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Religion in Indonesia

May 19, 2023

Several different religions are practised in Indonesia. Indonesia is officially a presidential republic and a unitary state without an established state religion.[2][3] Indonesia has the world's largest Muslim population[4][5] and the first principle of Indonesia's philosophical foundation, Pancasila, requires its citizens to state the belief in "the one and almighty God".[6][7] Consequently, Indonesia not only emphasises monotheism but also recognises the significance of religion in the lives of its people. In addition, the Aceh province officially enforces Sharia law and is notorious for its discriminatory practices towards religious and sexual minorities.[8] There are also pro-Sharia and fundamentalist movements in several parts of the country with overwhelming Muslim majorities.[9]

Religion in Indonesia (2018)[1]

  Islam (86.7%)
  Christianity (10.7%)
  Hinduism (1.74%)
  Buddhism (0.77%)
  Folk/Other (0.05%)
  Confucianism (0.03%)
Map showing the dominant religious group in each province of Indonesia.

Several different religions are practised in the country, and their collective influence on the country's political, economic and cultural life is significant. Despite constitutionally guaranteeing freedom of religion,[10] the government back in 1965 recognises only six religions: Islam, Christianity (Catholicism, under the label of "Katolik", and Protestantism, under the label of "Kristen" are recognised separately), Hinduism, Buddhism and Confucianism.[11] In that same year, the government specify that it will not ban other religions, specifically mentioning Judaism, Zoroastrianism, Shinto, and Taoism.[12] According to a 2017 decision of the Constitutional Court of Indonesia, "the branches/flows of beliefs" (Indonesian: aliran kepercayaan)—ethnic religions with new religious movements—must be recognised and included in an Indonesian identity card (KTP).[13][14] Based on data collected by the Indonesian Conference on Religion and Peace (ICRP), there are about 245 unofficial religions in Indonesia.[15]

From 1975 to 2017, Indonesian law mandated that its citizens possess an identity card indicating their religious affiliation, which could be chosen from a selection of those six recognised religions.[16] However, since 2017, citizens who do not identify with those religions have the option to leave that section blank on their identity card.[17] Although there is no apostasy law preventing Indonesians from converting to any religion, Indonesia does not recognise agnosticism or atheism, and blasphemy is considered illegal.[18] In 2018 Indonesian governmental statistics, 86.7% of Indonesians identified themselves as Muslim (with Sunnis about 99%,[19] Shias about 1%[20] and Ahmadis 0.2%[16]), 10,7% Christianity (7.6% Protestantism, 3.12% Catholicism), 1.74% Hindu, 0.77% Buddhist, 0.03% Confucian and 0.05% others.[21]

History

Main articles: Silk Road transmission of Buddhism and Spread of Islam in Indonesia
 
The Maritime Silk Road, connecting India and Indonesia.

Until the beginning of CE, the peoples of Indonesia followed the local tribal Austronesian and Papuan ethnic religions and traditions.[22]

Historically, immigration from the Indian subcontinent, mainland China, Portugal, the Arab world, and the Netherlands has been a significant contributor to the diversity of religion and culture within the archipelago.[23] However, these aspects have changed due to some modifications made to suit the Indonesian culture.

 
The ancient Prambanan Hindu temple built in the 9th century, Java.

Before the arrival of the Abrahamic religions of Islam, Christianity and Judaism, the prevalent religions in the region were the Indian religions of Hinduism and Buddhism. They were brought to the archipelago around the second and fourth centuries, respectively, when Indian traders arrived on the islands of Sumatra, Java and Sulawesi, and brought their religion. The Shaivite sect of Hinduism started to develop in Java in the fifth century CE. Hinduism had a decisive influence on the ideology of the one-man rule of the Raja, and was the dominant religion in Indonesia before the arrival of Islam.[24] The traders also established Buddhism which developed further in the following century and several Hindu and Buddhist-influenced kingdoms were established, such as Kutai, Srivijaya, Majapahit, and Shailendra. The world's largest Buddhist monument, Borobudur, was built by Shailendra and around the same time, the Hindu monument Prambanan was also built. The peak of Hindu-Javanese civilisation was the Majapahit empire in the fourteenth century, and is described as a 'Golden Age' in Indonesian history.[25]

Islam was introduced to the archipelago in the thirteenth century. Coming from Gujarat, India[23] (some scholars also propose the Arabian and Persian theories[26]), Islam spread through the west coast of Sumatra and then developed to the east in Java. This period also saw Islam-influenced kingdoms established, namely Demak, Pajang, Mataram and Banten. By the end of the fifteenth century, 20 Islam-based kingdoms had been established, reflecting the domination of Islam in Indonesia.[27]

The Portuguese introduced Christianity in the 16th century, notably to the island of Flores and to what was to become East Timor.[28] Protestantism was first introduced by the Dutch in the 16th century with Calvinist and Lutheran influences. For the Dutch, economic benefit rather than religious conversion were paramount, and missionary efforts avoided predominantly Muslim areas such as Java. The Dutch East India Company (VOC) regulated the missionary work so it could serve its own interests and focused it to the eastern, Animist part of the archipelago, including Maluku, North Sulawesi, Nusa Tenggara, Papua and Kalimantan.[29] Christianity later spread from the coastal ports of Kalimantan, and missionaries arrived among the Torajans on Sulawesi. Parts of Sumatra were also targeted, most notably the Batak people who are predominantly Protestant today.[30]

The Sukarno era was characterised by a "distrust" between religion and the state.[31] There were also significant changes to the relationship during the New Order. Following an attempted coup in 1965 that officially blamed the Communist Party of Indonesia (PKI) and an anti-communist purge, the New Order government attempted to suppress PKI supporters by making it mandatory to have a religion since PKI supporters were mostly atheists.[32] As a result, citizens were required to carry personal identification cards indicating their religion. The policy resulted in a mass conversion, with most to Catholicism and Protestantism. Chinese Indonesians, who were mostly Confucianists, also faced similar circumstances. Because Confucianism was not one of the state-recognised religions, many converted to Christianity.[33]

Islam

Main article: Islam in Indonesia

Sunni Islam

The history of Islam in Indonesia is complex and reflects the diversity of Indonesian cultures.[4] There is evidence of Arab Muslim traders entering the Indonesian archipelago as early as the 8th century.[34] Venetian explorer, Marco Polo is credited with the earliest known record of a Muslim community around 1297 AD, whom he referred to as a new community of Moorish traders in Perlak, Aceh.[35] Over the 15th and 16th century, the spread of Islam accelerated via the missionary work of Maulana Malik Ibrahim (also known as Sunan Gresik, originally from Samarkand) in Sumatra and Java and Admiral Zheng He (also known as Cheng Ho, from China) in north Java, as well as campaigns led by sultans that targeted Hindu-Buddhist kingdoms and various communities, with each trying to carve out a region or island for control. Four diverse and contentious sultanates emerged in northern and southern Sumatra, west and central Java, and southern Kalimantan. The sultans declared Islam as a state religion and pursued war against each other as well as the Hindus and other non-Muslim infidels.[27]

 
Indonesian Muslim men wearing songkok and sarong standing in salah
 
Perlon Unggahan — a slametan ritual for ancestors of Javanese Muslims in Pekuncen, Banyumas on last Friday before Ramadan.

Subsequently, Hindu, Buddhist, Confucian, animist communities and unbelievers bought peace by agreeing to pay jizya tax to a Muslim ruler, while others began adopting Islam to escape the tax.[36] Islam in Indonesia is in many cases less meticulously practised in comparison to Islam in the Middle East. In some regions, people retained and continued their old beliefs. They adopted a syncretic version of Islam, [37] while others left and concentrated as communities in islands that they could defend, for example, Hindus of western Java moved to Bali and neighbouring small islands.[38] While this period of religious conflict and inter-Sultanate warfare was unfolding, and new power centres were attempting to consolidate regions under their control, European powers arrived.[38] The archipelago was soon dominated by the Dutch empire, which helped prevent inter-religious conflict, and slowly began the process of excavating, preserving and understanding the archipelago's ancient Hindu and Buddhist period, particularly in Java and the western islands.[39]

The vast majority of Indonesian Muslims (about 99%) practice Sunni Islam of the Shafi‘i school. Smaller numbers follow other schools (madhhabs),[19][40] and the Salafi movement.[41] The main divisions of Islam in Indonesia are traditionalism and modernism. Both are supported by Indonesia's two largest Islamic civil society groups Nahdlatul Ulama and Muhammadiyah, respectively.[42] the orders of Sufism are considered essential.[43]

Concerning the political expansion of Islam after the resignation of Suharto, political parties were again permitted to declare an ideology other than Pancasila. Several Islamist parties formed with Sharia as their ideology and the Crescent Star Party (PBB) came in sixth place in the 1999 elections. However, in 2009 elections, the PBB ranked only 10th, while parties characterised by moderate and tolerant Islamic interpretations had more significant success, such as the Prosperous Justice Party (PKS) coming in 4th with nearly 8% of total votes.[44]

Shia Islam

Main article: Shia Islam in Indonesia

Shia Islam played an important role in the early period of the spread of Islam in North Sumatra and Java.[45] Currently, there are approximately 1-3 million Twelvers in Sumatra, Java, Madura and Sulawesi islands, and also Ismailis in Bali, which approximates more than 1% of the total Muslim population.[46] Shias form a segment of Arab Indonesians and the Hadhrami people.[47] The main organisation is "Ikatan Jamaah Ahlulbait Indonesia" (IJABI).[48]

Ahmadiyya

Main article: Ahmadiyya in Indonesia

The earliest history of Ahmadi Muslims in the archipelago dates back to the summer of 1925, when roughly two decades before the Indonesian revolution, a missionary of the Community, Rahmat Ali, stepped in Sumatra and established the movement with 13 devotees in Tapaktuan, Aceh.[49] The community has had an influential history in Indonesia's religious development, yet in modern times it has faced increasing intolerance from religious establishments and physical hostilities from radical Muslim groups.[50] In Ahmadiyya organisation Jamaah Muslim Ahmadiyah Indonesia (JMAI), there are an estimated 400.000 followers, which equates to 0.2% of the total Muslim population,[16] spread over 542 branches across the country; in contrast to independent estimates, the Ministry of Religious Affairs (Indonesia) estimates around 80.000 members.[49] A separatist group, Lahore Ahmadiyya Movement for the Propagation of Islam, known as Gerakan Ahmadiyah-Lahore Indonesia (GAI) in Indonesia, has existed in Java since 1924 and had only 708 members in the 1980s.[49]

Minor religions

Christianity

Main article: Christianity in Indonesia

The government officially recognises the two main Christian divisions in Indonesia, Catholicism and Protestantism, as two separate religions.

Catholicism

Main article: Catholic Church in Indonesia
 
Statue of Mary, Mother of All Tribes in Jakarta Cathedral

Catholicism arrived in the archipelago during the Portuguese arrival with spice-trading over the 14th and 15th century. Many Portuguese had the goal of spreading Catholicism, starting with the Maluku Islands in 1534. Between 1546 and 1547, the pioneer Christian missionary, Saint Francis Xavier, visited the islands and baptised several thousand locals. During the VOC era, the number of Catholics fell significantly, due to the VOC's policy of banning the religion. The hostility of the Dutch toward Catholicism is due to its history where the Protestant Dutch gained their independence after the Eighty Years War against Catholic Spain's rule. The most significant result was on the island of Flores and East Timor where the VOC concentrated. Moreover, Catholic priests were sent to prisons or punished and replaced by Protestant clergy from the Netherlands. One Catholic priest was executed for celebrating Mass in prison during Jan Pieterszoon Coen's tenure as Governors of the Dutch East Indies. After the VOC collapsed and with the legalisation of Catholicism in the Netherlands starting around 1800, Dutch Catholic clergy predominated until after Indonesia's independence.[51][52] In present-day Flores, the royal house of Larantuka formed the only native Catholic kingdom in Southeast Asia around the 16th century, with the first king named Lorenzo.[53]

Other than Flores, Central Java also have significant numbers of Catholics. Catholicism started to spread in Central Java when Frans van Lith, a priest from the Netherlands came to Muntilan in 1896. Initially, his effort did not produce a satisfying result until 1904 when four Javanese chiefs from Kalibawang region asked him to give them education in the religion. On 15 December 1904, a group of 178 Javanese were baptised at Semagung, Muntilan, district Magelang, Central Java, near the border of the Special Region of Yogyakarta.[54]

As of 2018, 3.12% of Indonesians are Catholics, nearly half the number of Protestants at 7.6%.[55] The practitioners mostly live in West Kalimantan, Papua and East Nusa Tenggara. The province of East Nusa Tenggara, where the island of Flores and West Timor are located, is the only province in Indonesia where Catholics are the majority (about 54.14% of the total population). In Java, next to Javanese, Catholicism also spread to Chinese Indonesians.[51][56] In the present day, Catholic traditions close to Easter days remain, locally known as Semana Santa. It involves a procession carrying statues of Jesus and the Virgin Mary (locally referred to as Tuan Ana and Tuan Ma respectively) to a local beach, then to Cathedral of the Queen of the Rosary, the Diocese of Larantuka, Flores.[57]

Orthodoxy

Eastern Christianity operates in Indonesia under the label "Kristen" together with Protestants.

Eastern Orthodoxy is represented by the Indonesian Orthodox Church (Moscow Patriarchate), which until 2019 was part of the Russian Orthodox Diocese of Sydney, Australia and New Zealand (Russian Orthodox Church Outside Russia),[58] and then comes under the unified spiritual leadership of the Diocese of Singapore (Russian Orthodox Church).

In addition, there are communities of Oriental Orthodoxy, namely the Syriac Orthodox Church (Indonesian: Kanisah Ortodoks Suriah) and Coptic Orthodox Church (Indonesian: Gereja Kristen Ortodoks Koptik di Indonesia).[59]

Protestantism

Main article: Protestantism in Indonesia
 
Church in Bukit Doa Getsemane Sanggam, Unjur, Samosir, North Sumatra

Protestantism is mostly a result of Calvinist and Lutheran missionary efforts during the country's colonial period.[60] The Dutch Reformed Church was long at the forefront in introducing Christianity to native peoples and was later joined by other Reformed churches that separated from it during the 19th century.[51] The VOC regulated the missionary work so it could serve its own interests and restricted it to the eastern part of the Indonesian archipelago.[61] Although these two branches are the most common, a multitude of other denominations can be found elsewhere in Indonesia.[62]

Protestants form a significant minority in some parts of the country. Statistically, 7.6% of the total population declared themselves Protestant in a 2018 census. Seventeen per cent of the population in Sulawesi are Protestants, particularly in Tana Toraja regency in South Sulawesi province and Central Sulawesi. Furthermore, up to 65% of the ethnic Torajans are Protestants. The Batak people from North Sumatra is also one of the major Protestant groups in Indonesia, comprising around 50% out of all ethnic population. Christianity was brought by German Lutheran missionary Ludwig Ingwer Nommensen who is known as the apostle to the Batak people and started the Batak Christian Protestant Church (HKBP), [63][64][62] which is the largest Lutheran church in Asia.[65]

Anglicanism is present in Indonesia since 1819, during the British Invasion of Java, when church services were provided towards interdenominational English speaking communities in Java.[66] In 1822, Singaporean-based London Missionary Society purchased a land in Batavia (now Jakarta) and in 1829 constructed of what is now known as All Saints Church.[66][67] The organization become affiliated with Church of England and is an autonomous part of Anglican Communion since 1857 [68] and is oldest English-speaking institutions in Indonesia.[69] In 1993, Anglican Diocese of Singapore established "Deanery of Indonesia".[70] In 1998, Gereja Anglikan Indonesia (lit. Anglican Church of Indonesia) was founded to provide better services to native Indonesians. As of 2022, the congregation is present in Jakarta, Bandung, Surabaya, Batam, Medan, Nunukan, Pontianak, Ambon, and Tarakan.[71]

Other branches of Christianity also exists in Indonesia, such as; Mormonism (since 1969) [72] and Jehovah's Witnesses (since 1930). [73] Previously banned due to the refusal to salute Indonesian flags and refusal to participate in politics, [73] Jehovah's Witness was officially registered to the Ministry of Religious Affairs in March 2002.[73] Meanwhile for Mormonism, Russell M. Nelson, the president of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church) visited Vice Presidential Palace of Indonesia in November 2019, where he officially met Ma'ruf Amin, the Vice President of Indonesia.[74]

Chinese Indonesians are also a significant part of the Protestant population, scattered throughout Indonesia with the majority concentrated in major urban areas. In 2000, approximately 35% of ethnic Chinese were Christian, and there is a continuous increase among the younger generation. In some parts of the country, entire villages belong to a distinct denomination, such as Adventism, the International Church of the Foursquare Gospel, Lutheran, Presbyterian or the Salvation Army (Bala Keselamatan) depending on the success of missionary activity.[62]

Indonesia has three Protestant-majority provinces, West Papua, Papua, and North Sulawesi, with 60%, 68% and 64% of the total population respectively. In Papua, it is most widely practised among the native Papuan population. In North Sulawesi, the Minahasan population centred around Manado converted to Christianity in the 19th century. Today, most of the population native to North Sulawesi practice some form of Protestantism, while transmigrants from Java and Madura practice Islam. Adherents of Protestantism mostly live in North Sumatra, West Kalimantan, Central Kalimantan, South Sulawesi, West Sulawesi, Central Sulawesi, North Sulawesi, East Nusa Tenggara, North Maluku, Maluku (province), West Papua (province), Papua (province).[75][62]

The Communion of Churches in Indonesia is the sole umbrella for most Protestant churches.[76]

Hinduism

Main article: Hinduism in Indonesia
See also: Balinese Hinduism and Hinduism in Java
 
The Mother Temple of Besakih, on the slopes of Mount Agung in eastern Bali, is the most important, the largest and holiest temple of the Balinese Hindus.

Hindu culture and religion arrived in the archipelago around the 2nd century CE, which later formed the basis of several Hindu-Buddhist kingdoms such as Kutai, Mataram, and Majapahit. Around 130, a Sundanese kingdom named Salakanagara emerged in western Java. It was the first historically recorded Indianised kingdom in the archipelago, created by an Indian trader following marriage to a local Sundanese princess.[77] The largest Hindu temple in Indonesia, Prambanan, was built during the Majapahit kingdom by the Sanjaya dynasty. The kingdom existed until the 16th century when Islamic empires began to develop, this period known as the Hindu-Indonesian period.[78]

Hinduism in Indonesia takes on a distinct tone from other parts of the world.[79][80] Hinduism, referred to as Agama Hindu Dharma in Indonesia, formally applied the caste system.[81] It also incorporated native Austronesian elements that revered hyangs, deities and spirits of nature and deceased ancestors. The Hindu religious epics, the Mahabharata and the Ramayana, are expressed in Indonesian wayang puppetry and dance. All practitioners of Agama Hindu Dharma share many common beliefs, mostly the Five Points of Philosophy, the Panca Srada. These include the belief in one Almighty God (Brahman), belief in the souls and myriad of local and ancestral spirits and karma or the belief in the law of reciprocal actions, rather than belief in cycles of rebirth and reincarnation. In addition, the religion focuses more on art and ritual rather than scriptures, laws and beliefs.[79][82] In many areas on Java, Hinduism and Islam have heavily influenced each other, in part resulting in Abangan and Kejawèn (Kebatinan) traditions.[83]

According to the 2010 census, Hindus numbered 4 million (1.7% of Indonesians).[55] The Parisada Hindu Dharma Indonesia has disputed this figure, who estimated as many as 18 million Hindus in the country.[84] The majority of Hindus live in Bali. Sumatra, Java, Lombok, Kalimantan and Sulawesi also have significant Hindu populations; most are Balinese who migrated to these areas through government-sponsored transmigration program or urbanised Balinese attracted to cities in Java, especially the Greater Jakarta area. The Tamil Indonesians in Medan represents another important concentration of Hindus.[16]

There are indigenous religions that are incorporated into the Hinduism (not all followers agree): Hindu Kaharingan of Dayak people;[85] Javanese Hinduism of Tenggerese tribe;[86] Hindu Tolotang of Bugis;[87] and Aluk Todolo of Toraja.[88]

There are also some international Hindu reform movements, including the International Society for Krishna Consciousness, Sathya Sai Organization,[16] Chinmaya Mission, Brahma Kumaris, Ananda Marga, Sahaja Yoga, and Haidakhandi Samaj.[89]

Buddhism

Main article: Buddhism in Indonesia
 
The Buddha statue at Borobudur temple, Magelang, Central Java

Buddhism is the second oldest religion in Indonesia, arriving around the sixth century. The history of Buddhism in Indonesia is closely related to that of Hinduism, as some empires based on Buddhist culture were established around the same period. The Indonesian archipelago has witnessed the rise and fall of powerful Buddhist empires such as Shailendra dynasty, Srivijaya and Mataram Empires. The arrival of Buddhism was started with trading activities that began in the early first century on the Silk Road between Indonesia and India. According to some Chinese sources, a Chinese monk on his journey to India, witnessed the powerful maritime empire of Srivijaya based in Sumatra. The empire also served as a Buddhist learning centre in the region. Some historical heritage monuments can be found in Indonesia, including the Borobudur Temple in Yogyakarta and statues or prasasti (inscriptions) from the earlier history of Buddhist empires.[78]

Following the downfall of President Sukarno in the mid-1960s and the mandatory policy of having a religion,[90] founder of Perbuddhi (Indonesian Buddhists Organisation), Bhikku Ashin Jinarakkhita, proposed that there was a single supreme deity, Sanghyang Adi Buddha. He was also backed up with the history behind the Indonesian version of Buddhism in ancient Javanese texts, and the shape of the Borobudur Temple.[91]

According to the 2018 census, roughly 0.8% of Indonesians are Buddhists, which takes up about 2 million people.[55] Most Buddhists are concentrated in Jakarta, although other provinces such as Riau, North Sumatra and West Kalimantan also have a significant number of practitioners. However, the figures are likely higher, since practitioners of Confucianism and Taoism, the latter of which is not considered an official religion, referred to themselves as Buddhists on the census. Today, most Buddhists are Chinese Indonesians and, to a lesser extent, among the Javanese and Balinese. Among the Indonesian Buddhists, the major Buddhist schools are Mahayana, Vajrayana, and Theravada. Most Chinese Indonesians follow a syncretic combination of Chinese beliefs, such as the three teachings (Tridharma) and Yiguandao (Maytreya).[92]

Confucianism

Main article: Confucianism in Indonesia
 
A Chinese temple of Sanggar Agung, in Surabaya, East Java

Confucianism originated in China and was brought to Indonesia by Chinese merchants as early as the 3rd century AD. Unlike other religions, Confucianism evolved more into loose individual practices and belief in the code of conduct, rather than a well-organised community with a sound theology—akin to a way of life or social movement than a religion. It was not until the early 1900s that Confucianists formed an organisation, called Khong Kauw Hwe (THHK) in Batavia.[93][94][95]

After the Indonesian independence in 1945, Confucianism was affected by several political conflicts. In 1965, Sukarno issued Presidential Decree No. 1/Pn.Ps/1965, recognising that six religions are embraced by the Indonesian people, including Confucianism. In 1961, the Association of Khung Chiao Hui Indonesia (PKCHI) (now the Supreme Council for the Confucian Religion in Indonesia) had declared that Confucianism is a religion and Confucius is their prophet.[96][95]

During the New Order, the anti-China policy became a scapegoat-like method to gain political support from the masses, especially after the fall of PKI, which had allegedly been backed by China. In 1967, Suharto issued controversial Presidential Instruction No. 14/1967, which effectively banned Chinese culture, including documents printed in Chinese, expressions of Chinese belief, Chinese celebrations and festivities, and even Chinese names. However, Suharto acknowledged that the Chinese Indonesians had a large amount of wealth and power, despite consisting only 3% of the population.[96][95]

In 1969, Statute No. 5/1969 was passed, restoring the official total of six religions. However, it was not always put into practice. In 1978, the Minister of Home Affairs issued a directive asserting there are only five religions, excluding Confucianism. On 27 January 1979, a presidential cabinet meeting decided that Confucianism is not a religion. Another Minister of Home Affairs directive in 1990 re-iterated the total of five official religions in Indonesia.[96][95] Therefore, the status of Confucianism during the New Order regime was never clear. De jure, there were conflicting laws, because higher laws permitted Confucianism, but lower ones did not recognise it. De facto, Confucianists were not recognised by the government, and they were forced to register with one of the original five official religions to maintain their citizenship. This practice was applied in many places, including the national registration card, marriage registration, and family registration card. Civics education in Indonesia taught school children that there are only five official religions.[96][95]

Following the fall of Suharto in 1998, Abdurrahman Wahid was elected as the country's fourth president. He rescinded the 1967 Presidential Instruction and the 1978 Home Affairs Ministry directive, and Confucianism once again became officially recognised as a religion in Indonesia. Chinese culture and activities were again permitted. [97]

Indigenous religions

Main article: Aliran kepercayaan
See also: Mythology of Indonesia
 
Nias tribesmen moving and erecting a megalith, ca. 1915.

A number of ancestral animistic/polytheistic indigenous religions (Austronesian and Papuan ethnic beliefs) are present, which were dominant throughout the archipelago before the arrival of Dharmic and Abrahamic religions. Some still exist in some parts of Indonesia as either pure or syncretic. They include:

The non-official number of ethnic believers is up to 20 million.[14] The government often views indigenous beliefs as kepercayaan adat (custom) rather than agama (religion) or as a variant of a recognised religion. Because of this, followers of these beliefs such as Dayak Kaharingan have identified themselves as Hindu as a result to avoid pressure to convert to Islam or Christianity. Several native tribal beliefs such as Sunda Wiwitan, Toraja Aluk Todolo, and Batak Parmalim — although different from Indian-influenced Balinese Hinduism — might seek affiliation with Hinduism to survive, while at the same time also preserving their distinction from mainstream Indonesian Hinduism dominated by the Balinese. In many cases, some of the followers of these native beliefs might convert to Christianity or Islam, at least registered as such on their KTP while still upholding and performing their native beliefs.[99]

However, "the branches/flows of beliefs" (Indonesian: aliran kepercayaan), including local new religious movements, are partly recognised according to a 2017 decision of the Constitutional Court. It rules that the law requiring people whose 'religion is not recognised', or followers of indigenous religions to leave the religion column on identity documents blank is contrary to the constitution.[13][14]

Kejawèn (Javanese beliefs)

Main article: Kejawèn
 
Nyai Roro Kidul, the goddess of the Southern Sea according to Javanese Kejawen, Sunda Wiwitan and Balinese Hinduism religion.

Kejawèn (Javanese beliefs) or Kebatinan is an amalgam of animism, Hindu-Buddhist, and Islamic — especially Sufi — beliefs. The beliefs are rooted in Javanese history and spiritualism with the tendency to syncretise aspects of different religions in search for a common ground. Kejawèn is generally characterised as mystical, and some varieties were concerned with spiritual self-control. Although there were many varieties circulating in 1992, Kejawèn often implies pantheistic worship because it encourages sacrifices and devotions to local and ancestral spirits. These spirits are believed to inhabit natural objects, human beings, artefacts, and grave sites of the important wali (Muslim saints). Illness and other misfortunes are traced to such spirits, and if sacrifices or pilgrimages fail to placate angry deities, the advice of a dukun or healer is sought. Kejawèn, while it connotes a turning away from the aggressive universalism of orthodox Islam, moves toward a more internalised universalism. In this way, Kebatinan moves toward eliminating the distinction between the universal and the local, the communal and the individual.[100]

The Kejawèn have no certain prophet, a sacred book, nor distinct religious festivals and rituals; it has more to do with each adherent's internalised transcendental vision and beliefs in their relations with others and with the supreme being. As a result, there is an inclusiveness that the kebatinan believer could identify themselves with one of six officially recognised religions, at least in KTP, while still subscribe to their kebatinan belief and way of life. This loosely organised current of thought and practice was legitimised in the 1945 constitution and, in 1973, when it was recognised as Kepercayaan kepada Tuhan Yang Maha Esa (Believer of One Supreme God) that somewhat gain the status as one of the agama. President Suharto regarded himself as one of its adherents.[101]

The formal Kejawen/Kebatinan movements are Subud, Sumarah, Pangestu, Perjalanan, Amerta, and others.[102]

Subud

Main article: Subud

Subud is an international spiritual movement that began in Indonesia in the 1920s as a movement related to Sufism and Javanese beliefs founded by Muhammad Subuh Sumohadiwidjojo. (The name Subud was first used in the late 1940s when Subud was legally registered in Indonesia.) The basis of Subud is a spiritual exercise commonly referred to as the latihan kejiwaan, which was said by Muhammad Subuh to be guidance from "the Power of God" or "the Great Life Force".[103][104]

Muhammad Subuh saw the present age as one that demands personal evidence and proof of religious or spiritual realities, as people no longer just believe in words. He claimed that Subud is not a new teaching or religion, but only that the latihan kejiwaan itself is the kind of proof that humanity is looking for. There are now Subud groups in about 83 countries, with a worldwide membership of about 10,000.[104]

Saminism

Main article: Saminism Movement

Indonesian social-religious Saminism Movement (also Sedulur Sikep) rejected the capitalist views of the colonial Dutch, was founded by Surosentiko Samin in north-central Java (Blora) in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.[105]

Other

Further information: Dukun, Bomoh, Pawang, and 1998 East Java ninja scare
 
Dayak dukun (shaman).

Dukun and pawang are Indonesians' terms for a shaman (the Malays in Indonesia use word bomoh). Their societal role is that of a traditional healer, spirit medium, custom and tradition experts and on occasion sorcerers and masters of black magic. In common usage, the dukun is often confused with another type of shaman, the pawang. It is often mistranslated into English as "witch-doctor" or "medicine man". Many self-styled shamans in Indonesia are scammers and criminals, preying on gullible and superstitious people who were raised to believe in the supernatural.[106]

Other religions and belief systems

Judaism

See also: History of the Jews in Indonesia

The early Sephardi Jews establishment in the archipelago came from Portugal and Spain in the 17th century.[107] In the 1850s, about 20 Jewish families of Dutch and German origins lived in Batavia. Some lived in Semarang and Surabaya. Several Baghdadi Jews also settled. Before 1945, there were about 2.000 Dutch Jews in Indonesia. Some Jews even converted to Christianity or Islam during the Japanese occupation when Jews were sent to internment camps, and the Indonesian National Revolution when Eurasians were targeted. In 1957, it was reported that around 450 Jews remained, mainly Ashkenazim in Jakarta and Sephardim in Surabaya. The community decreased to 50 in 1963 and to 20 in 1997.[108]

Jews in Surabaya maintained a synagogue for many years, with sporadic support from relatives and co-religionists residing in Singapore. Beth Shalom closed in 2009 after radical groups protested against Israel's assault on Gaza that year. It was later designated a heritage site by the Surabaya government, but was demolished in May 2013 without warning as part of a mysterious real estate deal.[109]

Since 2003, "Shaar Hashamayim" synagogue has been serving the local Jewish community of some 20 people in Tondano city, North Sulawesi, which is attended by around 10 Orthodox Jews (Hasidic Chabad group). Currently, it is the only synagogue in Indonesia that provides services.[109][107]

The organisation "The United Indonesian Jewish Community" (UIJC) has been formed since 2009 and inaugurated in October 2010.[107] In 2015, the first official Jewish centre, "Beit Torat Chaim", was inaugurated by the Religious Affairs Ministry. It is located in Jakarta and will be led by Rabbi Tovia Singer.[110]

Bahá'í Faith

Main article: Bahá'í Faith in Indonesia

According to the Association of Religion Data Archives in the Bahá'í Faith in Indonesia had 22,115 adherents in 2005.[111]

The community is subject to a measure of government discrimination.[112][113] Since 2014, the situation has improved in the form of government plans for possible recognition (there was an erroneous opinion on already held the official recognition of the Bahai in 2014).[114][115]

Sikhism

Main article: Sikhism in Indonesia
 
Shree Guru Gobind Singh Sahib Ji Sikh Gurdwara in Binjai, North Sumatra

Sikhs migration to Indonesia began in the 1870s (guardians and traders). There are several gurdwaras and schools in Sumatra and Java, for example, in Medan was built in 1911. In 2015, the Supreme Council for the Sikh Religion in Indonesia was founded.[116] Numbering about 7.000 (or between 10.000 and 15.000[16]), Sikhs are not officially recognised by the government, resulting in adherents referring to themselves as Hindus on the KTP.[117]

Apart from the orthodox, Sikhism in Indonesia represented the Sikh reformist movement Radha Soami Satsang Beas (RSSB).[118]

Jainism

A small Jain community, Jain Social Group Indonesia (JSG Indonesia), exists in Jakarta among Indian Indonesians.[119]

Chinese folk religion

Main articles: Shenism in Southeast Asia § Indonesia, and Chen Fu Zhen Ren

New religious movements

The most famous of the new religious movements in Indonesia are Theosophical Society,[120] Transcendental Meditation movement,[121] Falun Gong,[16] and originated in Indonesia Subud[122] and Eden community (Jamaah Alamulla).[16][123]

Atheism

Main article: Atheism in Indonesia
See also: Discrimination against atheists in Indonesia

Although there is no specific law that bans atheism, legal cases in which atheists have been charged with blasphemy for publicly expressing atheist points of view have raised the issue of whether it is de facto illegal to do so according to Pancasila. Some clerics invoke the first Pancasila principle to argue that it is illegal, while legal scholars say that the principle was adopted as a compromise between secular nationalist, Muslim and non-Muslim founders, and not intended to ban atheism. Nonetheless, atheists as a group tend not to express their atheism publicly for fear of prosecution.[124][125]

In 2012, civil servant Alexander Aan was sentenced to 30 months in prison for writing "God doesn't exist" on his Facebook page and sharing explicit material about the prophet Muhammad online,[126][127] sparking nationwide debate.[128] Alexander's lawyers speculated that there were only around 2,000 atheists in Indonesia, but stated that it was difficult to estimate due to the threat of imprisonment for open atheism.[128]

Interfaith relations

Although the government recognises several different religions, inter-religious conflicts have occurred. During the New Order, President Suharto proposed the Anti-Chinese law which prohibits anything related to Chinese culture, including names and religions. Suharto also made an effort to "de-Islamicise" the government, by maintaining a large proportion of Christians in his cabinet. However, in the early 1990s, the issue of Islamisation appeared, and the military split into two groups, the Nationalist and Islamic camps. The latter, led by General Prabowo Subianto, was in favour of Islamisation, while General Wiranto was in the former in favour of a secular state.[129]

During the New Order, the transmigration program continued after it was initiated by the Dutch East Indies government in the early nineteenth century. The intention was to move millions of people from overcrowded and populated Java, Bali and Madura to less populated regions, such as Ambon, Lesser Sunda Islands and Papua. It has received much criticism, being described as a type of colonisation by the Javanese and Madurese who also brought Islam to non-Muslim areas. Citizens in western Indonesia are mostly Muslims with Christians a small minority, while in eastern regions, the Christian populations are similar in size or larger than the Muslim population. This more even population distribution has led to more religious conflicts in the eastern regions, including Poso riots and the Maluku sectarian conflict communal violence since the resignation of President Suharto.[130]

The government has made an effort to reduce the tension by proposing the inter-religion cooperation plan. The Foreign Ministry, along with the most prominent Islamic organisation in Indonesia, Nahdatul Ulama, held the International Conference of Islamic Scholars, to promote Islamic moderation, which is believed to reduce the tension in the country.[131] On 6 December 2004, the "Dialogue On Interfaith Cooperation: Community Building and Harmony" conference was opened. The meeting, attended by ASEAN countries, Australia, East Timor, New Zealand and Papua New Guinea was intended to discuss possible cooperation between different religious groups to minimise inter-religious conflict in Indonesia.[131]

Nevertheless, the 2010 report to the United States Congress by the United States Commission on International Religious Freedom noted attacks against the Shia communities in Indonesia, particularly in East Java and Madura. In one incident in Madura, local villagers surrounded Shia houses and demanded they desist religious activities, but the crowd was dispersed by local leaders and clergy.[132] On the issue of the Ahmadiyya , Indonesia has failed to act and uphold their human rights. Several Ahmadi mosques were burnt in 2008. 126 Ahmadis have become refugees within their own country in the four years before 2012.[50]

There is, however, indications that religious conflicts regarding the building of places of worships have more to do with business interest than in religious issues. For example, the dispute over a Bethel Injil Sepenuh Church (GBIS) in Jakarta was due to land dispute dating back to 1957, while the Indonesia Christian Church (GKI) Taman Yasmin dispute in Bogor was due to the municipal government plan to turn the church's area into a business district. The Taman Yasmin Church in Bogor has been upheld and protected by Supreme Court of Indonesia, but the mayor of Bogor refused to comply with the court ruling.[133][134] A positive form of relations has also appeared in society, such as the effort from six different religious organisations to help the 2004 tsunami victims. In 2011, the interfaith 'Indonesia Sunni and Shia Council' (MUHSIN) was established.[135]

In 2017, the blasphemy trial of Basuki Tjahaja Purnama (Ahok) received international attention. In 2016, at a campaign stop during the capital city's gubernatorial election, Ahok stated some citizens would not vote for him because they were being "threatened and deceived" by those using the verse Al-Ma'ida 51 of the Qur'an and variations of it. After a university lecturer, Buni Yani edited the video containing his speech, widespread protests against him ensued, culminating in his controversial imprisonment in May 2017.[136] The Joko Widodo administration responded by banning the Indonesian chapter of Hizb ut-Tahrir.[137] Subsequent government attempts, particularly by the country's intelligence agency (BIN), in curbing radicalism has been called an attack on Islam by some sectarian figures.[138][139]

Census data regarding religion

Religion was a census variable in the 1961, 1971, 1980, 1990, 2000, 2010 and 2018 and in various intercensal surveys. Being deemed divisive, the 1961 census data regarding religion was not published. In 1971, three groups of Christians were recorded: Catholic, Protestant and other. The U.N. Demographic Yearbook 1979 only lists data collectively for all Christians. In the 2000 census, only Catholics and Protestants were available as categories.[140]

Religion Data in Indonesia Census
(Population in millions and Percent)
  1971[141][142] 1980[143][144] 1985[145] 1990[145][146][147][148] 2000[145][149][150] 2005[145] 2010[55] 2018[21]
Muslim 103.58 87.51% 128.46 87.94% 142.59 86.92% 156.32 87.21% 177.53 88.22% 189.01 88.58% 207.18 87.20% 231.07 86.7%
Protestant 8.74 7.39% 8.51 5.82% 10.59 6.46% 10.82 6.04% 11.82 5.87% 12.36 5.79% 16.53 6.96% 20.25 7.6%
Catholic 4.36 2.98% 5.14 3.13% 6.41 3.58% 6.13 3.05% 6.56 3.07% 6.91 2.91% 8.35 3.12%
Hindu 2.30 1.94% 4.76 3.26% 3.18 1.94% 3.29 1.83% 3.65 1.81% 3.70 1.73% 4.01 1.69% 4.65 1.74%
Buddhist 1.09 0.92% 1.60 0.98% 1.84 1.03% 1.69 0.84% 1.30 0.61% 1.70 0.72% 2.03 0.77%
Confucian[151] 0.97 0.82% 0.95 0.58% 0.57 0.32% 0.41 0.20% 0.21 0.10% 0.12 0.05% 0.07 0.03%
Other 1.69 1.42% 0.24 0.11% 0.30 0.13%
Unstated 0.14 0.06%
Not asked 0.76 0.32%
Total[152] 118.37   146.08   164.05   179.25   201.24   213.38   237.64   266.5

The drop in the Catholic population between 1990 and 2000 was due to the secession of East Timor.

Religious composition by ethnic group (2010 Census)

Ethnic Group Muslims Christians Hindus Buddhists Confucians Others Total
Javanese 92,107,046 2,428,121 160,090 90,465 2,857 9,599 94,788,943
Sundanese 36,450,022 1,814 1,851 24,528 4,854 3,235 36,665,892
Malay 8,643,370 8,484 1,031 19,848 1,243 242 8,751,218
Batak 3,738,660 4,707,658 1,476 9,190 315 6,305 8,463,604
Madurese 7,157,518 7,695 368 435 32 43 7,166,091
Betawi 6,607,019 151,429 1,161 39,278 1,805 252 6,800,944
Minangkabau 6,441,071 1,822 179 1,255 49 44 6,459,420
Buginese 6,348,200 35,516 26,102 957 47 2,395 6,413,217
Bantenese 4,634,374 4,810 101 2,680 70 242 4,642,277
Banjarese 4,108,104 15,775 994 1,396 62 410 4,126,741
Balinese 127,274 49,385 3,736,993 10,378 142 473 3,924,645
Acehnese 3,398,818 403 70 1,028 7 4 3,403,961
Dayak 1,016,697 2,017,870 12,140 17,502 568 154,219 3,218,996
Sasak 3,153,671 5,540 4,555 10,682 7 439 3,174,894
Chinese 131,682 1,211,692 3,552 1,388,829 94,005 1,114 2,830,874
Others 23,057,923 12,436,323 63,909 73,027 9,422 117,848 35,758,452
Total 207,121,449 23,359,556 4,005,337 1,691,478 115,485 296,864 236,590,169
Source:[153]

In 2018, based on data from the BPS stated that 86.7% of Indonesians are Muslims, 10.72% Christians (7.6% Protestants, 3.12% Roman Catholic), 1.74% Hindu, 0.77% Buddhists, 0.03% Confucians and 0.05% Others.[21]

See also

 
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Religion in Indonesia.

Footnotes

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  141. ^ Demographic Yearbook 1979 (Population census statistics) (PDF) (31 ed.). New York: United Nations. 1980. p. 641 Table 29. Population by religion, sex and urban/rural residence: each census, 1970–1979. ISBN 978-0-8002-2882-8. OCLC 16991809. (PDF) from the original on 13 January 2012.
  142. ^ C.I.C.R.E.D. cites SUSENAS TAHAP KEEMPAT – Sifat Demografi Penduduk Indonesia [National Survey of Social and Economic Fourth Round – Demographic Characteristics of the Population]. Jakarta: Biro Pusat Statistik (Central Bureau of Statistics). 1969. for Table III.10 of "The Population of Indonesia, 1974 World Population Year", p. 31. However, due to inaccessibility of the data source for verification and data collection proximity to census year 1971, referenced 1969 data is not included in this article's table. The Population of Indonesia, 1974 World Population Year (PDF). C.I.C.R.E.D. 2. Jakarta: Lembaga Demografi (Demographic Institute), Universitas Indonesia. 1973. pp. 31–32. LCCN 77366078. OCLC 3362457. OL 4602999M. (PDF) from the original on 26 April 2012. The statistical data on religion show that Islam has the highest percentage of adherents with about 87.1 per cent of the population of Indonesia (National Socio Economic Survey, 1969). The second biggest religion in Indonesia is Protestant (5.2%), while Catholic is the third (2.5%). The rest are Hindu (2.0%) and Buddhist (1.1%) and other religions which are not included in the above classification.
  143. ^ Aritonang; Steenbrink 2008, p. 216.
  144. ^ Unable to find online data for Sensus Penduduk 1980 (Penduduk Indonesia: hasil sensus penduduk. Jakarta: Badan Pusat Statistik, 1980). Unable to find online version of Buku Saku Statistik Indonesia 1982 [Statistical Pocketbook Of Indonesia 1982]. Jakarta, Indonesia: Biro Pusat Statistik. 1983. OCLC 72673205., which contains 1980 census data.
  145. ^ a b c d Cholil, Suhadi; Bagir, Zainal Abidin; Rahayu, Mustaghfiroh; Asyhari, Budi (August 2010). (PDF). Max M. Richter, Ivana Prazic. Yogyakarta: Center for Religious & Cross-cultural Studies, Gadjah Mada University. p. 15. ISBN 978-602-96257-1-4. Archived from the original (PDF) on 25 April 2012.. Cites BPS-Statistics Indonesia for intercensal population survey 1985, census 1990, census 2000, and intercensal population survey 2005
  146. ^ Ricklefs, Merle Calvin (2001). A history of modern Indonesia since c. 1200 (3d ed.). Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press. p. 379. ISBN 978-0-8047-4480-5. The 1990 census recorded 156.3 million Muslims in Indonesia, 87.2 per cent of the population and the largest Muslim population of any nation in the world. This was a steady percentage, having been 87.1 per cent in 1980. Christians (Catholics and Protestants) totalled 17.2 million, 9.6 per cent of the population, whereas in 1971 the figure was 7.5 per cent and in 1980 it was 8.8 per cent. So Christianity was still growing. In the large cities of Central Java in particular, Christians constituted nearly 20 per cent of the population. The rising tide of religiosity was also reflected in the much smaller communities of Hindus (3.3 million, 1.8 per cent of the population in 1990) and Buddhists (1.8 million, 1.0 per cent of the population).
  147. ^ The 1990 census recorded 87.21% Muslims, 6.04% Protestants, 3.58% Catholics, 1.83% Hindus, 1.03% Buddhists and 0.31% as "Others". Population of Indonesia: Results of the 1990 Population (Jakarta: Biro Pusat Statistik, 1992), p. 24, as cited by
  148. ^ Intan 2006, p. 6.
  149. ^ "Special Census Topic 2000 Round (1995–2004)". Demographic Yearbook (Spreadsheet). New York: United Nations. 2b – Ethnocultural characteristics. 30 June 2006. ISSN 0082-8041. OCLC 173373970.
  150. ^ "Indonesia". The World Factbook. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Central Intelligence Agency. 18 October 2011. People and Society. ISSN 1553-8133. Retrieved 8 November 2011. Muslim 86.1%, Protestant 5.7%, Roman Catholic 3%, Hindu 1.8%, other or unspecified 3.4% (2000 census)
  151. ^ In 1979, Soeharto retracted official recognition of Confucianism. Hence Confucianism appears in the 1971 census data, but not in 1980 or 1990. In 2000, Indonesia decided to separately categorise Confucianism only during the enumeration process, but did not actually list this option on the printed form. This is not listed as a separate category in the U.N. data. Utomo, Ariane J. (March 2003). (PDF) (Report). The Australian National University. p. 7. Archived from the original (PDF) on 25 April 2012. The six categories for religion were Islam, Catholicism, Protestant, Hinduism, Buddhism, and Other. The decision to have a separate category for Confucianism (Kong Hu Cu) occurred during the enumeration process itself, hence it was not printed in the actual form of the L1. The data on the number of Confucians is only available for certain provinces. However, the number seems much smaller than expected due to the abrupt process of including it in the questionnaire.
  152. ^ Totals and lefthand column per year are in millions of persons.
  153. ^ Aris Ananta, Evi Nurvidya Arifin, M Sairi Hasbullah, Nur Budi Handayani, Agus Pramono. Demography of Indonesia's Ethnicity. Singapore: ISEAS: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, 2015. p. 273.

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  •  ———  (2007). Catholics in Indonesia: A documented history 1808–1942. Vol. 2: The Spectacular Growth of a Self Confident Minority, 1903–1942. Leiden: KITLV Press. ISBN 978-90-6718-260-7.
  •  ———  (2015). Catholics in Independent Indonesia: 1945–2010. Leiden; Boston: BRILL. ISBN 978-90-04-28513-2.
  • Stuart-Fox, David J. (2002). Pura Besakih: Temple, religion and society in Bali. Leiden: KITLV Press. ISBN 978-9067181464.
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  • Swellengrebel, J. L., ed. (1960). Bali: Studies in Life, Thought, and Ritual. The Hague: W. van Hoeve. ASIN B00ET0VF56Selected studies on Bali by Dutch scholars{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: postscript (link)
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External links

  • "International Religious Freedom Report 2008. Indonesia". US Department of State. Retrieved 31 March 2014.
  • Shaw, Elliott, ed. (28 November 2016). "Indonesian Religions". PHILTAR, Division of Religion and Philosophy, University of Cumbria. Retrieved 2 March 2019.
  • "Penduduk Menurut Wilayah dan Agama yang Dianut" [Population by Region and Religion] (in Indonesian). Jakarta, Indonesia: Badan Pusat Statistik. 15 May 2010. Retrieved 20 October 2011.
  • Kemanusiaan di Atas Agama - Humanity Above Religion

May 19, 2023
religion, indonesia, several, different, religions, practised, indonesia, indonesia, officially, presidential, republic, unitary, state, without, established, state, religion, indonesia, world, largest, muslim, population, first, principle, indonesia, philosop. Several different religions are practised in Indonesia Indonesia is officially a presidential republic and a unitary state without an established state religion 2 3 Indonesia has the world s largest Muslim population 4 5 and the first principle of Indonesia s philosophical foundation Pancasila requires its citizens to state the belief in the one and almighty God 6 7 Consequently Indonesia not only emphasises monotheism but also recognises the significance of religion in the lives of its people In addition the Aceh province officially enforces Sharia law and is notorious for its discriminatory practices towards religious and sexual minorities 8 There are also pro Sharia and fundamentalist movements in several parts of the country with overwhelming Muslim majorities 9 Religion in Indonesia 2018 1 Islam 86 7 Christianity 10 7 Hinduism 1 74 Buddhism 0 77 Folk Other 0 05 Confucianism 0 03 Map showing the dominant religious group in each province of Indonesia Several different religions are practised in the country and their collective influence on the country s political economic and cultural life is significant Despite constitutionally guaranteeing freedom of religion 10 the government back in 1965 recognises only six religions Islam Christianity Catholicism under the label of Katolik and Protestantism under the label of Kristen are recognised separately Hinduism Buddhism and Confucianism 11 In that same year the government specify that it will not ban other religions specifically mentioning Judaism Zoroastrianism Shinto and Taoism 12 According to a 2017 decision of the Constitutional Court of Indonesia the branches flows of beliefs Indonesian aliran kepercayaan ethnic religions with new religious movements must be recognised and included in an Indonesian identity card KTP 13 14 Based on data collected by the Indonesian Conference on Religion and Peace ICRP there are about 245 unofficial religions in Indonesia 15 From 1975 to 2017 Indonesian law mandated that its citizens possess an identity card indicating their religious affiliation which could be chosen from a selection of those six recognised religions 16 However since 2017 citizens who do not identify with those religions have the option to leave that section blank on their identity card 17 Although there is no apostasy law preventing Indonesians from converting to any religion Indonesia does not recognise agnosticism or atheism and blasphemy is considered illegal 18 In 2018 Indonesian governmental statistics 86 7 of Indonesians identified themselves as Muslim with Sunnis about 99 19 Shias about 1 20 and Ahmadis 0 2 16 10 7 Christianity 7 6 Protestantism 3 12 Catholicism 1 74 Hindu 0 77 Buddhist 0 03 Confucian and 0 05 others 21 Contents 1 History 2 Islam 2 1 Sunni Islam 2 2 Shia Islam 2 3 Ahmadiyya 3 Minor religions 3 1 Christianity 3 1 1 Catholicism 3 1 2 Orthodoxy 3 1 3 Protestantism 3 2 Hinduism 3 3 Buddhism 3 4 Confucianism 4 Indigenous religions 4 1 Kejawen Javanese beliefs 4 1 1 Subud 4 2 Saminism 4 3 Other 5 Other religions and belief systems 5 1 Judaism 5 2 Baha i Faith 5 3 Sikhism 5 4 Jainism 5 5 Chinese folk religion 5 6 New religious movements 5 7 Atheism 6 Interfaith relations 7 Census data regarding religion 7 1 Religious composition by ethnic group 2010 Census 8 See also 9 Footnotes 10 Bibliography 11 External linksHistory EditMain articles Silk Road transmission of Buddhism and Spread of Islam in Indonesia The Maritime Silk Road connecting India and Indonesia Until the beginning of CE the peoples of Indonesia followed the local tribal Austronesian and Papuan ethnic religions and traditions 22 Historically immigration from the Indian subcontinent mainland China Portugal the Arab world and the Netherlands has been a significant contributor to the diversity of religion and culture within the archipelago 23 However these aspects have changed due to some modifications made to suit the Indonesian culture The ancient Prambanan Hindu temple built in the 9th century Java Before the arrival of the Abrahamic religions of Islam Christianity and Judaism the prevalent religions in the region were the Indian religions of Hinduism and Buddhism They were brought to the archipelago around the second and fourth centuries respectively when Indian traders arrived on the islands of Sumatra Java and Sulawesi and brought their religion The Shaivite sect of Hinduism started to develop in Java in the fifth century CE Hinduism had a decisive influence on the ideology of the one man rule of the Raja and was the dominant religion in Indonesia before the arrival of Islam 24 The traders also established Buddhism which developed further in the following century and several Hindu and Buddhist influenced kingdoms were established such as Kutai Srivijaya Majapahit and Shailendra The world s largest Buddhist monument Borobudur was built by Shailendra and around the same time the Hindu monument Prambanan was also built The peak of Hindu Javanese civilisation was the Majapahit empire in the fourteenth century and is described as a Golden Age in Indonesian history 25 Islam was introduced to the archipelago in the thirteenth century Coming from Gujarat India 23 some scholars also propose the Arabian and Persian theories 26 Islam spread through the west coast of Sumatra and then developed to the east in Java This period also saw Islam influenced kingdoms established namely Demak Pajang Mataram and Banten By the end of the fifteenth century 20 Islam based kingdoms had been established reflecting the domination of Islam in Indonesia 27 The Portuguese introduced Christianity in the 16th century notably to the island of Flores and to what was to become East Timor 28 Protestantism was first introduced by the Dutch in the 16th century with Calvinist and Lutheran influences For the Dutch economic benefit rather than religious conversion were paramount and missionary efforts avoided predominantly Muslim areas such as Java The Dutch East India Company VOC regulated the missionary work so it could serve its own interests and focused it to the eastern Animist part of the archipelago including Maluku North Sulawesi Nusa Tenggara Papua and Kalimantan 29 Christianity later spread from the coastal ports of Kalimantan and missionaries arrived among the Torajans on Sulawesi Parts of Sumatra were also targeted most notably the Batak people who are predominantly Protestant today 30 The Sukarno era was characterised by a distrust between religion and the state 31 There were also significant changes to the relationship during the New Order Following an attempted coup in 1965 that officially blamed the Communist Party of Indonesia PKI and an anti communist purge the New Order government attempted to suppress PKI supporters by making it mandatory to have a religion since PKI supporters were mostly atheists 32 As a result citizens were required to carry personal identification cards indicating their religion The policy resulted in a mass conversion with most to Catholicism and Protestantism Chinese Indonesians who were mostly Confucianists also faced similar circumstances Because Confucianism was not one of the state recognised religions many converted to Christianity 33 Islam Edit Baiturrahman Grand Mosque in Banda Aceh Aceh Main article Islam in Indonesia Sunni Islam Edit The history of Islam in Indonesia is complex and reflects the diversity of Indonesian cultures 4 There is evidence of Arab Muslim traders entering the Indonesian archipelago as early as the 8th century 34 Venetian explorer Marco Polo is credited with the earliest known record of a Muslim community around 1297 AD whom he referred to as a new community of Moorish traders in Perlak Aceh 35 Over the 15th and 16th century the spread of Islam accelerated via the missionary work of Maulana Malik Ibrahim also known as Sunan Gresik originally from Samarkand in Sumatra and Java and Admiral Zheng He also known as Cheng Ho from China in north Java as well as campaigns led by sultans that targeted Hindu Buddhist kingdoms and various communities with each trying to carve out a region or island for control Four diverse and contentious sultanates emerged in northern and southern Sumatra west and central Java and southern Kalimantan The sultans declared Islam as a state religion and pursued war against each other as well as the Hindus and other non Muslim infidels 27 Indonesian Muslim men wearing songkok and sarong standing in salah Perlon Unggahan a slametan ritual for ancestors of Javanese Muslims in Pekuncen Banyumas on last Friday before Ramadan Subsequently Hindu Buddhist Confucian animist communities and unbelievers bought peace by agreeing to pay jizya tax to a Muslim ruler while others began adopting Islam to escape the tax 36 Islam in Indonesia is in many cases less meticulously practised in comparison to Islam in the Middle East In some regions people retained and continued their old beliefs They adopted a syncretic version of Islam 37 while others left and concentrated as communities in islands that they could defend for example Hindus of western Java moved to Bali and neighbouring small islands 38 While this period of religious conflict and inter Sultanate warfare was unfolding and new power centres were attempting to consolidate regions under their control European powers arrived 38 The archipelago was soon dominated by the Dutch empire which helped prevent inter religious conflict and slowly began the process of excavating preserving and understanding the archipelago s ancient Hindu and Buddhist period particularly in Java and the western islands 39 The vast majority of Indonesian Muslims about 99 practice Sunni Islam of the Shafi i school Smaller numbers follow other schools madhhabs 19 40 and the Salafi movement 41 The main divisions of Islam in Indonesia are traditionalism and modernism Both are supported by Indonesia s two largest Islamic civil society groups Nahdlatul Ulama and Muhammadiyah respectively 42 the orders of Sufism are considered essential 43 Concerning the political expansion of Islam after the resignation of Suharto political parties were again permitted to declare an ideology other than Pancasila Several Islamist parties formed with Sharia as their ideology and the Crescent Star Party PBB came in sixth place in the 1999 elections However in 2009 elections the PBB ranked only 10th while parties characterised by moderate and tolerant Islamic interpretations had more significant success such as the Prosperous Justice Party PKS coming in 4th with nearly 8 of total votes 44 Shia Islam Edit Main article Shia Islam in Indonesia Shia Islam played an important role in the early period of the spread of Islam in North Sumatra and Java 45 Currently there are approximately 1 3 million Twelvers in Sumatra Java Madura and Sulawesi islands and also Ismailis in Bali which approximates more than 1 of the total Muslim population 46 Shias form a segment of Arab Indonesians and the Hadhrami people 47 The main organisation is Ikatan Jamaah Ahlulbait Indonesia IJABI 48 Ahmadiyya Edit Main article Ahmadiyya in Indonesia The earliest history of Ahmadi Muslims in the archipelago dates back to the summer of 1925 when roughly two decades before the Indonesian revolution a missionary of the Community Rahmat Ali stepped in Sumatra and established the movement with 13 devotees in Tapaktuan Aceh 49 The community has had an influential history in Indonesia s religious development yet in modern times it has faced increasing intolerance from religious establishments and physical hostilities from radical Muslim groups 50 In Ahmadiyya organisation Jamaah Muslim Ahmadiyah Indonesia JMAI there are an estimated 400 000 followers which equates to 0 2 of the total Muslim population 16 spread over 542 branches across the country in contrast to independent estimates the Ministry of Religious Affairs Indonesia estimates around 80 000 members 49 A separatist group Lahore Ahmadiyya Movement for the Propagation of Islam known as Gerakan Ahmadiyah Lahore Indonesia GAI in Indonesia has existed in Java since 1924 and had only 708 members in the 1980s 49 Minor religions EditChristianity Edit Main article Christianity in Indonesia The government officially recognises the two main Christian divisions in Indonesia Catholicism and Protestantism as two separate religions Catholicism Edit Main article Catholic Church in Indonesia Statue of Mary Mother of All Tribes in Jakarta Cathedral Catholicism arrived in the archipelago during the Portuguese arrival with spice trading over the 14th and 15th century Many Portuguese had the goal of spreading Catholicism starting with the Maluku Islands in 1534 Between 1546 and 1547 the pioneer Christian missionary Saint Francis Xavier visited the islands and baptised several thousand locals During the VOC era the number of Catholics fell significantly due to the VOC s policy of banning the religion The hostility of the Dutch toward Catholicism is due to its history where the Protestant Dutch gained their independence after the Eighty Years War against Catholic Spain s rule The most significant result was on the island of Flores and East Timor where the VOC concentrated Moreover Catholic priests were sent to prisons or punished and replaced by Protestant clergy from the Netherlands One Catholic priest was executed for celebrating Mass in prison during Jan Pieterszoon Coen s tenure as Governors of the Dutch East Indies After the VOC collapsed and with the legalisation of Catholicism in the Netherlands starting around 1800 Dutch Catholic clergy predominated until after Indonesia s independence 51 52 In present day Flores the royal house of Larantuka formed the only native Catholic kingdom in Southeast Asia around the 16th century with the first king named Lorenzo 53 Other than Flores Central Java also have significant numbers of Catholics Catholicism started to spread in Central Java when Frans van Lith a priest from the Netherlands came to Muntilan in 1896 Initially his effort did not produce a satisfying result until 1904 when four Javanese chiefs from Kalibawang region asked him to give them education in the religion On 15 December 1904 a group of 178 Javanese were baptised at Semagung Muntilan district Magelang Central Java near the border of the Special Region of Yogyakarta 54 As of 2018 3 12 of Indonesians are Catholics nearly half the number of Protestants at 7 6 55 The practitioners mostly live in West Kalimantan Papua and East Nusa Tenggara The province of East Nusa Tenggara where the island of Flores and West Timor are located is the only province in Indonesia where Catholics are the majority about 54 14 of the total population In Java next to Javanese Catholicism also spread to Chinese Indonesians 51 56 In the present day Catholic traditions close to Easter days remain locally known as Semana Santa It involves a procession carrying statues of Jesus and the Virgin Mary locally referred to as Tuan Ana and Tuan Ma respectively to a local beach then to Cathedral of the Queen of the Rosary the Diocese of Larantuka Flores 57 Orthodoxy Edit Eastern Christianity operates in Indonesia under the label Kristen together with Protestants Eastern Orthodoxy is represented by the Indonesian Orthodox Church Moscow Patriarchate which until 2019 was part of the Russian Orthodox Diocese of Sydney Australia and New Zealand Russian Orthodox Church Outside Russia 58 and then comes under the unified spiritual leadership of the Diocese of Singapore Russian Orthodox Church In addition there are communities of Oriental Orthodoxy namely the Syriac Orthodox Church Indonesian Kanisah Ortodoks Suriah and Coptic Orthodox Church Indonesian Gereja Kristen Ortodoks Koptik di Indonesia 59 Protestantism Edit Main article Protestantism in Indonesia Church in Bukit Doa Getsemane Sanggam Unjur Samosir North Sumatra Protestantism is mostly a result of Calvinist and Lutheran missionary efforts during the country s colonial period 60 The Dutch Reformed Church was long at the forefront in introducing Christianity to native peoples and was later joined by other Reformed churches that separated from it during the 19th century 51 The VOC regulated the missionary work so it could serve its own interests and restricted it to the eastern part of the Indonesian archipelago 61 Although these two branches are the most common a multitude of other denominations can be found elsewhere in Indonesia 62 Protestants form a significant minority in some parts of the country Statistically 7 6 of the total population declared themselves Protestant in a 2018 census Seventeen per cent of the population in Sulawesi are Protestants particularly in Tana Toraja regency in South Sulawesi province and Central Sulawesi Furthermore up to 65 of the ethnic Torajans are Protestants The Batak people from North Sumatra is also one of the major Protestant groups in Indonesia comprising around 50 out of all ethnic population Christianity was brought by German Lutheran missionary Ludwig Ingwer Nommensen who is known as the apostle to the Batak people and started the Batak Christian Protestant Church HKBP 63 64 62 which is the largest Lutheran church in Asia 65 Anglicanism is present in Indonesia since 1819 during the British Invasion of Java when church services were provided towards interdenominational English speaking communities in Java 66 In 1822 Singaporean based London Missionary Society purchased a land in Batavia now Jakarta and in 1829 constructed of what is now known as All Saints Church 66 67 The organization become affiliated with Church of England and is an autonomous part of Anglican Communion since 1857 68 and is oldest English speaking institutions in Indonesia 69 In 1993 Anglican Diocese of Singapore established Deanery of Indonesia 70 In 1998 Gereja Anglikan Indonesia lit Anglican Church of Indonesia was founded to provide better services to native Indonesians As of 2022 the congregation is present in Jakarta Bandung Surabaya Batam Medan Nunukan Pontianak Ambon and Tarakan 71 Other branches of Christianity also exists in Indonesia such as Mormonism since 1969 72 and Jehovah s Witnesses since 1930 73 Previously banned due to the refusal to salute Indonesian flags and refusal to participate in politics 73 Jehovah s Witness was officially registered to the Ministry of Religious Affairs in March 2002 73 Meanwhile for Mormonism Russell M Nelson the president of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter day Saints LDS Church visited Vice Presidential Palace of Indonesia in November 2019 where he officially met Ma ruf Amin the Vice President of Indonesia 74 Chinese Indonesians are also a significant part of the Protestant population scattered throughout Indonesia with the majority concentrated in major urban areas In 2000 approximately 35 of ethnic Chinese were Christian and there is a continuous increase among the younger generation In some parts of the country entire villages belong to a distinct denomination such as Adventism the International Church of the Foursquare Gospel Lutheran Presbyterian or the Salvation Army Bala Keselamatan depending on the success of missionary activity 62 Indonesia has three Protestant majority provinces West Papua Papua and North Sulawesi with 60 68 and 64 of the total population respectively In Papua it is most widely practised among the native Papuan population In North Sulawesi the Minahasan population centred around Manado converted to Christianity in the 19th century Today most of the population native to North Sulawesi practice some form of Protestantism while transmigrants from Java and Madura practice Islam Adherents of Protestantism mostly live in North Sumatra West Kalimantan Central Kalimantan South Sulawesi West Sulawesi Central Sulawesi North Sulawesi East Nusa Tenggara North Maluku Maluku province West Papua province Papua province 75 62 The Communion of Churches in Indonesia is the sole umbrella for most Protestant churches 76 Hinduism Edit Main article Hinduism in Indonesia See also Balinese Hinduism and Hinduism in Java The Mother Temple of Besakih on the slopes of Mount Agung in eastern Bali is the most important the largest and holiest temple of the Balinese Hindus Hindu culture and religion arrived in the archipelago around the 2nd century CE which later formed the basis of several Hindu Buddhist kingdoms such as Kutai Mataram and Majapahit Around 130 a Sundanese kingdom named Salakanagara emerged in western Java It was the first historically recorded Indianised kingdom in the archipelago created by an Indian trader following marriage to a local Sundanese princess 77 The largest Hindu temple in Indonesia Prambanan was built during the Majapahit kingdom by the Sanjaya dynasty The kingdom existed until the 16th century when Islamic empires began to develop this period known as the Hindu Indonesian period 78 Hinduism in Indonesia takes on a distinct tone from other parts of the world 79 80 Hinduism referred to as Agama Hindu Dharma in Indonesia formally applied the caste system 81 It also incorporated native Austronesian elements that revered hyangs deities and spirits of nature and deceased ancestors The Hindu religious epics the Mahabharata and the Ramayana are expressed in Indonesian wayang puppetry and dance All practitioners of Agama Hindu Dharma share many common beliefs mostly the Five Points of Philosophy the Panca Srada These include the belief in one Almighty God Brahman belief in the souls and myriad of local and ancestral spirits and karma or the belief in the law of reciprocal actions rather than belief in cycles of rebirth and reincarnation In addition the religion focuses more on art and ritual rather than scriptures laws and beliefs 79 82 In many areas on Java Hinduism and Islam have heavily influenced each other in part resulting in Abangan and Kejawen Kebatinan traditions 83 According to the 2010 census Hindus numbered 4 million 1 7 of Indonesians 55 The Parisada Hindu Dharma Indonesia has disputed this figure who estimated as many as 18 million Hindus in the country 84 The majority of Hindus live in Bali Sumatra Java Lombok Kalimantan and Sulawesi also have significant Hindu populations most are Balinese who migrated to these areas through government sponsored transmigration program or urbanised Balinese attracted to cities in Java especially the Greater Jakarta area The Tamil Indonesians in Medan represents another important concentration of Hindus 16 There are indigenous religions that are incorporated into the Hinduism not all followers agree Hindu Kaharingan of Dayak people 85 Javanese Hinduism of Tenggerese tribe 86 Hindu Tolotang of Bugis 87 and Aluk Todolo of Toraja 88 There are also some international Hindu reform movements including the International Society for Krishna Consciousness Sathya Sai Organization 16 Chinmaya Mission Brahma Kumaris Ananda Marga Sahaja Yoga and Haidakhandi Samaj 89 Buddhism Edit Main article Buddhism in Indonesia The Buddha statue at Borobudur temple Magelang Central Java Buddhism is the second oldest religion in Indonesia arriving around the sixth century The history of Buddhism in Indonesia is closely related to that of Hinduism as some empires based on Buddhist culture were established around the same period The Indonesian archipelago has witnessed the rise and fall of powerful Buddhist empires such as Shailendra dynasty Srivijaya and Mataram Empires The arrival of Buddhism was started with trading activities that began in the early first century on the Silk Road between Indonesia and India According to some Chinese sources a Chinese monk on his journey to India witnessed the powerful maritime empire of Srivijaya based in Sumatra The empire also served as a Buddhist learning centre in the region Some historical heritage monuments can be found in Indonesia including the Borobudur Temple in Yogyakarta and statues or prasasti inscriptions from the earlier history of Buddhist empires 78 Following the downfall of President Sukarno in the mid 1960s and the mandatory policy of having a religion 90 founder of Perbuddhi Indonesian Buddhists Organisation Bhikku Ashin Jinarakkhita proposed that there was a single supreme deity Sanghyang Adi Buddha He was also backed up with the history behind the Indonesian version of Buddhism in ancient Javanese texts and the shape of the Borobudur Temple 91 According to the 2018 census roughly 0 8 of Indonesians are Buddhists which takes up about 2 million people 55 Most Buddhists are concentrated in Jakarta although other provinces such as Riau North Sumatra and West Kalimantan also have a significant number of practitioners However the figures are likely higher since practitioners of Confucianism and Taoism the latter of which is not considered an official religion referred to themselves as Buddhists on the census Today most Buddhists are Chinese Indonesians and to a lesser extent among the Javanese and Balinese Among the Indonesian Buddhists the major Buddhist schools are Mahayana Vajrayana and Theravada Most Chinese Indonesians follow a syncretic combination of Chinese beliefs such as the three teachings Tridharma and Yiguandao Maytreya 92 Confucianism Edit Main article Confucianism in Indonesia A Chinese temple of Sanggar Agung in Surabaya East Java Confucianism originated in China and was brought to Indonesia by Chinese merchants as early as the 3rd century AD Unlike other religions Confucianism evolved more into loose individual practices and belief in the code of conduct rather than a well organised community with a sound theology akin to a way of life or social movement than a religion It was not until the early 1900s that Confucianists formed an organisation called Khong Kauw Hwe THHK in Batavia 93 94 95 After the Indonesian independence in 1945 Confucianism was affected by several political conflicts In 1965 Sukarno issued Presidential Decree No 1 Pn Ps 1965 recognising that six religions are embraced by the Indonesian people including Confucianism In 1961 the Association of Khung Chiao Hui Indonesia PKCHI now the Supreme Council for the Confucian Religion in Indonesia had declared that Confucianism is a religion and Confucius is their prophet 96 95 During the New Order the anti China policy became a scapegoat like method to gain political support from the masses especially after the fall of PKI which had allegedly been backed by China In 1967 Suharto issued controversial Presidential Instruction No 14 1967 which effectively banned Chinese culture including documents printed in Chinese expressions of Chinese belief Chinese celebrations and festivities and even Chinese names However Suharto acknowledged that the Chinese Indonesians had a large amount of wealth and power despite consisting only 3 of the population 96 95 In 1969 Statute No 5 1969 was passed restoring the official total of six religions However it was not always put into practice In 1978 the Minister of Home Affairs issued a directive asserting there are only five religions excluding Confucianism On 27 January 1979 a presidential cabinet meeting decided that Confucianism is not a religion Another Minister of Home Affairs directive in 1990 re iterated the total of five official religions in Indonesia 96 95 Therefore the status of Confucianism during the New Order regime was never clear De jure there were conflicting laws because higher laws permitted Confucianism but lower ones did not recognise it De facto Confucianists were not recognised by the government and they were forced to register with one of the original five official religions to maintain their citizenship This practice was applied in many places including the national registration card marriage registration and family registration card Civics education in Indonesia taught school children that there are only five official religions 96 95 Following the fall of Suharto in 1998 Abdurrahman Wahid was elected as the country s fourth president He rescinded the 1967 Presidential Instruction and the 1978 Home Affairs Ministry directive and Confucianism once again became officially recognised as a religion in Indonesia Chinese culture and activities were again permitted 97 Indigenous religions EditMain article Aliran kepercayaan See also Mythology of Indonesia Nias tribesmen moving and erecting a megalith ca 1915 A number of ancestral animistic polytheistic indigenous religions Austronesian and Papuan ethnic beliefs are present which were dominant throughout the archipelago before the arrival of Dharmic and Abrahamic religions Some still exist in some parts of Indonesia as either pure or syncretic They include Batak Parmalim Buginese Tolotang Dayak Kaharingan Javanese Kejawen Karo Pemena Manusela Naurus Mentawai Sakuddei Arat Sabulungan Minahasan Tonaas Walian Nias Fanomba adu Pelebegu Papuan Asmat etc Adat Sangirese Masade Sasak Wetu Telu Savu Jingi Tiu Sumbese Marapu Sundanese Baduy Sunda Wiwitan Talaud Adat Musi Toraja Aluk Todolo and others 98 The non official number of ethnic believers is up to 20 million 14 The government often views indigenous beliefs as kepercayaan adat custom rather than agama religion or as a variant of a recognised religion Because of this followers of these beliefs such as Dayak Kaharingan have identified themselves as Hindu as a result to avoid pressure to convert to Islam or Christianity Several native tribal beliefs such as Sunda Wiwitan Toraja Aluk Todolo and Batak Parmalim although different from Indian influenced Balinese Hinduism might seek affiliation with Hinduism to survive while at the same time also preserving their distinction from mainstream Indonesian Hinduism dominated by the Balinese In many cases some of the followers of these native beliefs might convert to Christianity or Islam at least registered as such on their KTP while still upholding and performing their native beliefs 99 However the branches flows of beliefs Indonesian aliran kepercayaan including local new religious movements are partly recognised according to a 2017 decision of the Constitutional Court It rules that the law requiring people whose religion is not recognised or followers of indigenous religions to leave the religion column on identity documents blank is contrary to the constitution 13 14 Kejawen Javanese beliefs Edit Main article Kejawen Nyai Roro Kidul the goddess of the Southern Sea according to Javanese Kejawen Sunda Wiwitan and Balinese Hinduism religion Kejawen Javanese beliefs or Kebatinan is an amalgam of animism Hindu Buddhist and Islamic especially Sufi beliefs The beliefs are rooted in Javanese history and spiritualism with the tendency to syncretise aspects of different religions in search for a common ground Kejawen is generally characterised as mystical and some varieties were concerned with spiritual self control Although there were many varieties circulating in 1992 Kejawen often implies pantheistic worship because it encourages sacrifices and devotions to local and ancestral spirits These spirits are believed to inhabit natural objects human beings artefacts and grave sites of the important wali Muslim saints Illness and other misfortunes are traced to such spirits and if sacrifices or pilgrimages fail to placate angry deities the advice of a dukun or healer is sought Kejawen while it connotes a turning away from the aggressive universalism of orthodox Islam moves toward a more internalised universalism In this way Kebatinan moves toward eliminating the distinction between the universal and the local the communal and the individual 100 The Kejawen have no certain prophet a sacred book nor distinct religious festivals and rituals it has more to do with each adherent s internalised transcendental vision and beliefs in their relations with others and with the supreme being As a result there is an inclusiveness that the kebatinan believer could identify themselves with one of six officially recognised religions at least in KTP while still subscribe to their kebatinan belief and way of life This loosely organised current of thought and practice was legitimised in the 1945 constitution and in 1973 when it was recognised as Kepercayaan kepada Tuhan Yang Maha Esa Believer of One Supreme God that somewhat gain the status as one of the agama President Suharto regarded himself as one of its adherents 101 The formal Kejawen Kebatinan movements are Subud Sumarah Pangestu Perjalanan Amerta and others 102 Subud Edit Main article Subud Subud is an international spiritual movement that began in Indonesia in the 1920s as a movement related to Sufism and Javanese beliefs founded by Muhammad Subuh Sumohadiwidjojo The name Subud was first used in the late 1940s when Subud was legally registered in Indonesia The basis of Subud is a spiritual exercise commonly referred to as the latihan kejiwaan which was said by Muhammad Subuh to be guidance from the Power of God or the Great Life Force 103 104 Muhammad Subuh saw the present age as one that demands personal evidence and proof of religious or spiritual realities as people no longer just believe in words He claimed that Subud is not a new teaching or religion but only that the latihan kejiwaan itself is the kind of proof that humanity is looking for There are now Subud groups in about 83 countries with a worldwide membership of about 10 000 104 Saminism Edit Main article Saminism Movement Indonesian social religious Saminism Movement also Sedulur Sikep rejected the capitalist views of the colonial Dutch was founded by Surosentiko Samin in north central Java Blora in the late 19th and early 20th centuries 105 Other Edit Further information Dukun Bomoh Pawang and 1998 East Java ninja scare Dayak dukun shaman Dukun and pawang are Indonesians terms for a shaman the Malays in Indonesia use word bomoh Their societal role is that of a traditional healer spirit medium custom and tradition experts and on occasion sorcerers and masters of black magic In common usage the dukun is often confused with another type of shaman the pawang It is often mistranslated into English as witch doctor or medicine man Many self styled shamans in Indonesia are scammers and criminals preying on gullible and superstitious people who were raised to believe in the supernatural 106 Other religions and belief systems EditJudaism Edit See also History of the Jews in Indonesia Sha ar Hashamayim Synagoge in Tondano North SulawesiThe early Sephardi Jews establishment in the archipelago came from Portugal and Spain in the 17th century 107 In the 1850s about 20 Jewish families of Dutch and German origins lived in Batavia Some lived in Semarang and Surabaya Several Baghdadi Jews also settled Before 1945 there were about 2 000 Dutch Jews in Indonesia Some Jews even converted to Christianity or Islam during the Japanese occupation when Jews were sent to internment camps and the Indonesian National Revolution when Eurasians were targeted In 1957 it was reported that around 450 Jews remained mainly Ashkenazim in Jakarta and Sephardim in Surabaya The community decreased to 50 in 1963 and to 20 in 1997 108 Jews in Surabaya maintained a synagogue for many years with sporadic support from relatives and co religionists residing in Singapore Beth Shalom closed in 2009 after radical groups protested against Israel s assault on Gaza that year It was later designated a heritage site by the Surabaya government but was demolished in May 2013 without warning as part of a mysterious real estate deal 109 Since 2003 Shaar Hashamayim synagogue has been serving the local Jewish community of some 20 people in Tondano city North Sulawesi which is attended by around 10 Orthodox Jews Hasidic Chabad group Currently it is the only synagogue in Indonesia that provides services 109 107 The organisation The United Indonesian Jewish Community UIJC has been formed since 2009 and inaugurated in October 2010 107 In 2015 the first official Jewish centre Beit Torat Chaim was inaugurated by the Religious Affairs Ministry It is located in Jakarta and will be led by Rabbi Tovia Singer 110 Baha i Faith Edit Main article Baha i Faith in Indonesia According to the Association of Religion Data Archives in the Baha i Faith in Indonesia had 22 115 adherents in 2005 111 The community is subject to a measure of government discrimination 112 113 Since 2014 the situation has improved in the form of government plans for possible recognition there was an erroneous opinion on already held the official recognition of the Bahai in 2014 114 115 Sikhism Edit Main article Sikhism in Indonesia Shree Guru Gobind Singh Sahib Ji Sikh Gurdwara in Binjai North Sumatra Sikhs migration to Indonesia began in the 1870s guardians and traders There are several gurdwaras and schools in Sumatra and Java for example in Medan was built in 1911 In 2015 the Supreme Council for the Sikh Religion in Indonesia was founded 116 Numbering about 7 000 or between 10 000 and 15 000 16 Sikhs are not officially recognised by the government resulting in adherents referring to themselves as Hindus on the KTP 117 Apart from the orthodox Sikhism in Indonesia represented the Sikh reformist movement Radha Soami Satsang Beas RSSB 118 Jainism Edit A small Jain community Jain Social Group Indonesia JSG Indonesia exists in Jakarta among Indian Indonesians 119 Chinese folk religion Edit Main articles Shenism in Southeast Asia Indonesia and Chen Fu Zhen Ren New religious movements Edit The most famous of the new religious movements in Indonesia are Theosophical Society 120 Transcendental Meditation movement 121 Falun Gong 16 and originated in Indonesia Subud 122 and Eden community Jamaah Alamulla 16 123 Atheism Edit Main article Atheism in Indonesia See also Discrimination against atheists in Indonesia Although there is no specific law that bans atheism legal cases in which atheists have been charged with blasphemy for publicly expressing atheist points of view have raised the issue of whether it is de facto illegal to do so according to Pancasila Some clerics invoke the first Pancasila principle to argue that it is illegal while legal scholars say that the principle was adopted as a compromise between secular nationalist Muslim and non Muslim founders and not intended to ban atheism Nonetheless atheists as a group tend not to express their atheism publicly for fear of prosecution 124 125 In 2012 civil servant Alexander Aan was sentenced to 30 months in prison for writing God doesn t exist on his Facebook page and sharing explicit material about the prophet Muhammad online 126 127 sparking nationwide debate 128 Alexander s lawyers speculated that there were only around 2 000 atheists in Indonesia but stated that it was difficult to estimate due to the threat of imprisonment for open atheism 128 Interfaith relations EditAlthough the government recognises several different religions inter religious conflicts have occurred During the New Order President Suharto proposed the Anti Chinese law which prohibits anything related to Chinese culture including names and religions Suharto also made an effort to de Islamicise the government by maintaining a large proportion of Christians in his cabinet However in the early 1990s the issue of Islamisation appeared and the military split into two groups the Nationalist and Islamic camps The latter led by General Prabowo Subianto was in favour of Islamisation while General Wiranto was in the former in favour of a secular state 129 During the New Order the transmigration program continued after it was initiated by the Dutch East Indies government in the early nineteenth century The intention was to move millions of people from overcrowded and populated Java Bali and Madura to less populated regions such as Ambon Lesser Sunda Islands and Papua It has received much criticism being described as a type of colonisation by the Javanese and Madurese who also brought Islam to non Muslim areas Citizens in western Indonesia are mostly Muslims with Christians a small minority while in eastern regions the Christian populations are similar in size or larger than the Muslim population This more even population distribution has led to more religious conflicts in the eastern regions including Poso riots and the Maluku sectarian conflict communal violence since the resignation of President Suharto 130 The government has made an effort to reduce the tension by proposing the inter religion cooperation plan The Foreign Ministry along with the most prominent Islamic organisation in Indonesia Nahdatul Ulama held the International Conference of Islamic Scholars to promote Islamic moderation which is believed to reduce the tension in the country 131 On 6 December 2004 the Dialogue On Interfaith Cooperation Community Building and Harmony conference was opened The meeting attended by ASEAN countries Australia East Timor New Zealand and Papua New Guinea was intended to discuss possible cooperation between different religious groups to minimise inter religious conflict in Indonesia 131 Nevertheless the 2010 report to the United States Congress by the United States Commission on International Religious Freedom noted attacks against the Shia communities in Indonesia particularly in East Java and Madura In one incident in Madura local villagers surrounded Shia houses and demanded they desist religious activities but the crowd was dispersed by local leaders and clergy 132 On the issue of the Ahmadiyya Indonesia has failed to act and uphold their human rights Several Ahmadi mosques were burnt in 2008 126 Ahmadis have become refugees within their own country in the four years before 2012 50 There is however indications that religious conflicts regarding the building of places of worships have more to do with business interest than in religious issues For example the dispute over a Bethel Injil Sepenuh Church GBIS in Jakarta was due to land dispute dating back to 1957 while the Indonesia Christian Church GKI Taman Yasmin dispute in Bogor was due to the municipal government plan to turn the church s area into a business district The Taman Yasmin Church in Bogor has been upheld and protected by Supreme Court of Indonesia but the mayor of Bogor refused to comply with the court ruling 133 134 A positive form of relations has also appeared in society such as the effort from six different religious organisations to help the 2004 tsunami victims In 2011 the interfaith Indonesia Sunni and Shia Council MUHSIN was established 135 In 2017 the blasphemy trial of Basuki Tjahaja Purnama Ahok received international attention In 2016 at a campaign stop during the capital city s gubernatorial election Ahok stated some citizens would not vote for him because they were being threatened and deceived by those using the verse Al Ma ida 51 of the Qur an and variations of it After a university lecturer Buni Yani edited the video containing his speech widespread protests against him ensued culminating in his controversial imprisonment in May 2017 136 The Joko Widodo administration responded by banning the Indonesian chapter of Hizb ut Tahrir 137 Subsequent government attempts particularly by the country s intelligence agency BIN in curbing radicalism has been called an attack on Islam by some sectarian figures 138 139 Census data regarding religion EditReligion was a census variable in the 1961 1971 1980 1990 2000 2010 and 2018 and in various intercensal surveys Being deemed divisive the 1961 census data regarding religion was not published In 1971 three groups of Christians were recorded Catholic Protestant and other The U N Demographic Yearbook 1979 only lists data collectively for all Christians In the 2000 census only Catholics and Protestants were available as categories 140 Religion Data in Indonesia Census Population in millions and Percent 1971 141 142 1980 143 144 1985 145 1990 145 146 147 148 2000 145 149 150 2005 145 2010 55 2018 21 Muslim 103 58 87 51 128 46 87 94 142 59 86 92 156 32 87 21 177 53 88 22 189 01 88 58 207 18 87 20 231 07 86 7 Protestant 8 74 7 39 8 51 5 82 10 59 6 46 10 82 6 04 11 82 5 87 12 36 5 79 16 53 6 96 20 25 7 6 Catholic 4 36 2 98 5 14 3 13 6 41 3 58 6 13 3 05 6 56 3 07 6 91 2 91 8 35 3 12 Hindu 2 30 1 94 4 76 3 26 3 18 1 94 3 29 1 83 3 65 1 81 3 70 1 73 4 01 1 69 4 65 1 74 Buddhist 1 09 0 92 1 60 0 98 1 84 1 03 1 69 0 84 1 30 0 61 1 70 0 72 2 03 0 77 Confucian 151 0 97 0 82 0 95 0 58 0 57 0 32 0 41 0 20 0 21 0 10 0 12 0 05 0 07 0 03 Other 1 69 1 42 0 24 0 11 0 30 0 13 Unstated 0 14 0 06 Not asked 0 76 0 32 Total 152 118 37 146 08 164 05 179 25 201 24 213 38 237 64 266 5The drop in the Catholic population between 1990 and 2000 was due to the secession of East Timor Religious composition by ethnic group 2010 Census Edit Ethnic Group Muslims Christians Hindus Buddhists Confucians Others TotalJavanese 92 107 046 2 428 121 160 090 90 465 2 857 9 599 94 788 943Sundanese 36 450 022 1 814 1 851 24 528 4 854 3 235 36 665 892Malay 8 643 370 8 484 1 031 19 848 1 243 242 8 751 218Batak 3 738 660 4 707 658 1 476 9 190 315 6 305 8 463 604Madurese 7 157 518 7 695 368 435 32 43 7 166 091Betawi 6 607 019 151 429 1 161 39 278 1 805 252 6 800 944Minangkabau 6 441 071 1 822 179 1 255 49 44 6 459 420Buginese 6 348 200 35 516 26 102 957 47 2 395 6 413 217Bantenese 4 634 374 4 810 101 2 680 70 242 4 642 277Banjarese 4 108 104 15 775 994 1 396 62 410 4 126 741Balinese 127 274 49 385 3 736 993 10 378 142 473 3 924 645Acehnese 3 398 818 403 70 1 028 7 4 3 403 961Dayak 1 016 697 2 017 870 12 140 17 502 568 154 219 3 218 996Sasak 3 153 671 5 540 4 555 10 682 7 439 3 174 894Chinese 131 682 1 211 692 3 552 1 388 829 94 005 1 114 2 830 874Others 23 057 923 12 436 323 63 909 73 027 9 422 117 848 35 758 452Total 207 121 449 23 359 556 4 005 337 1 691 478 115 485 296 864 236 590 169Source 153 In 2018 based on data from the BPS stated that 86 7 of Indonesians are Muslims 10 72 Christians 7 6 Protestants 3 12 Roman Catholic 1 74 Hindu 0 77 Buddhists 0 03 Confucians and 0 05 Others 21 See also Edit Wikimedia Commons has media related to Religion in Indonesia Indonesia portalCulture of Indonesia Demographics of Indonesia Mythology of IndonesiaFootnotes Edit Statistik Umat Menurut Agama di Indonesia in Indonesian Kementerian Agama Republik Indonesia 15 May 2018 Archived from the original on 3 September 2020 Retrieved 15 November 2020 Muslim 231 Million 86 7 Christian 20 45 Million 7 6 Catholic 8 43 million 3 12 Hindu 4 65 million 1 74 Buddhist 2 03 million 0 77 Confucianism 76 630 0 03 Others Traditional faiths 126 51 0 04 Total 266 5 Million Da Costa Agustinus Beo 12 October 2019 Indonesia urges public to report civil servants over radical content Reuters Retrieved 14 June 2022 Hosen 2005 pp 419 40 Intan 2006 p 40 Seo 2013 p 44 Ropi 2017 p 61 etc a b Frederick William H Worden Robert L eds 1993 Indonesia A Country Study Chapter Islam Gross 2016 p 1 Prinada Yudi 2 December 2020 Beda Isi Piagam Jakarta dan Pancasila Sejarah Perubahannya tirto id in Indonesian Retrieved 9 June 2022 Lindsey amp Pausacker 1995 Intan 2006 p 18 Pringle 2010 pp 154 55 Buehler 2016 Federspiel 1970 Sidel 2006 Solahudin 2013 Buehler 2016 Baskara 2017 The 1945 Constitution of the Republic of Indonesia Archived from the original on 10 March 2007 Retrieved 2 October 2006 Hosen 2005 pp 419 40 Shah 2017 Marshall 2018 pp 85 96 Penetapan Presiden Republik Indonesia No 1 PNPS 1965 tengan Pencegahan Penyalahgunaan dan atau Penodaan Agama Presidential Decree No 1 PNPS 1965 on Prevention of Abuse and or Blasphemy of Religion in Bahasa Indonesia page 5 a b Sutanto Trisno S 26 April 2018 The Decolonization of Adat Communities Notes from PGI s 2018 Seminar on Religions Center for religions and cross cultural studies Graduate School Universitas Gadjah Mada Retrieved 28 February 2019 a b c Marshall 2018 pp 85 96 Aritonang Margareth S 7 November 2014 Government to recognise minority faiths The Jakarta Post Retrieved 2 October 2006 a b c d e f g h International Religious Freedom Report 2008 Indonesia US Department of State Retrieved 31 March 2014 US Department of State 2017 2017 Report on International Religious Freedom Indonesia a href Template Cite web html title Template Cite web cite web a CS1 maint url status link Report of the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights PDF Archived from the original PDF on 25 September 2017 Retrieved 25 May 2017 a b Sunni and Shia Muslims Pew Research Center 27 January 2011 Retrieved 31 March 2014 Atjeh 1977 Lindsey amp Pausacker 1995 p 271 a b c Statistik Umat Menurut Agama di Indonesia in Indonesian Ministry of Religious Affairs 15 May 2018 Archived from the original on 3 September 2020 Retrieved 24 September 2020 Schefold 1980 Popov 2017 p 96 a b Shaw Elliott ed 28 November 2016 Indonesian Religions PHILTAR Division of Religion and Philosophy University of Cumbria Retrieved 2 March 2019 Heine Geldern Robert 1956 Conceptions of State and Kingship in Southeast Asia Ithaca NY Southeast Asia Program Publications of Cornell University Kinney Klokke amp Kieven 2003 Levenda 2011 Acri Creese amp Griffiths 2011 Domenig 2014 Sukamto 2018 Azra 2006 pp 10 25 a b Azra 2006 Husain 2017 Laffan 2011 Pringle 2010 Ricklefs 2006 Ricklefs 2007 Ricklefs 2012 Boelaars 1991 Aritonang amp Steenbrink 2008 Encyclopedia of Protestantism 4 volume Set by Hans J Hillerbrand Routledge chapter on Indonesia p 824 Goh 2005 p 80 Aritonang amp Steenbrink 2008 Intan 2006 pp 44 50 Geertz 1972 pp 62 84 Bertrand 2004 pp 34 104 Bertrand 2004 pp 34 104 Martin Richard C 2004 Encyclopedia of Islam and the Muslim World Vol 2 M Z Macmillan Laffan 2011 pp 3 6 Morgan David Reid Anthony The New Cambridge History of Islam Vol 3 The Eastern Islamic World Cambridge University Press ISBN 978 1107456976 pp 587 89 Geertz 1960 Headley 2004 Hefner 1989 Muhaimin 2006 Picard amp Madinier 2011 pp 71 93 Ricklefs 2006 Woodward 1989 Woodward 2011 a b Fox 1996 Taylor Jean Gelman Indonesia Peoples and Histories Yale University Press ISBN 978 0300105186 pp 21 83 142 73 Mehden 1995 Burhanudin amp Dijk 2013 Husain 2017 Hasan 2007 Solahudin 2013 Hauser Schaublin amp Harnish 2014 pp 144 61 Baskara 2017 Mehden 1995 Kraus 1997 pp 169 89 Howell 2001 pp 701 29 Sidel 2006 Laffan 2011 Abuza 2007 Bertrand 2004 Buehler 2016 Federspiel 1970 Gross 2016 Lidde 1996 pp 613 34 Pringle 2010 Atjeh 1977 Zulkifli 2011 Ida 2018 pp 194 215sfnm error no target CITEREFIda2018 help Marshall 2011 pp 85 96sfnm error no target CITEREFMarshall2011 help Jacobsen Frode 2009 Hadrami Arabs in Present day Indonesia Taylor amp Francis pp 19 etc ISBN 978 0 415 48092 5 Zulkifli 2011 p 197 a b c Burhani 2014 pp 143 44 a b Rahman 2014 pp 418 20 a b c cf Frederick Worden 1993 Chapter Christianity Boelaars 1991 Aritonang amp Steenbrink 2008 Steenbrink 2003 Barnes R H 2008 Raja Lorenzo II A Catholic kingdom in the Dutch East Indies PDF University of Oxford Archived PDF from the original on 20 August 2017 Retrieved 20 August 2017 Steenbrink 2007 a b c d Penduduk Menurut Wilayah dan Agama yang Dianut Population by Region and Religion in Indonesian Jakarta Indonesia Badan Pusat Statistik 15 May 2010 Retrieved 20 October 2011 Religion is belief in Almighty God that must be possessed by every human being Religion can be divided into Muslim Christian Hindu Buddhist Hu Khong Chu and Other Religion Muslim 207176162 87 20 Christian 16528513 7 Catholic 6907873 3 Hindu 4012116 1 69 Buddhist 1703254 0 74 Confucianism 71 999 0 05 Other 112 792 0 04 Total 237 641 326 Steenbrink 2015 Delaney Brigid 29 March 2018 Good Friday in Flores secrets stamina and spiritual devotion The Guardian Retrieved 31 March 2018 Popov 2017 pp 43 44 Popov 2017 pp 44 45 Cooley 1968 Goh 2005 p 80 Aritonang amp Steenbrink 2008 cf Encyclopedia of Protestantism p 824 a b c d Indonesia Asia Reformed Online Retrieved 7 October 2006 Rodgers 1981 cf Encyclopedia of Protestantism p 337 Batak Protestant Christian Church church Indonesia Britannica www britannica com Retrieved 19 January 2023 a b Short History All Saints Anglican Church Jakarta Retrieved 19 January 2023 All Saints Anglican Church Jakarta Indonesia Anglican churches in Indonesia www expat or id Retrieved 19 January 2023 Anglican Organisation All Saints Anglican Church Jakarta Retrieved 19 January 2023 January 31st Anne Lim Comment 2019 12 16 PM Add a 31 January 2019 The murder in the vicarage of historic Jakarta church Eternity News Retrieved 19 January 2023 GEREJA ANGLIKAN DI INDONESIA GEREJA ANGLIKAN TARAKAN 3 November 2015 Retrieved 19 January 2023 Kompasiana com 4 December 2022 Gereja Anglikan Bukan Katolik Bukan Protestan KOMPASIANA in Indonesian Retrieved 19 January 2023 HAMPIR 50 TAHUN BERADA DI INDONESIA GEREJA YESUS KRISTUS DARI ORANG ORANG SUCI ZAMAN AKHIR BERKESEMPATAN AUDIENSI DENGAN PGI Gerejani Dot Com gerejani com Retrieved 1 February 2023 a b c Hal hal yang perlu Anda ketahui tentang Saksi Yehuwa yang penganutnya dikeluarkan dari sekolah di Batam BBC News Indonesia in Indonesian Retrieved 1 February 2023 antaranews com Wapres Ma ruf terima Presiden Gereja Mormon Russell M Nelson Antara News in Indonesian Retrieved 1 February 2023 Cooley 1968 Aritonang amp Steenbrink 2008 Schroter 2010 Popov 2017 p 23 Darsa Undang A 2004 Kropak 406 Carita Parahyangan dan Fragmen Carita Parahyangan Makalah disampaikan dalam Kegiatan Bedah Naskah Kuna yang diselenggarakan oleh Balai Pengelolaan Museum Negeri Sri Baduga Bandung Jatinangor Fakultas Sastra Universitas Padjadjaran hlm 1 23 a b Kinney Klokke amp Kieven 2003 pp 17 20 Levenda 2011 Domenig 2014 a b cf Frederick Worden 1993 Chapter Hinduism Lansing 1987 pp 45 49 Howe 2001 Belo 1960 Fox 2011 Geertz 1973 Goris 1931 Hooykaas 1974 Howe 2001 Lansing 1987 pp 45 49 McDaniel 2010 pp 93 111 Pedersen 2006 Ramstedt 2004 Stuart Fox 2002 Swellengrebel 1960 Swellengrebel 1969 Geertz 1960 Headley 2004 Hefner 1989 Muhaimin 2006 Picard amp Madinier 2011 pp 71 93 Ricklefs 2006 Indonesia International Religious Freedom Report 2005 US State Department Quote The Hindu association Parishada Hindu Dharma Indonesia PHDI estimates that 18 million Hindus live in the country a figure that far exceeds the government estimate of 3 6 million Hindus account for almost 90 percent of the population in Bali Metcalf 1987 Rousseau 1998 Scharer 1963 Winzeler 1993 Hefner 1989 Matthes 1872 Pelras 1987 pp 560 61 Budiman 2013 Nooy Palm 1979 Nooy Palm 1986 Nooy Palm 1987 pp 565 67 Popov 2017 pp 78 82 cf Frederick Worden 1993 Chapter Buddhism Kimura 2003 pp 53 72 Brown 1987 pp 108 17 Brown 1990 Cheu 1999 Hauser Schaublin amp Harnish 2014 pp 84 112 Kimura 2003 pp 53 72 Syryadinata 2005 pp 77 94 Cheu 1999 Syryadinata 2005 pp 77 94 a b c d e Chambert Loir 2015 pp 67 107 a b c d Yang 2005 Syryadinata 2005 pp 77 94 Sai amp Hoon 2013 Sandkuhler 2014 pp 157 84 Chambert Loir 2015 pp 67 107 Budiman 2013 Ensiklopedi Kepercayaan 2010sfnm error no target CITEREFEnsiklopedi Kepercayaan2010 help Geertz 1960 Koentjaraningrat 1987 pp 559 63 Maria amp Limbeng 2007 Matthes 1872 Metcalf 1987 pp 290 92 Nooy Palm 1979 Nooy Palm 1986 Nooy Palm 1987 pp 565 67 Pelras 1987 pp 560 61 Popov 2017 pp 96 104 Rodgers 1981 Rodgers 1987 pp 81 83 Rousseau 1998 Saringendyanti Herlina amp Zakaria 2018 pp 1 14 Scharer 1963 Schefold 1980 Schefold 1988 pp 5 22 Volkman 1985 Weinstock 1983 Winzeler 1993 Schiller 1996 pp 409 17 Beatty 1999 Epton 1974 Geertz 1960 Hadiwijono 1967 Koentjaraningrat 1987 pp 559 63 Kroef 1961 pp 18 25 Mulder 1998 Schlehe 1998 Schlehe 2019 pp 364 86 Stange 1980 Suparyanto 2019 Geertz 1960 Kroef 1961 pp 18 25 Stange 1980 Geels 1997 Ensiklopedi Kepercayaan 2010sfnm error no target CITEREFEnsiklopedi Kepercayaan2010 help Kroef 1961 pp 18 25 Geels 1997 a b Hunt Stephen J 2003 Alternative Religions A Sociological Introduction Farnham Ashgate Publishing p 122 ISBN 978 0 7546 3410 2 Benda amp Castles 1969 pp 207 40 Shiraishi 1990 pp 95 122 Epton 1974 Schlehe 2014 pp 185 201 Sievers 1974 Winzeler 1993 a b c Popov 2017 p 109 Klemperer Markman Ayala The Jewish Community of Indonesia Museum of the Jewish People at Beit Hatfutsot Retrieved 15 December 2006 permanent dead link a b Onishi Norimitsu 22 November 2010 In Sliver of Indonesia Public Embrace of Judaism The New York Times Retrieved 23 November 2010 Serebryanski Yossi 28 August 2015 Jews of Indonesia and Papua New Guinea The Jewish Press Retrieved 19 June 2016 Most Baha i Nations 2005 The ARDA Association of Religion Data Archives Retrieved 12 February 2019 USCIRF Annual Report 2016 Tier 2 countries Indonesia Refworld org US Commission on International Religious Freedom 2 May 2016 Retrieved 12 February 2019 Agama Baha i Bukan Sekte Dalam Islam Baha i Faith is not Islam Sect ANTARA News in Indonesian 6 November 2007 Retrieved 28 February 2019 Nurish Amanah 8 August 2014 Welcoming Baha i New official religion in Indonesia The Jakarta Post Retrieved 21 February 2014 Pedersen Lene 2016 Religious Pluralism in Indonesia The Asia Pacific Journal of Anthropology 17 5 Special Issue Communal Peace and Conflict in Indonesia Navigating Inter religious Boundaries 387 98 doi 10 1080 14442213 2016 1218534 Popov 2017 pp 110 11 Kahlon 2016 Popov 2017 p 111 Popov 2017 p 108 Ensiklopedi Kepercayaan 2010 pp 325 27sfnm error no target CITEREFEnsiklopedi Kepercayaan2010 help Popov 2017 pp 112 13 Popov 2017 p 81 Clarke Peter B ed 2006 Encyclopedia of New Religious Movements London New York Routledge pp 607 608 ISBN 9 78 0 415 26707 6 Popov 2017 p 103 104 Osman Salim 7 February 2012 Is Atheism illegal in Indonesia Jakarta Globe Retrieved 11 April 2017 Row over Indonesia atheist Facebook post BBC News 20 January 2012 Retrieved 25 June 2012 Indonesian Atheist Jailed for Prophet Mohammed Cartoons Jakarta Globe 14 June 2012 Retrieved 23 September 2012 Syofiardi Bachyul Jb 14 June 2012 Minang atheist sentenced to 2 5 years in prison The Jakarta Post Archived from the original on 16 June 2012 Retrieved 25 June 2012 a b Hodal Kate 3 May 2012 Indonesia s atheists face battle for religious freedom The Guardian Retrieved 25 June 2012 Geertz 1972 pp 62 84 Lindsey amp Pausacker 1995 Lidde 1996 pp 613 34 Bertrand 2004 pp 34 104 Lindsey amp Pausacker 1995 Bertrand 2004 pp 34 104 Pringle 2010 pp 143 57 Crouch 2013 Duncan 2013 a b Transcript of Joint Press Conference Indonesian Foreign Minister Hassan Wirajuda with Australian Foreign Minister Alexander Downer Press release Embassy of Republic of Indonesia at Canberra Australia 6 December 2004 Archived from the original on 24 August 2006 Retrieved 14 October 2006 Zulkifli 2011 Ida 2016 pp 194 215 Business interests blamed for church rows The Jakarta Post 24 August 2011 Holtz Michael 24 August 2011 Indonesian mayor seeks to ban church construction Associated Press RI Sunni Shia Council established The Jakarta Post 21 May 2011 Retrieved 31 March 2019 Mengulik Kembali Perjalanan Kasus Ahok 26 February 2018 Indonesia bans Islamist group Hizbut Tahrir BIN Ada Tempat Ibadah Pesantren dan Rumah Singgah Terpapar Radikalisme Selain 41 Masjid BIN Pastikan Ada 50 Ustad Terpapar Radikalisme 20 November 2018 Suryadinata Leo Arifin Evi Nurvidya Ananta Aris 2003 Indonesia s population ethnicity and religion in a changing political landscape Indonesia s population Singapore Institute of Southeast Asian Studies pp 103 104 ISBN 978 981 230 218 2 Demographic Yearbook 1979 Population census statistics PDF 31 ed New York United Nations 1980 p 641 Table 29 Population by religion sex and urban rural residence each census 1970 1979 ISBN 978 0 8002 2882 8 OCLC 16991809 Archived PDF from the original on 13 January 2012 C I C R E D cites SUSENAS TAHAP KEEMPAT Sifat Demografi Penduduk Indonesia National Survey of Social and Economic Fourth Round Demographic Characteristics of the Population Jakarta Biro Pusat Statistik Central Bureau of Statistics 1969 for Table III 10 of The Population of Indonesia 1974 World Population Year p 31 However due to inaccessibility of the data source for verification and data collection proximity to census year 1971 referenced 1969 data is not included in this article s table The Population of Indonesia 1974 World Population Year PDF C I C R E D 2 Jakarta Lembaga Demografi Demographic Institute Universitas Indonesia 1973 pp 31 32 LCCN 77366078 OCLC 3362457 OL 4602999M Archived PDF from the original on 26 April 2012 The statistical data on religion show that Islam has the highest percentage of adherents with about 87 1 per cent of the population of Indonesia National Socio Economic Survey 1969 The second biggest religion in Indonesia is Protestant 5 2 while Catholic is the third 2 5 The rest are Hindu 2 0 and Buddhist 1 1 and other religions which are not included in the above classification Aritonang Steenbrink 2008 p 216 sfn error no target CITEREFAritonang Steenbrink2008 help Unable to find online data for Sensus Penduduk 1980 Penduduk Indonesia hasil sensus penduduk Jakarta Badan Pusat Statistik 1980 Unable to find online version of Buku Saku Statistik Indonesia 1982 Statistical Pocketbook Of Indonesia 1982 Jakarta Indonesia Biro Pusat Statistik 1983 OCLC 72673205 which contains 1980 census data a b c d Cholil Suhadi Bagir Zainal Abidin Rahayu Mustaghfiroh Asyhari Budi August 2010 Annual Report on Religious Life in Indonesia 2009 PDF Max M Richter Ivana Prazic Yogyakarta Center for Religious amp Cross cultural Studies Gadjah Mada University p 15 ISBN 978 602 96257 1 4 Archived from the original PDF on 25 April 2012 Cites BPS Statistics Indonesia for intercensal population survey 1985 census 1990 census 2000 and intercensal population survey 2005 Ricklefs Merle Calvin 2001 A history of modern Indonesia since c 1200 3d ed Stanford CA Stanford University Press p 379 ISBN 978 0 8047 4480 5 The 1990 census recorded 156 3 million Muslims in Indonesia 87 2 per cent of the population and the largest Muslim population of any nation in the world This was a steady percentage having been 87 1 per cent in 1980 Christians Catholics and Protestants totalled 17 2 million 9 6 per cent of the population whereas in 1971 the figure was 7 5 per cent and in 1980 it was 8 8 per cent So Christianity was still growing In the large cities of Central Java in particular Christians constituted nearly 20 per cent of the population The rising tide of religiosity was also reflected in the much smaller communities of Hindus 3 3 million 1 8 per cent of the population in 1990 and Buddhists 1 8 million 1 0 per cent of the population The 1990 census recorded 87 21 Muslims 6 04 Protestants 3 58 Catholics 1 83 Hindus 1 03 Buddhists and 0 31 as Others Population of Indonesia Results of the 1990 Population Jakarta Biro Pusat Statistik 1992 p 24 as cited by Intan 2006 p 6 Special Census Topic 2000 Round 1995 2004 Demographic Yearbook Spreadsheet New York United Nations 2b Ethnocultural characteristics 30 June 2006 ISSN 0082 8041 OCLC 173373970 Indonesia The World Factbook Washington D C U S Central Intelligence Agency 18 October 2011 People and Society ISSN 1553 8133 Retrieved 8 November 2011 Muslim 86 1 Protestant 5 7 Roman Catholic 3 Hindu 1 8 other or unspecified 3 4 2000 census In 1979 Soeharto retracted official recognition of Confucianism Hence Confucianism appears in the 1971 census data but not in 1980 or 1990 In 2000 Indonesia decided to separately categorise Confucianism only during the enumeration process but did not actually list this option on the printed form This is not listed as a separate category in the U N data Utomo Ariane J March 2003 Indonesian Census 2000 Tables and Reports for AusAID Explanatory Notes PDF Report The Australian National University p 7 Archived from the original PDF on 25 April 2012 The six categories for religion were Islam Catholicism Protestant Hinduism Buddhism and Other The decision to have a separate category for Confucianism Kong Hu Cu occurred during the enumeration process itself hence it was not printed in the actual form of the L1 The data on the number of Confucians is only available for certain provinces However the number seems much smaller than expected due to the abrupt process of including it in the questionnaire Totals and lefthand column per year are in millions of persons Aris Ananta Evi Nurvidya Arifin M Sairi Hasbullah Nur Budi Handayani Agus Pramono Demography of Indonesia s Ethnicity Singapore ISEAS Institute of Southeast Asian Studies 2015 p 273 Bibliography EditAbuza Zachary 2007 Political Islam and Violence in Indonesia London New York Routledge ISBN 978 0 415 39401 7 Acri Andrea Creese Helen Griffiths Arlo eds 2011 From Lanka Eastwards The Ramayaṇa in the Literature and Visual Arts of Indonesia Leiden KITLV Press Aritonang Jan Sihar Steenbrink Karel eds 2008 A History of Christianity in Indonesia Leiden Boston BRILL ISBN 978 90 04 17026 1 Atjeh Aboebakar 1977 Aliran Syiah di Nusantara in Indonesian Jakarta Islamic Research Institute Azra Azyumardi 2006 Islam in the Indonesian World An Account of Institutional Formation Bandung Mizan Pustaka ISBN 978 979 433 430 0 Bakker Frederik Lambertus 1993 The Struggle of the Hindu Balinese Intellectuals Developments in Modern Hindu Thinking in Independent Indonesia Amsterdam VU University Press ISBN 978 9053832219 Baskara Benny 2017 Islamic Puritanism Movements in Indonesia as Transnational Movements DINIKA Academic Journal of Islamic Studies 2 1 1 doi 10 22515 dinika v2i1 103 ISSN 2503 4219 Beatty Andrew 1999 Varieties of Javanese Religion An Anthropological Account Cambridge Cambridge University Press ISBN 978 0 521 62444 2 Belo Jane 1960 Trance in Bali New York Columbia University Press Benda Harry J Castles Lance 1969 The Samin Movement Bijdragen tot de Taal Land en Volkenkunde 125 2 207 40 doi 10 1163 22134379 90002844 ISSN 2213 4379 Bertrand Jaques 2004 Nationalism and Ethnic Conflict in Indonesia Cambridge Cambridge University Press ISBN 978 0 521 52441 4 OCLC 237830260 Boelaars Huub J W M 1991 Indonesianisasi Het omvormingsproces van de katholieke kerk in Indonesie tot de Indonesische katholieke kerk in Dutch J H Kok ISBN 978 9024268023 Brown Iem 1987 Contemporary Indonesian Buddhism and Monotheism Journal of Southeast Asian Studies 18 1 108 17 doi 10 1017 S0022463400001284 S2CID 161832997 1990 Agama Buddha Maitreya A Modern Buddhist Sect in Indonesia Southeast Asian Anthropology 9 Budiman Michaela 2013 Contemporary Funeral Rituals of Sa dan Toraja From Aluk Todolo to New Religions Prague Charles University in Prague ISBN 978 80 246 2228 6 Buehler Michael 2016 The Politics of Shari a Law Islamist Activist and the State in Democratizing Indonesia Cambridge Cambridge University Press ISBN 978 1 107 13022 7 Burhani Ahmad Najib 2014 The Ahmadiyya and the Study of Comparative Religion in Indonesia Controversies and Influences PDF Islam and Christian Muslim Relations 25 2 141 58 doi 10 1080 09596410 2013 864191 S2CID 145427321 Archived from the original PDF on 4 April 2016 Burhanudin Jajat Dijk Kees van eds 2013 Islam in Indonesia Contrasting Images and Interpretations Amsterdam Amsterdam University Press Chambert Loir Henri April 2015 Confucius Crosses the South Seas Indonesia Southeast Asia Program Publications at Cornell University 99 99 67 107 doi 10 5728 indonesia 99 0067 ISSN 2164 8654 Cheu Hock Tong 1999 Chinese Beliefs and Practices in Southeast Asia Studies on the Chinese Religion in Malaysia Singapore and Indonesia Singapore Pelanduk Publications ISBN 978 9679784527 Cooley Frank L 1968 Indonesia Church and Society New York Friendship Press ISBN 978 0 377 18021 5 Crouch Melissa 2013 Law and Religion in Indonesia Conflict and the Courts in West Java London Routledge ISBN 978 0 415 83594 7 Domenig Gaudenz 2014 Religion and Architecture in Premodern Indonesia Studies in Spatial Anthropology Leiden Boston BRILL ISBN 978 90 04 27400 6 Duncan Christopher R 2013 Violence and Vengeance Religious Conflict and Its Aftermath in Eastern Indonesia Ithaca NY London Cornell University Press ISBN 978 0 8014 7913 7 Ensiklopedi Kepercayaan terhadap Tuhan Yang Maha Esa Encyclopedia of Beliefs in One God PDF in Indonesian 4th ed Jakarta Direktorat Jenderal Nilai Budaya Seni dan Film Direktorat Kepercayaan Terhadap Tuhan Yang Maha Esa 2010 ISBN 978 979 16071 1 7 Epton Nina Consuelo 1974 Magic and Mysticism in Java revised ed London Octagon Press ISBN 978 0 900860 39 3 Federspiel H 1970 Persatuan Islam Islamic Reform in Twentieth century Indonesia Ithaca NY Cornell University Modern Indonesia Project Fox James J 1996 Auger Timothy ed Indonesian Heritage Religion and ritual Indonesian Heritage Series Vol 9 Singapore Archipelago Press ISBN 978 9813018587 Fox Richard 2011 Critical Reflections on Religion and Media in Contemporary Bali Leiden Boston BRILL ISBN 978 90 04 17649 2 Frederick William H Worden Robert L eds 2011 Indonesia A Country Study 6th ed Washington DC Library of Congress Federal Research Division ISBN 978 0 8444 0790 6 Geels Antoon 1997 Subud and the Javanese mystical tradition Richmond Surrey Curzon Press ISBN 978 0 7007 0623 5 Geertz Clifford 1960 Religion of Java Glencoe IL Free Press ISBN 978 0 226 28510 8 1968 Islam Observed Religious Development in Morocco and Indonesia Chicago London University of Chicago Press ISBN 978 0 226 28511 5 1972 Religious Change and Social Order in Soeharto s Indonesia Asia 27 62 84 1973 The Interpretation of Cultures Selected Essays New York Basic Books ISBN 978 0 465 09719 7 Goh Robbie B H 2005 Christianity in Southeast Asia Singapore ISEAS Institute of Southeast Asian Studies ISBN 978 9812302977 Goris Roelof 1931 The Island of Bali Its Religion and Ceremonies Amsterdam Royal Packet Navigation Company Gross L Max 2016 A Muslim archipelago Islam and Politics in Southeast Asia Washington D C National Defense Intelligence College ISBN 978 1 932946 19 2 Hadiwijono Harun 1967 Man in the present Javanese Mysticism Baarn Bosch amp Keuning Hasan Noorhaidi 2007 The Salafi Movement in Indonesia Transnational Dynamics and Local Development Comparative Studies of South 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Bali Oxford James Currey ISBN 978 0 85255 914 7 Howell Julia Day 2001 Sufism and the Indonesian Islamic Revival The Journal of Asian Studies 60 3 701 29 doi 10 2307 2700107 hdl 10072 3954 JSTOR 2700107 S2CID 145699011 Ida Achmah 2016 Cyberspace and Sectarianism in Indonesia The Rise of Shia Media and Anti Shia Online Movements PDF Jurnal Komunikasi Islam Universitas Islam Negeri Sunan Ampel Surabaya 6 2 194 215 ISSN 2088 6314 permanent dead link Husain Sarkawi B 2017 Sejarah Masyarakat Islam Indonesia in Indonesian Surabaya Airlangga University press ISBN 978 602 6606 47 1 Intan Benyamin Fleming 2006 Public religion and the Pancasila based state of Indonesia an ethical and sociological analysis New York Peter Lang ISBN 978 0 8204 7603 2 Kahlon Swarn Singh 2016 Ch 5 Sikhs in Indonesia Sikhs in Asia Pacific Travels among the Sikh Diaspora from Yangon to Kobe New Delhi Manohar Publisher ISBN 978 9350981207 Kimura Bunki 2003 Present Situation of Indonesian Buddhism In Memory of Bhikkhu 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Eastern Survey 30 2 18 25 doi 10 2307 3024260 JSTOR 3024260 Laffan Michael 2011 The Makins of Indonesian Islam orientalism and the narration of a Sufi past Princeton NJ Princeton University Press ISBN 978 0 691 14530 3 Lansing J Stephen 1987 Balinese Religion In Eliade Mircea ed The Encyclopedia of Religion Vol 2 New York MacMillan pp 45 49 ISBN 978 0 02 909480 8 Levenda Peter 2011 Tantric Temples Eros and Magic in Java Newburyport MA Ibis Press Nicolas Hays ISBN 978 0 89254 169 0 Lidde R William 1996 The Islamic Turn in Indonesia A Political Explanation Journal of Asian Studies 55 3 613 34 doi 10 2307 2646448 JSTOR 2646448 S2CID 155053697 Lindsey Tim Pausacker Helen eds 1995 Religion Law and Intolerance in Indonesia London New York Routledge ISBN 978 0 7914 2025 6 Maria Siti Limbeng Julianus 2007 Marapu di Pulau Sumba Provinsi Nusa Tenggara Timur PDF Seri pengungkapan nilai nilai kepercayaan komunitas adat Jakarta Departemen Kebudayaan dan Pariwisata Direktorat Jenderal Nilai Budaya 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Peter 1987 Bornean Religion In Eliade Mircea ed The Encyclopedia of Religion Vol 2 New York MacMillan pp 290 92 ISBN 978 0 02 909480 8 Muhaimin Abdul Ghoffir 2006 The Islamic Traditions of Cirebon Ibadat and Adat Among Javanese Muslims Canberra ANU E Press ISBN 978 1 920942 30 4 JSTOR j ctt2jbkqk Mulder Niels 1998 Mysticism in Java Ideology in Indonesia Amsterdam Pepin Press ISBN 978 9054960478 Nooy Palm Hetty 1979 The Sa dan Toraja A study of their social life and religion I Organization symbols and beliefs PDF The Hague Martinus Nijhoff ISBN 978 90 247 2274 7 Archived PDF from the original on 12 February 2016 1986 The Sa dan Toraja A study of their social life and religion II Rituals of the East and West Leiden Boston BRILL ISBN 978 90 67 65207 0 1987 Toraja Religion In Eliade Mircea ed The Encyclopedia of Religion Vol 14 New York MacMillan pp 565 67 ISBN 978 0 02 909480 8 Pedersen Lene 2006 Ritual and World Change in a Balinese Princedom Durham Carolina Academic Press ISBN 978 1 59460 022 7 Pelras Christian 1987 Bugis Religion In Eliade Mircea ed The Encyclopedia of Religion Vol 2 New York MacMillan pp 560 61 ISBN 978 0 02 909480 8 Picard Michel Madinier Remy eds 2011 The Politics of Religion in Indonesia Syncretism Orthodoxy and Religious Contention in Java and Bali London New York Routledge ISBN 978 979 709 472 0 Popov Igor 2017 Buku rujukan semua aliran dan perkumpulan agama di Indonesia The Reference Book on All Religious Branches and Communities in Indonesia in Indonesian Singaraja Toko Buku Indra Jaya Putten Jan van der Cody Mary Kilcline eds 2009 Lost Times and Untold Tales from the Malay World Singapore NUS Press ISBN 978 9971 69 454 8 Pringle Robert 2010 Understanding Islam in Indonesia Politics and Diversity Singapore Editions Didier Millet ISBN 978 981 4260 09 1 Rahman Fatima Zainab 2014 State restrictions on the Ahmadiyya sect in Indonesia and Pakistan Islam or political survival Australian Journal of Political Science 49 3 408 22 doi 10 1080 10361146 2014 934656 S2CID 153384157 Ramstedt Martin ed 2004 Hinduism in Modern Indonesia A minority religion between local national and global interest London New York RoutledgeCurzon ISBN 978 0 7007 1533 6 Ricklefs Merle Calvin 2006 Mystic synthesis in Java A history of Islamisation from the fourteenth to the early nineteenth centuries White Plains NY EastBridge ISBN 978 1 891936 61 6 2007 Polarising Javanese society Islamic and other visions c 1830 1930 Singapore Leiden Honolulu NUS Press KITLV Press University of Hawai i Press ISBN 978 9971 69 346 6 2012 Islamisation and its opponents in Java A political social cultural and religious history c 1930 to the Present Singapore Honolulu NUS Press University of Hawai i Press doi 10 2307 j ctv1qv3fh ISBN 978 9971 69 631 3 JSTOR j ctv1qv3fh Rodgers Susan 1981 Adat Islam and Christianity in a Batak Homeland Athens Ohio Ohio University ISBN 978 0 89680 110 3 1987 Batak Religion In Eliade Mircea ed The Encyclopedia of Religion Vol 2 New York MacMillan pp 81 83 ISBN 978 0 02 909480 8 Ropi Ismatu 2017 Religion and Regulation in Indonesia Singapore Palgrave Macmillan ISBN 978 981 10 2826 7 Rousseau Jerome 1998 Kayan Religion Ritual Life and Religious Reform in Central Borneo Leiden KITLV Press ISBN 978 9067181327 Sai Siew Min Hoon Chang Yau eds 2013 Chinese Indonesians Peassessed History Religion and Belonging London New York Routledge Sandkuhler Evamaria 2014 Popularisation of Religious Traditions in Indonesia Historical Communication of a Chinese Indonesian Place of Worship In Schlehe Judith Sandkuhler Evamaria eds Religion Tradition and the Popular Transcultural Views from Asia and Europe Bielefeld transcript pp 157 84 ISBN 978 3 8376 2613 1 Saran Syam ed 2018 Cultural and Civilisational Links between India and Southeast Asia Historical and Contemporary Dimensions Singapore Palgrave Macmillan ISBN 978 981 10 7316 8 Saringendyanti Etty Herlina Nina Zakaria Mumuh Muhsin 2018 Tri Tangtu on Sunda Wiwitan Doctrine in the XIV XVII Century Tawarikh Journal of Historical Studies Bandung 10 1 1 14 ISSN 2085 0980 Scharer Hans 1963 1946 Ngaju Religion The Conception of God among a South Borneo People The Hague Martinus Nijhoff ISBN 978 90 04 24799 4 Schefold Reimar 1980 Spielzeug fur die Seelen Kunst und Kultur der Mentawai Inseln Indonesien Toys for the Souls Art and Culture of the Mentawai Indonesia in German Zurich Museum Rietberg 1988 De wildernis als cultuur van gene ziijde tribale concepten van natuur in Indonesio The wilderness as a culture of the past tribal concepts of nature in Indonesia Antropologische Verkenningen in Dutch 7 4 5 22 Schiller Anne 1996 Schieman Scott ed An Old Religion in New Order Indonesia Notes on Ethnicity and Religious Affiliation Sociology of Religion Oxford University Press 57 4 409 17 doi 10 2307 3711895 ISSN 1759 8818 JSTOR 3711895 OCLC 728290653 Schlehe Judith 1998 Die Meereskonigin des Sudens Ratu Kidul Geisterpolitik im javanischen Alltag The Queen of the Southern Sea Ratu Kidul Politics of Spirits in Javanese Everyday Life in German Berlin Dietrich Reimer ISBN 3 496 02657 X 2014 Translating Traditions and Transcendence Popularised Religiosity and the Paranormal Practitioners Position in Indonesia In Schlehe Judith Sandkuhler Evamaria eds Religion Tradition and the Popular Transcultural Views from Asia and Europe Bielefeld transcript pp 185 201 ISBN 978 3 8376 2613 1 2019 Cosmopolitanism Pluralism and Self Orientalisation in the Modern Mystical World of Java Asian Journal of Social Science 47 3 364 86 doi 10 1163 15685314 04703005 S2CID 203066359 Schroter Susanne ed 2010 Christianity in Indonesia Perspectives of power Southeast Asian Modernities 12 Berlin LIT Verlag ISBN 9783643107985 Seo Myengkyo 2013 State Management of Religion in Indonesia London New York Routledge ISBN 978 0 415 51716 4 Shah Dian A H 2017 Constitutions Religion and Politics in Asia Indonesia Malaysia and Sri Lanka Cambridge Cambridge University Press ISBN 978 1 107 18334 6 Shiraishi Takashi 1990 Dangir s Testimony Saminism Reconstructed Indonesia 50 95 122 doi 10 2307 3351232 hdl 1813 53945 JSTOR 3351232 Sidel John T 2006 Riots Pogroms Jihad Religious Violence in Indonesia Ithaca NY Cornell University Press ISBN 978 0 8014 7327 2 Sievers A 1974 The Mystical World of Indonesia Baltimore London Johns Hopkins University Press ASIN B000Q1LA8E Smith Rita Kipp Rodgers Susan eds 1987 Indonesian Religions in Transition Tucson University of Arizona Press Solahudin 2013 2011 The Roots of Terrorism in Indonesia From Darul Islam to Jema ah Islamiyah NII Sampai JI Salafy Jihadisme di Indonesia Ithaca NY Cornell University Press ISBN 978 0 8014 7938 0 Stange Paul 1980 The Sumarah movement in Javanese mysticism Thesis Ph D University of Wisconsin Madison PDF Archived from the original PDF on 6 February 2011 Steenbrink Karel 2003 Catholics in Indonesia A documented history 1808 1942 Vol 1 A modest recovery 1808 1903 Leiden KITLV Press ISBN 978 90 6718 141 9 2007 Catholics in Indonesia A documented history 1808 1942 Vol 2 The Spectacular Growth of a Self Confident Minority 1903 1942 Leiden KITLV Press ISBN 978 90 6718 260 7 2015 Catholics in Independent Indonesia 1945 2010 Leiden Boston BRILL ISBN 978 90 04 28513 2 Stuart Fox David J 2002 Pura Besakih Temple religion and society in Bali Leiden KITLV Press ISBN 978 9067181464 Sukamto 2018 Perjumpaan Antarpemeluk Agama di Nusantara Masa Hindu Buddha Sampai Sebelum Masuknya Portugis in Indonesian Yogyakarta Deepublish ISBN 978 602 475 476 1 Suparyanto Petrus 2019 Bhima s Mistical Quest As a Model of Javanese Spiritual Growth Wien LIT Verlag ISBN 978 3 643 90883 4 Swellengrebel J L ed 1960 Bali Studies in Life Thought and Ritual The Hague W van Hoeve ASIN B00ET0VF56Selected studies on Bali by Dutch scholars a href Template Cite book html title Template Cite book cite book a CS1 maint postscript link Swellengrebel J L ed 1969 Bali Further Studies in Life Thought and Ritual The Hague W van Hoeve ASIN B0010P1VU2Selected studies on Bali by Dutch scholars a href Template Cite book html title Template Cite book cite book a CS1 maint postscript link Syryadinata Leo 2005 Buddhism and Confucianism in Contemporary Indonesia Recent Developments In Lindsey Tim Pausacker Helen eds Chinese Indonesians Remembering Distorting Forgetting Singapore ISEAS Institute of Southeast Asian Studies pp 77 94 ISBN 978 981 230 303 5 Volkman Toby Alice 1985 Feasts of Honor Ritual and Change in the Toraja Highlands Urbana University of Illinois Press Weinstock Joseph 1983 Kaharingan and the Luangan Dayaks Religion and Identity in Central East Borneo Thesis Ph D Cornell University Winzeler Robert L ed 1993 The Seen and the Unseen Shamanism Mediumship and Possession in Borneo Williamsburg Va Borneo Research Council ISBN 978 0 9629568 1 2 Woodward Mark 1989 Islam in Java Normative Piety and Misticism in the Sultanate of Yogyakarta Tucson University of Arizona Press 2011 Java Indonesia and Islam Dordrecht Springer Yang Heriyanto 2005 The History and Legal Position of Confucianism in Post Independence Indonesia PDF Marburg Journal of Religion 10 1 Zulkifli 2011 The struggle of Shi is in Indonesia Canberra ANU E Press ISBN 978 1 925021 29 5 External links Edit International Religious Freedom Report 2008 Indonesia US Department of State Retrieved 31 March 2014 Shaw Elliott ed 28 November 2016 Indonesian Religions PHILTAR Division of Religion and Philosophy University of Cumbria Retrieved 2 March 2019 Penduduk Menurut Wilayah dan Agama yang Dianut Population by Region and Religion in Indonesian Jakarta Indonesia Badan Pusat Statistik 15 May 2010 Retrieved 20 October 2011 Kemanusiaan di Atas Agama Humanity Above Religion Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Religion in Indonesia amp oldid 1153626031, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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