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Wikipedia

Social movement

A social movement is a loosely organized effort by a large group of people to achieve a particular goal, typically a social or political one.[1][2] This may be to carry out a social change, or to resist or undo one. It is a type of group action and may involve individuals, organizations, or both.[3] Social movements have been described as "organizational structures and strategies that may empower oppressed populations to mount effective challenges and resist the more powerful and advantaged elites".[4] They represent a method of social change from the bottom within nations.[4]. On the other hand, some social movements do not aim to make society more egalitarian, but to maintain or amplify existing power relationships. For example, scholars have described fascism as a coial movement.[5]

Political science and sociology have developed a variety of theories and empirical research on social movements. For example, some research in political science highlights the relation between popular movements and the formation of new political parties[6] as well as discussing the function of social movements in relation to agenda setting and influence on politics.[7] Sociologists distinguish between several types of social movement examining things such as scope, type of change, method of work, range, and time frame.

Some scholars have argued that modern Western social movements became possible through education (the wider dissemination of literature) and increased mobility of labor due to the industrialization and urbanization of 19th-century societies.[8] It is sometimes argued that the freedom of expression, education and relative economic independence prevalent in the modern Western culture are responsible for the unprecedented number and scope of various contemporary social movements. Many of the social movements of the last hundred years grew up, like the Mau Mau in Kenya, to oppose Western colonialism. Social movements have been and continue to be closely connected with democratic political systems. Occasionally, social movements have been involved in democratizing nations, but more often they have flourished after democratization. Over the past 200 years, they have become part of a popular and global expression of dissent.[9]

Modern movements often use technology and the internet to mobilize people globally. Adapting to communication trends is a common theme among successful movements.[10] Research is beginning to explore how advocacy organizations linked to social movements in the U.S.[10] and Canada[11] use social media to facilitate civic engagement and collective action.[12]

Definitions edit

Mario Diani argues that nearly all definitions share three criteria: "a network of informal interactions between a plurality of individuals, groups and/or organizations, engaged in a political or cultural conflict, on the basis of a shared collective identity"[13]

Sociologist Charles Tilly defines social movements as a series of contentious performances, displays and campaigns by which ordinary people make collective claims on others.[9] For Tilly, social movements are a major vehicle for ordinary people's participation in public politics.[14] He argues that there are three major elements to a social movement:[9]

  1. Campaigns: a sustained, organized public effort making collective claims of target authorities;
  2. Repertoire (repertoire of contention): employment of combinations from among the following forms of political action: creation of special-purpose associations and coalitions, public meetings, solemn processions, vigils, rallies, demonstrations, petition drives, statements to and in public media, and pamphleteering; and
  3. WUNC displays: participants' concerted public representation of worthiness, unity, numbers, and commitments on the part of themselves and/or their constituencies.

Sidney Tarrow defines a social movement as "collective challenges [to elites, authorities, other groups or cultural codes] by people with common purposes and solidarity in sustained interactions with elites, opponents and authorities." He specifically distinguishes social movements from political parties and advocacy groups.[15]

The sociologists John McCarthy and Mayer Zald define as a social movement as "a set of opinions and beliefs in a population which represents preferences for changing some elements of the social structure and/or reward distribution of a society."[16]

According to Paul van Seeters and Paul James, defining a social movement entails a few minimal conditions of 'coming together':

(1.) the formation of some kind of collective identity; (2.) the development of a shared normative orientation; (3.) the sharing of a concern for change of the status quo and (4.) the occurrence of moments of practical action that are at least subjectively connected together across time addressing this concern for change. Thus we define a social movement as a form of political association between persons who have at least a minimal sense of themselves as connected to others in common purpose and who come together across an extended period of time to effect social change in the name of that purpose.[17]

History edit

Beginning edit

 
Satirical engraving of Wilkes by William Hogarth. Wilkes is holding two editions of The North Briton.

The early growth of social movements was connected to broad economic and political changes in England in the mid-18th century, including political representation, market capitalization, and proletarianization.[9]

The first mass social movement catalyzed around the controversial political figure John Wilkes.[18] As editor of the paper The North Briton, Wilkes vigorously attacked the new administration of Lord Bute and the peace terms that the new government accepted at the 1763 Treaty of Paris at the end of the Seven Years' War. Charged with seditious libel, Wilkes was arrested after the issue of a general warrant, a move that Wilkes denounced as unlawful – the Lord Chief Justice eventually ruled in Wilkes favour. As a result of this, Wilkes became a figurehead to the growing movement for popular sovereignty among the middle classes – people began chanting "Wilkes and Liberty" in the streets.

After a later period of exile brought about by further charges of libel and obscenity, Wilkes stood for the Parliamentary seat at Middlesex, where most of his support was located.[19] When Wilkes was imprisoned in the King's Bench Prison on 10 May 1768, a mass movement of support emerged, with large demonstrations in the streets under the slogan "No liberty, no King."[20]

Stripped of the right to sit in Parliament, Wilkes became an Alderman of London in 1769, and an activist group called the Society for the Supporters of the Bill of Rights began aggressively promoting his policies.[21] This was the first ever sustained social movement: it involved public meetings, demonstrations, the distribution of pamphlets on an unprecedented scale and the mass petition march. However, the movement was careful not to cross the line into open rebellion; it tried to rectify the faults in governance through appeals to existing legal precedents and was conceived of as an extra-Parliamentary form of agitation to arrive at a consensual and constitutional arrangement.[22] The force and influence of this social movement on the streets of London compelled the authorities to concede to the movement's demands. Wilkes was returned to Parliament, general warrants were declared unconstitutional, and press freedom was extended to the coverage of Parliamentary debates.

 
The Gordon Riots, depicted in a painting by John Seymour Lucas

A much larger movement of anti-Catholic protest was triggered by the Papists Act 1778, which eliminated a number of the penalties and disabilities endured by Roman Catholics in England, and formed around Lord George Gordon, who became the President of the Protestant Association in 1779.[23][24][25] The Association had the support of leading Calvinist religious figures, including Rowland Hill, Erasmus Middleton, and John Rippon.[26] Gordon was an articulate propagandist and he inflamed the mob with fears of Papism and a return to absolute monarchical rule. The situation deteriorated rapidly, and in 1780, after a meeting of the Protestant Association, its members subsequently marched on the House of Commons to deliver a petition demanding the repeal of the Act, which the government refused to do. Soon, large riots broke out across London and embassies and Catholic owned businesses were attacked by angry mobs.

Other political movements that emerged in the late 18th century included the British abolitionist movement against slavery (becoming one between the sugar boycott of 1791 and the second great petition drive of 1806), and possibly the upheaval surrounding the French and American Revolutions. In the opinion of Eugene Black (1963), "...association made possible the extension of the politically effective public. Modern extra parliamentary political organization is a product of the late eighteenth century [and] the history of the age of reform cannot be written without it.[27]

Growth and spread edit

 
The Great Chartist Meeting on Kennington Common, London in 1848

From 1815, Britain after victory in the Napoleonic Wars entered a period of social upheaval characterised by the growing maturity of the use of social movements and special-interest associations. Chartism was the first mass movement of the growing working-class in the world.[28] It campaigned for political reform between 1838 and 1848 with the People's Charter of 1838 as its manifesto – this called for universal suffrage and the implementation of the secret ballot, amongst other things. The term "social movements" was introduced in 1848 by the German Sociologist Lorenz von Stein in his book Socialist and Communist Movements since the Third French Revolution (1848) in which he introduced the term "social movement" into scholarly discussions[29] – actually depicting in this way political movements fighting for the social rights understood as welfare rights.

 
Martin Luther King Jr. was a leader in the civil rights movement, one of the most famous social movements of the 20th century.

The labor movement and socialist movement of the late 19th century are seen as the prototypical social movements, leading to the formation of communist and social democratic parties and organisations. These tendencies were seen in poorer countries as pressure for reform continued, for example in Russia with the Russian Revolution of 1905 and of 1917, resulting in the collapse of the Czarist regime around the end of the First World War.

In 1945, Britain after victory in the Second World War entered a period of radical reform and change. In the post-war period, feminism, gay rights movement, peace movement, civil rights movement, anti-nuclear movement and environmental movement emerged, often dubbed the new social movements[30] They led, among other things, to the formation of green parties and organisations influenced by the new left. Some find in the end of the 1990s the emergence of a new global social movement, the anti-globalization movement. Some social movement scholars posit that with the rapid pace of globalization, the potential for the emergence of new type of social movement is latent—they make the analogy to national movements of the past to describe what has been termed a global citizens movement.

Key processes edit

Several key processes lie behind the history of social movements. Urbanization led to larger settlements, where people of similar goals could find each other, gather and organize. This facilitated social interaction between scores of people, and it was in urban areas that those early social movements first appeared. Similarly, the process of industrialization which gathered large masses of workers in the same region explains why many of those early social movements addressed matters such as economic wellbeing, important to the worker class. Many other social movements were created at universities, where the process of mass education brought many people together. With the development of communication technologies, creation and activities of social movements became easier – from printed pamphlets circulating in the 18th century coffeehouses to newspapers and Internet, all those tools became important factors in the growth of the social movements. Finally, the spread of democracy and political rights like the freedom of speech made the creation and functioning of social movements much easier.

Mass mobilization edit

Nascent social movements often fail to achieve their objectives because they fail to mobilize sufficient numbers of people. Srdja Popovic, author of Blueprint for Revolution,[31] and spokesperson for OTPOR!, says that movements succeed when they address issues that people actually care about. "It's unrealistic to expect people to care about more than what they already care about, and any attempt to make them do so is bound to fail." Activists too often make the mistake of trying to convince people to address their issues. A mobilization strategy aimed at large-scale change often begins with action a small issue that concerns many people.

Popovic also argues that a social movement has little chance of growing if it relies on boring speeches and the usual placard waving marches. He argues for creating movements that people actually want to join. OTPOR! succeeded because it was fun, funny, and invented graphic ways of ridiculing dictator Slobodan Milosevic. It turned fatalism and passivity into action by making it easy, even cool, to become a revolutionary, branding itself within hip slogans, rock music and street theatre. Tina Rosenberg, in Join the Club, How Peer Pressure can Transform the World,[32] shows how movements grow when there is a core of enthusiastic players who encourage others to join them.

Types edit

 
Types of social movements[33]

Sociologists distinguish between several types of social movement:

Identification of supporters edit

A difficulty for scholarship of movements is that for most, neither insiders to a movement nor outsiders apply consistent labels or even descriptive phrases. Unless there is a single leader who does, or a formal system of membership agreements, activists will typically use diverse labels and descriptive phrases that require scholars to discern when they are referring to the same or similar ideas, declare similar goals, adopt similar programs of action, and use similar methods. There can be great differences in the way that is done, to recognize who is and who is not a member or an allied group[citation needed]:

  • Insiders: Often exaggerate the level of support by considering people supporters whose level of activity or support is weak, but also reject those that outsiders might consider supporters because they discredit the cause, or are even seen as adversaries[citation needed]
  • Outsiders: Those not supporters who may tend to either underestimate or overestimate the level or support or activity of elements of a movement, by including or excluding those that insiders would exclude or include.[citation needed]

It is often outsiders rather than insiders that apply the identifying labels for a movement, which the insiders then may or may not adopt and use to self-identify. For example, the label for the levellers political movement in 17th-century England was applied to them by their antagonists, as a term of disparagement. Yet admirers of the movement and its aims later came to use the term, and it is the term by which they are known to history.

Caution must always be exercised in any discussion of amorphous phenomena such as movements to distinguish between the views of insiders and outsiders, supporters and antagonists, each of whom may have their own purposes and agendas in characterization or mischaracterization of it.[citation needed]

Dynamics edit

 
Stages of social movements[37]

Social movements have a life cycle: they are created, they grow, they achieve successes or failures and eventually, they dissolve and cease to exist.

They are more likely to evolve in the time and place which is friendly[citation needed] to the social movements: hence their evident symbiosis with the 19th century proliferation of ideas like individual rights, freedom of speech and civil disobedience. Social movements occur in liberal and authoritarian societies but in different forms. These new movements are activated by a wish for change in social customs, ethics and values which oppress certain communities. The birth of a social movement needs what sociologist Neil Smelser calls an initiating event: a particular, individual event that will begin a chain reaction of events in the given society leading to the creation of a social movement. The root of this event must be the result of some common discontent among a community. Hence, making emergence the first step to a social movement. This discontent will act as the chain that links common people together, as they share the same experiences and feelings of oppression. "Within this stage, social movements are very preliminary and there is little to no organization. Instead this stage can be thought of as widespread discontent (Macionis, 2001; Hopper, 1950).[38]" Emergence is prior to any sort of organized resistance to the condition of society. Jonathan Christiansen's essay on the four stages of social movement dissects further into the historical sociology of how each stage affects the whole movement. The Civil Rights Movement's early stages are an example of the public display of protest that is utilized to push a movement into the next stages. "It was not until after the Brown v. the Board of Education Supreme court decision (1954), which outlawed segregation in Public schools, and following the arrest of Rosa Parks in Montgomery, Alabama for refusing to comply with segregation laws on city buses by giving up her bus seat to a white man, that the American Civil Rights Movement would proceed to the next stage – coalescence."[39] The impact of a black woman, Rosa Parks, riding in the whites-only section of the bus (although she was not acting alone or spontaneously—typically activist leaders lay the groundwork behind the scenes of interventions designed to spark a movement).[40] This leads into coalesce because now the common dilemma and source of oppression is being pinned down, allowing for organizations and appearance to the public eye to be established. The Polish Solidarity movement, which eventually toppled the communist regimes of Eastern Europe, developed after trade union activist Anna Walentynowicz was fired from work. The South African shack dwellers' movement Abahlali baseMjondolo grew out of a road blockade in response to the sudden selling off of a small piece of land promised for housing to a developer. Such an event is also described as a volcanic model – a social movement is often created after a large number of people realize that there are others sharing the same value and desire for a particular social change.

This third stage, bureaucratization, is when movements must become more organized, centered around a more systematic model. The set up and system for going about the construct must be more formal, with people taking on specific roles and responsibilities. "In this phase their political power is greater than in the previous stages in that they may have more regular access to political elites."[39] In this stage, one organization may take over another one in order to obtain a greater status and formal alliance. This 'taking over' may be a positive or negative move for organizations. Ella Baker, an activist who played a role in the NAACP,[41] had proposed to the students of the student movement to start their own organization. This becomes known as the SNCC, the student nonviolent coordinating committee (1960s). The students could have join forces with the SCLC,[42] an already existing organization, but that would have been a poor bureaucratizing decision, as they would succumb to old ideologies. New and progressive ideas that challenge prior authority are crucial to social change.

The declining of a social movement does not necessarily mean failure. There are multiple routes in which a movement may take before proceeding into decline. Success of a movement would result in permanent changes within the society and/or government that would result in a loss of need for protest. Failure is often the result of the incapability to keep a common focus, and work towards the goal in mind. "Failure of social movements due to organizational or strategic failings is common for many organizations".[43] Such a route would result in the gradual breaking up of an organization, and out of the stages of movement. Co-optation results when people or groups are integrated and shift away from the social movement's initial concerns and values. Repression is another example, when the movement is slowly wiped away from the public platform through means of an outside force, usually being the government. The last route into declining is going mainstream, which is generally perceived as an overall success. This is when goals of the movement are taken into society as a part of daily life, making it a 'social norm.' For example, birth control is still a greatly debated topic on a government level, but it has been accepted into social life as a common thing that exists.

It is important to recognize that though movements may disintegrate and cease to be active, the impact that they have in the social realm is success in its own way. It sparks the notion in new generations that the possibility to organize and make change is there.[44]

Theories edit

Sociologists have developed several theories related to social movements [Kendall, 2005]. Some of the better-known approaches are outlined below. Chronologically they include:

Deprivation theory edit

Deprivation theory argues that social movements have their foundations among people who feel deprived of some good(s) or resource(s). According to this approach, individuals who are lacking some good, service, or comfort are more likely to organize a social movement to improve (or defend) their conditions.[45]

There are two significant problems with this theory. First, since most people feel deprived at one level or another almost all the time, the theory has a hard time explaining why the groups that form social movements do when other people are also deprived. Second, the reasoning behind this theory is circular – often the only evidence for deprivation is the social movement. If deprivation is claimed to be the cause but the only evidence for such is the movement, the reasoning is circular.[46]

Mass society theory edit

Mass society theory argues that social movements are made up of individuals in large societies who feel insignificant or socially detached. Social movements, according to this theory, provide a sense of empowerment and belonging that the movement members would otherwise not have.[47]

Very little support has been found for this theory. Aho (1990), in his study of Idaho Christian Patriotism, did not find that members of that movement were more likely to have been socially detached. In fact, the key to joining the movement was having a friend or associate who was a member of the movement.

Structural strain theory edit

Social Strain Theory, is the "proposal that pressure derived from social factors, such as lack of income or lack of quality education, drives individuals to commit crime."[48]

  1. structural conduciveness - people come to believe their society has problems
  2. structural strain - people experience deprivation
  3. growth and spread of a solution - a solution to the problems people are experiencing is proposed and spreads
  4. precipitating factors - discontent usually requires a catalyst (often a specific event) to turn it into a social movement
  5. lack of social control - the entity that is to be changed must be at least somewhat open to the change; if the social movement is quickly and powerfully repressed, it may never materialize
  6. mobilization - this is the actual organizing and active component of the movement; people do what needs to be done

This theory is also subject to circular reasoning as it incorporates, at least in part, deprivation theory and relies upon it, and social/structural strain for the underlying motivation of social movement activism. However, social movement activism is, like in the case of deprivation theory, often the only indication that there was strain or deprivation.

Resource mobilization theory edit

Resource mobilization theory emphasizes the importance of resources in social movement development and success. Resources are understood here to include: knowledge, money, media, labor, solidarity, legitimacy, and internal and external support from power elite. The theory argues that social movements develop when individuals with grievances are able to mobilize sufficient resources to take action.The emphasis on resources offers an explanation why some discontented/deprived individuals are able to organize while others are not.[49]

In contrast to earlier collective behavior perspectives on social movements—which emphasized the role of exceptional levels of deprivation, grievance, or social strain in motivating mass protest—Resource Mobilization perspectives hold "that there is always enough discontent in any society to supply the grass-roots support for a movement if the movement is effectively organized and has at its disposal the power and resources of some established elite group"[50] Movement emergence is contingent upon the aggregation of resources by social movement entrepreneurs and movement organizations, who use these resources to turn collective dissent in to political pressure.[49] Members are recruited through networks; commitment is maintained by building a collective identity, and through interpersonal relationships.[citation needed]

Resource Mobilization Theory views social movement activity as "politics by other means": a rational and strategic effort by ordinary people to change society or politics.[51] The form of the resources shapes the activities of the movement (e.g., access to a TV station will result in the extensive use TV media). Movements develop in contingent opportunity structures that influence their efforts to mobilize; and each movement's response to the opportunity structures depends on the movement's organization and resources[citation needed]

Critics of this theory argue that there is too much of an emphasis on resources, especially financial resources. Some movements are effective without an influx of money and are more dependent upon the movement members for time and labor (e.g., the civil rights movement in the U.S.).[52]

Political process theory edit

Political process theory is similar to resource mobilization in many regards, but tends to emphasize a different component of social structure that is important for social movement development: political opportunities. Political process theory argues that there are three vital components for movement formation: insurgent consciousness, organizational strength, and political opportunities.

Insurgent consciousness refers back to the ideas of deprivation and grievances. The idea is that certain members of society feel like they are being mistreated or that somehow the system is unjust. The insurgent consciousness is the collective sense of injustice that movement members (or potential movement members) feel and serves as the motivation for movement organization.

 
Photo taken at the 2005 U.S. Presidential inauguration protest

Organizational strength falls inline with resource-mobilization theory, arguing that in order for a social movement to organize it must have strong leadership and sufficient resources.

Political opportunity refers to the receptivity or vulnerability of the existing political system to challenge. This vulnerability can be the result of any of the following (or a combination thereof):

  • growth of political pluralism
  • decline in effectiveness of repression
  • elite disunity; the leading factions are internally fragmented
  • a broadening of access to institutional participation in political processes
  • support of organized opposition by elites

One of the advantages of the political process theory is that it addresses the issue of timing or emergence of social movements. Some groups may have the insurgent consciousness and resources to mobilize, but because political opportunities are closed, they will not have any success. The theory, then, argues that all three of these components are important.

Critics of the political process theory and resource-mobilization theory point out that neither theory discusses movement culture to any great degree. This has presented culture theorists an opportunity to expound on the importance of culture.

One advance on the political process theory is the political mediation model, which outlines the way in which the political context facing movement actors intersects with the strategic choices that movements make. An additional strength of this model is that it can look at the outcomes of social movements not only in terms of success or failure but also in terms of consequences (whether intentional or unintentional, positive or negative) and in terms of collective benefits.

Framing perspective edit

Reflecting the cultural turn in the social sciences and humanities more broadly, recent strains of social movement theory and research add to the largely structural concerns seen in the resource mobilization and political process theories by emphasizing the cultural and psychological aspects of social movement processes, such as collectively shared interpretations and beliefs, ideologies, values and other meanings about the world. In doing so, this general cultural approach also attempts to address the free-rider problem. One particularly successful take on some such cultural dimensions is manifested in the framing perspective on social movements.

While both resource mobilization theory and political process theory include, or at least accept, the idea that certain shared understandings of, for example, perceived unjust societal conditions must exist for mobilization to occur at all, this is not explicitly problematized within those approaches. The framing perspective has brought such shared understandings to the forefront of the attempt to understand movement creation and existence by, e.g., arguing that, in order for social movements to successfully mobilize individuals, they must develop an injustice frame. An injustice frame is a collection of ideas and symbols that illustrate both how significant the problem is as well as what the movement can do to alleviate it,

Like a picture frame, an issue frame marks off some part of the world. Like a building frame, it holds things together. It provides coherence to an array of symbols, images, and arguments, linking them through an underlying organizing idea that suggests what is essential – what consequences and values are at stake. We do not see the frame directly, but infer its presence by its characteristic expressions and language. Each frame gives the advantage to certain ways of talking and thinking, while it places others out of the picture.[53]

Important characteristics of the injustice frames include:[54]

  • Facts take on their meaning by being embedded in frames, which render them relevant and significant or irrelevant and trivial.
  • People carry around multiple frames in their heads.
  • Successful reframing involves the ability to enter into the worldview of our adversaries.
  • All frames contain implicit or explicit appeals to moral principles.

In emphasizing the injustice frame, culture theory also addresses the free-rider problem. The free-rider problem refers to the idea that people will not be motivated to participate in a social movement that will use up their personal resources (e.g., time, money, etc.) if they can still receive the benefits without participating. In other words, if person X knows that movement Y is working to improve environmental conditions in his neighborhood, he is presented with a choice: join or not join the movement. If he believes the movement will succeed without him, he can avoid participation in the movement, save his resources, and still reap the benefits – this is free-riding. A significant problem for social movement theory has been to explain why people join movements if they believe the movement can/will succeed without their contribution. Culture theory argues that, in conjunction with social networks being an important contact tool, the injustice frame will provide the motivation for people to contribute to the movement.

Framing processes includes three separate components:

  • Diagnostic frame: the movement organization frames what is the problem or what they are critiquing
  • Prognostic frame: the movement organization frames what is the desirable solution to the problem
  • Motivational frame: the movement organization frames a "call to arms" by suggesting and encouraging that people take action to solve the problem

Social networking edit

For more than ten years[when?], social movement groups have been using the Internet to accomplish organizational goals. It has been argued that the Internet helps to increase the speed, reach and effectiveness of social movement-related communication as well as mobilization efforts, and as a result, it has been suggested that the Internet has had a positive impact on the social movements in general.[11][55][56][57] The systematic literature review of Buettner & Buettner analyzed the role of Twitter during a wide range of social movements (2007 WikiLeaks, 2009 Moldova, 2009 Austria student protest, 2009 Israel-Gaza, 2009 Iran green revolution, 2009 Toronto G20, 2010 Venezuela, 2010 Germany Stuttgart21, 2011 Egypt, 2011 England, 2011 US Occupy movement, 2011 Spain Indignados, 2011 Greece Aganaktismenoi movements, 2011 Italy, 2011 Wisconsin labor protests, 2012 Israel Hamas, 2013 Brazil Vinegar, 2013 Turkey).[12]

Many discussions have been generated recently on the topic of social networking and the effect it may play on the formation and mobilization of social movement.[58] For example, the emergence of the Coffee Party first appeared on the social networking site, Facebook. The party has continued to gather membership and support through that site and file sharing sites, such as Flickr. The 2009–2010 Iranian election protests also demonstrated how social networking sites are making the mobilization of large numbers of people quicker and easier. Iranians were able to organize and speak out against the election of Mahmoud Ahmadinejad by using sites such as Twitter and Facebook.[59] This in turn prompted widespread government censorship of the web and social networking sites.

The sociological study of social movements is quite new.[according to whom?] The traditional view of movements often perceived them as chaotic and disorganized, treating activism as a threat to the social order. The activism experienced in the 1960s and 1970s shuffled in a new world opinion about the subject. Models were now introduced to understand the organizational and structural powers embedded in social movements.[citation needed]

See also edit

References edit

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  26. ^ Joanna Innes (8 October 2009). Inferior Politics:Social Problems and Social Policies in Eighteenth-Century Britain. Oxford University Press. p. 446. ISBN 978-0-19-160677-9. Retrieved 15 September 2013.
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  29. ^ Tilly, 2004, p.5
  30. ^ West, David (2004). . Handbook of Political Theory: 265–276. doi:10.4135/9781848608139.n20. ISBN 9780761967880. Archived from the original on 2015-02-15. Retrieved 2015-02-15.
  31. ^ Popovic, Srdja (2015). Blueprint for revolution : how to use rice pudding, Lego men, and other nonviolent techniques to galvanize communities, overthrow dictators, or simply change the world. Miller, Matthew I., 1979- (First ed.). New York. ISBN 9780812995305. OCLC 878500820.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  32. ^ Tina., Rosenberg (2011). Join the club : how peer pressure can transform the world (1st ed.). New York: W.W. Norton & Co. ISBN 9780393068580. OCLC 601108086.
  33. ^ Aberle, David F. 1966. The Peyote Religion among the Navaho. Chicago: Aldine. ISBN 0-8061-2382-6
  34. ^ Roberts, Adam and Timothy Garton Ash (eds.), Civil Resistance and Power Politics: The Experience of Non-violent Action from Gandhi to the Present Archived 2014-11-15 at Archive-It, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009. ISBN 978-0-19-955201-6, contains chapters on these and many other social movements using non-violent methods.[1]
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  47. ^ Kornhauser 1959
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  53. ^ Ryan and Gamson 2006, p.14
  54. ^ Ryan and Gamson 2006
  55. ^ Ope, J.A.M. (1999). "From the Streets to the Internet: The Cyber-Diffusion of Contention". Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science. 566: 132–143. doi:10.1177/0002716299566001011.
  56. ^ Eaton, M. (2010). "Manufacturing Community in an Online Activity Organization: The Rhetoric of MoveOn.org's E-mails". Information, Communication & Society. 13 (2): 174–192. doi:10.1080/13691180902890125. S2CID 141971731.
  57. ^ Obar, J.A.; Zube, P.; Lampe, C. (2012). "Advocacy 2.0: An analysis of how advocacy groups in the United States perceive and use social media as tools for facilitating civic engagement and collective action". Journal of Information Policy. 2: 1–25. doi:10.2139/ssrn.1956352. S2CID 145712218. SSRN 1956352.
  58. ^ Shirky, Clay. Here Comes Everybody: The Power of Organizing Without Organizations. Penguin Press HC, The, 2008. Print.
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Further reading edit

External links edit

  • Mobilization - journal
  • Interface: a Journal For and About Social Movements

social, movement, confused, with, social, mobility, social, movement, loosely, organized, effort, large, group, people, achieve, particular, goal, typically, social, political, this, carry, social, change, resist, undo, type, group, action, involve, individual. Not to be confused with Social mobility A social movement is a loosely organized effort by a large group of people to achieve a particular goal typically a social or political one 1 2 This may be to carry out a social change or to resist or undo one It is a type of group action and may involve individuals organizations or both 3 Social movements have been described as organizational structures and strategies that may empower oppressed populations to mount effective challenges and resist the more powerful and advantaged elites 4 They represent a method of social change from the bottom within nations 4 On the other hand some social movements do not aim to make society more egalitarian but to maintain or amplify existing power relationships For example scholars have described fascism as a coial movement 5 Political science and sociology have developed a variety of theories and empirical research on social movements For example some research in political science highlights the relation between popular movements and the formation of new political parties 6 as well as discussing the function of social movements in relation to agenda setting and influence on politics 7 Sociologists distinguish between several types of social movement examining things such as scope type of change method of work range and time frame Some scholars have argued that modern Western social movements became possible through education the wider dissemination of literature and increased mobility of labor due to the industrialization and urbanization of 19th century societies 8 It is sometimes argued that the freedom of expression education and relative economic independence prevalent in the modern Western culture are responsible for the unprecedented number and scope of various contemporary social movements Many of the social movements of the last hundred years grew up like the Mau Mau in Kenya to oppose Western colonialism Social movements have been and continue to be closely connected with democratic political systems Occasionally social movements have been involved in democratizing nations but more often they have flourished after democratization Over the past 200 years they have become part of a popular and global expression of dissent 9 Modern movements often use technology and the internet to mobilize people globally Adapting to communication trends is a common theme among successful movements 10 Research is beginning to explore how advocacy organizations linked to social movements in the U S 10 and Canada 11 use social media to facilitate civic engagement and collective action 12 Contents 1 Definitions 2 History 2 1 Beginning 2 2 Growth and spread 2 3 Key processes 3 Mass mobilization 4 Types 5 Identification of supporters 6 Dynamics 7 Theories 7 1 Deprivation theory 7 2 Mass society theory 7 3 Structural strain theory 7 4 Resource mobilization theory 7 5 Political process theory 7 6 Framing perspective 8 Social networking 9 See also 10 References 11 Further reading 12 External linksDefinitions editMario Diani argues that nearly all definitions share three criteria a network of informal interactions between a plurality of individuals groups and or organizations engaged in a political or cultural conflict on the basis of a shared collective identity 13 Sociologist Charles Tilly defines social movements as a series of contentious performances displays and campaigns by which ordinary people make collective claims on others 9 For Tilly social movements are a major vehicle for ordinary people s participation in public politics 14 He argues that there are three major elements to a social movement 9 Campaigns a sustained organized public effort making collective claims of target authorities Repertoire repertoire of contention employment of combinations from among the following forms of political action creation of special purpose associations and coalitions public meetings solemn processions vigils rallies demonstrations petition drives statements to and in public media and pamphleteering and WUNC displays participants concerted public representation of worthiness unity numbers and commitments on the part of themselves and or their constituencies Sidney Tarrow defines a social movement as collective challenges to elites authorities other groups or cultural codes by people with common purposes and solidarity in sustained interactions with elites opponents and authorities He specifically distinguishes social movements from political parties and advocacy groups 15 The sociologists John McCarthy and Mayer Zald define as a social movement as a set of opinions and beliefs in a population which represents preferences for changing some elements of the social structure and or reward distribution of a society 16 According to Paul van Seeters and Paul James defining a social movement entails a few minimal conditions of coming together 1 the formation of some kind of collective identity 2 the development of a shared normative orientation 3 the sharing of a concern for change of the status quo and 4 the occurrence of moments of practical action that are at least subjectively connected together across time addressing this concern for change Thus we define a social movement as a form of political association between persons who have at least a minimal sense of themselves as connected to others in common purpose and who come together across an extended period of time to effect social change in the name of that purpose 17 History editBeginning edit nbsp Satirical engraving of Wilkes by William Hogarth Wilkes is holding two editions of The North Briton The early growth of social movements was connected to broad economic and political changes in England in the mid 18th century including political representation market capitalization and proletarianization 9 The first mass social movement catalyzed around the controversial political figure John Wilkes 18 As editor of the paper The North Briton Wilkes vigorously attacked the new administration of Lord Bute and the peace terms that the new government accepted at the 1763 Treaty of Paris at the end of the Seven Years War Charged with seditious libel Wilkes was arrested after the issue of a general warrant a move that Wilkes denounced as unlawful the Lord Chief Justice eventually ruled in Wilkes favour As a result of this Wilkes became a figurehead to the growing movement for popular sovereignty among the middle classes people began chanting Wilkes and Liberty in the streets After a later period of exile brought about by further charges of libel and obscenity Wilkes stood for the Parliamentary seat at Middlesex where most of his support was located 19 When Wilkes was imprisoned in the King s Bench Prison on 10 May 1768 a mass movement of support emerged with large demonstrations in the streets under the slogan No liberty no King 20 Stripped of the right to sit in Parliament Wilkes became an Alderman of London in 1769 and an activist group called the Society for the Supporters of the Bill of Rights began aggressively promoting his policies 21 This was the first ever sustained social movement it involved public meetings demonstrations the distribution of pamphlets on an unprecedented scale and the mass petition march However the movement was careful not to cross the line into open rebellion it tried to rectify the faults in governance through appeals to existing legal precedents and was conceived of as an extra Parliamentary form of agitation to arrive at a consensual and constitutional arrangement 22 The force and influence of this social movement on the streets of London compelled the authorities to concede to the movement s demands Wilkes was returned to Parliament general warrants were declared unconstitutional and press freedom was extended to the coverage of Parliamentary debates nbsp The Gordon Riots depicted in a painting by John Seymour LucasA much larger movement of anti Catholic protest was triggered by the Papists Act 1778 which eliminated a number of the penalties and disabilities endured by Roman Catholics in England and formed around Lord George Gordon who became the President of the Protestant Association in 1779 23 24 25 The Association had the support of leading Calvinist religious figures including Rowland Hill Erasmus Middleton and John Rippon 26 Gordon was an articulate propagandist and he inflamed the mob with fears of Papism and a return to absolute monarchical rule The situation deteriorated rapidly and in 1780 after a meeting of the Protestant Association its members subsequently marched on the House of Commons to deliver a petition demanding the repeal of the Act which the government refused to do Soon large riots broke out across London and embassies and Catholic owned businesses were attacked by angry mobs Other political movements that emerged in the late 18th century included the British abolitionist movement against slavery becoming one between the sugar boycott of 1791 and the second great petition drive of 1806 and possibly the upheaval surrounding the French and American Revolutions In the opinion of Eugene Black 1963 association made possible the extension of the politically effective public Modern extra parliamentary political organization is a product of the late eighteenth century and the history of the age of reform cannot be written without it 27 Growth and spread edit nbsp The Great Chartist Meeting on Kennington Common London in 1848From 1815 Britain after victory in the Napoleonic Wars entered a period of social upheaval characterised by the growing maturity of the use of social movements and special interest associations Chartism was the first mass movement of the growing working class in the world 28 It campaigned for political reform between 1838 and 1848 with the People s Charter of 1838 as its manifesto this called for universal suffrage and the implementation of the secret ballot amongst other things The term social movements was introduced in 1848 by the German Sociologist Lorenz von Stein in his book Socialist and Communist Movements since the Third French Revolution 1848 in which he introduced the term social movement into scholarly discussions 29 actually depicting in this way political movements fighting for the social rights understood as welfare rights nbsp Martin Luther King Jr was a leader in the civil rights movement one of the most famous social movements of the 20th century The labor movement and socialist movement of the late 19th century are seen as the prototypical social movements leading to the formation of communist and social democratic parties and organisations These tendencies were seen in poorer countries as pressure for reform continued for example in Russia with the Russian Revolution of 1905 and of 1917 resulting in the collapse of the Czarist regime around the end of the First World War In 1945 Britain after victory in the Second World War entered a period of radical reform and change In the post war period feminism gay rights movement peace movement civil rights movement anti nuclear movement and environmental movement emerged often dubbed the new social movements 30 They led among other things to the formation of green parties and organisations influenced by the new left Some find in the end of the 1990s the emergence of a new global social movement the anti globalization movement Some social movement scholars posit that with the rapid pace of globalization the potential for the emergence of new type of social movement is latent they make the analogy to national movements of the past to describe what has been termed a global citizens movement Key processes edit Several key processes lie behind the history of social movements Urbanization led to larger settlements where people of similar goals could find each other gather and organize This facilitated social interaction between scores of people and it was in urban areas that those early social movements first appeared Similarly the process of industrialization which gathered large masses of workers in the same region explains why many of those early social movements addressed matters such as economic wellbeing important to the worker class Many other social movements were created at universities where the process of mass education brought many people together With the development of communication technologies creation and activities of social movements became easier from printed pamphlets circulating in the 18th century coffeehouses to newspapers and Internet all those tools became important factors in the growth of the social movements Finally the spread of democracy and political rights like the freedom of speech made the creation and functioning of social movements much easier Mass mobilization editNascent social movements often fail to achieve their objectives because they fail to mobilize sufficient numbers of people Srdja Popovic author of Blueprint for Revolution 31 and spokesperson for OTPOR says that movements succeed when they address issues that people actually care about It s unrealistic to expect people to care about more than what they already care about and any attempt to make them do so is bound to fail Activists too often make the mistake of trying to convince people to address their issues A mobilization strategy aimed at large scale change often begins with action a small issue that concerns many people Popovic also argues that a social movement has little chance of growing if it relies on boring speeches and the usual placard waving marches He argues for creating movements that people actually want to join OTPOR succeeded because it was fun funny and invented graphic ways of ridiculing dictator Slobodan Milosevic It turned fatalism and passivity into action by making it easy even cool to become a revolutionary branding itself within hip slogans rock music and street theatre Tina Rosenberg in Join the Club How Peer Pressure can Transform the World 32 shows how movements grow when there is a core of enthusiastic players who encourage others to join them Types edit nbsp Types of social movements 33 Sociologists distinguish between several types of social movement Scope reform movement movements advocating changing some norms or laws Examples of such a movement would include a trade union with a goal of increasing workers rights a green movement advocating a set of ecological laws or a movement supporting introduction of a capital punishment or the right to abortion Some reform movements may aim for a change in custom and moral norms such as condemnation of pornography or proliferation of some religion radical movement movements dedicated to changing value systems in a fundamental way Examples would include the Civil Rights Movement which demanded full civil rights and equality under the law to all Americans regardless of race the Polish Solidarity Solidarnosc movement which demanded the transformation of a Stalinist political and economic system into a democracy or the South African shack dwellers movement Abahlali baseMjondolo which demands the full inclusion of shack dwellers into the life of cities Type of change innovation movement movements which want to introduce or change particular norms values etc The singularitarianism movement advocating deliberate action to effect and ensure the safety of the technological singularity is an example of an innovation movement conservative movement movements which want to preserve existing norms values etc For example the anti technology 19th century Luddites movement or the modern movement opposing the spread of the genetically modified food could be seen as conservative movements in that they aimed to fight specific technological changes Targets group focus movements focused on affecting groups or society in general for example advocating the change of the political system Some of these groups transform into or join a political party but many remain outside the reformist party political system individual focused movements focused on affecting individuals Most religious movements would fall under this category Methods of work peaceful movements various movements which use nonviolent means of protest as part of a campaign of nonviolent resistance also often called civil resistance The American Civil Rights Movement Polish Solidarity movement or the nonviolent civil disobedience orientated wing of the Indian independence movement would fall into this category 34 violent movements various movements 35 which resort to violence they are usually armed and in extreme cases can take a form of a paramilitary or terrorist organization Examples the Rote Armee Fraktion Al Qaida Old and new old movements movements for change have existed for many centuries Most of the oldest recognized movements dating to late 18th and 19th centuries fought for specific social groups such as the working class peasants whites aristocrats Protestants men They were usually centered around some materialistic goals like improving the standard of living or for example the political autonomy of the working class new movements movements which became dominant from the second half of the 20th century Notable examples include the American civil rights movement second wave feminism gay rights movement environmentalism and conservation efforts opposition to mass surveillance etc They are usually centered around issues that go beyond but are not separate from class Range global movements social movements with global transnational objectives and goals Movements such as the first where Marx and Bakunin met second third and fourth internationals the World Social Forum the Peoples Global Action and the anarchist movement seek to change society at a global level local movements most of the social movements have a local scope 36 They are focused on local or regional objectives such as protecting a specific natural area lobbying for the lowering of tolls in a certain motorway or preserving a building about to be demolished for gentrification and turning it into a social center Identification of supporters editA difficulty for scholarship of movements is that for most neither insiders to a movement nor outsiders apply consistent labels or even descriptive phrases Unless there is a single leader who does or a formal system of membership agreements activists will typically use diverse labels and descriptive phrases that require scholars to discern when they are referring to the same or similar ideas declare similar goals adopt similar programs of action and use similar methods There can be great differences in the way that is done to recognize who is and who is not a member or an allied group citation needed Insiders Often exaggerate the level of support by considering people supporters whose level of activity or support is weak but also reject those that outsiders might consider supporters because they discredit the cause or are even seen as adversaries citation needed Outsiders Those not supporters who may tend to either underestimate or overestimate the level or support or activity of elements of a movement by including or excluding those that insiders would exclude or include citation needed It is often outsiders rather than insiders that apply the identifying labels for a movement which the insiders then may or may not adopt and use to self identify For example the label for the levellers political movement in 17th century England was applied to them by their antagonists as a term of disparagement Yet admirers of the movement and its aims later came to use the term and it is the term by which they are known to history Caution must always be exercised in any discussion of amorphous phenomena such as movements to distinguish between the views of insiders and outsiders supporters and antagonists each of whom may have their own purposes and agendas in characterization or mischaracterization of it citation needed Dynamics edit nbsp Stages of social movements 37 Social movements have a life cycle they are created they grow they achieve successes or failures and eventually they dissolve and cease to exist They are more likely to evolve in the time and place which is friendly citation needed to the social movements hence their evident symbiosis with the 19th century proliferation of ideas like individual rights freedom of speech and civil disobedience Social movements occur in liberal and authoritarian societies but in different forms These new movements are activated by a wish for change in social customs ethics and values which oppress certain communities The birth of a social movement needs what sociologist Neil Smelser calls an initiating event a particular individual event that will begin a chain reaction of events in the given society leading to the creation of a social movement The root of this event must be the result of some common discontent among a community Hence making emergence the first step to a social movement This discontent will act as the chain that links common people together as they share the same experiences and feelings of oppression Within this stage social movements are very preliminary and there is little to no organization Instead this stage can be thought of as widespread discontent Macionis 2001 Hopper 1950 38 Emergence is prior to any sort of organized resistance to the condition of society Jonathan Christiansen s essay on the four stages of social movement dissects further into the historical sociology of how each stage affects the whole movement The Civil Rights Movement s early stages are an example of the public display of protest that is utilized to push a movement into the next stages It was not until after the Brown v the Board of Education Supreme court decision 1954 which outlawed segregation in Public schools and following the arrest of Rosa Parks in Montgomery Alabama for refusing to comply with segregation laws on city buses by giving up her bus seat to a white man that the American Civil Rights Movement would proceed to the next stage coalescence 39 The impact of a black woman Rosa Parks riding in the whites only section of the bus although she was not acting alone or spontaneously typically activist leaders lay the groundwork behind the scenes of interventions designed to spark a movement 40 This leads into coalesce because now the common dilemma and source of oppression is being pinned down allowing for organizations and appearance to the public eye to be established The Polish Solidarity movement which eventually toppled the communist regimes of Eastern Europe developed after trade union activist Anna Walentynowicz was fired from work The South African shack dwellers movement Abahlali baseMjondolo grew out of a road blockade in response to the sudden selling off of a small piece of land promised for housing to a developer Such an event is also described as a volcanic model a social movement is often created after a large number of people realize that there are others sharing the same value and desire for a particular social change This third stage bureaucratization is when movements must become more organized centered around a more systematic model The set up and system for going about the construct must be more formal with people taking on specific roles and responsibilities In this phase their political power is greater than in the previous stages in that they may have more regular access to political elites 39 In this stage one organization may take over another one in order to obtain a greater status and formal alliance This taking over may be a positive or negative move for organizations Ella Baker an activist who played a role in the NAACP 41 had proposed to the students of the student movement to start their own organization This becomes known as the SNCC the student nonviolent coordinating committee 1960s The students could have join forces with the SCLC 42 an already existing organization but that would have been a poor bureaucratizing decision as they would succumb to old ideologies New and progressive ideas that challenge prior authority are crucial to social change The declining of a social movement does not necessarily mean failure There are multiple routes in which a movement may take before proceeding into decline Success of a movement would result in permanent changes within the society and or government that would result in a loss of need for protest Failure is often the result of the incapability to keep a common focus and work towards the goal in mind Failure of social movements due to organizational or strategic failings is common for many organizations 43 Such a route would result in the gradual breaking up of an organization and out of the stages of movement Co optation results when people or groups are integrated and shift away from the social movement s initial concerns and values Repression is another example when the movement is slowly wiped away from the public platform through means of an outside force usually being the government The last route into declining is going mainstream which is generally perceived as an overall success This is when goals of the movement are taken into society as a part of daily life making it a social norm For example birth control is still a greatly debated topic on a government level but it has been accepted into social life as a common thing that exists It is important to recognize that though movements may disintegrate and cease to be active the impact that they have in the social realm is success in its own way It sparks the notion in new generations that the possibility to organize and make change is there 44 Theories editMain article Social movement theory Sociologists have developed several theories related to social movements Kendall 2005 Some of the better known approaches are outlined below Chronologically they include Marxist theory 1880s collective behavior collective action theories 1950s relative deprivation theory 1960s value added theory 1960s resource mobilization 1970s political process theory 1980s framing theory 1980s closely related to social constructionist theory new social movement theory 1980s Deprivation theory edit Deprivation theory argues that social movements have their foundations among people who feel deprived of some good s or resource s According to this approach individuals who are lacking some good service or comfort are more likely to organize a social movement to improve or defend their conditions 45 There are two significant problems with this theory First since most people feel deprived at one level or another almost all the time the theory has a hard time explaining why the groups that form social movements do when other people are also deprived Second the reasoning behind this theory is circular often the only evidence for deprivation is the social movement If deprivation is claimed to be the cause but the only evidence for such is the movement the reasoning is circular 46 Mass society theory edit Mass society theory argues that social movements are made up of individuals in large societies who feel insignificant or socially detached Social movements according to this theory provide a sense of empowerment and belonging that the movement members would otherwise not have 47 Very little support has been found for this theory Aho 1990 in his study of Idaho Christian Patriotism did not find that members of that movement were more likely to have been socially detached In fact the key to joining the movement was having a friend or associate who was a member of the movement Structural strain theory edit Social Strain Theory is the proposal that pressure derived from social factors such as lack of income or lack of quality education drives individuals to commit crime 48 structural conduciveness people come to believe their society has problems structural strain people experience deprivation growth and spread of a solution a solution to the problems people are experiencing is proposed and spreads precipitating factors discontent usually requires a catalyst often a specific event to turn it into a social movement lack of social control the entity that is to be changed must be at least somewhat open to the change if the social movement is quickly and powerfully repressed it may never materialize mobilization this is the actual organizing and active component of the movement people do what needs to be doneThis theory is also subject to circular reasoning as it incorporates at least in part deprivation theory and relies upon it and social structural strain for the underlying motivation of social movement activism However social movement activism is like in the case of deprivation theory often the only indication that there was strain or deprivation Resource mobilization theory edit Resource mobilization theory emphasizes the importance of resources in social movement development and success Resources are understood here to include knowledge money media labor solidarity legitimacy and internal and external support from power elite The theory argues that social movements develop when individuals with grievances are able to mobilize sufficient resources to take action The emphasis on resources offers an explanation why some discontented deprived individuals are able to organize while others are not 49 In contrast to earlier collective behavior perspectives on social movements which emphasized the role of exceptional levels of deprivation grievance or social strain in motivating mass protest Resource Mobilization perspectives hold that there is always enough discontent in any society to supply the grass roots support for a movement if the movement is effectively organized and has at its disposal the power and resources of some established elite group 50 Movement emergence is contingent upon the aggregation of resources by social movement entrepreneurs and movement organizations who use these resources to turn collective dissent in to political pressure 49 Members are recruited through networks commitment is maintained by building a collective identity and through interpersonal relationships citation needed Resource Mobilization Theory views social movement activity as politics by other means a rational and strategic effort by ordinary people to change society or politics 51 The form of the resources shapes the activities of the movement e g access to a TV station will result in the extensive use TV media Movements develop in contingent opportunity structures that influence their efforts to mobilize and each movement s response to the opportunity structures depends on the movement s organization and resources citation needed Critics of this theory argue that there is too much of an emphasis on resources especially financial resources Some movements are effective without an influx of money and are more dependent upon the movement members for time and labor e g the civil rights movement in the U S 52 Political process theory edit Political process theory is similar to resource mobilization in many regards but tends to emphasize a different component of social structure that is important for social movement development political opportunities Political process theory argues that there are three vital components for movement formation insurgent consciousness organizational strength and political opportunities Insurgent consciousness refers back to the ideas of deprivation and grievances The idea is that certain members of society feel like they are being mistreated or that somehow the system is unjust The insurgent consciousness is the collective sense of injustice that movement members or potential movement members feel and serves as the motivation for movement organization nbsp Photo taken at the 2005 U S Presidential inauguration protestOrganizational strength falls inline with resource mobilization theory arguing that in order for a social movement to organize it must have strong leadership and sufficient resources Political opportunity refers to the receptivity or vulnerability of the existing political system to challenge This vulnerability can be the result of any of the following or a combination thereof growth of political pluralism decline in effectiveness of repression elite disunity the leading factions are internally fragmented a broadening of access to institutional participation in political processes support of organized opposition by elitesOne of the advantages of the political process theory is that it addresses the issue of timing or emergence of social movements Some groups may have the insurgent consciousness and resources to mobilize but because political opportunities are closed they will not have any success The theory then argues that all three of these components are important Critics of the political process theory and resource mobilization theory point out that neither theory discusses movement culture to any great degree This has presented culture theorists an opportunity to expound on the importance of culture One advance on the political process theory is the political mediation model which outlines the way in which the political context facing movement actors intersects with the strategic choices that movements make An additional strength of this model is that it can look at the outcomes of social movements not only in terms of success or failure but also in terms of consequences whether intentional or unintentional positive or negative and in terms of collective benefits Framing perspective edit Reflecting the cultural turn in the social sciences and humanities more broadly recent strains of social movement theory and research add to the largely structural concerns seen in the resource mobilization and political process theories by emphasizing the cultural and psychological aspects of social movement processes such as collectively shared interpretations and beliefs ideologies values and other meanings about the world In doing so this general cultural approach also attempts to address the free rider problem One particularly successful take on some such cultural dimensions is manifested in the framing perspective on social movements While both resource mobilization theory and political process theory include or at least accept the idea that certain shared understandings of for example perceived unjust societal conditions must exist for mobilization to occur at all this is not explicitly problematized within those approaches The framing perspective has brought such shared understandings to the forefront of the attempt to understand movement creation and existence by e g arguing that in order for social movements to successfully mobilize individuals they must develop an injustice frame An injustice frame is a collection of ideas and symbols that illustrate both how significant the problem is as well as what the movement can do to alleviate it Like a picture frame an issue frame marks off some part of the world Like a building frame it holds things together It provides coherence to an array of symbols images and arguments linking them through an underlying organizing idea that suggests what is essential what consequences and values are at stake We do not see the frame directly but infer its presence by its characteristic expressions and language Each frame gives the advantage to certain ways of talking and thinking while it places others out of the picture 53 Important characteristics of the injustice frames include 54 Facts take on their meaning by being embedded in frames which render them relevant and significant or irrelevant and trivial People carry around multiple frames in their heads Successful reframing involves the ability to enter into the worldview of our adversaries All frames contain implicit or explicit appeals to moral principles In emphasizing the injustice frame culture theory also addresses the free rider problem The free rider problem refers to the idea that people will not be motivated to participate in a social movement that will use up their personal resources e g time money etc if they can still receive the benefits without participating In other words if person X knows that movement Y is working to improve environmental conditions in his neighborhood he is presented with a choice join or not join the movement If he believes the movement will succeed without him he can avoid participation in the movement save his resources and still reap the benefits this is free riding A significant problem for social movement theory has been to explain why people join movements if they believe the movement can will succeed without their contribution Culture theory argues that in conjunction with social networks being an important contact tool the injustice frame will provide the motivation for people to contribute to the movement Framing processes includes three separate components Diagnostic frame the movement organization frames what is the problem or what they are critiquing Prognostic frame the movement organization frames what is the desirable solution to the problem Motivational frame the movement organization frames a call to arms by suggesting and encouraging that people take action to solve the problemSocial networking editFor more than ten years when social movement groups have been using the Internet to accomplish organizational goals It has been argued that the Internet helps to increase the speed reach and effectiveness of social movement related communication as well as mobilization efforts and as a result it has been suggested that the Internet has had a positive impact on the social movements in general 11 55 56 57 The systematic literature review of Buettner amp Buettner analyzed the role of Twitter during a wide range of social movements 2007 WikiLeaks 2009 Moldova 2009 Austria student protest 2009 Israel Gaza 2009 Iran green revolution 2009 Toronto G20 2010 Venezuela 2010 Germany Stuttgart21 2011 Egypt 2011 England 2011 US Occupy movement 2011 Spain Indignados 2011 Greece Aganaktismenoi movements 2011 Italy 2011 Wisconsin labor protests 2012 Israel Hamas 2013 Brazil Vinegar 2013 Turkey 12 Many discussions have been generated recently on the topic of social networking and the effect it may play on the formation and mobilization of social movement 58 For example the emergence of the Coffee Party first appeared on the social networking site Facebook The party has continued to gather membership and support through that site and file sharing sites such as Flickr The 2009 2010 Iranian election protests also demonstrated how social networking sites are making the mobilization of large numbers of people quicker and easier Iranians were able to organize and speak out against the election of Mahmoud Ahmadinejad by using sites such as Twitter and Facebook 59 This in turn prompted widespread government censorship of the web and social networking sites The sociological study of social movements is quite new according to whom The traditional view of movements often perceived them as chaotic and disorganized treating activism as a threat to the social order The activism experienced in the 1960s and 1970s shuffled in a new world opinion about the subject Models were now introduced to understand the organizational and structural powers embedded in social movements citation needed See also edit nbsp Society portalList of social movements Civil resistance Counterculture of the 1960s Countermovement Moral shock New social movements Nonviolent resistance Political movement Reform movement Revolutionary movement Social defence Social equality Teaching for social justice Union organizer Online social movementsReferences edit Scott John Marshall Gordon 2009 Social movements A Dictionary of Sociology Oxford University Press doi 10 1093 acref 9780199533008 001 0001 ISBN 978 0 19 953300 8 retrieved 2020 03 06 social movement Definition of social movement by Webster s Online Dictionary www webster dictionary org Retrieved 2020 03 06 Opp Karl Dieter 2009 04 08 Theories of Political Protest and Social Movements A Multidisciplinary Introduction Critique and Synthesis Routledge ISBN 978 1 134 01439 2 a b Deric Shannon 2011 01 01 Political sociology oppression resistance and the state Pine Forge Press p 150 ISBN 9781412980401 OCLC 746832550 lt http ndl ethernet edu et bitstream 123456789 47903 1 37 Stefan 20Berger pdf gt Pugh Jeff 2008 Vectors of Contestation Social Movements and Party Systems in Ecuador and Colombia Latin American Essays XXI 46 65 de Leon Cedric 31 December 2013 Party amp society reconstructing a sociology of democratic party politics Wiley ISBN 9780745653686 OCLC 856053908 a href Template Cite book html title Template Cite book cite book a CS1 maint multiple names authors list link Weinberg 2013 a b c d Tilly 2004 a b Obar Jonathan et al 2012 Advocacy 2 0 An Analysis of How Advocacy Groups in the United States Perceive and Use Social Media as Tools for Facilitating Civic Engagement and Collective Action Journal of Information Policy 2 1 25 doi 10 5325 jinfopoli 2 2012 1 S2CID 246628982 SSRN 1956352 a b Obar Jonathan 2013 04 22 Canadian Advocacy 2 0 A Study of Social Media Use by Social Movement Groups and Activists in Canada SSRN 2254742 a href Template Cite journal html title Template Cite journal cite journal a Cite journal requires journal help a b Buettner R and Buettner K 2016 A Systematic Literature Review of Twitter Research from a Socio Political Revolution Perspective 49th Annual Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences Kauai Hawaii IEEE doi 10 13140 RG 2 1 4239 9442 a href Template Cite conference html title Template Cite conference cite conference a CS1 maint multiple names authors list link Diani Mario 1992 The concept of social movement The Sociological Review 40 1 1 25 doi 10 1111 j 1467 954X 1992 tb02943 x ISSN 0038 0261 S2CID 145286106 Tilly 2004 p 3 Tarrow 1994 McCarthy John Zald Mayer N May 1977 Resource Mobilization and Social Movements A Partial Theory The American Journal of Sociology 82 6 1217 1218 doi 10 1086 226464 JSTOR 2777934 S2CID 2550587 James Paul van Seeters Paul 2014 Globalization and Politics Vol 2 Global Social Movements and Global Civil Society London Sage Publications p xi Charles Tilly BRITAIN CREATES THE SOCIAL MOVEMENT PDF Cash Arthur H 2006 John Wilkes the scandalous Father of Civil Liberty New Haven London Yale University Press pp 204 26 ISBN 0 300 10871 0 Cash 2006 pp 216 26 The Society for the Supporters of the Bill of Rights SSBR www historyhome co uk Rudbeck Jens 2012 Popular sovereignty and the historical origin of the social movement Theory and Society 41 6 581 601 doi 10 1007 s11186 012 9180 x S2CID 143513084 Brayley Edward Wedlake James Norris Brewer Joseph Nightingale 1810 London and Middlesex Printed by W Wilson for Vernor Hood and Sharpe Lord George Gordon Archived from the original on 2009 06 01 Retrieved 2009 07 25 Horn David Bayne Mary Ransome 1996 English Historical Documents 1714 1783 Routledge ISBN 978 0 415 14372 1 Joanna Innes 8 October 2009 Inferior Politics Social Problems and Social Policies in Eighteenth Century Britain Oxford University Press p 446 ISBN 978 0 19 160677 9 Retrieved 15 September 2013 Eugene Charlton Black 1963 The Association British Extra Parliamentary Political Organization 1769 1793 Harvard University Press p 279 Chartism the birth of mass working class resistance Retrieved 2012 12 17 Tilly 2004 p 5 West David 2004 New Social Movements Handbook of Political Theory 265 276 doi 10 4135 9781848608139 n20 ISBN 9780761967880 Archived from the original on 2015 02 15 Retrieved 2015 02 15 Popovic Srdja 2015 Blueprint for revolution how to use rice pudding Lego men and other nonviolent techniques to galvanize communities overthrow dictators or simply change the world Miller Matthew I 1979 First ed New York ISBN 9780812995305 OCLC 878500820 a href Template Cite book html title Template Cite book cite book a CS1 maint location missing publisher link Tina Rosenberg 2011 Join the club how peer pressure can transform the world 1st ed New York W W Norton amp Co ISBN 9780393068580 OCLC 601108086 Aberle David F 1966 The Peyote Religion among the Navaho Chicago Aldine ISBN 0 8061 2382 6 Roberts Adam and Timothy Garton Ash eds Civil Resistance and Power Politics The Experience of Non violent Action from Gandhi to the Present Archived 2014 11 15 at Archive It Oxford Oxford University Press 2009 ISBN 978 0 19 955201 6 contains chapters on these and many other social movements using non violent methods 1 Seferiades S amp Johnston H Eds 2012 Violent protest contentious politics and the neoliberal state Ashgate Publishing Ltd Snow David A Soule Sarah A Kriesi Hanspeter 2004 02 13 The Blackwell Companion to Social Movements Wiley ISBN 978 0 631 22669 7 Graph based on Blumer Herbert G 1969 Collective Behavior In Alfred McClung Lee ed Principles of Sociology Third Edition New York Barnes amp Noble Books pp 65 121 Mauss Armand L 1975 Social Problems as Social Movements Philadelphia Lippincott and Tilly Charles 1978 From Mobilization to Revolution Reading Massachusetts Addison Wesley 1978 Hopper R D 1950 03 01 The Revolutionary Process A Frame of Reference for the Study of Revolutionary Movements Social Forces 28 3 270 279 doi 10 2307 2572010 ISSN 0037 7732 JSTOR 2572010 a b Christiansen Jonathan 2009 Four Stages of Social Movement PDF Bus Boycott took planning smarts The Montgomery Advertiser Retrieved 2019 06 03 NAACP Home NAACP Retrieved 2019 06 03 Stanford University 2017 07 07 Southern Christian Leadership Conference SCLC The Martin Luther King Jr Research and Education Institute Retrieved 2019 06 03 Contents American Patriotism American Protest University of Pennsylvania Press 2011 pp vii viii doi 10 9783 9780812203653 toc ISBN 9780812203653 Fians Guilherme 2022 03 18 Prefigurative politics Open Encyclopedia of Anthropology doi 10 29164 22prefigpolitics S2CID 247729590 Morrison 1978 Jenkins and Perrow 1977 Kornhauser 1959 strain theory sociology Britannica Retrieved 2021 11 17 a b McCarthy John Zald Mayer N May 1977 Resource Mobilization and Social Movements a Partial Theory American Journal of Sociology 82 6 1212 1241 doi 10 1086 226464 S2CID 2550587 Turner L Killian R N 1972 Collective Behavior Englewood Cliffs N J Prentice Hall p 251 Gamson William A June 1974 The Limits of Pluralism PDF CRSO Working Papers 102 12 Retrieved 12 April 2015 Piven Francis Cloward Richard Summer 1991 Collective Protest A Critique of Resource Mobilization Theory International Journal of Politics Culture and Society 4 4 435 458 doi 10 1007 BF01390151 JSTOR 20007011 S2CID 189939717 Ryan and Gamson 2006 p 14 Ryan and Gamson 2006 Ope J A M 1999 From the Streets to the Internet The Cyber Diffusion of Contention Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 566 132 143 doi 10 1177 0002716299566001011 Eaton M 2010 Manufacturing Community in an Online Activity Organization The Rhetoric of MoveOn org s E mails Information Communication amp Society 13 2 174 192 doi 10 1080 13691180902890125 S2CID 141971731 Obar J A Zube P Lampe C 2012 Advocacy 2 0 An analysis of how advocacy groups in the United States perceive and use social media as tools for facilitating civic engagement and collective action Journal of Information Policy 2 1 25 doi 10 2139 ssrn 1956352 S2CID 145712218 SSRN 1956352 Shirky Clay Here Comes Everybody The Power of Organizing Without Organizations Penguin Press HC The 2008 Print Castells Manuel 2012 Networks of outrage and hope social movements in the Internet age Cambridge MA Polity Press ISBN 978 0 7456 9575 4 OCLC 896126968 Further reading editDavid F Aberle 1966 The Peyote Religion among the Navaho Chicago Aldine ISBN 0 8061 2382 6 James Alfred Aho 1990 Politics of Righteousness Idaho Christian Patriotism Washington University of Washington Press ISBN 0 295 96997 0 Paul Almeida 2019 Social Movements The Structure of Collective Mobilization Berkeley University of California Press ISBN 9780520290914 Herbert G Blumer 1969 Collective Behavior In Alfred McClung Lee ed Principles of Sociology Third Edition New York Barnes amp Noble Books pp 65 121 Mark Chaves 1997 Ordaining Women Culture and Conflict in Religious Organizations Cambridge Harvard University Press ISBN 0 674 64146 9 Dolata Ulrich Schrape Jan Felix 2016 Masses Crowds Communities Movements Collective Action in the Internet Age Social Movement Studies 15 1 1 18 doi 10 1080 14742837 2015 1055722 S2CID 141985609 Graeme Chesters and Ian Welsh Complexity and Social Movements Multitudes at the Edge of Chaos Routledge 2006 ISBN 0 415 43974 4 Mario Diani and Doug McAdam Social movements and networks Oxford University Press 2003 Susan Eckstei ed Power and Popular Protest Latin American Social Movements Updated Edition University of California Press 2001 ISBN 0 520 22705 0 Anthony Giddens 1985 The Nation State and Violence Cambridge England Polity Press ISBN 0 520 06039 3 Jeff Goodwin and James M Jasper 2009 The Social Movements Reader Malden Massachusetts Wiley Blackwell ISBN 978 1 4051 8764 0 Angelique Haugerud No Billionaire Left Behind Satirical Activism in America Stanford University Press 2013 ISBN 9780804781534 James Paul van Seeters Paul 2014 Globalization and Politics Vol 2 Global Social Movements and Global Civil Society London Sage Publications James M Jasper 1997 The Art of Moral Protest Culture Biography and Creativity in Social Movements Chicago University of Chicago Press James M Jasper 2014 Protest A Cultural Introduction to Social Movements Polity Press Jenkins J Craig Perrow Charles 1977 Insurgency of the Powerless Farm Worker Movements 1946 1972 American Sociological Review 42 2 249 268 doi 10 2307 2094604 JSTOR 2094604 Diana Kendall Sociology In Our Times Thomson Wadsworth 2005 ISBN 0 534 64629 8 William Kornhauser 1959 The Politics of Mass Society New York Free Press ISBN 0 02 917620 4 Donna Maurer 2002 Vegetarianism Movement or Moment Philadelphia Temple University Press ISBN 1 56639 936 X Armand L Mauss 1975 Social Problems of Social Movements Philadelphia Lippincott Denton E Morrison 1978 Some Notes toward Theory on Relative Deprivation Social Movements and Social Change In Louis E Genevie ed Collective Behavior and Social Movements Itasca Ill Peacock pp 202 209 Molders Marc Schrape Jan Felix 2019 Digital Deceleration Protest and Societal Irritation in the Internet Age Osterreichische Zeitschrift fur Soziologie 44 1 199 215 doi 10 1007 s11614 019 00354 3 S2CID 189875881 Immanuel Ness ed Encyclopedia of American Social Movements 2004 ISBN 0 7656 8045 9 Jeff Pugh 2008 Vectors of Contestation Social Movements and Party Systems in Ecuador and Colombia Latin American Essays XXI 46 65 Adam Roberts and Timothy Garton Ash eds Civil Resistance and Power Politics The Experience of Non violent Action from Gandhi to the Present Oxford Oxford University Press 2009 ISBN 978 0 19 955201 6 2 Ryan Charlotte Gamson William A 2006 The Art of Reframing Political Debates Contexts 5 1 13 18 doi 10 1525 ctx 2006 5 1 13 S2CID 59529692 Neil J Smelser 1962 Theory of Collective Behavior New York Free Press ISBN 0 02 929390 1 David Snow Sarah A Soule and Hanspeter Kriesi ed Blackwell Companion to Social Movements Blackwell 2004 Suzanne Staggenborg Social Movements Oxford University Press 2008 ISBN 978 0 19 542309 9 Sidney Tarrow Power in Movement Collective Action Social Movements and Politics Cambridge University Press 1994 ISBN 0 521 42271 X Temelini Michael 2013 Dialogical Approaches to Struggles Over Recognition and Distribution Critical Review of International Social and Political Philosophy 17 4 2 25 doi 10 1080 13698230 2013 763517 S2CID 144378936 Charles Tilly 1978 From Mobilization to Revolution Reading Massachusetts Addison Wesley 1978 Charles Tilly Social Movements 1768 2004 Boulder CO Paradigm Publishers 2004 262 pp ISBN 1 59451 042 3 hardback ISBN 1 59451 043 1 paperback Leonard Weinberg 2013 Democracy and Terrorism New York Routledge 2013 Quintan Wiktorowicz Islamic Activism A Social Movement Theory Approach Bloomington Indiana University Press 2004 Marco G Giugni How Social Movements Matter University of Minnesota Press 1999 ISBN 0 8166 2914 5 Rod Bantjes Social Movements in a Global Context CSPI 2007 ISBN 978 1 55130 324 6 Michael Barker Conform or Reform Social Movements and the Mass Media Fifth Estate Online International Journal of Radical Mass Media Criticism February 2007 Fifth estate online co uk Dennis Chong Collective Action and the Civil Rights Movement University of Chicago Press 1991 ISBN 978 0 226 10441 6External links edit nbsp Wikimedia Commons has media related to Social movements nbsp Wikiversity has learning resources about social movements Mobilization journal Interface a Journal For and About Social Movements Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Social movement amp oldid 1187056525, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, 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