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God in Abrahamic religions

March 21, 2023

The concept of God in Abrahamic religions is centred on monotheism. The three major monotheistic religions of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam, alongside the Baháʼí Faith,[1] Samaritanism, Druze, and Rastafari,[1] are all regarded as Abrahamic religions due to their shared worship of the God (referred to as Yahweh in Hebrew and as Allah in Arabic) that these traditions claim revealed himself to Abraham.[1] Abrahamic religions share the same distinguishing features:[2]

The Abrahamic god in this sense is the conception of God that remains a common feature of all Abrahamic religions.[4] God is conceived of as one, eternal, omnipotent, omniscient, and the creator of the universe.[4] God is typically referred to with masculine grammatical articles only,[4] and further held to have the properties of holiness, justice, omnibenevolence and omnipresence. Proponents of Abrahamic faiths believe that God is also transcendent, meaning that he is outside of both space and time and therefore not subject to anything within his creation, but at the same time a personal God, involved, listening to prayer, and reacting to the actions of his creatures.

Opinions differ among scholars of religion on whether Mormonism belongs within the traditions of Christianity or whether it amounts to a distinct Abrahamic religion.[5][6] The heterogenous Rastafari movement with roots in Jamaica is classified by some scholars as an international socio-religious movement, and by others as a separate Abrahamic religion or new religious movement.[7]

Judaism

Main article: God in Judaism
Further information: Elohim, Shema Yisrael, and Tetragrammaton
 
The Mesha Stele bears the earliest known reference (840 BCE) to the Israelite god Yahweh.[8]

Judaism, the oldest Abrahamic religion, is based on a strict, exclusive monotheism,[9][10] finding its origins in the sole veneration of Yahweh,[9][11][12][13] the predecessor to the Abrahamic conception of God.[Note 1] The names of God used most often in the Hebrew Bible are the Tetragrammaton (Hebrew: יהוה, romanized: YHWH) and Elohim.[9][20] Jews traditionally do not pronounce it, and instead refer to God as HaShem, literally "the Name". In prayer, the Tetragrammaton is substituted with the pronunciation Adonai, meaning "My Lord".[21] This is referred to primarily in the Torah: "Hear O Israel: the LORD is our God, the LORD is One" (Deuteronomy 6:4).[21]

God is conceived as unique and perfect, free from all faults, deficiencies, and defects, and further held to be omnipotent, omnipresent, omniscient, and completely infinite in all of his attributes, who has no partner or equal, being the sole creator of everything in existence.[9][22][23] In Judaism, God is never portrayed in any image.[10][23] The idea of God as a duality or trinity is heretical in Judaism—it's considered akin to polytheism.[9][10][23][24] The Torah specifically forbade ascribing partners to share his singular sovereignty, as he is considered to be the absolute one without a second, indivisible, and incomparable being, who is similar to nothing and nothing is comparable to him.[9][22] Thus, God is unlike anything in or of the world as to be beyond all forms of human thought and expression.[9][22]

God in Judaism is conceived as anthropomorphic,[9][19][24] unique, benevolent, eternal, the creator of the universe, and the ultimate source of morality.[9][25] Thus, the term God corresponds to an actual ontological reality, and is not merely a projection of the human psyche.[26] Traditional interpretations of Judaism generally emphasize that God is personal yet also transcendent and able to intervene in the world,[20] while some modern interpretations of Judaism emphasize that God is an impersonal force or ideal rather than a supernatural being concerned with the universe.[9][26]

Christianity

Main articles: God in Christianity and Attributes of God in Christianity
Further information: Diversity in early Christian theology, Great Apostasy, Nontrinitarianism, Son of God (Christianity), and Trinity

Christianity originated in 1st-century Judea from a sect of apocalyptic Jewish Christians within the realm of Second Temple Judaism,[27][28][29][30][31] and thus shares most of its beliefs about God, including his omnipotence, omniscience, his role as creator of all things, his personality, immanence, transcendence and ultimate unity, with the innovation that Jesus of Nazareth is considered to be, in one way or another, the fulfillment of the ancient biblical prophecies about the Jewish Messiah, the completion of the Law of the prophets of Israel, the Son of God, and/or the incarnation of God himself as a human being.[10][24][27][28][32]

Most Christian denominations believe Jesus to be the incarnated Son of God, which is the main theological divergence with respect to the exclusive monotheism of the other Abrahamic religions: Judaism, Samaritanism, the Baháʼí Faith, and Islam.[10][24][32][33] Although personal salvation is implicitly stated in Judaism, personal salvation by grace and a recurring emphasis in orthodox theological beliefs is particularly emphasized in Christianity,[33] often contrasting this with a perceived over-emphasis in law observance as stated in Jewish law, where it is contended that a belief in an intermediary between man and God or in the multiplicity of persons in the Godhead is against the Noahide laws, and thus not monotheistic.[34][better source needed]

In mainstream Christianity, theology and beliefs about God are enshrined in the doctrine of monotheistic Trinitarianism, which holds that the three persons of the trinity are distinct but all of the same indivisible essence, meaning that the Father is God, the Holy Spirit is God, and the Son is God, yet there is one God as there is one indivisible essence.[33][35][36] These mainstream Christian doctrines were largely formulated at the Council of Nicaea and are enshrined in the Nicene Creed.[33][35][36] The Trinitarian view emphasizes that God has a will, and that God the Son has two natures, divine and human, though these are never in conflict but joined in the hypostatic union.[33][35][36]

Mormonism

Main article: God in Mormonism
Further information: Beliefs and practices of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints
 
In his 1838 personal history, Joseph Smith wrote that he had seen two personages in the spring of 1820. In 1843, Smith stated that these personages, God the Father and Jesus Christ, had separate, tangible bodies.[37]

In the belief system held by the Christian churches that adhere to the Latter Day Saint movement and most Mormon denominations, including the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church), the term God refers to Elohim (God the Father),[37][38] whereas Godhead means a council of three distinct gods: Elohim (the Eternal Father), Jehovah (God the Son, Jesus Christ), and the Holy Ghost, in a Non-trinitarian conception of the Godhead.[37][38] The Father and Son have perfected, material bodies, while the Holy Ghost is a spirit and does not have a body.[37][38] This differs significantly from mainstream Christian Trinitarianism; in Mormonism, the three persons are considered to be physically separate beings, or personages, but united in will and purpose.[37][38][39] As such, the term Godhead differs from how it is used in mainstream Christianity.[38][37] This description of God represents the orthodoxy of the LDS Church, established early in the 19th century.[38]

Unitarianism

A small minority of Christians, largely coming under the heading of Unitarianism, hold Non-trinitarian conceptions of God.

Islam

Main articles: Allah and God in Islam

In Islam, God (Allah) (Arabic: ٱلل‍َّٰه, romanized: Allāh, IPA: [ɑɫˈɫɑː(h)] ( listen), lit. "the God")[40] is the supreme being, all-powerful and all-knowing creator, sustainer, ordainer, and judge of the universe.[40][41][42] Islam puts a heavy emphasis on the conceptualization of God as strictly singular (tawhid).[40][43] He is considered to be unique (wahid) and inherently one (ahad), all-merciful and omnipotent.[40][44] According to the Quran, there are 99 Names of God (al-asma al-husna, lit. meaning: "The best names") each of which evoke a distinct characteristic of God.[45][46] All these names refer to Allah, considered to be the supreme and all-comprehensive divine Arabic name.[40][47] Among the 99 names of God, the most famous and most frequent of these names are "the Entirely Merciful" (al-Rahman) and "the Especially Merciful" (al-Rahim).[45][46]

Islam rejects the doctrine of the Incarnation and the notion of a personal God as anthropomorphic, because it is seen as demeaning to the transcendence of God. The Quran prescribes the fundamental transcendental criterion in the following verses: "The Lord of the heavens and the earth and what is between them, so serve Him and be patient in His service. Do you know any one equal to Him?" (19:65); "(He is) the Creator of the heavens and the earth: there is nothing whatever like unto Him, and He is the One that hears and sees (all things)" (42:11); "And there is none comparable unto Him" (112:4). Therefore, Islam strictly rejects all forms of anthropomorphism and anthropopathism of the concept of God, and thus categorically rejects the Christian concept of the Trinity or division of persons in the Godhead.[48][49]

Muslims believe that Allah is the same God worshipped by the members of the Abrahamic religions that preceded Islam, i.e. Judaism and Christianity (29:46).[50] Creation and ordering of the universe is seen as an act of prime mercy for which all creatures sing his glories and bear witness to his unity and lordship. According to the Quran: "No vision can grasp Him, but His grasp is over all vision. He is above all comprehension, yet is acquainted with all things" (6:103).[42] Similarly to Jews, Muslims explicitly reject the divinity of Jesus and don't believe in him as the incarnated God or Son of God, but instead consider him a human prophet and the promised Messiah sent by God, although the Islamic tradition itself is not unanimous on the question of Jesus' death and afterlife.[51][52][53]

Baháʼí Faith

Main article: God in the Baháʼí Faith
Further information: Baháʼí cosmology and Baháʼí teachings

The writings of the Baháʼí Faith describe a monotheistic, personal, inaccessible, omniscient, omnipresent, imperishable, and almighty God who is the creator of all things in the universe.[54][55]: 106  The existence of God and the universe is thought to be eternal, without a beginning or end.[56]

Though transcendent and inaccessible directly,[57]: 438–446  God is nevertheless seen as conscious of the creation,[57]: 438–446  with a will and purpose that is expressed through messengers recognized in the Baháʼí Faith as the Manifestations of God[55]: 106  (all the Jewish prophets, Zoroaster, Krishna, Gautama Buddha, Jesus, Muhammad, the Báb, and ultimately Baháʼu'lláh).[57]: 438–446  The purpose of the creation is for the created to have the capacity to know and love its creator,[55]: 111  through such methods as prayer, reflection, and being of service to humankind.[58] God communicates his will and purpose to humanity through his intermediaries, the prophets and messengers who have founded various world religions from the beginning of humankind up to the present day,[55]: 107–108 [57]: 438–446  and will continue to do so in the future.[57]: 438–446 

The Manifestations of God reflect divine attributes, which are creations of God made for the purpose of spiritual enlightenment, onto the physical plane of existence.[59] In the Baháʼí view, all physical beings reflect at least one of these attributes, and the human soul can potentially reflect all of them.[60] The Baháʼí conception of God rejects all pantheistic, anthropomorphic, and incarnationist beliefs about God.[55]: 106 

See also

Notes

  1. ^ Although the Semitic god El is indeed the most ancient predecessor to the Abrahamic god,[14][15][16][17] this specifically refers to the ancient ideas Yahweh once encompassed in the Ancient Hebrew religion, such as being a storm- and war-god, living on mountains, or controlling the weather.[14][15][16][18][19] Thus, in this page's context, "Yahweh" is used to refer to God as conceived in the Ancient Hebrew religion, and should not be referenced when describing his later worship in today's Abrahamic religions.

References

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  2. ^ a b c Bremer, Thomas S. (2015). "Abrahamic religions". Formed From This Soil: An Introduction to the Diverse History of Religion in America. Chichester, West Sussex: Wiley-Blackwell. pp. 19–20. ISBN 978-1-4051-8927-9. LCCN 2014030507. S2CID 127980793.
  3. ^ Hughes, Aaron W. (2012). "What Are "Abrahamic Religions"?". Abrahamic Religions: On the Uses and Abuses of History. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 15–33. doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199934645.001.0001. ISBN 978-0-19-993464-5. S2CID 157815976.
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  5. ^ Shipps, Jan (2001). "Is Mormonism Christian? Reflections on a Complicated Question". In Eliason, Eric A. (ed.). Mormons and Mormonism: An Introduction to an American World Religion. Urbana and Chicago: University of Illinois Press. pp. 76–98. ISBN 978-0-252-02609-6. S2CID 142892455.
  6. ^ Mason, Patrick Q. (3 September 2015). "Mormonism". Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Religion. Oxford: Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/acrefore/9780199340378.013.75. ISBN 978-0-19-934037-8. from the original on 30 November 2018. Retrieved 15 May 2021.
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Bibliography

External links

March 21, 2023
abrahamic, religions, concept, centred, monotheism, three, major, monotheistic, religions, judaism, christianity, islam, alongside, baháʼí, faith, samaritanism, druze, rastafari, regarded, abrahamic, religions, their, shared, worship, referred, yahweh, hebrew,. The concept of God in Abrahamic religions is centred on monotheism The three major monotheistic religions of Judaism Christianity and Islam alongside the Bahaʼi Faith 1 Samaritanism Druze and Rastafari 1 are all regarded as Abrahamic religions due to their shared worship of the God referred to as Yahweh in Hebrew and as Allah in Arabic that these traditions claim revealed himself to Abraham 1 Abrahamic religions share the same distinguishing features 2 all of their theological traditions are to some extent influenced by the depiction of the God of Israel in the Hebrew Bible 2 all of them trace their roots to Abraham as a common patriarch 1 2 3 4 The Abrahamic god in this sense is the conception of God that remains a common feature of all Abrahamic religions 4 God is conceived of as one eternal omnipotent omniscient and the creator of the universe 4 God is typically referred to with masculine grammatical articles only 4 and further held to have the properties of holiness justice omnibenevolence and omnipresence Proponents of Abrahamic faiths believe that God is also transcendent meaning that he is outside of both space and time and therefore not subject to anything within his creation but at the same time a personal God involved listening to prayer and reacting to the actions of his creatures Opinions differ among scholars of religion on whether Mormonism belongs within the traditions of Christianity or whether it amounts to a distinct Abrahamic religion 5 6 The heterogenous Rastafari movement with roots in Jamaica is classified by some scholars as an international socio religious movement and by others as a separate Abrahamic religion or new religious movement 7 Contents 1 Judaism 2 Christianity 2 1 Mormonism 2 2 Unitarianism 3 Islam 4 Bahaʼi Faith 5 See also 6 Notes 7 References 8 Bibliography 9 External linksJudaism EditMain article God in Judaism Further information Elohim Shema Yisrael and Tetragrammaton The Mesha Stele bears the earliest known reference 840 BCE to the Israelite god Yahweh 8 Judaism the oldest Abrahamic religion is based on a strict exclusive monotheism 9 10 finding its origins in the sole veneration of Yahweh 9 11 12 13 the predecessor to the Abrahamic conception of God Note 1 The names of God used most often in the Hebrew Bible are the Tetragrammaton Hebrew יהוה romanized YHWH and Elohim 9 20 Jews traditionally do not pronounce it and instead refer to God as HaShem literally the Name In prayer the Tetragrammaton is substituted with the pronunciation Adonai meaning My Lord 21 This is referred to primarily in the Torah Hear O Israel the LORD is our God the LORD is One Deuteronomy 6 4 21 God is conceived as unique and perfect free from all faults deficiencies and defects and further held to be omnipotent omnipresent omniscient and completely infinite in all of his attributes who has no partner or equal being the sole creator of everything in existence 9 22 23 In Judaism God is never portrayed in any image 10 23 The idea of God as a duality or trinity is heretical in Judaism it s considered akin to polytheism 9 10 23 24 The Torah specifically forbade ascribing partners to share his singular sovereignty as he is considered to be the absolute one without a second indivisible and incomparable being who is similar to nothing and nothing is comparable to him 9 22 Thus God is unlike anything in or of the world as to be beyond all forms of human thought and expression 9 22 God in Judaism is conceived as anthropomorphic 9 19 24 unique benevolent eternal the creator of the universe and the ultimate source of morality 9 25 Thus the term God corresponds to an actual ontological reality and is not merely a projection of the human psyche 26 Traditional interpretations of Judaism generally emphasize that God is personal yet also transcendent and able to intervene in the world 20 while some modern interpretations of Judaism emphasize that God is an impersonal force or ideal rather than a supernatural being concerned with the universe 9 26 Christianity EditMain articles God in Christianity and Attributes of God in Christianity Further information Diversity in early Christian theology Great Apostasy Nontrinitarianism Son of God Christianity and Trinity Christianity originated in 1st century Judea from a sect of apocalyptic Jewish Christians within the realm of Second Temple Judaism 27 28 29 30 31 and thus shares most of its beliefs about God including his omnipotence omniscience his role as creator of all things his personality immanence transcendence and ultimate unity with the innovation that Jesus of Nazareth is considered to be in one way or another the fulfillment of the ancient biblical prophecies about the Jewish Messiah the completion of the Law of the prophets of Israel the Son of God and or the incarnation of God himself as a human being 10 24 27 28 32 Most Christian denominations believe Jesus to be the incarnated Son of God which is the main theological divergence with respect to the exclusive monotheism of the other Abrahamic religions Judaism Samaritanism the Bahaʼi Faith and Islam 10 24 32 33 Although personal salvation is implicitly stated in Judaism personal salvation by grace and a recurring emphasis in orthodox theological beliefs is particularly emphasized in Christianity 33 often contrasting this with a perceived over emphasis in law observance as stated in Jewish law where it is contended that a belief in an intermediary between man and God or in the multiplicity of persons in the Godhead is against the Noahide laws and thus not monotheistic 34 better source needed In mainstream Christianity theology and beliefs about God are enshrined in the doctrine of monotheistic Trinitarianism which holds that the three persons of the trinity are distinct but all of the same indivisible essence meaning that the Father is God the Holy Spirit is God and the Son is God yet there is one God as there is one indivisible essence 33 35 36 These mainstream Christian doctrines were largely formulated at the Council of Nicaea and are enshrined in the Nicene Creed 33 35 36 The Trinitarian view emphasizes that God has a will and that God the Son has two natures divine and human though these are never in conflict but joined in the hypostatic union 33 35 36 Mormonism Edit Main article God in Mormonism Further information Beliefs and practices of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter day Saints In his 1838 personal history Joseph Smith wrote that he had seen two personages in the spring of 1820 In 1843 Smith stated that these personages God the Father and Jesus Christ had separate tangible bodies 37 In the belief system held by the Christian churches that adhere to the Latter Day Saint movement and most Mormon denominations including the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter day Saints LDS Church the term God refers to Elohim God the Father 37 38 whereas Godhead means a council of three distinct gods Elohim the Eternal Father Jehovah God the Son Jesus Christ and the Holy Ghost in a Non trinitarian conception of the Godhead 37 38 The Father and Son have perfected material bodies while the Holy Ghost is a spirit and does not have a body 37 38 This differs significantly from mainstream Christian Trinitarianism in Mormonism the three persons are considered to be physically separate beings or personages but united in will and purpose 37 38 39 As such the term Godhead differs from how it is used in mainstream Christianity 38 37 This description of God represents the orthodoxy of the LDS Church established early in the 19th century 38 Unitarianism Edit A small minority of Christians largely coming under the heading of Unitarianism hold Non trinitarian conceptions of God Islam EditMain articles Allah and God in Islam In Islam God Allah Arabic ٱلل ه romanized Allah IPA ɑɫˈɫɑː h listen lit the God 40 is the supreme being all powerful and all knowing creator sustainer ordainer and judge of the universe 40 41 42 Islam puts a heavy emphasis on the conceptualization of God as strictly singular tawhid 40 43 He is considered to be unique wahid and inherently one ahad all merciful and omnipotent 40 44 According to the Quran there are 99 Names of God al asma al husna lit meaning The best names each of which evoke a distinct characteristic of God 45 46 All these names refer to Allah considered to be the supreme and all comprehensive divine Arabic name 40 47 Among the 99 names of God the most famous and most frequent of these names are the Entirely Merciful al Rahman and the Especially Merciful al Rahim 45 46 Islam rejects the doctrine of the Incarnation and the notion of a personal God as anthropomorphic because it is seen as demeaning to the transcendence of God The Quran prescribes the fundamental transcendental criterion in the following verses The Lord of the heavens and the earth and what is between them so serve Him and be patient in His service Do you know any one equal to Him 19 65 He is the Creator of the heavens and the earth there is nothing whatever like unto Him and He is the One that hears and sees all things 42 11 And there is none comparable unto Him 112 4 Therefore Islam strictly rejects all forms of anthropomorphism and anthropopathism of the concept of God and thus categorically rejects the Christian concept of the Trinity or division of persons in the Godhead 48 49 Muslims believe that Allah is the same God worshipped by the members of the Abrahamic religions that preceded Islam i e Judaism and Christianity 29 46 50 Creation and ordering of the universe is seen as an act of prime mercy for which all creatures sing his glories and bear witness to his unity and lordship According to the Quran No vision can grasp Him but His grasp is over all vision He is above all comprehension yet is acquainted with all things 6 103 42 Similarly to Jews Muslims explicitly reject the divinity of Jesus and don t believe in him as the incarnated God or Son of God but instead consider him a human prophet and the promised Messiah sent by God although the Islamic tradition itself is not unanimous on the question of Jesus death and afterlife 51 52 53 Bahaʼi Faith EditMain article God in the Bahaʼi Faith Further information Bahaʼi cosmology and Bahaʼi teachings The writings of the Bahaʼi Faith describe a monotheistic personal inaccessible omniscient omnipresent imperishable and almighty God who is the creator of all things in the universe 54 55 106 The existence of God and the universe is thought to be eternal without a beginning or end 56 Though transcendent and inaccessible directly 57 438 446 God is nevertheless seen as conscious of the creation 57 438 446 with a will and purpose that is expressed through messengers recognized in the Bahaʼi Faith as the Manifestations of God 55 106 all the Jewish prophets Zoroaster Krishna Gautama Buddha Jesus Muhammad the Bab and ultimately Bahaʼu llah 57 438 446 The purpose of the creation is for the created to have the capacity to know and love its creator 55 111 through such methods as prayer reflection and being of service to humankind 58 God communicates his will and purpose to humanity through his intermediaries the prophets and messengers who have founded various world religions from the beginning of humankind up to the present day 55 107 108 57 438 446 and will continue to do so in the future 57 438 446 The Manifestations of God reflect divine attributes which are creations of God made for the purpose of spiritual enlightenment onto the physical plane of existence 59 In the Bahaʼi view all physical beings reflect at least one of these attributes and the human soul can potentially reflect all of them 60 The Bahaʼi conception of God rejects all pantheistic anthropomorphic and incarnationist beliefs about God 55 106 See also EditAncient Canaanite religion Ancient Semitic religion Argument from morality Atenism Comparative religion Conceptions of God Creationism Demiurge Dystheism Ethical monotheism Evil God Challenge False god Gnosticism God of Abraham Yiddish prayer Mandaeism Misotheism Moralistic therapeutic deism Names of God Outline of theology Problem of evil Problem of Hell Religion in pre Islamic Arabia Satanic Verses Semitic Neopaganism Table of prophets of Abrahamic religions Theistic Satanism Theodicy Urmonotheismus primitive monotheism Violence in the Bible Violence in the QuranNotes Edit Although the Semitic god El is indeed the most ancient predecessor to the Abrahamic god 14 15 16 17 this specifically refers to the ancient ideas Yahweh once encompassed in the Ancient Hebrew religion such as being a storm and war god living on mountains or controlling the weather 14 15 16 18 19 Thus in this page s context Yahweh is used to refer to God as conceived in the Ancient Hebrew religion and should not be referenced when describing his later worship in today s Abrahamic religions References Edit a b c d Abulafia Anna Sapir 23 September 2019 The Abrahamic religions www bl uk London British Library Archived from the original on 12 July 2020 Retrieved 25 February 2021 a b c Bremer Thomas S 2015 Abrahamic religions Formed From This Soil An Introduction to the Diverse History of Religion in America Chichester West Sussex Wiley Blackwell pp 19 20 ISBN 978 1 4051 8927 9 LCCN 2014030507 S2CID 127980793 Hughes Aaron W 2012 What Are Abrahamic Religions Abrahamic Religions On the Uses and Abuses of History New York Oxford University Press pp 15 33 doi 10 1093 acprof oso 9780199934645 001 0001 ISBN 978 0 19 993464 5 S2CID 157815976 a b c d Christiano Kevin J Kivisto Peter Swatos William H Jr eds 2015 2002 Excursus on the History of Religions Sociology of Religion Contemporary Developments 3rd ed Walnut Creek California AltaMira Press pp 254 255 doi 10 2307 3512222 ISBN 978 1 4422 1691 4 JSTOR 3512222 LCCN 2001035412 S2CID 154932078 Shipps Jan 2001 Is Mormonism Christian Reflections on a Complicated Question In Eliason Eric A ed Mormons and Mormonism An Introduction to an American World Religion Urbana and Chicago University of Illinois Press pp 76 98 ISBN 978 0 252 02609 6 S2CID 142892455 Mason Patrick Q 3 September 2015 Mormonism Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Religion Oxford Oxford University Press doi 10 1093 acrefore 9780199340378 013 75 ISBN 978 0 19 934037 8 Archived from the original on 30 November 2018 Retrieved 15 May 2021 Chryssides George D 2001 1999 Independent New Religions Rastafarianism Exploring New Religions Issues in Contemporary Religion London and New York Continuum International pp 269 277 doi 10 2307 3712544 ISBN 978 0 8264 5959 6 JSTOR 3712544 OCLC 436090427 S2CID 143265918 Lemaire Andre May June 1994 House of David Restored in Moabite Inscription PDF Biblical Archaeology Review Washington D C Biblical Archaeology Society 20 3 ISSN 0098 9444 Archived from the original PDF on 31 March 2012 a b c d e f g h i j Grossman Maxine Sommer Benjamin D 2011 GOD In Berlin Adele ed The Oxford Dictionary of the Jewish Religion 2nd ed Oxford and New York Oxford University Press pp 294 297 doi 10 1093 acref 9780199730049 001 0001 ISBN 9780199759279 LCCN 2010035774 a b c d e Leone Massimo Spring 2016 Asif Agha ed Smashing Idols A Paradoxical Semiotics PDF Signs and Society Chicago University of Chicago Press on behalf of the Semiosis Research Center at Hankuk University of Foreign Studies 4 1 30 56 doi 10 1086 684586 eISSN 2326 4497 hdl 2318 1561609 ISSN 2326 4489 S2CID 53408911 Archived PDF from the original on 23 September 2017 Retrieved 28 July 2021 Van der Toorn 1999 pp 362 363 Betz 2000 pp 916 917 Gruber Mayer I 2013 Israel In Spaeth Barbette Stanley ed The Cambridge Companion to Ancient Mediterranean Religions New York Cambridge University Press pp 76 94 doi 10 1017 CCO9781139047784 007 ISBN 978 0 521 11396 0 LCCN 2012049271 a b Stahl Michael J 2021 The God of Israel and the Politics of Divinity in Ancient Israel The God of Israel in History and Tradition Vetus Testamentum Supplements Vol 187 Leiden Brill Publishers pp 52 144 doi 10 1163 9789004447721 003 ISBN 978 90 04 44772 1 S2CID 236752143 a b Smith Mark S 2003 El Yahweh and the Original God of Israel and the Exodus The Origins of Biblical Monotheism Israel s Polytheistic Background and the Ugaritic Texts Oxford Oxford University Press pp 133 148 doi 10 1093 019513480X 003 0008 ISBN 978 0 19 513480 3 a b Smith Mark S 2000 El In Freedman David Noel Myer Allen C eds Eerdmans Dictionary of the Bible Grand Rapids Michigan Wm B Eerdmans pp 384 386 ISBN 978 90 5356 503 2 Van der Toorn 1999 pp 352 365 Niehr 1995 pp 63 65 71 72 a b Van der Toorn 1999 pp 361 362 a b Ben Sasson Hillel 2018 Conditional Presence The Meaning of the Name YHWH in the Bible Understanding YHWH The Name of God in Biblical Rabbinic and Medieval Jewish Thought Jewish Thought and Philosophy 1st ed Basingstoke and New York Palgrave Macmillan pp 25 63 doi 10 1007 978 3 030 32312 7 2 ISBN 978 3 030 32312 7 S2CID 213883058 a b Moberly R W L 1990 Yahweh is One The Translation of the Shema In Emerton J A ed Studies in the Pentateuch Vetus Testamentum Supplements Vol 41 Leiden Brill Publishers pp 209 215 doi 10 1163 9789004275645 012 ISBN 978 90 04 27564 5 a b c Lebens Samuel 2022 Is God a Person Maimonidean and Neo Maimonidean Perspectives In Kittle Simon Gasser Georg eds The Divine Nature Personal and A Personal Perspectives 1st ed London and New York Routledge pp 90 95 doi 10 4324 9781003111436 ISBN 9780367619268 LCCN 2021038406 S2CID 245169096 a b c Angelini Anna 2021 Les dieux des autres entre demons et idoles L imaginaire du demoniaque dans la Septante Une analyse comparee de la notion de demon dans la Septante et dans la Bible Hebraique Supplements to the Journal for the Study of Judaism in French Vol 197 Leiden and Boston Brill Publishers pp 184 224 doi 10 1163 9789004468474 008 ISBN 978 90 04 46847 4 a b c d Bernard David K 2019 2016 Monotheism in Paul s Rhetorical World The Glory of God in the Face of Jesus Christ Deification of Jesus in Early Christian Discourse Journal of Pentecostal Theology Supplement Series Vol 45 Leiden and Boston Brill Publishers pp 53 82 ISBN 978 90 04 39721 7 ISSN 0966 7393 Nikiprowetzky V Spring 1975 Ethical Monotheism Daedalus MIT Press for the American Academy of Arts and Sciences 104 2 69 89 ISSN 1548 6192 JSTOR 20024331 OCLC 1565785 a b Tuling Kari H 2020 PART 2 Does God Have a Personality or Is God an Impersonal Force In Tuling Kari H ed Thinking about God Jewish Views JPS Essential Judaism Series Lincoln and Philadelphia University of Nebraska Press Jewish Publication Society pp 67 168 doi 10 2307 j ctv13796z1 7 ISBN 978 0 8276 1848 0 LCCN 2019042781 S2CID 241520845 a b Ehrman Bart D 2005 2003 At Polar Ends of the Spectrum Early Christian Ebionites and Marcionites Lost Christianities The Battles for Scripture and the Faiths We Never Knew Oxford Oxford University Press pp 95 112 doi 10 1017 s0009640700110273 ISBN 978 0 19 518249 1 LCCN 2003053097 S2CID 152458823 Retrieved 20 January 2021 a b Hurtado Larry W 2005 How on Earth Did Jesus Become a God Approaches to Jesus Devotion in Earliest Christianity How on Earth Did Jesus Become a God Historical Questions about Earliest Devotion to Jesus Grand Rapids Michigan and Cambridge UK Wm B Eerdmans pp 13 55 ISBN 978 0 8028 2861 3 Retrieved 20 July 2021 Freeman Charles 2010 Breaking Away The First Christianities A New History of Early Christianity New Haven and London Yale University Press pp 31 46 doi 10 12987 9780300166583 ISBN 978 0 300 12581 8 JSTOR j ctt1nq44w LCCN 2009012009 S2CID 170124789 Retrieved 20 January 2021 Wilken Robert Louis 2013 Beginning in Jerusalem The First Thousand Years A Global History of Christianity New Haven and London Yale University Press pp 6 16 ISBN 978 0 300 11884 1 JSTOR j ctt32bd7m LCCN 2012021755 S2CID 160590164 Retrieved 20 January 2021 Lietaert Peerbolte Bert Jan 2013 How Antichrist Defeated Death The Development of Christian Apocalyptic Eschatology in the Early Church In Krans Jan Lietaert Peerbolte L J Smit Peter Ben Zwiep Arie W eds Paul John and Apocalyptic Eschatology Studies in Honour of Martinus C de Boer Novum Testamentum Supplements Vol 149 Leiden Brill Publishers pp 238 255 doi 10 1163 9789004250369 016 ISBN 978 90 04 25026 0 ISSN 0167 9732 S2CID 191738355 Retrieved 13 February 2021 a b Bermejo Rubio Fernando 2017 Feldt Laura Valk Ulo eds The Process of Jesus Deification and Cognitive Dissonance Theory Numen Leiden Brill Publishers 64 2 3 119 152 doi 10 1163 15685276 12341457 eISSN 1568 5276 ISSN 0029 5973 JSTOR 44505332 S2CID 148616605 a b c d e Del Colle Ralph 2001 1997 Part II The content of Christian doctrine The Triune God In Gunton Colin E ed The Cambridge Companion to Christian Doctrine Cambridge and New York Cambridge University Press pp 121 140 doi 10 1017 CCOL0521471184 009 ISBN 9781139000000 Jewish Concepts The Seven Noachide Laws Jewish Virtual Library American Israeli Cooperative Enterprise AICE 2021 2017 Archived from the original on 10 February 2017 Retrieved 17 October 2021 Even though the Talmud and Maimonides stipulate that a non Jew who violated the Noachide laws was liable to capital punishment contemporary authorities have expressed the view that this is only the maximal punishment According to this view there is a difference between Noachide law and halakhah According to halakhah when a Jew was liable for capital punishment it was a mandatory punishment provided that all conditions had been met whereas in Noachide law death is the maximal punishment to be enforced only in exceptional cases In view of the strict monotheism of Islam Muslims were considered as Noachides whereas the status of Christians was a matter of debate Since the late Middle Ages however Christianity too has come to be regarded as Noachide on the ground that Trinitarianism is not forbidden to non Jews a b c Bobrinskoy Boris 2010 2008 Part I Doctrine and Tradition God in Trinity In Cunningham Mary B Theokritoff Elizabeth eds The Cambridge Companion to Orthodox Christian Theology Cambridge and New York Cambridge University Press pp 49 62 doi 10 1017 CCOL9780521864848 004 ISBN 9781139001977 a b c Cross F L Livingstone E A eds 2005 Doctrine of the Trinity The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church 3rd Revised ed Oxford and New York Oxford University Press pp 1652 1653 doi 10 1093 acref 9780192802903 001 0001 ISBN 978 0 19 280290 3 a b c d e f Robinson Stephen E Burgon Glade L Turner Rodney Largey Dennis L 1992 God the Father in Ludlow Daniel H ed Encyclopedia of Mormonism New York Macmillan Publishing pp 548 552 ISBN 978 0 02 879602 4 OCLC 24502140 retrieved 7 May 2021 via Harold B Lee Library a b c d e f Davies Douglas J 2003 Divine human transformations God An Introduction to Mormonism Cambridge Cambridge University Press pp 67 77 doi 10 1017 CBO9780511610028 004 ISBN 978 0 511 61002 8 OCLC 438764483 S2CID 146238056 The term with its distinctive Mormon usage first appeared in Lectures on Faith published 1834 Lecture 5 We shall in this lecture speak of the Godhead we mean the Father Son and Holy Spirit The term Godhead also appears several times in Lecture 2 in its sense as used in the Authorized King James Version meaning divinity a b c d e Gardet Louis 1960 Allah In Bosworth C E van Donzel E J Heinrichs W P Lewis B Pellat Ch Schacht J eds Encyclopaedia of Islam Second Edition Vol 1 Leiden and Boston Brill Publishers doi 10 1163 1573 3912 islam COM 0047 ISBN 978 90 04 16121 4 Bowering Gerhard 2006 God and his Attributes In McAuliffe Jane Dammen ed Encyclopaedia of the Qurʾan Vol II Leiden and Boston Brill Publishers doi 10 1163 1875 3922 q3 EQCOM 00075 ISBN 978 90 04 14743 0 a b Esposito John L 2016 1988 Islam The Straight Path Updated 5th ed Oxford and New York Oxford University Press p 22 ISBN 978 0 19 063215 1 S2CID 153364691 Esposito John L 2016 1988 Islam The Straight Path Updated 5th ed Oxford Oxford University Press p 88 ISBN 978 0 19 063215 1 S2CID 153364691 Allah Encyclopaedia Britannica 2007 Encyclopaedia Britannica a b Bentley David September 1999 The 99 Beautiful Names for God for All the People of the Book William Carey Library ISBN 978 0 87808 299 5 a b Encyclopedia of the Modern Middle East and North Africa Allah Annemarie Schimmel The Tao of Islam A Sourcebook on Gender Relationships in Islamic SUNY Press p 206 Zulfiqar Ali Shah 2012 Anthropomorphic Depictions of God The Concept of God in Judaic Christian and Islamic Traditions Representing the Unrepresentable International Institute of Islamic Thought IIIT pp 48 56 ISBN 978 1 56564 583 7 Zafar Isha Ansari Isma il Ibrahim Nawwab eds 2016 The Different Aspects of Islamic Culture The Foundations of Islam Vol 1 UNESCO Publishing pp 86 87 ISBN 978 92 3 104258 4 F E Peters Islam p 4 Princeton University Press 2003 Cole Juan March 2021 Stausberg Michael Engler Steven eds It was made to appear to them so the Crucifixion Jews and Sasanian war propaganda in the Qur an Religion Taylor amp Francis 51 3 404 422 doi 10 1080 0048721X 2021 1909170 ISSN 1096 1151 LCCN 76615899 OCLC 186359943 S2CID 233646869 Reynolds Gabriel S May 2009 The Muslim Jesus Dead or Alive PDF Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies University of London Cambridge Cambridge University Press 72 2 237 258 doi 10 1017 S0041977X09000500 JSTOR 40379003 S2CID 27268737 Archived PDF from the original on 17 June 2012 Retrieved 25 October 2021 Robinson Neal 1991 The Crucifixion Non Muslim Approaches Christ in Islam and Christianity The Representation of Jesus in the Qur an and the Classical Muslim Commentaries Albany New York SUNY Press pp 106 140 ISBN 978 0 7914 0558 1 S2CID 169122179 Hatcher William S Martin J Douglas 1985 The Bahaʼi Faith San Francisco Harper amp Row p 74 ISBN 978 0 06 065441 2 via Archive org a b c d e Smith Peter 2008 An Introduction to the Baha i Faith Cambridge Cambridge University Press ISBN 978 0 521 86251 6 Britannica 1992 The Bahaʼi Faith In Daphne Daume Louise Watson eds Britannica Book of the Year Chicago Encyclopaedia Britannica ISBN 978 0 85229 486 4 a b c d e Cole Juan 30 December 2012 15 December 1988 BAHAISM i The Faith Encyclopaedia Iranica Vol III 4 New York Columbia University pp 438 446 doi 10 1163 2330 4804 EIRO COM 6391 ISSN 2330 4804 Archived from the original on 23 January 2013 Retrieved 11 December 2020 Hatcher John S 2005 Unveiling the Huri of Love The Journal of Bahaʼi Studies 15 38 Retrieved 2020 10 16 via Baha i Library Online Hatcher William S Martin J Douglas 1985 The Bahaʼi Faith San Francisco Harper amp Row pp 123 126 ISBN 978 0 06 065441 2 via Archive org Saiedi Nader 2008 Gate of the Heart Waterloo Ontario Canada Wilfrid Laurier University Press pp 163 180 ISBN 978 1 55458 035 4 via Archive org Bibliography EditBetz Arnold Gottfried 2000 Monotheism In Freedman David Noel Myer Allen C eds Eerdmans Dictionary of the Bible Grand Rapids Michigan Wm B Eerdmans pp 916 917 ISBN 978 90 5356 503 2 Bremer Thomas S 2015 Abrahamic religions Formed From This Soil An Introduction to the Diverse History of Religion in America Chichester West Sussex Wiley Blackwell pp 19 20 ISBN 978 1 4051 8927 9 LCCN 2014030507 S2CID 127980793 Bulliet Richard W 2015 Islamo Christian Civilization In Blidstein Moshe Silverstein Adam J Stroumsa Guy G eds The Oxford Handbook of the Abrahamic Religions Oxford and New York Oxford University Press pp 109 120 doi 10 1093 oxfordhb 9780199697762 013 6 ISBN 978 0 19 969776 2 LCCN 2014960132 S2CID 170430270 Byrne Maire 2011 The Names of God in Judaism Christianity and Islam A Basis for Interfaith Dialogue London Continuum International ISBN 978 1 44116 3 417 LCCN 2010050008 Christiano Kevin J Kivisto Peter Swatos William H Jr eds 2015 2002 Excursus on the History of Religions Sociology of Religion Contemporary Developments 3rd ed Walnut Creek California AltaMira Press pp 254 255 doi 10 2307 3512222 ISBN 978 1 4422 1691 4 JSTOR 3512222 LCCN 2001035412 S2CID 154932078 Cohen Charles L 2020 The Abrahamic Religions A Very Short Introduction New York Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0 19 065434 4 LCCN 2019950996 Day John 2002 Yahweh and the Gods and Goddesses of Canaan Journal for the Study of the Old Testament Supplement Series Vol 265 Sheffield Sheffield Academic Press doi 10 2307 3217888 ISBN 978 0 567 53783 6 JSTOR 3217888 S2CID 161791734 Hayes Christine 2012 Understanding Biblical Monotheism Introduction to the Bible The Open Yale Courses Series New Haven and London Yale University Press pp 15 28 ISBN 9780300181791 JSTOR j ctt32bxpm 6 Hughes Aaron W 2012 What Are Abrahamic Religions Abrahamic Religions On the Uses and Abuses of History New York Oxford University Press pp 15 33 doi 10 1093 acprof oso 9780199934645 001 0001 ISBN 978 0 19 993464 5 S2CID 157815976 Niehr Herbert 1995 The Rise of YHWH in Judahite and Israelite Religion Methodological and Religio Historical Aspects In Edelman Diana Vikander ed The Triumph of Elohim From Yahwisms to Judaisms Leuven Peeters Publishers pp 45 72 ISBN 978 90 5356 503 2 OCLC 33819403 Ratzinger Joseph 2004 1968 Part One God Chapter II The Biblical Belief in God Introduction to Christianity 2nd Revised ed San Francisco Ignatius Press pp 116 136 ISBN 9781586170295 LCCN 2004103523 S2CID 169456327 Reynolds Gabriel S 2020 God of the Bible and the Qur an Allah God in the Qurʾan New Haven and London Yale University Press pp 203 253 doi 10 2307 j ctvxkn7q4 ISBN 978 0 300 24658 2 JSTOR j ctvxkn7q4 LCCN 2019947014 S2CID 226129509 Romer Thomas 2015 The Invention of God Cambridge Massachusetts Harvard University Press doi 10 4159 9780674915732 ISBN 978 0 674 50497 4 JSTOR j ctvjsf3qb S2CID 170740919 Smith Mark S 2017 YHWH s Original Character Questions about an Unknown God In Van Oorschot Jurgen Witten Markus eds The Origins of Yahwism Beihefte zur Zeitschrift fur die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft Vol 484 Berlin and Boston De Gruyter pp 23 44 doi 10 1515 9783110448221 002 ISBN 978 3 11 042538 3 S2CID 187378834 Van der Toorn Karel 1999 God I In Van der Toorn Karel Becking Bob Van der Horst Pieter W eds Dictionary of Deities and Demons in the Bible 2nd ed Leiden Brill Publishers pp 352 365 doi 10 1163 2589 7802 DDDO DDDO Godi ISBN 978 90 04 11119 6 Van der Horst Pieter W 1999 God II In Van der Toorn Karel Becking Bob Van der Horst Pieter W eds Dictionary of Deities and Demons in the Bible 2nd ed Leiden Brill Publishers pp 365 370 doi 10 1163 2589 7802 DDDO DDDO Godii ISBN 978 90 04 11119 6 External links EditAbulafia Anna Sapir 23 September 2019 The Abrahamic religions www bl uk London British Library Archived from the original on 12 July 2020 Retrieved 25 February 2021 Amzallag Nissim August 2018 Metallurgy the Forgotten Dimension of Ancient Yahwism The Bible and Interpretation University of Arizona Archived from the original on 26 July 2020 Retrieved 28 December 2020 Gaster Theodor H 26 November 2020 Biblical Judaism 20th 4th century BCE Encyclopaedia Britannica Edinburgh Encyclopaedia Britannica Inc Retrieved 28 December 2020 Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title God in Abrahamic religions amp oldid 1127541758, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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