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Fuel cell

March 29, 2023

For other uses, see Fuel cell (disambiguation).

A fuel cell is the electrochemical cell that converts the chemical energy of a fuel (often hydrogen) and an oxidizing agent (often oxygen[1]) into electricity through a pair of redox reactions.[2] Fuel cells are different from most batteries in requiring a continuous source of fuel and oxygen (usually from air) to sustain the chemical reaction, whereas in a battery the chemical energy usually comes from substances that are already present in the battery.[3] Fuel cells can produce electricity continuously for as long as fuel and oxygen are supplied.

Demonstration model of a direct methanol fuel cell (black layered cube) in its enclosure.
Scheme of a proton-conducting fuel cell

The first fuel cells were invented by Sir William Grove in 1838. The first commercial use of fuel cells came more than a century later following the invention of the hydrogen–oxygen fuel cell by Francis Thomas Bacon in 1932. The alkaline fuel cell, also known as the Bacon fuel cell after its inventor, has been used in NASA space programs since the mid-1960s to generate power for satellites and space capsules. Since then, fuel cells have been used in many other applications. Fuel cells are used for primary and backup power for commercial, industrial and residential buildings and in remote or inaccessible areas. They are also used to power fuel cell vehicles, including forklifts, automobiles, buses, trains, boats, motorcycles, and submarines.

There are many types of fuel cells, but they all consist of an anode, a cathode, and an electrolyte that allows ions, often positively charged hydrogen ions (protons), to move between the two sides of the fuel cell. At the anode, a catalyst causes the fuel to undergo oxidation reactions that generate ions (often positively charged hydrogen ions) and electrons. The ions move from the anode to the cathode through the electrolyte. At the same time, electrons flow from the anode to the cathode through an external circuit, producing direct current electricity. At the cathode, another catalyst causes ions, electrons, and oxygen to react, forming water and possibly other products. Fuel cells are classified by the type of electrolyte they use and by the difference in startup time ranging from 1 second for proton-exchange membrane fuel cells (PEM fuel cells, or PEMFC) to 10 minutes for solid oxide fuel cells (SOFC). A related technology is flow batteries, in which the fuel can be regenerated by recharging. Individual fuel cells produce relatively small electrical potentials, about 0.7 volts, so cells are "stacked", or placed in series, to create sufficient voltage to meet an application's requirements.[4] In addition to electricity, fuel cells produce water vapor, heat and, depending on the fuel source, very small amounts of nitrogen dioxide and other emissions. PEMFC cells generally produce less nitrogen oxides than SOFC cells: they operate at lower temperatures, use hydrogen as fuel, and limit the diffusion of nitrogen into the anode via the proton exchange membrane which forms NOx. The energy efficiency of a fuel cell is generally between 40 and 60%; however, if waste heat is captured in a cogeneration scheme, efficiencies of up to 85% can be obtained.[5]

History

 
The log number of publication related to electrochemical power sources by year. Also shown as the magenta line is the inflation-adjusted oil price in US$/liter in linear scale.
Main article: Timeline of hydrogen technologies
 
Sketch of Sir William Grove's 1839 fuel cell

The first references to hydrogen fuel cells appeared in 1838. In a letter dated October 1838 but published in the December 1838 edition of The London and Edinburgh Philosophical Magazine and Journal of Science, Welsh physicist and barrister Sir William Grove wrote about the development of his first crude fuel cells. He used a combination of sheet iron, copper, and porcelain plates, and a solution of sulphate of copper and dilute acid.[6][7] In a letter to the same publication written in December 1838 but published in June 1839, German physicist Christian Friedrich Schönbein discussed the first crude fuel cell that he had invented. His letter discussed the current generated from hydrogen and oxygen dissolved in water.[8] Grove later sketched his design, in 1842, in the same journal. The fuel cell he made used similar materials to today's phosphoric acid fuel cell.[9][10]

In 1932, Francis Thomas Bacon invented a fuel cell which derived power from hydrogen and oxygen. This was used by NASA to power lights, air-conditioning and communications.

The Brits who bolstered the Moon landings, BBC Archives.[11]

In 1932, English engineer Francis Thomas Bacon successfully developed a 5 kW stationary fuel cell.[11] The alkaline fuel cell (AFC), also known as the Bacon fuel cell after its inventor, is one of the most developed fuel cell technologies, which NASA has used since the mid-1960s.[11][12]

In 1955, W. Thomas Grubb, a chemist working for the General Electric Company (GE), further modified the original fuel cell design by using a sulphonated polystyrene ion-exchange membrane as the electrolyte. Three years later another GE chemist, Leonard Niedrach, devised a way of depositing platinum onto the membrane, which served as a catalyst for the necessary hydrogen oxidation and oxygen reduction reactions. This became known as the "Grubb-Niedrach fuel cell".[13][14] GE went on to develop this technology with NASA and McDonnell Aircraft, leading to its use during Project Gemini. This was the first commercial use of a fuel cell. In 1959, a team led by Harry Ihrig built a 15 kW fuel cell tractor for Allis-Chalmers, which was demonstrated across the U.S. at state fairs. This system used potassium hydroxide as the electrolyte and compressed hydrogen and oxygen as the reactants. Later in 1959, Bacon and his colleagues demonstrated a practical five-kilowatt unit capable of powering a welding machine. In the 1960s, Pratt & Whitney licensed Bacon's U.S. patents for use in the U.S. space program to supply electricity and drinking water (hydrogen and oxygen being readily available from the spacecraft tanks). In 1991, the first hydrogen fuel cell automobile was developed by Roger E. Billings.[15][16][17]

UTC Power was the first company to manufacture and commercialize a large, stationary fuel cell system for use as a cogeneration power plant in hospitals, universities and large office buildings.[18]

In recognition of the fuel cell industry and America's role in fuel cell development, the United States Senate recognized 8 October 2015 as National Hydrogen and Fuel Cell Day, passing S. RES 217. The date was chosen in recognition of the atomic weight of hydrogen (1.008).[19]

Types of fuel cells; design

Fuel cells come in many varieties; however, they all work in the same general manner. They are made up of three adjacent segments: the anode, the electrolyte, and the cathode. Two chemical reactions occur at the interfaces of the three different segments. The net result of the two reactions is that fuel is consumed, water or carbon dioxide is created, and an electric current is created, which can be used to power electrical devices, normally referred to as the load.

At the anode a catalyst ionizes the fuel, usually hydrogen, turning the fuel into a positively charged ion and a negatively charged electron. The electrolyte is a substance specifically designed so ions can pass through it, but the electrons cannot. The freed electrons travel through a wire creating an electric current. The ions travel through the electrolyte to the cathode. Once reaching the cathode, the ions are reunited with the electrons and the two react with a third chemical, usually oxygen, to create water or carbon dioxide.

 
A block diagram of a fuel cell

Design features in a fuel cell include:

  • The electrolyte substance, which usually defines the type of fuel cell, and can be made from a number of substances like potassium hydroxide, salt carbonates, and phosphoric acid.[20]
  • The fuel that is used. The most common fuel is hydrogen.
  • The anode catalyst, usually fine platinum powder, breaks down the fuel into electrons and ions.
  • The cathode catalyst, often nickel, converts ions into waste chemicals, with water being the most common type of waste.[21]
  • Gas diffusion layers that are designed to resist oxidization.[21]

A typical fuel cell produces a voltage from 0.6 to 0.7 V at full rated load. Voltage decreases as current increases, due to several factors:

  • Activation loss
  • Ohmic loss (voltage drop due to resistance of the cell components and interconnections)
  • Mass transport loss (depletion of reactants at catalyst sites under high loads, causing rapid loss of voltage).[22]

To deliver the desired amount of energy, the fuel cells can be combined in series to yield higher voltage, and in parallel to allow a higher current to be supplied. Such a design is called a fuel cell stack. The cell surface area can also be increased, to allow higher current from each cell.

Proton-exchange membrane fuel cells

Main article: Proton-exchange membrane fuel cell
 
Construction of a high-temperature PEMFC: Bipolar plate as electrode with in-milled gas channel structure, fabricated from conductive composites (enhanced with graphite, carbon black, carbon fiber, and/or carbon nanotubes for more conductivity);[23] Porous carbon papers; reactive layer, usually on the polymer membrane applied; polymer membrane.
 
Condensation of water produced by a PEMFC on the air channel wall. The gold wire around the cell ensures the collection of electric current.[24]
 
SEM micrograph of a PEMFC MEA cross-section with a non-precious metal catalyst cathode and Pt/C anode.[25] False colors applied for clarity.

In the archetypical hydrogen–oxide proton-exchange membrane fuel cell (PEMFC) design, a proton-conducting polymer membrane (typically nafion) contains the electrolyte solution that separates the anode and cathode sides.[26][27] This was called a solid polymer electrolyte fuel cell (SPEFC) in the early 1970s, before the proton-exchange mechanism was well understood. (Notice that the synonyms polymer electrolyte membrane and proton-exchange mechanism result in the same acronym.)

On the anode side, hydrogen diffuses to the anode catalyst where it later dissociates into protons and electrons. These protons often react with oxidants causing them to become what are commonly referred to as multi-facilitated proton membranes. The protons are conducted through the membrane to the cathode, but the electrons are forced to travel in an external circuit (supplying power) because the membrane is electrically insulating. On the cathode catalyst, oxygen molecules react with the electrons (which have traveled through the external circuit) and protons to form water.

In addition to this pure hydrogen type, there are hydrocarbon fuels for fuel cells, including diesel, methanol (see: direct-methanol fuel cells and indirect methanol fuel cells) and chemical hydrides. The waste products with these types of fuel are carbon dioxide and water. When hydrogen is used, the CO2 is released when methane from natural gas is combined with steam, in a process called steam methane reforming, to produce the hydrogen. This can take place in a different location to the fuel cell, potentially allowing the hydrogen fuel cell to be used indoors—for example, in fork lifts.

The different components of a PEMFC are

  1. bipolar plates,
  2. electrodes,
  3. catalyst,
  4. membrane, and
  5. the necessary hardware such as current collectors and gaskets.[28]

The materials used for different parts of the fuel cells differ by type. The bipolar plates may be made of different types of materials, such as, metal, coated metal, graphite, flexible graphite, C–C composite, carbon–polymer composites etc.[29] The membrane electrode assembly (MEA) is referred to as the heart of the PEMFC and is usually made of a proton-exchange membrane sandwiched between two catalyst-coated carbon papers. Platinum and/or similar type of noble metals are usually used as the catalyst for PEMFC, and these can be contaminated by carbon monoxide, necessitating a relatively pure hydrogen fuel.[30] The electrolyte could be a polymer membrane.

Proton-exchange membrane fuel cell design issues

Cost
In 2013, the Department of Energy estimated that 80-kW automotive fuel cell system costs of US$67 per kilowatt could be achieved, assuming volume production of 100,000 automotive units per year and US$55 per kilowatt could be achieved, assuming volume production of 500,000 units per year.[31] Many companies are working on techniques to reduce cost in a variety of ways including reducing the amount of platinum needed in each individual cell. Ballard Power Systems has experimented with a catalyst enhanced with carbon silk, which allows a 30% reduction (1.0–0.7 mg/cm2) in platinum usage without reduction in performance.[32] Monash University, Melbourne uses PEDOT as a cathode.[33] A 2011-published study[34] documented the first metal-free electrocatalyst using relatively inexpensive doped carbon nanotubes, which are less than 1% the cost of platinum and are of equal or superior performance. A recently published article demonstrated how the environmental burdens change when using carbon nanotubes as carbon substrate for platinum.[35]
Water and air management[36][37] (in PEMFCs)
In this type of fuel cell, the membrane must be hydrated, requiring water to be evaporated at precisely the same rate that it is produced. If water is evaporated too quickly, the membrane dries, resistance across it increases, and eventually it will crack, creating a gas "short circuit" where hydrogen and oxygen combine directly, generating heat that will damage the fuel cell. If the water is evaporated too slowly, the electrodes will flood, preventing the reactants from reaching the catalyst and stopping the reaction. Methods to manage water in cells are being developed like electroosmotic pumps focusing on flow control. Just as in a combustion engine, a steady ratio between the reactant and oxygen is necessary to keep the fuel cell operating efficiently.
Temperature management
The same temperature must be maintained throughout the cell in order to prevent destruction of the cell through thermal loading. This is particularly challenging as the 2H2 + O2 → 2H2O reaction is highly exothermic, so a large quantity of heat is generated within the fuel cell.
Durability, service life, and special requirements for some type of cells
Stationary fuel cell applications typically require more than 40,000 hours of reliable operation at a temperature of −35 °C to 40 °C (−31 °F to 104 °F), while automotive fuel cells require a 5,000-hour lifespan (the equivalent of 240,000 km or 150,000 mi) under extreme temperatures. Current service life is 2,500 hours (about 120,000 km or 75,000 mi).[38] Automotive engines must also be able to start reliably at −30 °C (−22 °F) and have a high power-to-volume ratio (typically 2.5 kW/L).
Limited carbon monoxide tolerance of some (non-PEDOT) cathodes.[30]

Phosphoric acid fuel cell

Main article: Phosphoric acid fuel cell

Phosphoric acid fuel cells (PAFCs) were first designed and introduced in 1961 by G. V. Elmore and H. A. Tanner. In these cells, phosphoric acid is used as a non-conductive electrolyte to pass protons from the anode to the cathode and to force electrons to travel from anode to cathode through an external electrical circuit. These cells commonly work in temperatures of 150 to 200°C. This high temperature will cause heat and energy loss if the heat is not removed and used properly. This heat can be used to produce steam for air conditioning systems or any other thermal energy consuming system.[39] Using this heat in cogeneration can enhance the efficiency of phosphoric acid fuel cells from 40 to 50% to about 80%.[39] Since the proton production rate on the anode is small, platinum is used as catalyst to increase this ionization rate. A key disadvantage of these cells is the use of an acidic electrolyte. This increases the corrosion or oxidation of components exposed to phosphoric acid.[40]

Solid acid fuel cell

Main article: Solid acid fuel cell

Solid acid fuel cells (SAFCs) are characterized by the use of a solid acid material as the electrolyte. At low temperatures, solid acids have an ordered molecular structure like most salts. At warmer temperatures (between 140 and 150 °C for CsHSO4), some solid acids undergo a phase transition to become highly disordered "superprotonic" structures, which increases conductivity by several orders of magnitude. The first proof-of-concept SAFCs were developed in 2000 using cesium hydrogen sulfate (CsHSO4).[41] Current SAFC systems use cesium dihydrogen phosphate (CsH2PO4) and have demonstrated lifetimes in the thousands of hours.[42]

Alkaline fuel cell

Main articles: Alkaline fuel cell and Alkaline anion exchange membrane fuel cell

The alkaline fuel cell (AFC) or hydrogen-oxygen fuel cell was designed and first demonstrated publicly by Francis Thomas Bacon in 1959. It was used as a primary source of electrical energy in the Apollo space program.[43] The cell consists of two porous carbon electrodes impregnated with a suitable catalyst such as Pt, Ag, CoO, etc. The space between the two electrodes is filled with a concentrated solution of KOH or NaOH which serves as an electrolyte. H2 gas and O2 gas are bubbled into the electrolyte through the porous carbon electrodes. Thus the overall reaction involves the combination of hydrogen gas and oxygen gas to form water. The cell runs continuously until the reactant's supply is exhausted. This type of cell operates efficiently in the temperature range 343–413 K and provides a potential of about 0.9 V.[44] Alkaline anion exchange membrane fuel cell (AAEMFC) is a type of AFC which employs a solid polymer electrolyte instead of aqueous potassium hydroxide (KOH) and it is superior to aqueous AFC.

High-temperature fuel cells

Solid oxide fuel cell

Main article: Solid oxide fuel cell

Solid oxide fuel cells (SOFCs) use a solid material, most commonly a ceramic material called yttria-stabilized zirconia (YSZ), as the electrolyte. Because SOFCs are made entirely of solid materials, they are not limited to the flat plane configuration of other types of fuel cells and are often designed as rolled tubes. They require high operating temperatures (800–1000 °C) and can be run on a variety of fuels including natural gas.[5]

SOFCs are unique because negatively charged oxygen ions travel from the cathode (positive side of the fuel cell) to the anode (negative side of the fuel cell) instead of protons travelling vice versa (i.e., from the anode to the cathode), as is the case in all other types of fuel cells. Oxygen gas is fed through the cathode, where it absorbs electrons to create oxygen ions. The oxygen ions then travel through the electrolyte to react with hydrogen gas at the anode. The reaction at the anode produces electricity and water as by-products. Carbon dioxide may also be a by-product depending on the fuel, but the carbon emissions from a SOFC system are less than those from a fossil fuel combustion plant.[45] The chemical reactions for the SOFC system can be expressed as follows:[46]

Anode reaction: 2H2 + 2O2− → 2H2O + 4e−
Cathode reaction: O2 + 4e− → 2O2−
Overall cell reaction: 2H2 + O2 → 2H2O

SOFC systems can run on fuels other than pure hydrogen gas. However, since hydrogen is necessary for the reactions listed above, the fuel selected must contain hydrogen atoms. For the fuel cell to operate, the fuel must be converted into pure hydrogen gas. SOFCs are capable of internally reforming light hydrocarbons such as methane (natural gas),[47] propane, and butane.[48] These fuel cells are at an early stage of development.[49]

Challenges exist in SOFC systems due to their high operating temperatures. One such challenge is the potential for carbon dust to build up on the anode, which slows down the internal reforming process. Research to address this "carbon coking" issue at the University of Pennsylvania has shown that the use of copper-based cermet (heat-resistant materials made of ceramic and metal) can reduce coking and the loss of performance.[50] Another disadvantage of SOFC systems is the long start-up, making SOFCs less useful for mobile applications. Despite these disadvantages, a high operating temperature provides an advantage by removing the need for a precious metal catalyst like platinum, thereby reducing cost. Additionally, waste heat from SOFC systems may be captured and reused, increasing the theoretical overall efficiency to as high as 80–85%.[5]

The high operating temperature is largely due to the physical properties of the YSZ electrolyte. As temperature decreases, so does the ionic conductivity of YSZ. Therefore, to obtain the optimum performance of the fuel cell, a high operating temperature is required. According to their website, Ceres Power, a UK SOFC fuel cell manufacturer, has developed a method of reducing the operating temperature of their SOFC system to 500–600 degrees Celsius. They replaced the commonly used YSZ electrolyte with a CGO (cerium gadolinium oxide) electrolyte. The lower operating temperature allows them to use stainless steel instead of ceramic as the cell substrate, which reduces cost and start-up time of the system.[51]

Molten-carbonate fuel cell

Main article: Molten carbonate fuel cell

Molten carbonate fuel cells (MCFCs) require a high operating temperature, 650 °C (1,200 °F), similar to SOFCs. MCFCs use lithium potassium carbonate salt as an electrolyte, and this salt liquefies at high temperatures, allowing for the movement of charge within the cell – in this case, negative carbonate ions.[52]

Like SOFCs, MCFCs are capable of converting fossil fuel to a hydrogen-rich gas in the anode, eliminating the need to produce hydrogen externally. The reforming process creates CO2 emissions. MCFC-compatible fuels include natural gas, biogas and gas produced from coal. The hydrogen in the gas reacts with carbonate ions from the electrolyte to produce water, carbon dioxide, electrons and small amounts of other chemicals. The electrons travel through an external circuit creating electricity and return to the cathode. There, oxygen from the air and carbon dioxide recycled from the anode react with the electrons to form carbonate ions that replenish the electrolyte, completing the circuit.[52] The chemical reactions for an MCFC system can be expressed as follows:[53]

Anode reaction: CO32− + H2 → H2O + CO2 + 2e−
Cathode reaction: CO2 + ½O2 + 2e− → CO32−
Overall cell reaction: H2 + ½O2 → H2O

As with SOFCs, MCFC disadvantages include slow start-up times because of their high operating temperature. This makes MCFC systems not suitable for mobile applications, and this technology will most likely be used for stationary fuel cell purposes. The main challenge of MCFC technology is the cells' short life span. The high-temperature and carbonate electrolyte lead to corrosion of the anode and cathode. These factors accelerate the degradation of MCFC components, decreasing the durability and cell life. Researchers are addressing this problem by exploring corrosion-resistant materials for components as well as fuel cell designs that may increase cell life without decreasing performance.[5]

MCFCs hold several advantages over other fuel cell technologies, including their resistance to impurities. They are not prone to "carbon coking", which refers to carbon build-up on the anode that results in reduced performance by slowing down the internal fuel reforming process. Therefore, carbon-rich fuels like gases made from coal are compatible with the system. The United States Department of Energy claims that coal, itself, might even be a fuel option in the future, assuming the system can be made resistant to impurities such as sulfur and particulates that result from converting coal into hydrogen.[5] MCFCs also have relatively high efficiencies. They can reach a fuel-to-electricity efficiency of 50%, considerably higher than the 37–42% efficiency of a phosphoric acid fuel cell plant. Efficiencies can be as high as 65% when the fuel cell is paired with a turbine, and 85% if heat is captured and used in a combined heat and power (CHP) system.[52]

FuelCell Energy, a Connecticut-based fuel cell manufacturer, develops and sells MCFC fuel cells. The company says that their MCFC products range from 300 kW to 2.8 MW systems that achieve 47% electrical efficiency and can utilize CHP technology to obtain higher overall efficiencies. One product, the DFC-ERG, is combined with a gas turbine and, according to the company, it achieves an electrical efficiency of 65%.[54]

Electric storage fuel cell

The electric storage fuel cell is a conventional battery chargeable by electric power input, using the conventional electro-chemical effect. However, the battery further includes hydrogen (and oxygen) inputs for alternatively charging the battery chemically.[55]

Comparison of fuel cell types

Fuel cell name Electrolyte Qualified power (W) Working temperature (°C) Efficiency Status Cost (USD/W)
Cell System
Metal hydride fuel cell Aqueous alkaline solution > −20
(50% Ppeak @ 0 °C) 		Commercial / Research 30-200
Electro-galvanic fuel cell Aqueous alkaline solution < 40 Commercial / Research 3-7
Direct formic acid fuel cell (DFAFC) Polymer membrane (ionomer) < 50 W < 40 Commercial / Research 10-20
Zinc–air battery Aqueous alkaline solution < 40 Mass production 150-300
Microbial fuel cell Polymer membrane or humic acid < 40 Research 10-50
Upflow microbial fuel cell (UMFC) < 40 Research 1-5
Regenerative fuel cell Polymer membrane (ionomer) < 50 Commercial / Research 200-300
Direct borohydride fuel cell Aqueous alkaline solution 70 Commercial 400-450
Alkaline fuel cell Aqueous alkaline solution 10–200 kW < 80 60–70% 62% Commercial / Research 50-100
Direct methanol fuel cell Polymer membrane (ionomer) 100 mW – 1 kW 90–120 20–30% 10–25%[56] Commercial / Research 125
Reformed methanol fuel cell Polymer membrane (ionomer) 5 W – 100 kW 250–300 (reformer)
125–200 (PBI) 		50–60% 25–40% Commercial / Research 8.50
Direct-ethanol fuel cell Polymer membrane (ionomer) < 140 mW/cm² > 25
? 90–120 		Research 12
Proton-exchange membrane fuel cell Polymer membrane (ionomer) 1 W – 500 kW 50–100 (Nafion)[57]
120–200 (PBI)[58]		 50–70% 30–50%[56] Commercial / Research 50–100
Redox fuel cell (RFC) Liquid electrolytes with redox shuttle and polymer membrane (ionomer) 1 kW – 10 MW Research 12.50
Phosphoric acid fuel cell Molten phosphoric acid (H3PO4) < 10 MW 150–200 55% 40%[56]
Co-gen: 90% 		Commercial / Research 4.00–4.50
Solid acid fuel cell H+-conducting oxyanion salt (solid acid) 10 W – 1 kW 200–300 55–60% 40–45% Commercial / Research 15
Molten carbonate fuel cell Molten alkaline carbonate 100 MW 600–650 55% 45–55%[56] Commercial / Research 1000
Tubular solid oxide fuel cell (TSOFC) O2−-conducting ceramic oxide < 100 MW 850–1100 60–65% 55–60% Commercial / Research 3.50
Protonic ceramic fuel cell H+-conducting ceramic oxide 700 Research 80
Direct carbon fuel cell Several different 700–850 80% 70% Commercial / Research 18
Planar solid oxide fuel cell O2−-conducting ceramic oxide < 100 MW 500–1100 60–65% 55–60%[56] Commercial / Research 800
Enzymatic biofuel cells Any that will not denature the enzyme < 40 Research 10
Magnesium-air fuel cell Salt water −20 to 55 90% Commercial / Research 15

Glossary of terms in table:

Further information: glossary of fuel cell terms
Anode
The electrode at which oxidation (a loss of electrons) takes place. For fuel cells and other galvanic cells, the anode is the negative terminal; for electrolytic cells (where electrolysis occurs), the anode is the positive terminal.[59]
Aqueous solution[60]
Of, relating to, or resembling water
Made from, with, or by water.
Catalyst
A chemical substance that increases the rate of a reaction without being consumed; after the reaction, it can potentially be recovered from the reaction mixture and is chemically unchanged. The catalyst lowers the activation energy required, allowing the reaction to proceed more quickly or at a lower temperature. In a fuel cell, the catalyst facilitates the reaction of oxygen and hydrogen. It is usually made of platinum powder very thinly coated onto carbon paper or cloth. The catalyst is rough and porous so the maximum surface area of the platinum can be exposed to the hydrogen or oxygen. The platinum-coated side of the catalyst faces the membrane in the fuel cell.[59]
Cathode
The electrode at which reduction (a gain of electrons) occurs. For fuel cells and other galvanic cells, the cathode is the positive terminal; for electrolytic cells (where electrolysis occurs), the cathode is the negative terminal.[59]
Electrolyte
A substance that conducts charged ions from one electrode to the other in a fuel cell, battery, or electrolyzer.[59]
Fuel cell stack
Individual fuel cells connected in a series. Fuel cells are stacked to increase voltage.[59]
Matrix
something within or from which something else originates, develops, or takes form.[61]
Membrane
The separating layer in a fuel cell that acts as electrolyte (an ion-exchanger) as well as a barrier film separating the gases in the anode and cathode compartments of the fuel cell.[59]
Molten carbonate fuel cell (MCFC)
A type of fuel cell that contains a molten carbonate electrolyte. Carbonate ions (CO32−) are transported from the cathode to the anode. Operating temperatures are typically near 650 °C.[59]
Phosphoric acid fuel cell (PAFC)
A type of fuel cell in which the electrolyte consists of concentrated phosphoric acid (H3PO4). Protons (H+) are transported from the anode to the cathode. The operating temperature range is generally 160–220 °C.[59]
Proton-exchange membrane fuel cell (PEM)
A fuel cell incorporating a solid polymer membrane used as its electrolyte. Protons (H+) are transported from the anode to the cathode. The operating temperature range is generally 60–100 °C for Low Temperature Proton-exchange membrane fuel cell (LT-PEMFC).[59] PEM fuel cell with operating temperature of 120-200 °C is called High Temperature Proton-exchange membrane fuel cell (HT-PEMFC).[62]
Solid oxide fuel cell (SOFC)
A type of fuel cell in which the electrolyte is a solid, nonporous metal oxide, typically zirconium oxide (ZrO2) treated with Y2O3, and O2− is transported from the cathode to the anode. Any CO in the reformate gas is oxidized to CO2 at the anode. Temperatures of operation are typically 800–1,000 °C.[59]
Solution[63]
An act or the process by which a solid, liquid, or gaseous substance is homogeneously mixed with a liquid or sometimes a gas or solid.
A homogeneous mixture formed by this process; especially : a single-phase liquid system.
The condition of being dissolved.

Efficiency of leading fuel cell types

Theoretical maximum efficiency

The energy efficiency of a system or device that converts energy is measured by the ratio of the amount of useful energy put out by the system ("output energy") to the total amount of energy that is put in ("input energy") or by useful output energy as a percentage of the total input energy. In the case of fuel cells, useful output energy is measured in electrical energy produced by the system. Input energy is the energy stored in the fuel. According to the U.S. Department of Energy, fuel cells are generally between 40 and 60% energy efficient.[64] This is higher than some other systems for energy generation. For example, the typical internal combustion engine of a car is about 25% energy efficient.[65] Steam power plants usually achieve efficiencies of 30-40%[66] while combined cycle gas turbine and steam plants can achieve efficiencies as high as 60%.[citation needed] In combined heat and power (CHP) systems, the waste heat produced by the primary power cycle - whether fuel cell, nuclear fission or combustion - is captured and put to use, increasing the efficiency of the system to up to 85–90%.[5]

The theoretical maximum efficiency of any type of power generation system is never reached in practice, and it does not consider other steps in power generation, such as production, transportation and storage of fuel and conversion of the electricity into mechanical power. However, this calculation allows the comparison of different types of power generation. The theoretical maximum efficiency of a fuel cell approaches 100%,[67] while the theoretical maximum efficiency of internal combustion engines is approximately 58%.[68]

In practice

Values are given from 40% for acidic, 50% for molten carbonate, to 60% for alkaline, solid oxide and PEM fuel cells.[69]

Fuel cells cannot store energy like a battery,[70] except as hydrogen, but in some applications, such as stand-alone power plants based on discontinuous sources such as solar or wind power, they are combined with electrolyzers and storage systems to form an energy storage system. As of 2019, 90% of hydrogen was used for oil refining, chemicals and fertilizer production (where hydrogen is required for the Haber–Bosch process), and 98% of hydrogen is produced by steam methane reforming, which emits carbon dioxide.[71] The overall efficiency (electricity to hydrogen and back to electricity) of such plants (known as round-trip efficiency), using pure hydrogen and pure oxygen can be "from 35 up to 50 percent", depending on gas density and other conditions.[72] The electrolyzer/fuel cell system can store indefinite quantities of hydrogen, and is therefore suited for long-term storage.

Solid-oxide fuel cells produce heat from the recombination of the oxygen and hydrogen. The ceramic can run as hot as 800 degrees Celsius. This heat can be captured and used to heat water in a micro combined heat and power (m-CHP) application. When the heat is captured, total efficiency can reach 80–90% at the unit, but does not consider production and distribution losses. CHP units are being developed today for the European home market.

Professor Jeremy P. Meyers, in the Electrochemical Society journal Interface in 2008, wrote, "While fuel cells are efficient relative to combustion engines, they are not as efficient as batteries, primarily due to the inefficiency of the oxygen reduction reaction (and ... the oxygen evolution reaction, should the hydrogen be formed by electrolysis of water).... [T]hey make the most sense for operation disconnected from the grid, or when fuel can be provided continuously. For applications that require frequent and relatively rapid start-ups ... where zero emissions are a requirement, as in enclosed spaces such as warehouses, and where hydrogen is considered an acceptable reactant, a [PEM fuel cell] is becoming an increasingly attractive choice [if exchanging batteries is inconvenient]".[73] In 2013 military organizations were evaluating fuel cells to determine if they could significantly reduce the battery weight carried by soldiers.[74]

In vehicles

In a fuel cell vehicle the tank-to-wheel efficiency is greater than 45% at low loads[75] and shows average values of about 36% when a driving cycle like the NEDC (New European Driving Cycle) is used as test procedure.[76] The comparable NEDC value for a Diesel vehicle is 22%. In 2008 Honda released a demonstration fuel cell electric vehicle (the Honda FCX Clarity) with fuel stack claiming a 60% tank-to-wheel efficiency.[77]

It is also important to take losses due to fuel production, transportation, and storage into account. Fuel cell vehicles running on compressed hydrogen may have a power-plant-to-wheel efficiency of 22% if the hydrogen is stored as high-pressure gas, and 17% if it is stored as liquid hydrogen.[78]

Applications

 
Type 212 submarine with fuel cell propulsion. This example in dry dock is operated by the German Navy.

Power

Stationary fuel cells are used for commercial, industrial and residential primary and backup power generation. Fuel cells are very useful as power sources in remote locations, such as spacecraft, remote weather stations, large parks, communications centers, rural locations including research stations, and in certain military applications. A fuel cell system running on hydrogen can be compact and lightweight, and have no major moving parts. Because fuel cells have no moving parts and do not involve combustion, in ideal conditions they can achieve up to 99.9999% reliability.[79] This equates to less than one minute of downtime in a six-year period.[79]

Since fuel cell electrolyzer systems do not store fuel in themselves, but rather rely on external storage units, they can be successfully applied in large-scale energy storage, rural areas being one example.[80] There are many different types of stationary fuel cells so efficiencies vary, but most are between 40% and 60% energy efficient.[5] However, when the fuel cell's waste heat is used to heat a building in a cogeneration system this efficiency can increase to 85%.[5] This is significantly more efficient than traditional coal power plants, which are only about one third energy efficient.[81] Assuming production at scale, fuel cells could save 20–40% on energy costs when used in cogeneration systems.[82] Fuel cells are also much cleaner than traditional power generation; a fuel cell power plant using natural gas as a hydrogen source would create less than one ounce of pollution (other than CO2) for every 1,000 kW·h produced, compared to 25 pounds of pollutants generated by conventional combustion systems.[83] Fuel Cells also produce 97% less nitrogen oxide emissions than conventional coal-fired power plants.

One such pilot program is operating on Stuart Island in Washington State. There the Stuart Island Energy Initiative[84] has built a complete, closed-loop system: Solar panels power an electrolyzer, which makes hydrogen. The hydrogen is stored in a 500-U.S.-gallon (1,900 L) tank at 200 pounds per square inch (1,400 kPa), and runs a ReliOn fuel cell to provide full electric back-up to the off-the-grid residence. Another closed system loop was unveiled in late 2011 in Hempstead, NY.[85]

Fuel cells can be used with low-quality gas from landfills or waste-water treatment plants to generate power and lower methane emissions. A 2.8 MW fuel cell plant in California is said to be the largest of the type.[86] Small-scale (sub-5kWhr) fuel cells are being developed for use in residential off-grid deployment.[87]

Cogeneration

Combined heat and power (CHP) fuel cell systems, including micro combined heat and power (MicroCHP) systems are used to generate both electricity and heat for homes (see home fuel cell), office building and factories. The system generates constant electric power (selling excess power back to the grid when it is not consumed), and at the same time produces hot air and water from the waste heat. As the result CHP systems have the potential to save primary energy as they can make use of waste heat which is generally rejected by thermal energy conversion systems.[88] A typical capacity range of home fuel cell is 1–3 kWel, 4–8 kWth.[89][90] CHP systems linked to absorption chillers use their waste heat for refrigeration.[91]

The waste heat from fuel cells can be diverted during the summer directly into the ground providing further cooling while the waste heat during winter can be pumped directly into the building. The University of Minnesota owns the patent rights to this type of system.[92][93]

Co-generation systems can reach 85% efficiency (40–60% electric and the remainder as thermal).[5] Phosphoric-acid fuel cells (PAFC) comprise the largest segment of existing CHP products worldwide and can provide combined efficiencies close to 90%.[94][95] Molten carbonate (MCFC) and solid-oxide fuel cells (SOFC) are also used for combined heat and power generation and have electrical energy efficiencies around 60%.[96] Disadvantages of co-generation systems include slow ramping up and down rates, high cost and short lifetime.[97][98] Also their need to have a hot water storage tank to smooth out the thermal heat production was a serious disadvantage in the domestic market place where space in domestic properties is at a great premium.[99]

Delta-ee consultants stated in 2013 that with 64% of global sales the fuel cell micro-combined heat and power passed the conventional systems in sales in 2012.[74] The Japanese ENE FARM project stated that 34.213 PEMFC and 2.224 SOFC were installed in the period 2012–2014, 30,000 units on LNG and 6,000 on LPG.[100]

Fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEVs)

Main articles: Fuel cell vehicle, Hydrogen vehicle, and List of fuel cell vehicles
 
Configuration of components in a fuel cell car
 
Element One fuel cell vehicle

Automobiles

By year-end 2019, about 18,000 FCEVs had been leased or sold worldwide.[101][102] Three fuel cell electric vehicles have been introduced for commercial lease and sale: the Honda Clarity, Toyota Mirai and the Hyundai ix35 FCEV. Additional demonstration models include the Honda FCX Clarity, and Mercedes-Benz F-Cell.[103] As of June 2011 demonstration FCEVs had driven more than 4,800,000 km (3,000,000 mi), with more than 27,000 refuelings.[104] Fuel cell electric vehicles feature an average range of 505 km (314 mi) between refuelings.[105] They can be refueled in less than 5 minutes.[106] The U.S. Department of Energy's Fuel Cell Technology Program states that, as of 2011, fuel cells achieved 53–59% efficiency at one-quarter power and 42–53% vehicle efficiency at full power,[107] and a durability of over 120,000 km (75,000 mi) with less than 10% degradation.[108] In a 2017 Well-to-Wheels simulation analysis that "did not address the economics and market constraints", General Motors and its partners estimated that, for an equivalent journey, a fuel cell electric vehicle running on compressed gaseous hydrogen produced from natural gas could use about 40% less energy and emit 45% less greenhouse gasses than an internal combustion vehicle.[109]

In 2015, Toyota introduced its first fuel cell vehicle, the Mirai, at a price of $57,000.[110] Hyundai introduced the limited production Hyundai ix35 FCEV under a lease agreement.[111] In 2016, Honda started leasing the Honda Clarity Fuel Cell.[112] In 2020, Toyota introduced the second generation of its Mirai brand, improving fuel efficiency and expanding range compared to the original Sedan 2014 model.[113]

Criticism

Some commentators believe that hydrogen fuel cell cars will never become economically competitive with other technologies[114][115][116] or that it will take decades for them to become profitable.[73][117] Elon Musk, CEO of battery-electric vehicle maker Tesla Motors, stated in 2015 that fuel cells for use in cars will never be commercially viable because of the inefficiency of producing, transporting and storing hydrogen and the flammability of the gas, among other reasons.[118] In 2012, Lux Research, Inc. issued a report that stated: "The dream of a hydrogen economy ... is no nearer". It concluded that "Capital cost ... will limit adoption to a mere 5.9 GW" by 2030, providing "a nearly insurmountable barrier to adoption, except in niche applications". The analysis concluded that, by 2030, PEM stationary market will reach $1 billion, while the vehicle market, including forklifts, will reach a total of $2 billion.[117] Other analyses cite the lack of an extensive hydrogen infrastructure in the U.S. as an ongoing challenge to Fuel Cell Electric Vehicle commercialization.[75]

In 2014, Joseph Romm, the author of The Hype About Hydrogen (2005), said that FCVs still had not overcome the high fueling cost, lack of fuel-delivery infrastructure, and pollution caused by producing hydrogen. "It would take several miracles to overcome all of those problems simultaneously in the coming decades."[119] He concluded that renewable energy cannot economically be used to make hydrogen for an FCV fleet "either now or in the future."[114] Greentech Media's analyst reached similar conclusions in 2014.[120] In 2015, CleanTechnica listed some of the disadvantages of hydrogen fuel cell vehicles.[121] So did Car Throttle.[122] A 2019 video by Real Engineering noted that, notwithstanding the introduction of vehicles that run on hydrogen, using hydrogen as a fuel for cars does not help to reduce carbon emissions from transportation. The 95% of hydrogen still produced from fossil fuels releases carbon dioxide, and producing hydrogen from water is an energy-consuming process. Storing hydrogen requires more energy either to cool it down to the liquid state or to put it into tanks under high pressure, and delivering the hydrogen to fueling stations requires more energy and may release more carbon. The hydrogen needed to move a FCV a kilometer costs approximately 8 times as much as the electricity needed to move a BEV the same distance.[123]

A 2020 assessment concluded that hydrogen vehicles are still only 38% efficient, while battery EVs are 80% efficient.[124] In 2021 CleanTechnica concluded that while hydrogen cars are far less efficient than electric cars, the vast majority of hydrogen being produced is polluting grey hydrogen, and delivering hydrogen would require building a vast and expensive new infrastructure, the remaining two "advantages of fuel cell vehicles – longer range and fast fueling times – are rapidly being eroded by improving battery and charging technology."[125] A 2022 study in Nature Electronics agreed.[126]

Buses

As of August 2011, there were about 100 fuel cell buses in service around the world.[127] Most of these were manufactured by UTC Power, Toyota, Ballard, Hydrogenics, and Proton Motor. UTC buses had driven more than 970,000 km (600,000 mi) by 2011.[128] Fuel cell buses have from 39% to 141% higher fuel economy than diesel buses and natural gas buses.[109][129]

As of 2019, the NREL was evaluating several current and planned fuel cell bus projects in the U.S.[130]

Trains

In 2018, the first fuel cell-powered trains, the Alstom Coradia iLint multiple units, began running on the Buxtehude–Bremervörde–Bremerhaven–Cuxhaven line in Germany.[131] These trains offer the advantages of electric trains over Diesel locomotives and DMU’s in eliminating smokestack emissions from the trains themselves without the use of electrification by overhead catenerary infrastructure.[132] Such trains have been ordered or are being tested in Sweden[133] and the UK.[134]

Trucks

In December 2020, Toyota and Hino Motors, together with Seven-Eleven (Japan), FamilyMart and Lawson announced that they have agreed to jointly consider introducing light-duty fuel cell electric trucks (light-duty FCETs).[135] Lawson started testing for low temperature delivery at the end of July 2021 in Tokyo, using a Hino Dutro in which the Toyota Mirai fuel cell is implemented. FamilyMart started testing in Okazaki city.[136]

In August 2021, Toyota announced their plan to make fuel cell modules at its Kentucky auto-assembly plant for use in zero-emission big rigs and heavy-duty commercial vehicles. They plan to begin assembling the electrochemical devices in 2023.[137]

In October 2021, Daimler Truck's fuel cell based truck received approval from German authorities for use on public roads.[138]

Forklifts

A fuel cell forklift (also called a fuel cell lift truck) is a fuel cell-powered industrial forklift truck used to lift and transport materials. In 2013 there were over 4,000 fuel cell forklifts used in material handling in the US,[139] of which 500 received funding from DOE (2012).[140][141] Fuel cell fleets are operated by various companies, including Sysco Foods, FedEx Freight, GENCO (at Wegmans, Coca-Cola, Kimberly Clark, and Whole Foods), and H-E-B Grocers.[142] Europe demonstrated 30 fuel cell forklifts with Hylift and extended it with HyLIFT-EUROPE to 200 units,[143] with other projects in France[144][145] and Austria.[146] Pike Research projected in 2011 that fuel cell-powered forklifts would be the largest driver of hydrogen fuel demand by 2020.[147]

Most companies in Europe and the US do not use petroleum-powered forklifts, as these vehicles work indoors where emissions must be controlled and instead use electric forklifts.[148][149] Fuel cell-powered forklifts can provide benefits over battery-powered forklifts as they can be refueled in 3 minutes and they can be used in refrigerated warehouses, where their performance is not degraded by lower temperatures. The FC units are often designed as drop-in replacements.[150][151]

Motorcycles and bicycles

In 2005, a British manufacturer of hydrogen-powered fuel cells, Intelligent Energy (IE), produced the first working hydrogen-run motorcycle called the ENV (Emission Neutral Vehicle). The motorcycle holds enough fuel to run for four hours, and to travel 160 km (100 mi) in an urban area, at a top speed of 80 km/h (50 mph).[152] In 2004 Honda developed a fuel cell motorcycle that utilized the Honda FC Stack.[153][154]

Other examples of motorbikes[155] and bicycles[156] that use hydrogen fuel cells include the Taiwanese company APFCT's scooter[157] using the fueling system from Italy's Acta SpA[158] and the Suzuki Burgman scooter with an IE fuel cell that received EU Whole Vehicle Type Approval in 2011.[159] Suzuki Motor Corp. and IE have announced a joint venture to accelerate the commercialization of zero-emission vehicles.[160]

Airplanes

In 2003, the world's first propeller-driven airplane to be powered entirely by a fuel cell was flown. The fuel cell was a stack design that allowed the fuel cell to be integrated with the plane's aerodynamic surfaces.[161] Fuel cell-powered unmanned aerial vehicles (UAV) include a Horizon fuel cell UAV that set the record distance flown for a small UAV in 2007.[162] Boeing researchers and industry partners throughout Europe conducted experimental flight tests in February 2008 of a manned airplane powered only by a fuel cell and lightweight batteries. The fuel cell demonstrator airplane, as it was called, used a proton-exchange membrane (PEM) fuel cell/lithium-ion battery hybrid system to power an electric motor, which was coupled to a conventional propeller.[163]

In 2009, the Naval Research Laboratory's (NRL's) Ion Tiger utilized a hydrogen-powered fuel cell and flew for 23 hours and 17 minutes.[164] Fuel cells are also being tested and considered to provide auxiliary power in aircraft, replacing fossil fuel generators that were previously used to start the engines and power on board electrical needs, while reducing carbon emissions.[165][166][failed verification] In 2016 a Raptor E1 drone made a successful test flight using a fuel cell that was lighter than the lithium-ion battery it replaced. The flight lasted 10 minutes at an altitude of 80 metres (260 ft), although the fuel cell reportedly had enough fuel to fly for two hours. The fuel was contained in approximately 100 solid 1 square centimetre (0.16 sq in) pellets composed of a proprietary chemical within an unpressurized cartridge. The pellets are physically robust and operate at temperatures as warm as 50 °C (122 °F). The cell was from Arcola Energy.[167]

Lockheed Martin Skunk Works Stalker is an electric UAV powered by solid oxide fuel cell.[168]

Boats

 
The world's first certified fuel cell boat (HYDRA), in Leipzig/Germany

In Norway, the first ferry powered by fuel cells running on liquid origin is scheduled for its first test drives in December 2022.[169][170]

Submarines

The Type 212 submarines of the German and Italian navies use fuel cells to remain submerged for weeks without the need to surface.

The U212A is a non-nuclear submarine developed by German naval shipyard Howaldtswerke Deutsche Werft.[171] The system consists of nine PEM fuel cells, providing between 30 kW and 50 kW each. The ship is silent, giving it an advantage in the detection of other submarines.[172] A naval paper has theorized about the possibility of a nuclear-fuel cell hybrid whereby the fuel cell is used when silent operations are required and then replenished from the Nuclear reactor (and water).[173]

Portable power systems

Portable fuel cell systems are generally classified as weighing under 10 kg and providing power of less than 5 kW.[174] The potential market size for smaller fuel cells is quite large with an up to 40% per annum potential growth rate and a market size of around $10 billion, leading a great deal of research to be devoted to the development of portable power cells.[175] Within this market two groups have been identified. The first is the microfuel cell market, in the 1-50 W range for power smaller electronic devices. The second is the 1-5 kW range of generators for larger scale power generation (e.g. military outposts, remote oil fields).

Microfuel cells are primarily aimed at penetrating the market for phones and laptops. This can be primarily attributed to the advantageous energy density provided by fuel cells over a lithium-ion battery, for the entire system. For a battery, this system includes the charger as well as the battery itself. For the fuel cell this system would include the cell, the necessary fuel and peripheral attachments. Taking the full system into consideration, fuel cells have been shown to provide 530Wh/kg compared to 44 Wh/kg for lithium ion batteries.[175] However, while the weight of fuel cell systems offer a distinct advantage the current costs are not in their favor. while a battery system will generally cost around $1.20 per Wh, fuel cell systems cost around $5 per Wh, putting them at a significant disadvantage.[175]

As power demands for cell phones increase, fuel cells could become much more attractive options for larger power generation. The demand for longer on time on phones and computers is something often demanded by consumers so fuel cells could start to make strides into laptop and cell phone markets. The price will continue to go down as developments in fuel cells continues to accelerate. Current strategies for improving micro fuel cells is through the use of carbon nanotubes. It was shown by Girishkumar et al. that depositing nanotubes on electrode surfaces allows for substantially greater surface area increasing the oxygen reduction rate.[176]

Fuel cells for use in larger scale operations also show much promise. Portable power systems that use fuel cells can be used in the leisure sector (i.e. RVs, cabins, marine), the industrial sector (i.e. power for remote locations including gas/oil wellsites, communication towers, security, weather stations), and in the military sector. SFC Energy is a German manufacturer of direct methanol fuel cells for a variety of portable power systems.[177] Ensol Systems Inc. is an integrator of portable power systems, using the SFC Energy DMFC.[178] The key advantage of fuel cells in this market is the great power generation per weight. While fuel cells can be expensive, for remote locations that require dependable energy fuel cells hold great power. For a 72-h excursion the comparison in weight is substantial, with a fuel cell only weighing 15 pounds compared to 29 pounds of batteries needed for the same energy.[174]

Other applications

  • Providing power for base stations or cell sites[179][180]
  • Distributed generation
  • Emergency power systems are a type of fuel cell system, which may include lighting, generators and other apparatus, to provide backup resources in a crisis or when regular systems fail. They find uses in a wide variety of settings from residential homes to hospitals, scientific laboratories, data centers,[181]
  • Telecommunication[182] equipment and modern naval ships.
  • An uninterrupted power supply (UPS) provides emergency power and, depending on the topology, provide line regulation as well to connected equipment by supplying power from a separate source when utility power is not available. Unlike a standby generator, it can provide instant protection from a momentary power interruption.
  • Base load power plants
  • Hybrid vehicles, pairing the fuel cell with either an ICE or a battery.
  • Notebook computers for applications where AC charging may not be readily available.
  • Portable charging docks for small electronics (e.g. a belt clip that charges a cell phone or PDA).
  • Smartphones, laptops and tablets.
  • Small heating appliances[183]
  • Food preservation, achieved by exhausting the oxygen and automatically maintaining oxygen exhaustion in a shipping container, containing, for example, fresh fish.[184]
  • Breathalyzers, where the amount of voltage generated by a fuel cell is used to determine the concentration of fuel (alcohol) in the sample.[185]
  • Carbon monoxide detector, electrochemical sensor.

Fueling stations

Main articles: Hydrogen station and Hydrogen highway

According to FuelCellsWorks, an industry group, at the end of 2019, 330 hydrogen refueling stations were open to the public worldwide.[186] As of June 2020, there were 178 publicly available hydrogen stations in operation in Asia.[187] 114 of these were in Japan.[187] There were at least 177 stations in Europe, and about half of these were in Germany.[188][189] There were 44 publicly accessible stations in the US, 42 of which were located in California.[190]

A hydrogen fueling station costs between $1 million and $4 million to build.[191]

Markets and economics

Main articles: Hydrogen economy and Methanol economy

In 2012, fuel cell industry revenues exceeded $1 billion market value worldwide, with Asian pacific countries shipping more than 3/4 of the fuel cell systems worldwide.[192] However, as of January 2014, no public company in the industry had yet become profitable.[193] There were 140,000 fuel cell stacks shipped globally in 2010, up from 11,000 shipments in 2007, and from 2011 to 2012 worldwide fuel cell shipments had an annual growth rate of 85%.[194] Tanaka Kikinzoku expanded its manufacturing facilities in 2011.[195] Approximately 50% of fuel cell shipments in 2010 were stationary fuel cells, up from about a third in 2009, and the four dominant producers in the Fuel Cell Industry were the United States, Germany, Japan and South Korea.[196] The Department of Energy Solid State Energy Conversion Alliance found that, as of January 2011, stationary fuel cells generated power at approximately $724 to $775 per kilowatt installed.[197] In 2011, Bloom Energy, a major fuel cell supplier, said that its fuel cells generated power at 9–11 cents per kilowatt-hour, including the price of fuel, maintenance, and hardware.[198][199]

Industry groups predict that there are sufficient platinum resources for future demand,[200] and in 2007, research at Brookhaven National Laboratory suggested that platinum could be replaced by a gold-palladium coating, which may be less susceptible to poisoning and thereby improve fuel cell lifetime.[201] Another method would use iron and sulphur instead of platinum. This would lower the cost of a fuel cell (as the platinum in a regular fuel cell costs around US$1,500, and the same amount of iron costs only around US$1.50). The concept was being developed by a coalition of the John Innes Centre and the University of Milan-Bicocca.[202] PEDOT cathodes are immune to monoxide poisoning.[203]

In 2016, Samsung "decided to drop fuel cell-related business projects, as the outlook of the market isn't good".[204]

Research and development

  • 2005: Georgia Institute of Technology researchers used triazole to raise the operating temperature of PEM fuel cells from below 100 °C to over 125 °C, claiming this will require less carbon-monoxide purification of the hydrogen fuel.[205]
  • 2008: Monash University, Melbourne used PEDOT as a cathode.[33]
  • 2009: Researchers at the University of Dayton, in Ohio, showed that arrays of vertically grown carbon nanotubes could be used as the catalyst in fuel cells.[206] The same year, a nickel bisdiphosphine-based catalyst for fuel cells was demonstrated.[207]
  • 2013: British firm ACAL Energy developed a fuel cell that it said can run for 10,000 hours in simulated driving conditions.[208] It asserted that the cost of fuel cell construction can be reduced to $40/kW (roughly $9,000 for 300 HP).[209]
  • 2014: Researchers in Imperial College London developed a new method for regeneration of hydrogen sulfide contaminated PEFCs.[210] They recovered 95–100% of the original performance of a hydrogen sulfide contaminated PEFC. They were successful in rejuvenating a SO2 contaminated PEFC too.[211] This regeneration method is applicable to multiple cell stacks.[212]
  • 2019: U.S. Army Research Laboratory researchers developed a two part in-situ hydrogen generation fuel cell, one part for hydrogen generation and the other for electric power generation through an internal hydrogen/air power plant.[213]

See also

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Further reading

  • Vielstich, W.; et al., eds. (2009). Handbook of fuel cells: advances in electrocatalysis, materials, diagnostics and durability. Hoboken: John Wiley and Sons.
  • Gregor Hoogers (2003). Fuel Cell Technology – Handbook. CRC Press.
  • James Larminie; Andrew Dicks (2003). Fuel Cell Systems Explained (Second ed.). Hoboken: John Wiley and Sons.
  • Subash C. Singhal; Kevin Kendall (2003). High Temperature Solid Oxide Fuel Cells-Fundamentals, Design and Applications. Elsevier Academic Press.
  • Frano Barbir (2005). PEM Fuel Cells-Theory and Practice. Elsevier Academic Press.
  • EG&G Technical Services, Inc. (2004). Fuel Cell Technology-Handbook, 7th Edition. U.S. Department of Energy.
  • Matthew M. Mench (2008). Fuel Cell Engines. Hoboken: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
  • Noriko Hikosaka Behling (2012). Fuel Cells: Current Technology Challenges and Future Research Needs (First ed.). Elsevier Academic Press.

External links

  • Animation – how a fuel cell works
  • Fuel Cell Origins: 1840–1890
  • Thermodynamics of electrolysis of water and hydrogen fuel cells
  • DoITPoMS Teaching and Learning Package: "Fuel Cells"

March 29, 2023
fuel, cell, other, uses, disambiguation, this, article, needs, updated, please, help, update, this, article, reflect, recent, events, newly, available, information, february, 2021, fuel, cell, electrochemical, cell, that, converts, chemical, energy, fuel, ofte. For other uses see Fuel cell disambiguation This article needs to be updated Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information February 2021 A fuel cell is the electrochemical cell that converts the chemical energy of a fuel often hydrogen and an oxidizing agent often oxygen 1 into electricity through a pair of redox reactions 2 Fuel cells are different from most batteries in requiring a continuous source of fuel and oxygen usually from air to sustain the chemical reaction whereas in a battery the chemical energy usually comes from substances that are already present in the battery 3 Fuel cells can produce electricity continuously for as long as fuel and oxygen are supplied Demonstration model of a direct methanol fuel cell black layered cube in its enclosure Scheme of a proton conducting fuel cell The first fuel cells were invented by Sir William Grove in 1838 The first commercial use of fuel cells came more than a century later following the invention of the hydrogen oxygen fuel cell by Francis Thomas Bacon in 1932 The alkaline fuel cell also known as the Bacon fuel cell after its inventor has been used in NASA space programs since the mid 1960s to generate power for satellites and space capsules Since then fuel cells have been used in many other applications Fuel cells are used for primary and backup power for commercial industrial and residential buildings and in remote or inaccessible areas They are also used to power fuel cell vehicles including forklifts automobiles buses trains boats motorcycles and submarines There are many types of fuel cells but they all consist of an anode a cathode and an electrolyte that allows ions often positively charged hydrogen ions protons to move between the two sides of the fuel cell At the anode a catalyst causes the fuel to undergo oxidation reactions that generate ions often positively charged hydrogen ions and electrons The ions move from the anode to the cathode through the electrolyte At the same time electrons flow from the anode to the cathode through an external circuit producing direct current electricity At the cathode another catalyst causes ions electrons and oxygen to react forming water and possibly other products Fuel cells are classified by the type of electrolyte they use and by the difference in startup time ranging from 1 second for proton exchange membrane fuel cells PEM fuel cells or PEMFC to 10 minutes for solid oxide fuel cells SOFC A related technology is flow batteries in which the fuel can be regenerated by recharging Individual fuel cells produce relatively small electrical potentials about 0 7 volts so cells are stacked or placed in series to create sufficient voltage to meet an application s requirements 4 In addition to electricity fuel cells produce water vapor heat and depending on the fuel source very small amounts of nitrogen dioxide and other emissions PEMFC cells generally produce less nitrogen oxides than SOFC cells they operate at lower temperatures use hydrogen as fuel and limit the diffusion of nitrogen into the anode via the proton exchange membrane which forms NOx The energy efficiency of a fuel cell is generally between 40 and 60 however if waste heat is captured in a cogeneration scheme efficiencies of up to 85 can be obtained 5 Contents 1 History 2 Types of fuel cells design 2 1 Proton exchange membrane fuel cells 2 1 1 Proton exchange membrane fuel cell design issues 2 2 Phosphoric acid fuel cell 2 3 Solid acid fuel cell 2 4 Alkaline fuel cell 2 5 High temperature fuel cells 2 5 1 Solid oxide fuel cell 2 5 2 Molten carbonate fuel cell 2 6 Electric storage fuel cell 2 7 Comparison of fuel cell types 3 Efficiency of leading fuel cell types 3 1 Theoretical maximum efficiency 3 2 In practice 3 2 1 In vehicles 4 Applications 4 1 Power 4 2 Cogeneration 4 3 Fuel cell electric vehicles FCEVs 4 3 1 Automobiles 4 3 1 1 Criticism 4 3 2 Buses 4 3 3 Trains 4 3 4 Trucks 4 3 5 Forklifts 4 3 6 Motorcycles and bicycles 4 3 7 Airplanes 4 3 8 Boats 4 3 9 Submarines 4 4 Portable power systems 4 5 Other applications 4 6 Fueling stations 5 Markets and economics 6 Research and development 7 See also 8 References 9 Further reading 10 External linksHistory Edit The log number of publication related to electrochemical power sources by year Also shown as the magenta line is the inflation adjusted oil price in US liter in linear scale Main article Timeline of hydrogen technologies Sketch of Sir William Grove s 1839 fuel cell The first references to hydrogen fuel cells appeared in 1838 In a letter dated October 1838 but published in the December 1838 edition of The London and Edinburgh Philosophical Magazine and Journal of Science Welsh physicist and barrister Sir William Grove wrote about the development of his first crude fuel cells He used a combination of sheet iron copper and porcelain plates and a solution of sulphate of copper and dilute acid 6 7 In a letter to the same publication written in December 1838 but published in June 1839 German physicist Christian Friedrich Schonbein discussed the first crude fuel cell that he had invented His letter discussed the current generated from hydrogen and oxygen dissolved in water 8 Grove later sketched his design in 1842 in the same journal The fuel cell he made used similar materials to today s phosphoric acid fuel cell 9 10 In 1932 Francis Thomas Bacon invented a fuel cell which derived power from hydrogen and oxygen This was used by NASA to power lights air conditioning and communications The Brits who bolstered the Moon landings BBC Archives 11 In 1932 English engineer Francis Thomas Bacon successfully developed a 5 kW stationary fuel cell 11 The alkaline fuel cell AFC also known as the Bacon fuel cell after its inventor is one of the most developed fuel cell technologies which NASA has used since the mid 1960s 11 12 In 1955 W Thomas Grubb a chemist working for the General Electric Company GE further modified the original fuel cell design by using a sulphonated polystyrene ion exchange membrane as the electrolyte Three years later another GE chemist Leonard Niedrach devised a way of depositing platinum onto the membrane which served as a catalyst for the necessary hydrogen oxidation and oxygen reduction reactions This became known as the Grubb Niedrach fuel cell 13 14 GE went on to develop this technology with NASA and McDonnell Aircraft leading to its use during Project Gemini This was the first commercial use of a fuel cell In 1959 a team led by Harry Ihrig built a 15 kW fuel cell tractor for Allis Chalmers which was demonstrated across the U S at state fairs This system used potassium hydroxide as the electrolyte and compressed hydrogen and oxygen as the reactants Later in 1959 Bacon and his colleagues demonstrated a practical five kilowatt unit capable of powering a welding machine In the 1960s Pratt amp Whitney licensed Bacon s U S patents for use in the U S space program to supply electricity and drinking water hydrogen and oxygen being readily available from the spacecraft tanks In 1991 the first hydrogen fuel cell automobile was developed by Roger E Billings 15 16 17 UTC Power was the first company to manufacture and commercialize a large stationary fuel cell system for use as a cogeneration power plant in hospitals universities and large office buildings 18 In recognition of the fuel cell industry and America s role in fuel cell development the United States Senate recognized 8 October 2015 as National Hydrogen and Fuel Cell Day passing S RES 217 The date was chosen in recognition of the atomic weight of hydrogen 1 008 19 Types of fuel cells design EditFuel cells come in many varieties however they all work in the same general manner They are made up of three adjacent segments the anode the electrolyte and the cathode Two chemical reactions occur at the interfaces of the three different segments The net result of the two reactions is that fuel is consumed water or carbon dioxide is created and an electric current is created which can be used to power electrical devices normally referred to as the load At the anode a catalyst ionizes the fuel usually hydrogen turning the fuel into a positively charged ion and a negatively charged electron The electrolyte is a substance specifically designed so ions can pass through it but the electrons cannot The freed electrons travel through a wire creating an electric current The ions travel through the electrolyte to the cathode Once reaching the cathode the ions are reunited with the electrons and the two react with a third chemical usually oxygen to create water or carbon dioxide A block diagram of a fuel cell Design features in a fuel cell include The electrolyte substance which usually defines the type of fuel cell and can be made from a number of substances like potassium hydroxide salt carbonates and phosphoric acid 20 The fuel that is used The most common fuel is hydrogen The anode catalyst usually fine platinum powder breaks down the fuel into electrons and ions The cathode catalyst often nickel converts ions into waste chemicals with water being the most common type of waste 21 Gas diffusion layers that are designed to resist oxidization 21 A typical fuel cell produces a voltage from 0 6 to 0 7 V at full rated load Voltage decreases as current increases due to several factors Activation loss Ohmic loss voltage drop due to resistance of the cell components and interconnections Mass transport loss depletion of reactants at catalyst sites under high loads causing rapid loss of voltage 22 To deliver the desired amount of energy the fuel cells can be combined in series to yield higher voltage and in parallel to allow a higher current to be supplied Such a design is called a fuel cell stack The cell surface area can also be increased to allow higher current from each cell Proton exchange membrane fuel cells Edit Main article Proton exchange membrane fuel cell Construction of a high temperature PEMFC Bipolar plate as electrode with in milled gas channel structure fabricated from conductive composites enhanced with graphite carbon black carbon fiber and or carbon nanotubes for more conductivity 23 Porous carbon papers reactive layer usually on the polymer membrane applied polymer membrane Condensation of water produced by a PEMFC on the air channel wall The gold wire around the cell ensures the collection of electric current 24 SEM micrograph of a PEMFC MEA cross section with a non precious metal catalyst cathode and Pt C anode 25 False colors applied for clarity In the archetypical hydrogen oxide proton exchange membrane fuel cell PEMFC design a proton conducting polymer membrane typically nafion contains the electrolyte solution that separates the anode and cathode sides 26 27 This was called a solid polymer electrolyte fuel cell SPEFC in the early 1970s before the proton exchange mechanism was well understood Notice that the synonyms polymer electrolyte membrane and proton exchange mechanism result in the same acronym On the anode side hydrogen diffuses to the anode catalyst where it later dissociates into protons and electrons These protons often react with oxidants causing them to become what are commonly referred to as multi facilitated proton membranes The protons are conducted through the membrane to the cathode but the electrons are forced to travel in an external circuit supplying power because the membrane is electrically insulating On the cathode catalyst oxygen molecules react with the electrons which have traveled through the external circuit and protons to form water In addition to this pure hydrogen type there are hydrocarbon fuels for fuel cells including diesel methanol see direct methanol fuel cells and indirect methanol fuel cells and chemical hydrides The waste products with these types of fuel are carbon dioxide and water When hydrogen is used the CO2 is released when methane from natural gas is combined with steam in a process called steam methane reforming to produce the hydrogen This can take place in a different location to the fuel cell potentially allowing the hydrogen fuel cell to be used indoors for example in fork lifts The different components of a PEMFC are bipolar plates electrodes catalyst membrane and the necessary hardware such as current collectors and gaskets 28 The materials used for different parts of the fuel cells differ by type The bipolar plates may be made of different types of materials such as metal coated metal graphite flexible graphite C C composite carbon polymer composites etc 29 The membrane electrode assembly MEA is referred to as the heart of the PEMFC and is usually made of a proton exchange membrane sandwiched between two catalyst coated carbon papers Platinum and or similar type of noble metals are usually used as the catalyst for PEMFC and these can be contaminated by carbon monoxide necessitating a relatively pure hydrogen fuel 30 The electrolyte could be a polymer membrane Proton exchange membrane fuel cell design issues Edit Cost In 2013 the Department of Energy estimated that 80 kW automotive fuel cell system costs of US 67 per kilowatt could be achieved assuming volume production of 100 000 automotive units per year and US 55 per kilowatt could be achieved assuming volume production of 500 000 units per year 31 Many companies are working on techniques to reduce cost in a variety of ways including reducing the amount of platinum needed in each individual cell Ballard Power Systems has experimented with a catalyst enhanced with carbon silk which allows a 30 reduction 1 0 0 7 mg cm2 in platinum usage without reduction in performance 32 Monash University Melbourne uses PEDOT as a cathode 33 A 2011 published study 34 documented the first metal free electrocatalyst using relatively inexpensive doped carbon nanotubes which are less than 1 the cost of platinum and are of equal or superior performance A recently published article demonstrated how the environmental burdens change when using carbon nanotubes as carbon substrate for platinum 35 Water and air management 36 37 in PEMFCs In this type of fuel cell the membrane must be hydrated requiring water to be evaporated at precisely the same rate that it is produced If water is evaporated too quickly the membrane dries resistance across it increases and eventually it will crack creating a gas short circuit where hydrogen and oxygen combine directly generating heat that will damage the fuel cell If the water is evaporated too slowly the electrodes will flood preventing the reactants from reaching the catalyst and stopping the reaction Methods to manage water in cells are being developed like electroosmotic pumps focusing on flow control Just as in a combustion engine a steady ratio between the reactant and oxygen is necessary to keep the fuel cell operating efficiently Temperature management The same temperature must be maintained throughout the cell in order to prevent destruction of the cell through thermal loading This is particularly challenging as the 2H2 O2 2H2O reaction is highly exothermic so a large quantity of heat is generated within the fuel cell Durability service life and special requirements for some type of cells Stationary fuel cell applications typically require more than 40 000 hours of reliable operation at a temperature of 35 C to 40 C 31 F to 104 F while automotive fuel cells require a 5 000 hour lifespan the equivalent of 240 000 km or 150 000 mi under extreme temperatures Current service life is 2 500 hours about 120 000 km or 75 000 mi 38 Automotive engines must also be able to start reliably at 30 C 22 F and have a high power to volume ratio typically 2 5 kW L Limited carbon monoxide tolerance of some non PEDOT cathodes 30 Phosphoric acid fuel cell Edit Main article Phosphoric acid fuel cell Phosphoric acid fuel cells PAFCs were first designed and introduced in 1961 by G V Elmore and H A Tanner In these cells phosphoric acid is used as a non conductive electrolyte to pass protons from the anode to the cathode and to force electrons to travel from anode to cathode through an external electrical circuit These cells commonly work in temperatures of 150 to 200 C This high temperature will cause heat and energy loss if the heat is not removed and used properly This heat can be used to produce steam for air conditioning systems or any other thermal energy consuming system 39 Using this heat in cogeneration can enhance the efficiency of phosphoric acid fuel cells from 40 to 50 to about 80 39 Since the proton production rate on the anode is small platinum is used as catalyst to increase this ionization rate A key disadvantage of these cells is the use of an acidic electrolyte This increases the corrosion or oxidation of components exposed to phosphoric acid 40 Solid acid fuel cell Edit Main article Solid acid fuel cell Solid acid fuel cells SAFCs are characterized by the use of a solid acid material as the electrolyte At low temperatures solid acids have an ordered molecular structure like most salts At warmer temperatures between 140 and 150 C for CsHSO4 some solid acids undergo a phase transition to become highly disordered superprotonic structures which increases conductivity by several orders of magnitude The first proof of concept SAFCs were developed in 2000 using cesium hydrogen sulfate CsHSO4 41 Current SAFC systems use cesium dihydrogen phosphate CsH2PO4 and have demonstrated lifetimes in the thousands of hours 42 Alkaline fuel cell Edit Main articles Alkaline fuel cell and Alkaline anion exchange membrane fuel cell The alkaline fuel cell AFC or hydrogen oxygen fuel cell was designed and first demonstrated publicly by Francis Thomas Bacon in 1959 It was used as a primary source of electrical energy in the Apollo space program 43 The cell consists of two porous carbon electrodes impregnated with a suitable catalyst such as Pt Ag CoO etc The space between the two electrodes is filled with a concentrated solution of KOH or NaOH which serves as an electrolyte H2 gas and O2 gas are bubbled into the electrolyte through the porous carbon electrodes Thus the overall reaction involves the combination of hydrogen gas and oxygen gas to form water The cell runs continuously until the reactant s supply is exhausted This type of cell operates efficiently in the temperature range 343 413 K and provides a potential of about 0 9 V 44 Alkaline anion exchange membrane fuel cell AAEMFC is a type of AFC which employs a solid polymer electrolyte instead of aqueous potassium hydroxide KOH and it is superior to aqueous AFC High temperature fuel cells Edit Solid oxide fuel cell Edit Main article Solid oxide fuel cell Solid oxide fuel cells SOFCs use a solid material most commonly a ceramic material called yttria stabilized zirconia YSZ as the electrolyte Because SOFCs are made entirely of solid materials they are not limited to the flat plane configuration of other types of fuel cells and are often designed as rolled tubes They require high operating temperatures 800 1000 C and can be run on a variety of fuels including natural gas 5 SOFCs are unique because negatively charged oxygen ions travel from the cathode positive side of the fuel cell to the anode negative side of the fuel cell instead of protons travelling vice versa i e from the anode to the cathode as is the case in all other types of fuel cells Oxygen gas is fed through the cathode where it absorbs electrons to create oxygen ions The oxygen ions then travel through the electrolyte to react with hydrogen gas at the anode The reaction at the anode produces electricity and water as by products Carbon dioxide may also be a by product depending on the fuel but the carbon emissions from a SOFC system are less than those from a fossil fuel combustion plant 45 The chemical reactions for the SOFC system can be expressed as follows 46 Anode reaction 2H2 2O2 2H2O 4e Cathode reaction O2 4e 2O2 Overall cell reaction 2H2 O2 2H2OSOFC systems can run on fuels other than pure hydrogen gas However since hydrogen is necessary for the reactions listed above the fuel selected must contain hydrogen atoms For the fuel cell to operate the fuel must be converted into pure hydrogen gas SOFCs are capable of internally reforming light hydrocarbons such as methane natural gas 47 propane and butane 48 These fuel cells are at an early stage of development 49 Challenges exist in SOFC systems due to their high operating temperatures One such challenge is the potential for carbon dust to build up on the anode which slows down the internal reforming process Research to address this carbon coking issue at the University of Pennsylvania has shown that the use of copper based cermet heat resistant materials made of ceramic and metal can reduce coking and the loss of performance 50 Another disadvantage of SOFC systems is the long start up making SOFCs less useful for mobile applications Despite these disadvantages a high operating temperature provides an advantage by removing the need for a precious metal catalyst like platinum thereby reducing cost Additionally waste heat from SOFC systems may be captured and reused increasing the theoretical overall efficiency to as high as 80 85 5 The high operating temperature is largely due to the physical properties of the YSZ electrolyte As temperature decreases so does the ionic conductivity of YSZ Therefore to obtain the optimum performance of the fuel cell a high operating temperature is required According to their website Ceres Power a UK SOFC fuel cell manufacturer has developed a method of reducing the operating temperature of their SOFC system to 500 600 degrees Celsius They replaced the commonly used YSZ electrolyte with a CGO cerium gadolinium oxide electrolyte The lower operating temperature allows them to use stainless steel instead of ceramic as the cell substrate which reduces cost and start up time of the system 51 Molten carbonate fuel cell Edit Main article Molten carbonate fuel cell Molten carbonate fuel cells MCFCs require a high operating temperature 650 C 1 200 F similar to SOFCs MCFCs use lithium potassium carbonate salt as an electrolyte and this salt liquefies at high temperatures allowing for the movement of charge within the cell in this case negative carbonate ions 52 Like SOFCs MCFCs are capable of converting fossil fuel to a hydrogen rich gas in the anode eliminating the need to produce hydrogen externally The reforming process creates CO2 emissions MCFC compatible fuels include natural gas biogas and gas produced from coal The hydrogen in the gas reacts with carbonate ions from the electrolyte to produce water carbon dioxide electrons and small amounts of other chemicals The electrons travel through an external circuit creating electricity and return to the cathode There oxygen from the air and carbon dioxide recycled from the anode react with the electrons to form carbonate ions that replenish the electrolyte completing the circuit 52 The chemical reactions for an MCFC system can be expressed as follows 53 Anode reaction CO32 H2 H2O CO2 2e Cathode reaction CO2 O2 2e CO32 Overall cell reaction H2 O2 H2OAs with SOFCs MCFC disadvantages include slow start up times because of their high operating temperature This makes MCFC systems not suitable for mobile applications and this technology will most likely be used for stationary fuel cell purposes The main challenge of MCFC technology is the cells short life span The high temperature and carbonate electrolyte lead to corrosion of the anode and cathode These factors accelerate the degradation of MCFC components decreasing the durability and cell life Researchers are addressing this problem by exploring corrosion resistant materials for components as well as fuel cell designs that may increase cell life without decreasing performance 5 MCFCs hold several advantages over other fuel cell technologies including their resistance to impurities They are not prone to carbon coking which refers to carbon build up on the anode that results in reduced performance by slowing down the internal fuel reforming process Therefore carbon rich fuels like gases made from coal are compatible with the system The United States Department of Energy claims that coal itself might even be a fuel option in the future assuming the system can be made resistant to impurities such as sulfur and particulates that result from converting coal into hydrogen 5 MCFCs also have relatively high efficiencies They can reach a fuel to electricity efficiency of 50 considerably higher than the 37 42 efficiency of a phosphoric acid fuel cell plant Efficiencies can be as high as 65 when the fuel cell is paired with a turbine and 85 if heat is captured and used in a combined heat and power CHP system 52 FuelCell Energy a Connecticut based fuel cell manufacturer develops and sells MCFC fuel cells The company says that their MCFC products range from 300 kW to 2 8 MW systems that achieve 47 electrical efficiency and can utilize CHP technology to obtain higher overall efficiencies One product the DFC ERG is combined with a gas turbine and according to the company it achieves an electrical efficiency of 65 54 Electric storage fuel cell Edit The electric storage fuel cell is a conventional battery chargeable by electric power input using the conventional electro chemical effect However the battery further includes hydrogen and oxygen inputs for alternatively charging the battery chemically 55 Comparison of fuel cell types Edit Fuel cell name Electrolyte Qualified power W Working temperature C Efficiency Status Cost USD W Cell SystemMetal hydride fuel cell Aqueous alkaline solution gt 20 50 Ppeak 0 C Commercial Research 30 200Electro galvanic fuel cell Aqueous alkaline solution lt 40 Commercial Research 3 7Direct formic acid fuel cell DFAFC Polymer membrane ionomer lt 50 W lt 40 Commercial Research 10 20Zinc air battery Aqueous alkaline solution lt 40 Mass production 150 300Microbial fuel cell Polymer membrane or humic acid lt 40 Research 10 50Upflow microbial fuel cell UMFC lt 40 Research 1 5Regenerative fuel cell Polymer membrane ionomer lt 50 Commercial Research 200 300Direct borohydride fuel cell Aqueous alkaline solution 70 Commercial 400 450Alkaline fuel cell Aqueous alkaline solution 10 200 kW lt 80 60 70 62 Commercial Research 50 100Direct methanol fuel cell Polymer membrane ionomer 100 mW 1 kW 90 120 20 30 10 25 56 Commercial Research 125Reformed methanol fuel cell Polymer membrane ionomer 5 W 100 kW 250 300 reformer 125 200 PBI 50 60 25 40 Commercial Research 8 50Direct ethanol fuel cell Polymer membrane ionomer lt 140 mW cm gt 25 90 120 Research 12Proton exchange membrane fuel cell Polymer membrane ionomer 1 W 500 kW 50 100 Nafion 57 120 200 PBI 58 50 70 30 50 56 Commercial Research 50 100Redox fuel cell RFC Liquid electrolytes with redox shuttle and polymer membrane ionomer 1 kW 10 MW Research 12 50Phosphoric acid fuel cell Molten phosphoric acid H3PO4 lt 10 MW 150 200 55 40 56 Co gen 90 Commercial Research 4 00 4 50Solid acid fuel cell H conducting oxyanion salt solid acid 10 W 1 kW 200 300 55 60 40 45 Commercial Research 15Molten carbonate fuel cell Molten alkaline carbonate 100 MW 600 650 55 45 55 56 Commercial Research 1000Tubular solid oxide fuel cell TSOFC O2 conducting ceramic oxide lt 100 MW 850 1100 60 65 55 60 Commercial Research 3 50Protonic ceramic fuel cell H conducting ceramic oxide 700 Research 80Direct carbon fuel cell Several different 700 850 80 70 Commercial Research 18Planar solid oxide fuel cell O2 conducting ceramic oxide lt 100 MW 500 1100 60 65 55 60 56 Commercial Research 800Enzymatic biofuel cells Any that will not denature the enzyme lt 40 Research 10Magnesium air fuel cell Salt water 20 to 55 90 Commercial Research 15Glossary of terms in table Further information glossary of fuel cell terms Anode The electrode at which oxidation a loss of electrons takes place For fuel cells and other galvanic cells the anode is the negative terminal for electrolytic cells where electrolysis occurs the anode is the positive terminal 59 Aqueous solution 60 Of relating to or resembling waterMade from with or by water Catalyst A chemical substance that increases the rate of a reaction without being consumed after the reaction it can potentially be recovered from the reaction mixture and is chemically unchanged The catalyst lowers the activation energy required allowing the reaction to proceed more quickly or at a lower temperature In a fuel cell the catalyst facilitates the reaction of oxygen and hydrogen It is usually made of platinum powder very thinly coated onto carbon paper or cloth The catalyst is rough and porous so the maximum surface area of the platinum can be exposed to the hydrogen or oxygen The platinum coated side of the catalyst faces the membrane in the fuel cell 59 Cathode The electrode at which reduction a gain of electrons occurs For fuel cells and other galvanic cells the cathode is the positive terminal for electrolytic cells where electrolysis occurs the cathode is the negative terminal 59 Electrolyte A substance that conducts charged ions from one electrode to the other in a fuel cell battery or electrolyzer 59 Fuel cell stack Individual fuel cells connected in a series Fuel cells are stacked to increase voltage 59 Matrix something within or from which something else originates develops or takes form 61 Membrane The separating layer in a fuel cell that acts as electrolyte an ion exchanger as well as a barrier film separating the gases in the anode and cathode compartments of the fuel cell 59 Molten carbonate fuel cell MCFC A type of fuel cell that contains a molten carbonate electrolyte Carbonate ions CO32 are transported from the cathode to the anode Operating temperatures are typically near 650 C 59 Phosphoric acid fuel cell PAFC A type of fuel cell in which the electrolyte consists of concentrated phosphoric acid H3PO4 Protons H are transported from the anode to the cathode The operating temperature range is generally 160 220 C 59 Proton exchange membrane fuel cell PEM A fuel cell incorporating a solid polymer membrane used as its electrolyte Protons H are transported from the anode to the cathode The operating temperature range is generally 60 100 C for Low Temperature Proton exchange membrane fuel cell LT PEMFC 59 PEM fuel cell with operating temperature of 120 200 C is called High Temperature Proton exchange membrane fuel cell HT PEMFC 62 Solid oxide fuel cell SOFC A type of fuel cell in which the electrolyte is a solid nonporous metal oxide typically zirconium oxide ZrO2 treated with Y2O3 and O2 is transported from the cathode to the anode Any CO in the reformate gas is oxidized to CO2 at the anode Temperatures of operation are typically 800 1 000 C 59 Solution 63 An act or the process by which a solid liquid or gaseous substance is homogeneously mixed with a liquid or sometimes a gas or solid A homogeneous mixture formed by this process especially a single phase liquid system The condition of being dissolved Efficiency of leading fuel cell types EditTheoretical maximum efficiency Edit The energy efficiency of a system or device that converts energy is measured by the ratio of the amount of useful energy put out by the system output energy to the total amount of energy that is put in input energy or by useful output energy as a percentage of the total input energy In the case of fuel cells useful output energy is measured in electrical energy produced by the system Input energy is the energy stored in the fuel According to the U S Department of Energy fuel cells are generally between 40 and 60 energy efficient 64 This is higher than some other systems for energy generation For example the typical internal combustion engine of a car is about 25 energy efficient 65 Steam power plants usually achieve efficiencies of 30 40 66 while combined cycle gas turbine and steam plants can achieve efficiencies as high as 60 citation needed In combined heat and power CHP systems the waste heat produced by the primary power cycle whether fuel cell nuclear fission or combustion is captured and put to use increasing the efficiency of the system to up to 85 90 5 The theoretical maximum efficiency of any type of power generation system is never reached in practice and it does not consider other steps in power generation such as production transportation and storage of fuel and conversion of the electricity into mechanical power However this calculation allows the comparison of different types of power generation The theoretical maximum efficiency of a fuel cell approaches 100 67 while the theoretical maximum efficiency of internal combustion engines is approximately 58 68 In practice Edit Values are given from 40 for acidic 50 for molten carbonate to 60 for alkaline solid oxide and PEM fuel cells 69 Fuel cells cannot store energy like a battery 70 except as hydrogen but in some applications such as stand alone power plants based on discontinuous sources such as solar or wind power they are combined with electrolyzers and storage systems to form an energy storage system As of 2019 90 of hydrogen was used for oil refining chemicals and fertilizer production where hydrogen is required for the Haber Bosch process and 98 of hydrogen is produced by steam methane reforming which emits carbon dioxide 71 The overall efficiency electricity to hydrogen and back to electricity of such plants known as round trip efficiency using pure hydrogen and pure oxygen can be from 35 up to 50 percent depending on gas density and other conditions 72 The electrolyzer fuel cell system can store indefinite quantities of hydrogen and is therefore suited for long term storage Solid oxide fuel cells produce heat from the recombination of the oxygen and hydrogen The ceramic can run as hot as 800 degrees Celsius This heat can be captured and used to heat water in a micro combined heat and power m CHP application When the heat is captured total efficiency can reach 80 90 at the unit but does not consider production and distribution losses CHP units are being developed today for the European home market Professor Jeremy P Meyers in the Electrochemical Society journal Interface in 2008 wrote While fuel cells are efficient relative to combustion engines they are not as efficient as batteries primarily due to the inefficiency of the oxygen reduction reaction and the oxygen evolution reaction should the hydrogen be formed by electrolysis of water T hey make the most sense for operation disconnected from the grid or when fuel can be provided continuously For applications that require frequent and relatively rapid start ups where zero emissions are a requirement as in enclosed spaces such as warehouses and where hydrogen is considered an acceptable reactant a PEM fuel cell is becoming an increasingly attractive choice if exchanging batteries is inconvenient 73 In 2013 military organizations were evaluating fuel cells to determine if they could significantly reduce the battery weight carried by soldiers 74 In vehicles Edit In a fuel cell vehicle the tank to wheel efficiency is greater than 45 at low loads 75 and shows average values of about 36 when a driving cycle like the NEDC New European Driving Cycle is used as test procedure 76 The comparable NEDC value for a Diesel vehicle is 22 In 2008 Honda released a demonstration fuel cell electric vehicle the Honda FCX Clarity with fuel stack claiming a 60 tank to wheel efficiency 77 It is also important to take losses due to fuel production transportation and storage into account Fuel cell vehicles running on compressed hydrogen may have a power plant to wheel efficiency of 22 if the hydrogen is stored as high pressure gas and 17 if it is stored as liquid hydrogen 78 Applications Edit Type 212 submarine with fuel cell propulsion This example in dry dock is operated by the German Navy Power Edit Stationary fuel cells are used for commercial industrial and residential primary and backup power generation Fuel cells are very useful as power sources in remote locations such as spacecraft remote weather stations large parks communications centers rural locations including research stations and in certain military applications A fuel cell system running on hydrogen can be compact and lightweight and have no major moving parts Because fuel cells have no moving parts and do not involve combustion in ideal conditions they can achieve up to 99 9999 reliability 79 This equates to less than one minute of downtime in a six year period 79 Since fuel cell electrolyzer systems do not store fuel in themselves but rather rely on external storage units they can be successfully applied in large scale energy storage rural areas being one example 80 There are many different types of stationary fuel cells so efficiencies vary but most are between 40 and 60 energy efficient 5 However when the fuel cell s waste heat is used to heat a building in a cogeneration system this efficiency can increase to 85 5 This is significantly more efficient than traditional coal power plants which are only about one third energy efficient 81 Assuming production at scale fuel cells could save 20 40 on energy costs when used in cogeneration systems 82 Fuel cells are also much cleaner than traditional power generation a fuel cell power plant using natural gas as a hydrogen source would create less than one ounce of pollution other than CO2 for every 1 000 kW h produced compared to 25 pounds of pollutants generated by conventional combustion systems 83 Fuel Cells also produce 97 less nitrogen oxide emissions than conventional coal fired power plants One such pilot program is operating on Stuart Island in Washington State There the Stuart Island Energy Initiative 84 has built a complete closed loop system Solar panels power an electrolyzer which makes hydrogen The hydrogen is stored in a 500 U S gallon 1 900 L tank at 200 pounds per square inch 1 400 kPa and runs a ReliOn fuel cell to provide full electric back up to the off the grid residence Another closed system loop was unveiled in late 2011 in Hempstead NY 85 Fuel cells can be used with low quality gas from landfills or waste water treatment plants to generate power and lower methane emissions A 2 8 MW fuel cell plant in California is said to be the largest of the type 86 Small scale sub 5kWhr fuel cells are being developed for use in residential off grid deployment 87 Cogeneration Edit Combined heat and power CHP fuel cell systems including micro combined heat and power MicroCHP systems are used to generate both electricity and heat for homes see home fuel cell office building and factories The system generates constant electric power selling excess power back to the grid when it is not consumed and at the same time produces hot air and water from the waste heat As the result CHP systems have the potential to save primary energy as they can make use of waste heat which is generally rejected by thermal energy conversion systems 88 A typical capacity range of home fuel cell is 1 3 kWel 4 8 kWth 89 90 CHP systems linked to absorption chillers use their waste heat for refrigeration 91 The waste heat from fuel cells can be diverted during the summer directly into the ground providing further cooling while the waste heat during winter can be pumped directly into the building The University of Minnesota owns the patent rights to this type of system 92 93 Co generation systems can reach 85 efficiency 40 60 electric and the remainder as thermal 5 Phosphoric acid fuel cells PAFC comprise the largest segment of existing CHP products worldwide and can provide combined efficiencies close to 90 94 95 Molten carbonate MCFC and solid oxide fuel cells SOFC are also used for combined heat and power generation and have electrical energy efficiencies around 60 96 Disadvantages of co generation systems include slow ramping up and down rates high cost and short lifetime 97 98 Also their need to have a hot water storage tank to smooth out the thermal heat production was a serious disadvantage in the domestic market place where space in domestic properties is at a great premium 99 Delta ee consultants stated in 2013 that with 64 of global sales the fuel cell micro combined heat and power passed the conventional systems in sales in 2012 74 The Japanese ENE FARM project stated that 34 213 PEMFC and 2 224 SOFC were installed in the period 2012 2014 30 000 units on LNG and 6 000 on LPG 100 Fuel cell electric vehicles FCEVs Edit Main articles Fuel cell vehicle Hydrogen vehicle and List of fuel cell vehicles Configuration of components in a fuel cell car Toyota Mirai Element One fuel cell vehicle Automobiles Edit By year end 2019 about 18 000 FCEVs had been leased or sold worldwide 101 102 Three fuel cell electric vehicles have been introduced for commercial lease and sale the Honda Clarity Toyota Mirai and the Hyundai ix35 FCEV Additional demonstration models include the Honda FCX Clarity and Mercedes Benz F Cell 103 As of June 2011 demonstration FCEVs had driven more than 4 800 000 km 3 000 000 mi with more than 27 000 refuelings 104 Fuel cell electric vehicles feature an average range of 505 km 314 mi between refuelings 105 They can be refueled in less than 5 minutes 106 The U S Department of Energy s Fuel Cell Technology Program states that as of 2011 fuel cells achieved 53 59 efficiency at one quarter power and 42 53 vehicle efficiency at full power 107 and a durability of over 120 000 km 75 000 mi with less than 10 degradation 108 In a 2017 Well to Wheels simulation analysis that did not address the economics and market constraints General Motors and its partners estimated that for an equivalent journey a fuel cell electric vehicle running on compressed gaseous hydrogen produced from natural gas could use about 40 less energy and emit 45 less greenhouse gasses than an internal combustion vehicle 109 In 2015 Toyota introduced its first fuel cell vehicle the Mirai at a price of 57 000 110 Hyundai introduced the limited production Hyundai ix35 FCEV under a lease agreement 111 In 2016 Honda started leasing the Honda Clarity Fuel Cell 112 In 2020 Toyota introduced the second generation of its Mirai brand improving fuel efficiency and expanding range compared to the original Sedan 2014 model 113 Criticism Edit Some commentators believe that hydrogen fuel cell cars will never become economically competitive with other technologies 114 115 116 or that it will take decades for them to become profitable 73 117 Elon Musk CEO of battery electric vehicle maker Tesla Motors stated in 2015 that fuel cells for use in cars will never be commercially viable because of the inefficiency of producing transporting and storing hydrogen and the flammability of the gas among other reasons 118 In 2012 Lux Research Inc issued a report that stated The dream of a hydrogen economy is no nearer It concluded that Capital cost will limit adoption to a mere 5 9 GW by 2030 providing a nearly insurmountable barrier to adoption except in niche applications The analysis concluded that by 2030 PEM stationary market will reach 1 billion while the vehicle market including forklifts will reach a total of 2 billion 117 Other analyses cite the lack of an extensive hydrogen infrastructure in the U S as an ongoing challenge to Fuel Cell Electric Vehicle commercialization 75 In 2014 Joseph Romm the author of The Hype About Hydrogen 2005 said that FCVs still had not overcome the high fueling cost lack of fuel delivery infrastructure and pollution caused by producing hydrogen It would take several miracles to overcome all of those problems simultaneously in the coming decades 119 He concluded that renewable energy cannot economically be used to make hydrogen for an FCV fleet either now or in the future 114 Greentech Media s analyst reached similar conclusions in 2014 120 In 2015 CleanTechnica listed some of the disadvantages of hydrogen fuel cell vehicles 121 So did Car Throttle 122 A 2019 video by Real Engineering noted that notwithstanding the introduction of vehicles that run on hydrogen using hydrogen as a fuel for cars does not help to reduce carbon emissions from transportation The 95 of hydrogen still produced from fossil fuels releases carbon dioxide and producing hydrogen from water is an energy consuming process Storing hydrogen requires more energy either to cool it down to the liquid state or to put it into tanks under high pressure and delivering the hydrogen to fueling stations requires more energy and may release more carbon The hydrogen needed to move a FCV a kilometer costs approximately 8 times as much as the electricity needed to move a BEV the same distance 123 A 2020 assessment concluded that hydrogen vehicles are still only 38 efficient while battery EVs are 80 efficient 124 In 2021 CleanTechnica concluded that while hydrogen cars are far less efficient than electric cars the vast majority of hydrogen being produced is polluting grey hydrogen and delivering hydrogen would require building a vast and expensive new infrastructure the remaining two advantages of fuel cell vehicles longer range and fast fueling times are rapidly being eroded by improving battery and charging technology 125 A 2022 study in Nature Electronics agreed 126 Buses Edit Toyota FCHV BUS at the Expo 2005 As of August 2011 update there were about 100 fuel cell buses in service around the world 127 Most of these were manufactured by UTC Power Toyota Ballard Hydrogenics and Proton Motor UTC buses had driven more than 970 000 km 600 000 mi by 2011 128 Fuel cell buses have from 39 to 141 higher fuel economy than diesel buses and natural gas buses 109 129 As of 2019 update the NREL was evaluating several current and planned fuel cell bus projects in the U S 130 Trains Edit In 2018 the first fuel cell powered trains the Alstom Coradia iLint multiple units began running on the Buxtehude Bremervorde Bremerhaven Cuxhaven line in Germany 131 These trains offer the advantages of electric trains over Diesel locomotives and DMU s in eliminating smokestack emissions from the trains themselves without the use of electrification by overhead catenerary infrastructure 132 Such trains have been ordered or are being tested in Sweden 133 and the UK 134 Trucks Edit In December 2020 Toyota and Hino Motors together with Seven Eleven Japan FamilyMart and Lawson announced that they have agreed to jointly consider introducing light duty fuel cell electric trucks light duty FCETs 135 Lawson started testing for low temperature delivery at the end of July 2021 in Tokyo using a Hino Dutro in which the Toyota Mirai fuel cell is implemented FamilyMart started testing in Okazaki city 136 In August 2021 Toyota announced their plan to make fuel cell modules at its Kentucky auto assembly plant for use in zero emission big rigs and heavy duty commercial vehicles They plan to begin assembling the electrochemical devices in 2023 137 In October 2021 Daimler Truck s fuel cell based truck received approval from German authorities for use on public roads 138 Forklifts Edit A fuel cell forklift also called a fuel cell lift truck is a fuel cell powered industrial forklift truck used to lift and transport materials In 2013 there were over 4 000 fuel cell forklifts used in material handling in the US 139 of which 500 received funding from DOE 2012 140 141 Fuel cell fleets are operated by various companies including Sysco Foods FedEx Freight GENCO at Wegmans Coca Cola Kimberly Clark and Whole Foods and H E B Grocers 142 Europe demonstrated 30 fuel cell forklifts with Hylift and extended it with HyLIFT EUROPE to 200 units 143 with other projects in France 144 145 and Austria 146 Pike Research projected in 2011 that fuel cell powered forklifts would be the largest driver of hydrogen fuel demand by 2020 147 Most companies in Europe and the US do not use petroleum powered forklifts as these vehicles work indoors where emissions must be controlled and instead use electric forklifts 148 149 Fuel cell powered forklifts can provide benefits over battery powered forklifts as they can be refueled in 3 minutes and they can be used in refrigerated warehouses where their performance is not degraded by lower temperatures The FC units are often designed as drop in replacements 150 151 Motorcycles and bicycles Edit In 2005 a British manufacturer of hydrogen powered fuel cells Intelligent Energy IE produced the first working hydrogen run motorcycle called the ENV Emission Neutral Vehicle The motorcycle holds enough fuel to run for four hours and to travel 160 km 100 mi in an urban area at a top speed of 80 km h 50 mph 152 In 2004 Honda developed a fuel cell motorcycle that utilized the Honda FC Stack 153 154 Other examples of motorbikes 155 and bicycles 156 that use hydrogen fuel cells include the Taiwanese company APFCT s scooter 157 using the fueling system from Italy s Acta SpA 158 and the Suzuki Burgman scooter with an IE fuel cell that received EU Whole Vehicle Type Approval in 2011 159 Suzuki Motor Corp and IE have announced a joint venture to accelerate the commercialization of zero emission vehicles 160 Airplanes Edit In 2003 the world s first propeller driven airplane to be powered entirely by a fuel cell was flown The fuel cell was a stack design that allowed the fuel cell to be integrated with the plane s aerodynamic surfaces 161 Fuel cell powered unmanned aerial vehicles UAV include a Horizon fuel cell UAV that set the record distance flown for a small UAV in 2007 162 Boeing researchers and industry partners throughout Europe conducted experimental flight tests in February 2008 of a manned airplane powered only by a fuel cell and lightweight batteries The fuel cell demonstrator airplane as it was called used a proton exchange membrane PEM fuel cell lithium ion battery hybrid system to power an electric motor which was coupled to a conventional propeller 163 In 2009 the Naval Research Laboratory s NRL s Ion Tiger utilized a hydrogen powered fuel cell and flew for 23 hours and 17 minutes 164 Fuel cells are also being tested and considered to provide auxiliary power in aircraft replacing fossil fuel generators that were previously used to start the engines and power on board electrical needs while reducing carbon emissions 165 166 failed verification In 2016 a Raptor E1 drone made a successful test flight using a fuel cell that was lighter than the lithium ion battery it replaced The flight lasted 10 minutes at an altitude of 80 metres 260 ft although the fuel cell reportedly had enough fuel to fly for two hours The fuel was contained in approximately 100 solid 1 square centimetre 0 16 sq in pellets composed of a proprietary chemical within an unpressurized cartridge The pellets are physically robust and operate at temperatures as warm as 50 C 122 F The cell was from Arcola Energy 167 Lockheed Martin Skunk Works Stalker is an electric UAV powered by solid oxide fuel cell 168 Boats Edit The world s first certified fuel cell boat HYDRA in Leipzig Germany In Norway the first ferry powered by fuel cells running on liquid origin is scheduled for its first test drives in December 2022 169 170 Submarines Edit The Type 212 submarines of the German and Italian navies use fuel cells to remain submerged for weeks without the need to surface The U212A is a non nuclear submarine developed by German naval shipyard Howaldtswerke Deutsche Werft 171 The system consists of nine PEM fuel cells providing between 30 kW and 50 kW each The ship is silent giving it an advantage in the detection of other submarines 172 A naval paper has theorized about the possibility of a nuclear fuel cell hybrid whereby the fuel cell is used when silent operations are required and then replenished from the Nuclear reactor and water 173 Portable power systems Edit Portable fuel cell systems are generally classified as weighing under 10 kg and providing power of less than 5 kW 174 The potential market size for smaller fuel cells is quite large with an up to 40 per annum potential growth rate and a market size of around 10 billion leading a great deal of research to be devoted to the development of portable power cells 175 Within this market two groups have been identified The first is the microfuel cell market in the 1 50 W range for power smaller electronic devices The second is the 1 5 kW range of generators for larger scale power generation e g military outposts remote oil fields Microfuel cells are primarily aimed at penetrating the market for phones and laptops This can be primarily attributed to the advantageous energy density provided by fuel cells over a lithium ion battery for the entire system For a battery this system includes the charger as well as the battery itself For the fuel cell this system would include the cell the necessary fuel and peripheral attachments Taking the full system into consideration fuel cells have been shown to provide 530Wh kg compared to 44 Wh kg for lithium ion batteries 175 However while the weight of fuel cell systems offer a distinct advantage the current costs are not in their favor while a battery system will generally cost around 1 20 per Wh fuel cell systems cost around 5 per Wh putting them at a significant disadvantage 175 As power demands for cell phones increase fuel cells could become much more attractive options for larger power generation The demand for longer on time on phones and computers is something often demanded by consumers so fuel cells could start to make strides into laptop and cell phone markets The price will continue to go down as developments in fuel cells continues to accelerate Current strategies for improving micro fuel cells is through the use of carbon nanotubes It was shown by Girishkumar et al that depositing nanotubes on electrode surfaces allows for substantially greater surface area increasing the oxygen reduction rate 176 Fuel cells for use in larger scale operations also show much promise Portable power systems that use fuel cells can be used in the leisure sector i e RVs cabins marine the industrial sector i e power for remote locations including gas oil wellsites communication towers security weather stations and in the military sector SFC Energy is a German manufacturer of direct methanol fuel cells for a variety of portable power systems 177 Ensol Systems Inc is an integrator of portable power systems using the SFC Energy DMFC 178 The key advantage of fuel cells in this market is the great power generation per weight While fuel cells can be expensive for remote locations that require dependable energy fuel cells hold great power For a 72 h excursion the comparison in weight is substantial with a fuel cell only weighing 15 pounds compared to 29 pounds of batteries needed for the same energy 174 Other applications Edit Providing power for base stations or cell sites 179 180 Distributed generation Emergency power systems are a type of fuel cell system which may include lighting generators and other apparatus to provide backup resources in a crisis or when regular systems fail They find uses in a wide variety of settings from residential homes to hospitals scientific laboratories data centers 181 Telecommunication 182 equipment and modern naval ships An uninterrupted power supply UPS provides emergency power and depending on the topology provide line regulation as well to connected equipment by supplying power from a separate source when utility power is not available Unlike a standby generator it can provide instant protection from a momentary power interruption Base load power plants Hybrid vehicles pairing the fuel cell with either an ICE or a battery Notebook computers for applications where AC charging may not be readily available Portable charging docks for small electronics e g a belt clip that charges a cell phone or PDA Smartphones laptops and tablets Small heating appliances 183 Food preservation achieved by exhausting the oxygen and automatically maintaining oxygen exhaustion in a shipping container containing for example fresh fish 184 Breathalyzers where the amount of voltage generated by a fuel cell is used to determine the concentration of fuel alcohol in the sample 185 Carbon monoxide detector electrochemical sensor Fueling stations Edit Main articles Hydrogen station and Hydrogen highway Hydrogen fueling station According to FuelCellsWorks an industry group at the end of 2019 330 hydrogen refueling stations were open to the public worldwide 186 As of June 2020 there were 178 publicly available hydrogen stations in operation in Asia 187 114 of these were in Japan 187 There were at least 177 stations in Europe and about half of these were in Germany 188 189 There were 44 publicly accessible stations in the US 42 of which were located in California 190 A hydrogen fueling station costs between 1 million and 4 million to build 191 Markets and economics EditMain articles Hydrogen economy and Methanol economy In 2012 fuel cell industry revenues exceeded 1 billion market value worldwide with Asian pacific countries shipping more than 3 4 of the fuel cell systems worldwide 192 However as of January 2014 no public company in the industry had yet become profitable 193 There were 140 000 fuel cell stacks shipped globally in 2010 up from 11 000 shipments in 2007 and from 2011 to 2012 worldwide fuel cell shipments had an annual growth rate of 85 194 Tanaka Kikinzoku expanded its manufacturing facilities in 2011 195 Approximately 50 of fuel cell shipments in 2010 were stationary fuel cells up from about a third in 2009 and the four dominant producers in the Fuel Cell Industry were the United States Germany Japan and South Korea 196 The Department of Energy Solid State Energy Conversion Alliance found that as of January 2011 stationary fuel cells generated power at approximately 724 to 775 per kilowatt installed 197 In 2011 Bloom Energy a major fuel cell supplier said that its fuel cells generated power at 9 11 cents per kilowatt hour including the price of fuel maintenance and hardware 198 199 Industry groups predict that there are sufficient platinum resources for future demand 200 and in 2007 research at Brookhaven National Laboratory suggested that platinum could be replaced by a gold palladium coating which may be less susceptible to poisoning and thereby improve fuel cell lifetime 201 Another method would use iron and sulphur instead of platinum This would lower the cost of a fuel cell as the platinum in a regular fuel cell costs around US 1 500 and the same amount of iron costs only around US 1 50 The concept was being developed by a coalition of the John Innes Centre and the University of Milan Bicocca 202 PEDOT cathodes are immune to monoxide poisoning 203 In 2016 Samsung decided to drop fuel cell related business projects as the outlook of the market isn t good 204 Research and development Edit2005 Georgia Institute of Technology researchers used triazole to raise the operating temperature of PEM fuel cells from below 100 C to over 125 C claiming this will require less carbon monoxide purification of the hydrogen fuel 205 2008 Monash University Melbourne used PEDOT as a cathode 33 2009 Researchers at the University of Dayton in Ohio showed that arrays of vertically grown carbon nanotubes could be used as the catalyst in fuel cells 206 The same year a nickel bisdiphosphine based catalyst for fuel cells was demonstrated 207 2013 British firm ACAL Energy developed a fuel cell that it said can run for 10 000 hours in simulated driving conditions 208 It asserted that the cost of fuel cell construction can be reduced to 40 kW roughly 9 000 for 300 HP 209 2014 Researchers in Imperial College London developed a new method for regeneration of hydrogen sulfide contaminated PEFCs 210 They recovered 95 100 of the original performance of a hydrogen sulfide contaminated 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2014JPS 252 317K doi 10 1016 j jpowsour 2013 11 077 Kakati Biraj Kumar Unnikrishnan Anusree Rajalakshmi Natarajan Jafri RI Dhathathreyan KS 2016 Kucernak Anthony RJ 41 12 5598 5604 doi 10 1016 j ijhydene 2016 01 077 hdl 10044 1 28872 Kakati BK In situ O3 rejuvenation of SO2 contaminated Polymer Electrolyte Fuel Cell Electrochemistry single cell and 5 cells stack studies PDF 5th European PEFC amp H2 Forum Archived from the original PDF on 14 July 2015 Retrieved 14 July 2015 In Situ Hydrogen Generation Fuel Cell for Future Soldier Power Systems HDIAC Retrieved 7 February 2023 Further reading EditVielstich W et al eds 2009 Handbook of fuel cells advances in electrocatalysis materials diagnostics and durability Hoboken John Wiley and Sons Gregor Hoogers 2003 Fuel Cell Technology Handbook CRC Press James Larminie Andrew Dicks 2003 Fuel Cell Systems Explained Second ed Hoboken John Wiley and Sons Subash C Singhal Kevin Kendall 2003 High Temperature Solid Oxide Fuel Cells Fundamentals Design and Applications Elsevier Academic Press Frano Barbir 2005 PEM Fuel Cells Theory and Practice Elsevier Academic Press EG amp G Technical Services Inc 2004 Fuel Cell Technology Handbook 7th Edition U S Department of Energy Matthew M Mench 2008 Fuel Cell Engines Hoboken John Wiley amp Sons Inc Noriko Hikosaka Behling 2012 Fuel Cells Current Technology Challenges and Future Research Needs First ed Elsevier Academic Press External links EditAnimation how a fuel cell works Fuel Cell Origins 1840 1890 EERE Hydrogen Fuel Cells and Infrastructure Technologies Program Thermodynamics of electrolysis of water and hydrogen fuel cells DoITPoMS Teaching and Learning Package Fuel Cells Portals History of science Renewable energy Technology Chemistry Cars Energy Spaceflight Electronics Trains Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Fuel cell amp oldid 1143131278, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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