filling station that can only handle 35 bikes a day when you can charge a battery powered bike anywhere If you were a captive fleet operator why not just swap out batteries to get the range and the fast turnover 69 Military vehicles edit General Motors military division GM Defense focuses on hydrogen fuel cell vehicles 70 Its SURUS Silent Utility Rover Universal Superstructure is a flexible fuel cell electric platform with autonomous capabilities Since April 2017 the U S Army has been testing the commercial Chevrolet Colorado ZH2 on its U S bases to determine the viability of hydrogen powered vehicles in military mission tactical environments 71 Motorcycles and scooters edit ENV develops electric motorcycles powered by a hydrogen fuel cell including the Crosscage and Biplane Other manufacturers as Vectrix are working on hydrogen scooters 72 Finally hydrogen fuel cell electric hybrid scooters are being made such as the Suzuki Burgman fuel cell scooter 73 and the FHybrid 74 The Burgman received whole vehicle type approval in the EU 75 The Taiwanese company APFCT conducted a live street test with 80 fuel cell scooters for Taiwan s Bureau of Energy 76 Auto rickshaws edit Hydrogen auto rickshaw concept vehicles have been built by Mahindra HyAlfa and Bajaj Auto 77 78 Quads and tractors edit Autostudi S r l s H Due 79 is a hydrogen powered quad capable of transporting 1 3 passengers A concept for a hydrogen powered tractor has been proposed 80 81 Fork trucks edit A hydrogen internal combustion engine or HICE forklift or HICE lift truck is a hydrogen fueled internal combustion engine powered industrial forklift truck used for lifting and transporting materials The first production HICE forklift truck based on the Linde X39 Diesel was presented at an exposition in Hannover on May 27 2008 It used a 2 0 litre 43 kW 58 hp diesel internal combustion engine converted to use hydrogen as a fuel with the use of a compressor and direct injection 82 83 In 2013 there were over 4 000 fuel cell forklifts used in material handling in the US 84 As of 2024 approximately 50 000 hydrogen forklifts are in operation worldwide the bulk of which are in the U S as compared with 1 2 million battery electric forklifts that were purchased in 2021 85 Most companies in Europe and the US do not use petroleum powered forklifts as these vehicles work indoors where emissions must be controlled and instead use electric forklifts 86 87 Fuel cell powered forklifts can be refueled in 3 minutes They can be used in refrigerated warehouses as their performance is not degraded by lower temperatures The fuel cell units are often designed as drop in replacements 88 89 Rockets edit nbsp Centaur rocket stage was the first to use liquid hydrogenMany large rockets use liquid hydrogen as fuel with liquid oxygen as an oxidizer LH2 LOX An advantage of hydrogen rocket fuel is the high effective exhaust velocity compared to kerosene LOX or UDMH NTO engines According to the Tsiolkovsky rocket equation a rocket with higher exhaust velocity uses less propellant to accelerate Also the energy density of hydrogen is greater than any other fuel 90 LH2 LOX also yields the greatest efficiency in relation to the amount of propellant consumed of any known rocket propellant 91 A disadvantage of LH2 LOX engines is the low density and low temperature of liquid hydrogen which means bigger and insulated and thus heavier fuel tanks are needed This increases the rocket s structural mass which reduces its delta v significantly Another disadvantage is the poor storability of LH2 LOX powered rockets Due to the constant hydrogen boil off the rocket must be fueled shortly before launch which makes cryogenic engines unsuitable for ICBMs and other rocket applications with the need for short launch preparations Overall the delta v of a hydrogen stage is typically not much different from that of a dense fuelled stage but the weight of a hydrogen stage is much less which makes it particularly effective for upper stages since they are carried by the lower stages For first stages dense fuelled rockets in studies may show a small advantage due to the smaller vehicle size and lower air drag 92 LH2 LOX were also used in the Space Shuttle to run the fuel cells that power the electrical systems 93 The byproduct of the fuel cell is water which is used for drinking and other applications that require water in space Heavy trucks edit The International Energy Agency s 2022 net zero emissions scenario sees hydrogen meeting approximately 30 of heavy truck energy demand in 2050 mainly for long distance heavy freight with battery electric power accounting for around 60 94 United Parcel Service began testing of a hydrogen powered delivery vehicle in 2017 95 In 2020 Hyundai began commercial production of its Xcient fuel cell trucks and shipped ten of them to Switzerland 96 97 98 In 2022 in Australia five hydrogen fuel cell class 8 trucks were placed into use to transport zinc from Sun Metals Townsville mine to the Port of Townsville Queensland to be shipped around the world 99 Internal combustion vehicle editMain articles Hydrogen internal combustion engine vehicle and List of hydrogen internal combustion engine vehicles Hydrogen internal combustion engine cars are different from hydrogen fuel cell cars The hydrogen internal combustion car is a slightly modified version of the traditional gasoline internal combustion engine car These hydrogen engines burn fuel in the same manner that gasoline engines do the main difference is the exhaust product Gasoline combustion results in emissions of mostly carbon dioxide and water plus trace amounts of carbon monoxide NOx particulates and unburned hydrocarbons 100 while the main exhaust product of hydrogen combustion is water vapor In 1807 Francois Isaac de Rivaz designed the first hydrogen fueled internal combustion engine 101 In 1965 Roger E Billings then a high school student converted a Model A to run on hydrogen 102 In 1970 Paul Dieges patented a modification to internal combustion engines which allowed a gasoline powered engine to run on hydrogen 103 Mazda has developed Wankel engines burning hydrogen which are used in the Mazda RX 8 Hydrogen RE The advantage of using an internal combustion engine like Wankel and piston engines is the lower cost of retooling for production 104 Fuel cell editFurther information Fuel cell Fuel cell cost edit Hydrogen fuel cells are relatively expensive to produce as their designs require rare substances such as platinum as a catalyst 105 In 2014 former European Parliament President Pat Cox estimated that Toyota would initially lose about 100 000 on each Mirai sold 41 In 2020 researchers at the University of Copenhagen s Department of Chemistry are developing a new type of catalyst that they hope will decrease the cost of fuel cells 106 This new catalyst uses far less platinum because the platinum nano particles are not coated over carbon which in conventional hydrogen fuel cells keeps the nano particles in place but also causes the catalyst to become unstable and denatures it slowly requiring even more platinum The new technology uses durable nanowires instead of the nano particles The next step for the researchers is to scale up their results so that the technology can be implemented in hydrogen vehicles 107 Freezing conditions edit The problems in early fuel cell designs at low temperatures concerning range and cold start capabilities have been addressed so that they cannot be seen as show stoppers anymore 108 Users in 2014 said that their fuel cell vehicles perform flawlessly in temperatures below zero even with the heaters blasting without significantly reducing range 109 Studies using neutron radiography on unassisted cold start indicate ice formation in the cathode 110 three stages in cold start 111 and Nafion ionic conductivity 112 A parameter defined as coulomb of charge was also defined to measure cold start capability 113 Service life edit The service life of fuel cells is comparable to that of other vehicles 114 clarification needed Polymer electrolyte membrane PEM fuel cell service life is 7 300 hours under cycling conditions 115 Hydrogen editFurther information hydrogen economy Hydrogen does not exist in convenient reservoirs or deposits like fossil fuels or helium 116 It is produced from feedstocks such as natural gas and biomass or electrolyzed from water 117 A suggested benefit of large scale deployment of hydrogen vehicles is that it could lead to decreased emissions of greenhouse gases and ozone precursors 118 However as of 2014 95 of hydrogen is made from methane It can be produced by thermochemical or pyrolitic means using renewable feedstocks but that is an expensive process 9 Renewable electricity can however be used to power the conversion of water into hydrogen Integrated wind to hydrogen power to gas plants using electrolysis of water are exploring technologies to deliver costs low enough and quantities great enough to compete with traditional energy sources 119 The challenges facing the use of hydrogen in vehicles include its storage on board the vehicle As of September 2023 hydrogen cost 36 per kilogram at public fueling stations in California 14 times as much per mile for a Mirai as compared with a Tesla Model 3 120 Production edit Further information Hydrogen production The molecular hydrogen needed as an onboard fuel for hydrogen vehicles can be obtained through many thermochemical methods utilizing natural gas coal by a process known as coal gasification liquefied petroleum gas biomass biomass gasification by a process called thermolysis or as a microbial waste product called biohydrogen or Biological hydrogen production 95 of hydrogen is produced using natural gas 121 Hydrogen can be produced from water by electrolysis at working efficiencies of 65 70 122 Hydrogen can be made by chemical reduction using chemical hydrides or aluminum 123 Current technologies for manufacturing hydrogen use energy in various forms totaling between 25 and 50 percent of the higher heating value of the hydrogen fuel used to produce compress or liquefy and transmit the hydrogen by pipeline or truck 124 Environmental consequences of the production of hydrogen from fossil energy resources include the emission of greenhouse gasses a consequence that would also result from the on board reforming of methanol into hydrogen 125 Hydrogen production using renewable energy resources would not create such emissions but the scale of renewable energy production would need to be expanded to be used in producing hydrogen for a significant part of transportation needs 126 In a few countries renewable sources are being used more widely to produce energy and hydrogen For example Iceland is using geothermal power to produce hydrogen 127 and Denmark is using wind 128 Storage edit Further information Hydrogen storage nbsp Compressed hydrogen storage markCompressed hydrogen in hydrogen tanks at 350 bar 5 000 psi and 700 bar 10 000 psi is used for hydrogen tank systems in vehicles based on type IV carbon composite technology 129 Hydrogen has a very low volumetric energy density at ambient conditions compared with gasoline and other vehicle fuels 130 It must be stored in a vehicle either as a super cooled liquid or as highly compressed gas which require additional energy to accomplish 131 In 2018 researchers at CSIRO in Australia powered a Toyota Mirai and Hyundai Nexo with hydrogen separated from ammonia using a membrane technology Ammonia is easier to transport safely in tankers than pure hydrogen 132 Infrastructure edit nbsp Hydrogen car fuelingFurther information Hydrogen infrastructure Further information Hydrogen station nbsp The refueling of a Hydrogen powered vehicle The vehicle is a Hyundai Nexo Note the condensation around the handle this is because of the hydrogen gas expanding causing the handle to freeze To enable the delivery of hydrogen fuel to transport end users a broad range of investments are needed including according to the International Energy Agency IEA the construction and operation of new port infrastructure buffer storage pipelines ships refueling stations and plants to convert the hydrogen into a more readily transportable commodity and potentially back to hydrogen 133 In particular the IEA notes that refueling stations will be needed in locations that are suitable for long distance trucking such as industrial hubs and identifies the need for investment in airport infrastructure for the storage and delivery of hydrogen The IEA deems the infrastructure requirements for hydrogen in shipping more challenging drawing attention to the need for major investments and co ordinated efforts among fuel suppliers ports shipbuilders and shippers 134 As of 2021 update there were 49 publicly accessible hydrogen refueling stations in the US 48 of which were located in California compared with 42 830 electric charging stations 135 136 By 2017 there were 91 hydrogen fueling stations in Japan 137 Codes and standards edit Hydrogen codes and standards as well as codes and technical standards for hydrogen safety and the storage of hydrogen have been an institutional barrier to deploying hydrogen technologies To enable the commercialization of hydrogen in consumer products new codes and standards must be developed and adopted by federal state and local governments 138 Official support editU S initiatives edit Fuel cell buses are supported 139 The New York State Energy Research and Development Authority NYSERDA has created incentives for hydrogen fuel cell electric trucks and buses 140 Criticism editCritics claim the time frame for overcoming the technical and economic challenges to implementing wide scale use of hydrogen in cars is likely to be at least several decades 141 142 They argue that the focus on the use of the hydrogen car is a dangerous detour from more readily available solutions to reducing the use of fossil fuels in vehicles 143 In 2008 Wired News reported that experts say it will be 40 years or more before hydrogen has any meaningful impact on gasoline consumption or global warming and we can t afford to wait that long In the meantime fuel cells are diverting resources from more immediate solutions 144 In the 2006 documentary Who Killed the Electric Car former U S Department of Energy official Joseph Romm said A hydrogen car is one of the least efficient most expensive ways to reduce greenhouse gases 145 He also argued that the cost to build out a nationwide network of hydrogen refueling stations would be prohibitive 146 He held the same views in 2014 147 148 In 2009 the Los Angeles Times wrote that hydrogen is a lousy way to move cars 149 Robert Zubrin the author of Energy Victory stated Hydrogen is just about the worst possible vehicle fuel 150 The Economist noted that most hydrogen is produced through steam methane reformation which creates at least as much emission of carbon per mile as some of today s gasoline cars but that if the hydrogen could be produced using renewable energy it would surely be easier simply to use this energy to charge the batteries of all electric or plug in hybrid vehicles 150 Over their lifetimes hydrogen vehicles will emit more carbon than gasoline vehicles 151 13 The Washington Post asked in 2009 W hy would you want to store energy in the form of hydrogen and then use that hydrogen to produce electricity for a motor when electrical energy is already waiting to be sucked out of sockets all over America and stored in auto batteries 121 152 Volkswagen s Rudolf Krebs said in 2013 that no matter how excellent you make the cars themselves the laws of physics hinder their overall efficiency The most efficient way to convert energy to mobility is electricity He elaborated Hydrogen mobility only makes sense if you use green energy but you need to convert it first into hydrogen with low efficiencies where you lose about 40 percent of the initial energy You then must compress the hydrogen and store it under high pressure in tanks which uses more energy And then you have to convert the hydrogen back to electricity in a fuel cell with another efficiency loss Krebs continued in the end from your original 100 percent of electric energy you end up with 30 to 40 percent 153 In 2015 CleanTechnica listed some of the disadvantages of hydrogen fuel cell vehicles 154 155 A 2016 study in Energy by scientists at Stanford University and the Technical University of Munich concluded that even assuming local hydrogen production investing in all electric battery vehicles is a more economical choice for reducing carbon dioxide emissions 156 A 2017 analysis published in Green Car Reports concluded that the best hydrogen fuel cell vehicles consume more than three times more electricity per mile than an electric vehicle generate more greenhouse gas emissions than other powertrain technologies and have very high fuel costs Considering all the obstacles and requirements for new infrastructure estimated to cost as much as 400 billion fuel cell vehicles seem likely to be a niche technology at best with little impact on U S oil consumption 137 The US Department of Energy agrees for fuel produced by grid electricity via electrolysis but not for most other pathways for generation 157 A 2019 video by Real Engineering noted that notwithstanding the introduction of vehicles that run on hydrogen using hydrogen as a fuel for cars does not help to reduce carbon emissions from transportation The 95 of hydrogen still produced from fossil fuels releases carbon dioxide and producing hydrogen from water is an energy consuming process Storing hydrogen requires more energy either to cool it down to the liquid state or to put it into tanks under high pressure and delivering the hydrogen to fueling stations requires more energy and may release more carbon The hydrogen needed to move a FCV a kilometer costs approximately 8 times as much as the electricity needed to move a BEV the same distance 158 Also in 2019 Katsushi Inoue the president of Honda Europe stated Our focus is on hybrid and electric vehicles now Maybe hydrogen fuel cell cars will come but that s a technology for the next era 159 Assessments since 2020 have concluded that hydrogen vehicles are still only 38 efficient while battery EVs are from 80 to 95 efficient 160 161 A 2021 assessment by CleanTechnica concluded that while hydrogen cars are far less efficient than electric cars the vast majority of hydrogen being produced is polluting grey hydrogen and delivering hydrogen would require building a vast and expensive new infrastructure the remaining two advantages of fuel cell vehicles longer range and fast fueling times are rapidly being eroded by improving battery and charging technology 49 A 2022 study in Nature Electronics agreed 162 Another 2022 article in Recharge News stated that ships are more likely to be powered by ammonia or methanol than hydrogen 163 Also in 2022 Germany s Fraunhofer Institute concluded that hydrogen is unlikely to play a major role in road transport 26 A 2023 study by the Centre for International Climate and Environmental Research CICERO estimated that leaked hydrogen has a global warming effect 11 6 times stronger than CO 14 Safety and supply editMain article Hydrogen safety Hydrogen fuel is hazardous because of the low ignition energy see also autoignition temperature and high combustion energy of hydrogen and because it tends to leak easily from tanks due to its small molecular size 164 Hydrogen embrittlement is also a concern for the storage tank material as well as the car parts surrounding the tank if chronic leakage is present Hydrogen is odorless so leakages are not easily picked up without specialized detectors 165 Explosions at hydrogen filling stations have been reported 166 Hydrogen fuelling stations generally receive deliveries of hydrogen by truck from hydrogen suppliers An interruption at a hydrogen supply facility can shut down multiple hydrogen fuelling stations 167 Comparison with other types of alternative fuel vehicle editMain article Alternative fuel vehicle Hydrogen vehicles compete with various proposed alternatives to the modern fossil fuel internal combustion engine ICE vehicle infrastructure 105 Natural gas edit Main article Natural gas vehicle ICE based compressed natural gas CNG HCNG LPG or LNG vehicles collectively called natural gas vehicles NGVs use methane harvested from natural gas or Biogas as a fuel source Methane has a higher energy density than hydrogen and NGVs from Biogas are nearly carbon neutral 168 Unlike hydrogen vehicles CNG vehicle technology has been available for many decades and there is sufficient infrastructure in existing filling stations to provide both commercial and home refueling Worldwide there were 14 8 million natural gas vehicles by the end of 2011 mostly in the form of bi fuel vehicles 169 The other use for natural gas is in steam reforming which is the common way to produce hydrogen gas for use in electric cars with fuel cells 8 Methane is also an alternative rocket fuel 170 Plug in electric edit Main article Plug in electric vehicle Plug in hybrid edit Main article Plug in hybrid electric vehicle Plug in hybrid electric vehicles PHEVs are hybrid electric vehicles that can be plugged into the electric grid to recharge the on board battery pack rather than relying purely on the internal combustion engine to drive a generator to power the electric motor and battery pack as in conventional hybrid vehicles The PHEV concept augments the vehicle s fuel efficiency by allowing more EV mode driving at the same time alleviating range anxiety by having the internal combustion engine typically a turbo petrol engine as an auxiliary powerplant or range extender Battery electric edit Main article Battery electric vehicle In the light road vehicle segment by 2023 26 million battery electric vehicles had been sold worldwide 25 and there were 65 730 public charging stations in North America in addition to the availability of home and workplace charging via AC power plugs and sockets 171 Long distance electric trucks require more megawatt charging infrastructure 172 See also editAirship Alternative fuel car Bivalent engine Fuel gas powered scooter Carbon neutral fuel Formic acid vehicle Hell and High Water Hydrogen 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description Inside world s first hydrogen powered production car BBC News 14 September 2010 Toyota Ecopark Hydrogen Demonstration ARENAWIRE 22 March 2019 Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Hydrogen vehicle amp oldid 1205486058, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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