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Religions of the ancient Near East

March 21, 2023

The religions of the ancient Near East were mostly polytheistic, with some examples of monolatry (for example, Yahwism and Atenism). Some scholars believe that the similarities between these religions indicate that the religions are related, a belief known as patternism.[1]

Many religions of the ancient near East and their offshoots can be traced to Proto-Semitic religion. Other religions in the ancient Near East include the ancient Egyptian religion, the Luwian and Hittite religions of Asia Minor and the Sumerian religion of ancient Mesopotamia. Offshoots of Proto-Semitic religion include Canaanite religion and Arabian religion. Judaism is a development of Canaanite religion, both Indo-European and Semitic religions influenced the ancient Greek religion, and Zoroastrianism was a product of ancient Indo-Iranian religion primarily the ancient Iranian religion. In turn these religious traditions strongly influenced the later monotheistic religions of Christianity, Mandaeism, Gnosticism, Islam, and Manicheanism, which inherited their monotheism from Judaism and Zoroastrianism.

Overview

The history of the ancient Near East spans more than two millennia, from the Bronze Age to the Early Iron Age, in the region now known as the Middle East, centered on the Fertile Crescent. There was much cultural contact, so that it is justified to summarize the whole region under a single term, but that does not mean, of course, that each historical period and each region should not be looked at individually for a detailed description. This article will attempt to outline the common traits of ancient Near Eastern religions, and refer to sub-articles for in-depth descriptions.

The ancient Near East includes the following subregions:

The earliest sources, from c. 2500 BC, allow glimpses of Sumerian religion and ancient Egyptian religion.

Early Hittite religion bore traits descended from Proto-Indo-European religion, but the later Hittite religions became more and more assimilated to Mesopotamian religion. Also the Persian Zoroastrianism shared origin with Indian Vedism and the ancient Iranian religion. The Vedic religion, also called as, ancient Hinduism[2] developed further through an unbroken tradition to take the form of modern Hinduism, an exonym used for the modern form of Vedic religion.

Ancient Greek religion and the following the Etruscan religion and the Religion in ancient Rome was strongly influenced by ancient Near Eastern religion, but is usually not included in the term. The Greco-Roman mysteries of the Hellenistic period were again consciously connected with ancient Egyptian religion.

The origins of the Roman Mithraism, however, are not resolved. There are theories of an origin in the Indian Vedic religion,[3] the Zoroastrianism and the Greco-Roman Religion like Orion.[4]

There are broad practices that these religions often hold in common:

Typically, ancient Near Eastern religions were centered on theocracies, with a dominating regional cult of the god of a city-state. There were also super-regional mythemes and deities, such as the God Tammuz and the descent to the underworld.

Divinations:

Semitic

Main article: Ancient Semitic religion

Mesopotamia

Main article: Ancient Mesopotamian religion
Further information: Sumerian religion
 
Impression of the cylinder seal of Ḫašḫamer, patesi (High Priest) of Sin at Iškun-Sin, c. 2400 BC

Astrology

Identification of the gods and goddesses with heavenly bodies—planets, stars, the sun and the moon—and to assigning the seats of all the deities in the Heavens is found in Assyro-Babylonian religion.

The personification of the two great luminaries—the sun and the moon—was the first step in the unfolding of this system, and this was followed by placing the other deities where Shamash and Sin had their seats. This process, which reached its culmination in the post-Hammurabic period, led to identifying the planet Venus with Ishtar, Jupiter with Marduk, Mars with Nergal, Mercury with Nabu, and Saturn with Ninurta.

The system represents a harmonious combination of two factors, one of popular origin, the other the outcome of speculation in the schools attached to the temples of Babylonia. The popular factor is the belief in the influence exerted by the movements of the heavenly bodies on occurrences on earth—a belief naturally suggested by the dependence of life, vegetation and guidance upon the two great luminaries. Starting with this belief the Priests and Priestesses built up the theory of the close correspondence between occurrences on earth and phenomena in the Heavens. The Heavens presenting a constant change even to the superficial observer, the conclusion was drawn of a connection between the changes and the ever-changing movement in the fate of individuals and of nature as well as in the appearance of nature.

To read the signs of the heavens was therefore to understand the meaning of occurrences on Earth, and with this accomplished, it was also possible to foretell what events were portended by the position and relationship to one another of the sun, the moon, the planets and certain stars. Myths that symbolized changes in season or occurrences in nature were projected on the heavens, which were mapped out to correspond to the divisions of the earth.

All the gods, demons and spirits had their places assigned to them in the heavens, and facts, including such as fell within the domain of political history, were interpreted in terms of astral theology. So completely did this system in the course of time sway men's minds that the cults and sects, from being an expression of animistic beliefs, took on the color derived from the "astral" interpretation of occurrences and doctrines. It left its trace in incantations, omens and hymns and gave birth to astronomy, which was assiduously cultivated because a knowledge of the heavens was the very foundation of the system of belief unfolded by the priests of Babylonia and Assyria.

As an illustration of the manner in which the doctrines of the religion were made to conform to the all-pervading astral theory, it will be sufficient to refer to the modification undergone in this process of the view developed in a very early period which apportioned the control of the universe among the three gods Anu, Enlil and Ea. Disassociating these Gods from all local connections, Anu became the power presiding over the Heavens, to Enlil was assigned the earth and the atmosphere immediately above it, while Ea ruled over the deep. With the transfer of all the Gods to the heavens, and under the influence of the doctrine of the correspondence between the heavens and the earth, Anu, Enlil and Ea became the three "ways" (as they are called) on the heavens.

The "ways" appear in this instance to have been the designation of the ecliptic circle, which was divided into three sections or zones—a northern, a middle and a southern zone, Anu being assigned to the first, Enlil to the second, and Ea to the third zone. The astral theology of the Babylonian-Assyrian religion, while thus bearing the ear-marks of a system devised by the priests, succeeded in assimilating the beliefs which represented the earlier attempts to systematize the more popular aspects of the religion, and in this way a unification of diverse elements was secured that led to interpreting the contents and the form of the religion in terms of the astral-theological system.[clarification needed]

Ethic

On the ethical sides, the religion of Babylonia more particularly, and to a less extent that of Assyria, advances to noticeable conceptions of the qualities associated with the Gods and Goddesses and of the duties imposed on man. Shamash, the Sun-God, was invested with justice as his chief trait, Marduk is portrayed as full of mercy and kindness, and Ea is in general the protector of mankind, a father who takes them under his protection. The Gods, to be sure, are easily aroused to anger, and in some of them the dire aspects predominated, but the view becomes more and more pronounced that there is some cause always for the divine wrath. Though, in accounting for the anger of the Gods, no sharp distinction is made between moral offences and a ritualistic oversight or neglect, yet the stress laid in the hymns and prayers, as well as in the elaborate atonement ritual prescribed in order to appease the anger of the Gods, on the need of being clean and pure in the sight of the higher powers, the inculcation of a proper aspect of humility, and above all the need of confessing one's guilt and sins without any reserve—all this bears testimony to the strength which the ethical factor acquired in the domain of the Religion.

This factor appears to less advantage in the unfolding of the views concerning life after death. Throughout all periods of Babylonian-Assyrian history, the conception prevailed of a large dark cavern below the earth, not far from the Apsu—the fresh water abyss encircling and flowing underneath the earth—in which all the dead were gathered and where they led a miserable existence of inactivity, amid gloom and dust. Occasionally a favoured individual was permitted to escape from this general fate and placed in a pleasant island. It would appear also that the rulers were always singled out for divine grace, and in the earlier periods of the history, owing to the prevailing view that the rulers stood nearer to the Gods than other mortals, the kings were deified after death, and in some instances divine honours were paid to them even during their lifetime.

Demonology

Main article: Mesopotamian Demon

Ancient Near Eastern religion knew an elaborate system of benevolent, neutral and malevolent demons (which more resembled Greek daemons than the Christian concept of evil demons), and much of medicine consisted of exorcisms, e.g. of Lamashtu, the hermaphroditic demoness responsible for complications at childbirth and infant deaths.

In Assyrian and Babylonian mythology the seven evil demons were known as Shedu or Lamassu, meaning "storm-demon". They were represented in winged bull form, derived from the colossal bulls used as protective genii of royal palaces, the name "Shed" assumed also the meaning of a propitious genius in Babylonian magical literature.[5]

Levant

Main articles: Ancient Canaanite religion, Yahwism, and Judaism

The deities worshipped in Canaanite religion during the Late Bronze Age notably included El Elyon and his sons, the Elohim, the goddess Anat and Hadad, the storm god and heroic slayer of Yam. The composition of the Hebrew Bible began centuries after the Bronze Age collapse, but many of these names are still reflected in Biblical Hebrew, including Elohim and the title Ba'al, originally a title of Hadad, as the rival or nemesis of Yahweh.

Greater Iran

See also: Greater Iran

Ancient Iranian lands had a diversity of spiritual beliefs, and the religions included Zoroastrianism, Mazdakism, Manichaeism, Yazdanism, Mandeanism, and others. Ancient Mitanni was centred in modern-day Kurdistan, and from excavations it was discovered to have a history of Zoroastrian practices.

Egypt

Main article: Ancient Egyptian religion

The dominant religious rituals and beliefs of ancient Egypt merged and developed over time. As an example, during the New Kingdom, the gods Ra and Amun were syncretized into a single god, Amun-Ra.[6] Such syncretism should be distinguished from mere groupings, also referred to as "families" such as Amun, Mut, and Khonsu. Over time, gods took part in multiple syncretic relationships, for instance, the combination of Ra and Horus into Ra-Herakty. Similarly, Ptah, Seker, and Osiris became Ptah-Seker-Osiris.

Anatolia

 
Seated deity, late Hittite Empire (13th century BC)
Main article: Hittite mythology
Further information: Song of Kumarbi

Heavily influenced by Mesopotamian mythology, the religion of the Hittites and Luwians retains noticeable Indo-European elements, for example Tarhunt the God of thunder, and his conflict with the Serpent-God Illuyanka.

Tarhunt has a son, Telepinu and a daughter, Inara. Inara is involved with the Puruli spring festival. She is a protective Goddess (dLAMMA). Ishara is a Goddess of the oath.

Bibliography

General

  • Gordon, Cyrus. The Ancient Near East, (3rd Edition, Revised), W. W. Norton and Company, Inc., New York, 1965.
  • Gray, John. Near Eastern Mythology: Mesopotamia, Syria, Palestine. Hamlyn Publishing, 1969.
  • James, E.O. The Ancient Gods: The History and Diffusion of Religion in the Ancient Near East and the Eastern Mediterranean, 1960.
  • Leick, Gwendolyn. A Dictionary of Ancient Near Eastern Mythology Routledge, London & New York, 2003.
  • Pritchard, James B., (ed.). The Ancient Near East: An Anthology of Texts and Pictures. Princeton University Press, New Jersey, 1958.
  • Pritchard, James B., (ed.). The Ancient Near East, Volume II: A New Anthology of Texts and Pictures. Princeton University Press, New Jersey, 1975.
  • Sasson, Jack et al., (eds.). Civilizations of the Ancient Near East. Charles Scribner's Sons, New York, 1995.
  • Smith, Mark S. God in translation: deities in cross-cultural discourse in the biblical world, vol. 57 of "Forschungen zum Alten Testament", Mohr Siebeck, 2008, ISBN 978-3-16-149543-4.
  • Smith, Morton. The Common Theology of the Ancient near East, Journal of Biblical Literature, 1952.
  • Snell, Daniel. Religions of the Ancient Near East. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2010.
  • van der Toorn, Karel (1995). Dictionary of Deities and Demons in the Bible. New York: E.J. Brill. ISBN 0-8028-2491-9.

Canaan and Ugarit

  • Pardee, Dennis. Ritual and Cult at Ugarit. Society of Biblical Literature, Atlanta, Georgia. 2002.
  • Parker, Simon B. (ed.). Ugaritic Narrative Poetry. Society of Biblical Literature, U.S.A., 1997.
  • Smith, Mark S. The Ugaritic Baal Cycle, Volume I: Introduction with Text, Translation and Commentary of KTU 1.1-1.2. E.J. Brill, Leiden, the Netherlands, 1994.

See also

References

  1. ^ Samuel H. Hooke (1970). The Siege Perilous: Essays in Biblical Anthropology and Kindred Subjects. Ayer Publishing. p. 174. ISBN 0-8369-5525-0.
  2. ^ Scholars such as Jan Gonda have used the term ancient Hinduism, distinguishing it from "recent Hinduism". Stephanie W. Jamison and Michael Witzel (1992) "... to call this period Vedic Hinduism is a contradictio in terminis since Vedic religion is very different from what we generally call Hindu religion – at least as much as Old Hebrew religion is from medieval and modern Christian religion. However, Vedic religion is treatable as a predecessor of modern Hinduism". According to the Encyclopædia Britannica page, from the Vedic tradition emerged Brahmanism, a religious tradition of ancient India. It states, "Brahmanism emphasized the rites performed by, and the status of, the Brahman, or priestly, class as well as speculation about Brahman (the Absolute reality) as theorized in the Upanishads (speculative philosophical texts that are considered to be part of the Vedas, or scriptures)." From Brahmanism developed modern Hinduism, when it was synthesized with the non-Vedic Indo-Aryan religious heritage of the eastern Ganges plain and with local religious traditions.
  3. ^ Antonía Tripolitis (2002). Religions of the Hellenistic-Roman age. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. pp. 3–. ISBN 978-0-8028-4913-7. It originated in Vedic, India, migrated to Persia by way of Babylon, and then westward through the Hellenized East, and finally across the length and breadth of the Hellenistic-Roman world. On its westward journey, it incorporated many of the features of the cultures in which it found itself.
  4. ^ Michael P. Speidel, Mithras-Orion: Greek Hero and Roman Army God, Brill Academic Publishers (August 1997), ISBN 90-04-06055-3
  5. ^ See Delitzsch, Assyrisches Handwörterbuch. pp. 60, 253, 261, 646; Jensen, Assyr.-Babyl. Mythen und Epen, 1900, p. 453; Archibald Sayce, l.c. pp. 441, 450, 463; Lenormant, l.c. pp. 48–51.
  6. ^ Sarah Iles Johnston, Religions of the Ancient World: A Guide, Harvard University Press 2004, p.9

External links

  • Ancient Mesopotamian Gods and Goddesses, on Oracc
  • Mespototamian Religion and Mesopotamian Pantheon on Ancient History Encyclopedia
  • ASOR (American Schools of Oriental Research), Boston University
  • University of Michigan. Traditions of Magic in Late Antiquity
  • Canaanite/Ugaritic Mythology FAQ, ver. 1.2 by Chris Siren
  • Canaan and Ancient Israel by the University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology.

March 21, 2023
religions, ancient, near, east, this, article, needs, additional, citations, verification, please, help, improve, this, article, adding, citations, reliable, sources, unsourced, material, challenged, removed, find, sources, news, newspapers, books, scholar, js. This article needs additional citations for verification Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources Unsourced material may be challenged and removed Find sources Religions of the ancient Near East news newspapers books scholar JSTOR July 2011 Learn how and when to remove this template message The religions of the ancient Near East were mostly polytheistic with some examples of monolatry for example Yahwism and Atenism Some scholars believe that the similarities between these religions indicate that the religions are related a belief known as patternism 1 Many religions of the ancient near East and their offshoots can be traced to Proto Semitic religion Other religions in the ancient Near East include the ancient Egyptian religion the Luwian and Hittite religions of Asia Minor and the Sumerian religion of ancient Mesopotamia Offshoots of Proto Semitic religion include Canaanite religion and Arabian religion Judaism is a development of Canaanite religion both Indo European and Semitic religions influenced the ancient Greek religion and Zoroastrianism was a product of ancient Indo Iranian religion primarily the ancient Iranian religion In turn these religious traditions strongly influenced the later monotheistic religions of Christianity Mandaeism Gnosticism Islam and Manicheanism which inherited their monotheism from Judaism and Zoroastrianism Contents 1 Overview 2 Semitic 2 1 Mesopotamia 2 1 1 Astrology 2 1 2 Ethic 2 1 3 Demonology 2 2 Levant 3 Greater Iran 4 Egypt 5 Anatolia 6 Bibliography 6 1 General 6 2 Canaan and Ugarit 7 See also 8 References 9 External linksOverview EditThe history of the ancient Near East spans more than two millennia from the Bronze Age to the Early Iron Age in the region now known as the Middle East centered on the Fertile Crescent There was much cultural contact so that it is justified to summarize the whole region under a single term but that does not mean of course that each historical period and each region should not be looked at individually for a detailed description This article will attempt to outline the common traits of ancient Near Eastern religions and refer to sub articles for in depth descriptions The ancient Near East includes the following subregions Mesopotamia Sumer Assyria Babylonia and Akkad Sumerian religion ancient Mesopotamian religion Ancient Egypt Ancient Egyptian religion Atenism The Levant Canaan Ugarit Ebla Mitanni ancient Canaanite religion Judaism Samaritanism Carthage Punic religion Arabian Peninsula Nabatea Sabaeans Minaeans Arabian polytheism Anatolia the Hittites Assuwa league Arzawa Hittite mythology Hurrian religion Hattic religion Luwian religion The Caucasus and the Armenian Highlands Urartu Urartian religion Ancient Iran Elam Media Persia Zoroastrianism Cyprus Crete Minoan civilization Minoan religion Crete and Mainland Greece Mycenaean Greece Mycenaean religionThe earliest sources from c 2500 BC allow glimpses of Sumerian religion and ancient Egyptian religion Early Hittite religion bore traits descended from Proto Indo European religion but the later Hittite religions became more and more assimilated to Mesopotamian religion Also the Persian Zoroastrianism shared origin with Indian Vedism and the ancient Iranian religion The Vedic religion also called as ancient Hinduism 2 developed further through an unbroken tradition to take the form of modern Hinduism an exonym used for the modern form of Vedic religion Ancient Greek religion and the following the Etruscan religion and the Religion in ancient Rome was strongly influenced by ancient Near Eastern religion but is usually not included in the term The Greco Roman mysteries of the Hellenistic period were again consciously connected with ancient Egyptian religion The origins of the Roman Mithraism however are not resolved There are theories of an origin in the Indian Vedic religion 3 the Zoroastrianism and the Greco Roman Religion like Orion 4 There are broad practices that these religions often hold in common Purification and cleansing rituals Sacrifices plant and animal sacrifice libations rarely but prominently in mythology human sacrifice Polytheism Though Egypt and Greece were Henotheistic societies City state sponsored religions theocracy Sacred prostitution Divination Magic invocations conjurings and talismans Typically ancient Near Eastern religions were centered on theocracies with a dominating regional cult of the god of a city state There were also super regional mythemes and deities such as the God Tammuz and the descent to the underworld Divinations Apantomancy seeing animals Cleromancy drawing lots Hepatoscopy observing the liver of an animal Nephomancy cloud watching Ornithomancy watching birds in flight Capnomancy divination through smoke Oneiromancy divination through dreamsSemitic EditMain article Ancient Semitic religion Mesopotamia Edit Main article Ancient Mesopotamian religion Further information Sumerian religion Impression of the cylinder seal of Ḫasḫamer patesi High Priest of Sin at Iskun Sin c 2400 BC Astrology Edit Identification of the gods and goddesses with heavenly bodies planets stars the sun and the moon and to assigning the seats of all the deities in the Heavens is found in Assyro Babylonian religion The personification of the two great luminaries the sun and the moon was the first step in the unfolding of this system and this was followed by placing the other deities where Shamash and Sin had their seats This process which reached its culmination in the post Hammurabic period led to identifying the planet Venus with Ishtar Jupiter with Marduk Mars with Nergal Mercury with Nabu and Saturn with Ninurta The system represents a harmonious combination of two factors one of popular origin the other the outcome of speculation in the schools attached to the temples of Babylonia The popular factor is the belief in the influence exerted by the movements of the heavenly bodies on occurrences on earth a belief naturally suggested by the dependence of life vegetation and guidance upon the two great luminaries Starting with this belief the Priests and Priestesses built up the theory of the close correspondence between occurrences on earth and phenomena in the Heavens The Heavens presenting a constant change even to the superficial observer the conclusion was drawn of a connection between the changes and the ever changing movement in the fate of individuals and of nature as well as in the appearance of nature To read the signs of the heavens was therefore to understand the meaning of occurrences on Earth and with this accomplished it was also possible to foretell what events were portended by the position and relationship to one another of the sun the moon the planets and certain stars Myths that symbolized changes in season or occurrences in nature were projected on the heavens which were mapped out to correspond to the divisions of the earth All the gods demons and spirits had their places assigned to them in the heavens and facts including such as fell within the domain of political history were interpreted in terms of astral theology So completely did this system in the course of time sway men s minds that the cults and sects from being an expression of animistic beliefs took on the color derived from the astral interpretation of occurrences and doctrines It left its trace in incantations omens and hymns and gave birth to astronomy which was assiduously cultivated because a knowledge of the heavens was the very foundation of the system of belief unfolded by the priests of Babylonia and Assyria As an illustration of the manner in which the doctrines of the religion were made to conform to the all pervading astral theory it will be sufficient to refer to the modification undergone in this process of the view developed in a very early period which apportioned the control of the universe among the three gods Anu Enlil and Ea Disassociating these Gods from all local connections Anu became the power presiding over the Heavens to Enlil was assigned the earth and the atmosphere immediately above it while Ea ruled over the deep With the transfer of all the Gods to the heavens and under the influence of the doctrine of the correspondence between the heavens and the earth Anu Enlil and Ea became the three ways as they are called on the heavens The ways appear in this instance to have been the designation of the ecliptic circle which was divided into three sections or zones a northern a middle and a southern zone Anu being assigned to the first Enlil to the second and Ea to the third zone The astral theology of the Babylonian Assyrian religion while thus bearing the ear marks of a system devised by the priests succeeded in assimilating the beliefs which represented the earlier attempts to systematize the more popular aspects of the religion and in this way a unification of diverse elements was secured that led to interpreting the contents and the form of the religion in terms of the astral theological system clarification needed Ethic Edit On the ethical sides the religion of Babylonia more particularly and to a less extent that of Assyria advances to noticeable conceptions of the qualities associated with the Gods and Goddesses and of the duties imposed on man Shamash the Sun God was invested with justice as his chief trait Marduk is portrayed as full of mercy and kindness and Ea is in general the protector of mankind a father who takes them under his protection The Gods to be sure are easily aroused to anger and in some of them the dire aspects predominated but the view becomes more and more pronounced that there is some cause always for the divine wrath Though in accounting for the anger of the Gods no sharp distinction is made between moral offences and a ritualistic oversight or neglect yet the stress laid in the hymns and prayers as well as in the elaborate atonement ritual prescribed in order to appease the anger of the Gods on the need of being clean and pure in the sight of the higher powers the inculcation of a proper aspect of humility and above all the need of confessing one s guilt and sins without any reserve all this bears testimony to the strength which the ethical factor acquired in the domain of the Religion This factor appears to less advantage in the unfolding of the views concerning life after death Throughout all periods of Babylonian Assyrian history the conception prevailed of a large dark cavern below the earth not far from the Apsu the fresh water abyss encircling and flowing underneath the earth in which all the dead were gathered and where they led a miserable existence of inactivity amid gloom and dust Occasionally a favoured individual was permitted to escape from this general fate and placed in a pleasant island It would appear also that the rulers were always singled out for divine grace and in the earlier periods of the history owing to the prevailing view that the rulers stood nearer to the Gods than other mortals the kings were deified after death and in some instances divine honours were paid to them even during their lifetime Demonology Edit Main article Mesopotamian Demon Ancient Near Eastern religion knew an elaborate system of benevolent neutral and malevolent demons which more resembled Greek daemons than the Christian concept of evil demons and much of medicine consisted of exorcisms e g of Lamashtu the hermaphroditic demoness responsible for complications at childbirth and infant deaths In Assyrian and Babylonian mythology the seven evil demons were known as Shedu or Lamassu meaning storm demon They were represented in winged bull form derived from the colossal bulls used as protective genii of royal palaces the name Shed assumed also the meaning of a propitious genius in Babylonian magical literature 5 Levant Edit Main articles Ancient Canaanite religion Yahwism and Judaism The deities worshipped in Canaanite religion during the Late Bronze Age notably included El Elyon and his sons the Elohim the goddess Anat and Hadad the storm god and heroic slayer of Yam The composition of the Hebrew Bible began centuries after the Bronze Age collapse but many of these names are still reflected in Biblical Hebrew including Elohim and the title Ba al originally a title of Hadad as the rival or nemesis of Yahweh Greater Iran EditSee also Greater Iran Ancient Iranian lands had a diversity of spiritual beliefs and the religions included Zoroastrianism Mazdakism Manichaeism Yazdanism Mandeanism and others Ancient Mitanni was centred in modern day Kurdistan and from excavations it was discovered to have a history of Zoroastrian practices Egypt EditMain article Ancient Egyptian religion The dominant religious rituals and beliefs of ancient Egypt merged and developed over time As an example during the New Kingdom the gods Ra and Amun were syncretized into a single god Amun Ra 6 Such syncretism should be distinguished from mere groupings also referred to as families such as Amun Mut and Khonsu Over time gods took part in multiple syncretic relationships for instance the combination of Ra and Horus into Ra Herakty Similarly Ptah Seker and Osiris became Ptah Seker Osiris Anatolia Edit Seated deity late Hittite Empire 13th century BC Main article Hittite mythology Further information Song of Kumarbi Heavily influenced by Mesopotamian mythology the religion of the Hittites and Luwians retains noticeable Indo European elements for example Tarhunt the God of thunder and his conflict with the Serpent God Illuyanka Tarhunt has a son Telepinu and a daughter Inara Inara is involved with the Puruli spring festival She is a protective Goddess dLAMMA Ishara is a Goddess of the oath Bibliography EditGeneral Edit Gordon Cyrus The Ancient Near East 3rd Edition Revised W W Norton and Company Inc New York 1965 Gray John Near Eastern Mythology Mesopotamia Syria Palestine Hamlyn Publishing 1969 James E O The Ancient Gods The History and Diffusion of Religion in the Ancient Near East and the Eastern Mediterranean 1960 Leick Gwendolyn A Dictionary of Ancient Near Eastern Mythology Routledge London amp New York 2003 Pritchard James B ed The Ancient Near East An Anthology of Texts and Pictures Princeton University Press New Jersey 1958 Pritchard James B ed The Ancient Near East Volume II A New Anthology of Texts and Pictures Princeton University Press New Jersey 1975 Sasson Jack et al eds Civilizations of the Ancient Near East Charles Scribner s Sons New York 1995 Smith Mark S God in translation deities in cross cultural discourse in the biblical world vol 57 of Forschungen zum Alten Testament Mohr Siebeck 2008 ISBN 978 3 16 149543 4 Smith Morton The Common Theology of the Ancient near East Journal of Biblical Literature 1952 Snell Daniel Religions of the Ancient Near East Cambridge University Press Cambridge 2010 van der Toorn Karel 1995 Dictionary of Deities and Demons in the Bible New York E J Brill ISBN 0 8028 2491 9 Canaan and Ugarit Edit Pardee Dennis Ritual and Cult at Ugarit Society of Biblical Literature Atlanta Georgia 2002 Parker Simon B ed Ugaritic Narrative Poetry Society of Biblical Literature U S A 1997 Smith Mark S The Ugaritic Baal Cycle Volume I Introduction with Text Translation and Commentary of KTU 1 1 1 2 E J Brill Leiden the Netherlands 1994 See also EditAncient Near East Kemetism Revival of Egyptian religion Panbabylonism Religion in the Middle East Semitic neopaganism Revival of Canaanite religion Zuism Revival of Sumerian religion References Edit Samuel H Hooke 1970 The Siege Perilous Essays in Biblical Anthropology and Kindred Subjects Ayer Publishing p 174 ISBN 0 8369 5525 0 Scholars such as Jan Gonda have used the term ancient Hinduism distinguishing it from recent Hinduism Stephanie W Jamison and Michael Witzel 1992 to call this period Vedic Hinduism is a contradictio in terminis since Vedic religion is very different from what we generally call Hindu religion at least as much as Old Hebrew religion is from medieval and modern Christian religion However Vedic religion is treatable as a predecessor of modern Hinduism According to the Encyclopaedia Britannica page from the Vedic tradition emerged Brahmanism a religious tradition of ancient India It states Brahmanism emphasized the rites performed by and the status of the Brahman or priestly class as well as speculation about Brahman the Absolute reality as theorized in the Upanishads speculative philosophical texts that are considered to be part of the Vedas or scriptures From Brahmanism developed modern Hinduism when it was synthesized with the non Vedic Indo Aryan religious heritage of the eastern Ganges plain and with local religious traditions Antonia Tripolitis 2002 Religions of the Hellenistic Roman age Wm B Eerdmans Publishing pp 3 ISBN 978 0 8028 4913 7 It originated in Vedic India migrated to Persia by way of Babylon and then westward through the Hellenized East and finally across the length and breadth of the Hellenistic Roman world On its westward journey it incorporated many of the features of the cultures in which it found itself Michael P Speidel Mithras Orion Greek Hero and Roman Army God Brill Academic Publishers August 1997 ISBN 90 04 06055 3 See Delitzsch Assyrisches Handworterbuch pp 60 253 261 646 Jensen Assyr Babyl Mythen und Epen 1900 p 453 Archibald Sayce l c pp 441 450 463 Lenormant l c pp 48 51 Sarah Iles Johnston Religions of the Ancient World A Guide Harvard University Press 2004 p 9External links EditAncient Mesopotamian Gods and Goddesses on Oracc Mespototamian Religion and Mesopotamian Pantheon on Ancient History Encyclopedia ASOR American Schools of Oriental Research Boston University University of Michigan Traditions of Magic in Late Antiquity Canaanite Ugaritic Mythology FAQ ver 1 2 by Chris Siren Canaan and Ancient Israel by the University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Religions of the ancient Near East amp oldid 1101815610, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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