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Wikipedia

Gender

Gender includes the social, psychological, cultural and behavioral aspects of being a man, woman, or other gender identity.[1][2] Depending on the context, this may include sex-based social structures (i.e. gender roles) and gender expression.[3][4][5] Most cultures use a gender binary, in which gender is divided into two categories, and people are considered part of one or the other (boys/men and girls/women);[6][7][8] those who are outside these groups may fall under the umbrella term non-binary. Some societies have specific genders besides "man" and "woman", such as the hijras of South Asia; these are often referred to as third genders (and fourth genders, etc.). Most scholars agree that gender is a central characteristic for social organization.[9]

Gender symbols intertwined. The red (left) is the female Venus symbol. The blue (right) represents the male Mars symbol.

Sexologist John Money is often regarded as the first to introduce a terminological distinction between biological sex and gender role (which, as originally defined, includes the concepts of both gender role and what would later become known as gender identity) in 1955[10][11] although Madison Bentley had already in 1945 defined gender as the "socialized obverse of sex",[12][13] and Simone de Beauvoir's 1949 book The Second Sex has been interpreted as the beginning of the distinction between sex and gender in feminist theory,[14][15] although this interpretation is contested.[16]

Before Money's work, it was uncommon to use the word gender to refer to anything but grammatical categories.[3][1] However, Money's meaning of the word did not become widespread until the 1970s, when feminist theory embraced the concept of a distinction between biological sex and the social construct of gender. Most contemporary social scientists,[17][18][19] behavioral scientists and biologists,[20] many legal systems and government bodies,[21] and intergovernmental agencies such as the WHO,[22] make a distinction between gender and sex.

In other contexts, the term gender has been used as a synonym for sex without representing a clear conceptual difference. For instance, in non-human animal research, gender is commonly used to refer to the biological sex of the animals.[1] This change in the meaning of gender can be traced to the 1980s. In 1993, the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) started to use gender instead of sex to avoid confusion with sexual intercourse.[23] Later, in 2011, the FDA reversed its position and began using sex as the biological classification and gender as "a person's self-representation as male or female, or how that person is responded to by social institutions based on the individual's gender presentation."[24]

The social sciences have a branch devoted to gender studies. Other sciences, such as sexology and neuroscience, are also interested in the subject. The social sciences sometimes approach gender as a social construct, and gender studies particularly do, while research in the natural sciences investigates whether biological differences in females and males influence the development of gender in humans; both inform the debate about how far biological differences influence the formation of gender identity and gendered behavior. In some English literature, there is also a trichotomy between biological sex, psychological gender, and social gender role. This framework first appeared in a feminist paper on transsexualism in 1978.[1][25]

Etymology and usage

Derivation

The modern English word gender comes from the Middle English gender, gendre, a loanword from Anglo-Norman and Middle French gendre. This, in turn, came from Latin genus. Both words mean "kind", "type", or "sort". They derive ultimately from a Proto-Indo-European (PIE) root *ǵénh₁- 'to beget',[26] which is also the source of kin, kind, king, and many other English words, with cognates widely attested in many Indo-European languages.[27] It appears in Modern French in the word genre (type, kind, also genre sexuel) and is related to the Greek root gen- (to produce), appearing in gene, genesis, and oxygen. The Oxford Etymological Dictionary of the English Language of 1882 defined gender as kind, breed, sex, derived from the Latin ablative case of genus, like genere natus, which refers to birth.[28] The first edition of the Oxford English Dictionary (OED1, Volume 4, 1900) notes the original meaning of gender as "kind" had already become obsolete.

History of the concept

The concept of gender, in the modern sense, is a recent invention in human history.[29] The ancient world had no basis of understanding gender as it has been understood in the humanities and social sciences for the past few decades.[29] The term gender had been associated with grammar for most of history and only started to move towards it being a malleable cultural construct in the 1950s and 1960s.[30]

Before sexologist John Money and colleagues introduced the terminological distinction between biological sex and gender as a role in 1955, it was uncommon to use the word gender to refer to anything but grammatical categories.[3][1] For example, in a bibliography of 12,000 references on marriage and family from 1900 to 1964, the term gender does not even emerge once.[3] Analysis of more than 30 million academic article titles from 1945 to 2001 showed that the uses of the term "gender", were much rarer than uses of "sex", was often used as a grammatical category early in this period. By the end of this period, uses of "gender" outnumbered uses of "sex" in the social sciences, arts, and humanities.[1] It was in the 1970s that feminist scholars adopted the term gender as way of distinguishing "socially constructed" aspects of male–female differences (gender) from "biologically determined" aspects (sex).[1]

In the last two decades of the 20th century, the use of gender in academia has increased greatly, outnumbering uses of sex in the social sciences. While the spread of the word in science publications can be attributed to the influence of feminism, its use as a synonym for sex is attributed to the failure to grasp the distinction made in feminist theory, and the distinction has sometimes become blurred with the theory itself; David Haig stated, "Among the reasons that working scientists have given me for choosing gender rather than sex in biological contexts are desires to signal sympathy with feminist goals, to use a more academic term, or to avoid the connotation of copulation."[1]

In legal cases alleging discrimination, a 2006 law review article by Meredith Render notes "as notions of gender and sexuality have evolved over the last few decades, legal theories concerning what it means to discriminate "because of sex" under Title VII have experienced a similar evolution".[31]: 135  In a 1999 law review article proposing a legal definition of sex that "emphasizes gender self-identification," Julie Greenberg writes, "Most legislation utilizes the word "sex," yet courts, legislators, and administrative agencies often substitute the word "gender" for "sex" when they interpret these statutes."[32]: 270, 274  In J.E.B. v. Alabama ex rel. T.B., a 1994 United States Supreme Court case addressing "whether the Equal Protection Clause forbids intentional discrimination on the basis of gender", the majority opinion noted that with regard to gender, "It is necessary only to acknowledge that 'our Nation has had a long and unfortunate history of sex discrimination,' id., at 684, 93 S.Ct., at 1769, a history which warrants the heightened scrutiny we afford all gender-based classifications today", and stated "When state actors exercise peremptory challenges in reliance on gender stereotypes, they ratify and reinforce prejudicial views of the relative abilities of men and women."[33]

As a grammatical category

The word was still widely used, however, in the specific sense of grammatical gender (the assignment of nouns to categories such as masculine, feminine and neuter). According to Aristotle, this concept was introduced by the Greek philosopher Protagoras.[34][page needed]

In 1926, Henry Watson Fowler stated that the definition of the word pertained to this grammar-related meaning:

"Gender...is a grammatical term only. To talk of persons...of the masculine or feminine g[ender], meaning of the male or female sex, is either a jocularity (permissible or not according to context) or a blunder."[35]

As a social role

Sexologist John Money coined the term gender role, and was the first to use it in print in a scientific trade journal. In a seminal 1955 paper he defined it as "all those things that a person says or does to disclose himself or herself as having the status of boy or man, girl or woman."[36]

The modern academic sense of the word, in the context of social roles of men and women, dates at least back to 1945,[37] and was popularized and developed by the feminist movement from the 1970s onwards (see § Feminism theory and gender studies below), which theorizes that human nature is essentially epicene and social distinctions based on sex are arbitrarily constructed. In this context, matters pertaining to this theoretical process of social construction were labelled matters of gender.

The popular use of gender simply as an alternative to sex (as a biological category) is also widespread, although attempts are still made to preserve the distinction. The American Heritage Dictionary (2000) uses the following two sentences to illustrate the difference, noting that the distinction "is useful in principle, but it is by no means widely observed, and considerable variation in usage occurs at all levels."[38]

The effectiveness of the medication appears to depend on the sex (not gender) of the patient.
In peasant societies, gender (not sex) roles are likely to be more clearly defined.

Gender identity and gender roles

 
Gender depicted as an ambiguous phenomenon, by a young Swedish actor

Gender identity refers to a personal identification with a particular gender and gender role in society. The term woman has historically been used interchangeably with reference to the female body, though more recently this usage has been viewed as controversial by some feminists.[39]

There are qualitative analyses that explore and present the representations of gender; however, feminists challenge these dominant ideologies concerning gender roles and biological sex. One's biological sex is directly tied to specific social roles and the expectations. Judith Butler considers the concept of being a woman to have more challenges, owing not only to society's viewing women as a social category but also as a felt sense of self, a culturally conditioned or constructed subjective identity.[40] Social identity refers to the common identification with a collectivity or social category that creates a common culture among participants concerned.[41] According to social identity theory,[42] an important component of the self-concept is derived from memberships in social groups and categories; this is demonstrated by group processes and how inter-group relationships impact significantly on individuals' self perception and behaviors. The groups people belong to therefore provide members with the definition of who they are and how they should behave within their social sphere.[43]

 
A protester holding a flyer with the words "Gender is like that old jumper from my cousin. It was given to me and it doesn't fit" at a rally for transgender equality in Washington D.C. in 2013

Categorizing males and females into social roles creates a problem for some individuals who feel they have to be at one end of a linear spectrum and must identify themselves as man or woman, rather than being allowed to choose a section in between.[44] Globally, communities interpret biological differences between men and women to create a set of social expectations that define the behaviors that are "appropriate" for men and women and determine their different access to rights, resources, power in society and health behaviors.[45] Although the specific nature and degree of these differences vary from one society to the next, they still tend to typically favor men, creating an imbalance in power and gender inequalities within most societies.[46] Many cultures have different systems of norms and beliefs based on gender, but there is no universal standard to a masculine or feminine role across all cultures.[47] Social roles of men and women in relation to each other is based on the cultural norms of that society, which lead to the creation of gender systems. The gender system is the basis of social patterns in many societies, which include the separation of sexes, and the primacy of masculine norms.[46]

Philosopher Michel Foucault said that as sexual subjects, humans are the object of power, which is not an institution or structure, rather it is a signifier or name attributed to "complex strategical situation".[48] Because of this, "power" is what determines individual attributes, behaviors, etc. and people are a part of an ontologically and epistemologically constructed set of names and labels. For example, being female characterizes one as a woman, and being a woman signifies one as weak, emotional, and irrational, and incapable of actions attributed to a "man". Butler said that gender and sex are more like verbs than nouns. She reasoned that her actions are limited because she is female. "I am not permitted to construct my gender and sex willy-nilly," she said.[40] "[This] is so because gender is politically and therefore socially controlled. Rather than 'woman' being something one is, it is something one does."[40] More recent criticisms of Judith Butler's theories critique her writing for reinforcing the very conventional dichotomies of gender.[49]

Social assignment and gender fluidity

According to gender theorist Kate Bornstein, gender can have ambiguity and fluidity.[50] There are two[51][52] contrasting ideas regarding the definition of gender, and the intersection of both of them is definable as below:

The World Health Organization defines gender as "the characteristics of women, men, girls and boys that are socially constructed".[53] The beliefs, values and attitude taken up and exhibited by them is as per the agreeable norms of the society and the personal opinions of the person is not taken into the primary consideration of assignment of gender and imposition of gender roles as per the assigned gender.[2]

The assignment of gender involves taking into account the physiological and biological attributes assigned by nature followed by the imposition of the socially constructed conduct. Gender is a term used to exemplify the attributes that a society or culture constitutes as "masculine" or "feminine". Although a person's sex as male or female stands as a biological fact that is identical in any culture, what that specific sex means in reference to a person's gender role as a man or a woman in society varies cross-culturally according to what things are considered to be masculine or feminine.[54] These roles are learned from various, intersecting sources such as parental influences, the socialization a child receives in school, and what is portrayed in the local media. Learning gender roles starts from birth and includes seemingly simple things like what color outfits a baby is clothed in or what toys they are given to play with. However, a person's gender does not always align with what has been assigned at birth. Factors other than learned behaviors play a role in the development of gender.[55]

Social categories

 
Mary Frith ("Moll Cutpurse") scandalized 17th century society by wearing male clothing, smoking in public, and otherwise defying gender roles.

Sexologist John Money coined the term gender role in 1955. The term gender role is defined as the actions or responses that may reveal their status as boy, man, girl or woman, respectively.[56] Elements surrounding gender roles include clothing, speech patterns, movement, occupations, and other factors not limited to biological sex. In contrast to taxonomic approaches, some feminist philosophers have argued that gender "is a vast orchestration of subtle mediations between oneself and others", rather than a "private cause behind manifest behaviours".[57]

Non-binary and third genders

Historically, most societies have recognized only two distinct, broad classes of gender roles, a binary of masculine and feminine, largely corresponding to the biological sexes of male and female.[8][58][59] When a baby is born, society allocates the child to one gender or the other, on the basis of what their genitals resemble.[54]

However, some societies have historically acknowledged and even honored people who fulfill a gender role that exists more in the middle of the continuum between the feminine and masculine polarity. For example, the Hawaiian māhū, who occupy "a place in the middle" between male and female,[60][61] or the Ojibwe ikwekaazo, "men who choose to function as women",[62] or ininiikaazo, "women who function as men".[62] In the language of the sociology of gender, some of these people may be considered third gender, especially by those in gender studies or anthropology. Contemporary Native American and FNIM people who fulfill these traditional roles in their communities may also participate in the modern, two-spirit community,[63] however, these umbrella terms, neologisms, and ways of viewing gender are not necessarily the type of cultural constructs that more traditional members of these communities agree with.[64]

The hijras of India and Pakistan are often cited as third gender.[65][66] Another example may be the muxe (pronounced [ˈmuʃe]), found in the state of Oaxaca, in southern Mexico.[67] The Bugis people of Sulawesi, Indonesia have a tradition that incorporates all the features above.[68]

In addition to these traditionally recognized third genders, many cultures now recognize, to differing degrees, various non-binary gender identities. People who are non-binary (or genderqueer) have gender identities that are not exclusively masculine or feminine. They may identify as having an overlap of gender identities, having two or more genders, having no gender, having a fluctuating gender identity, or being third gender or other-gendered. Recognition of non-binary genders is still somewhat new to mainstream Western culture,[69] and non-binary people may face increased risk of assault, harassment, and discrimination.[70]

Measurement of gender identity

Two instruments incorporating the multidimensional nature of masculinity and femininity have dominated gender identity research: The Bem Sex Role Inventory (BSRI) and the Personal Attributes Questionnaire (PAQ). Both instruments categorize individuals as either being sex typed (males report themselves as identifying primarily with masculine traits, females report themselves as identifying primarily with feminine traits), cross sex-typed (males report themselves as identifying primarily with feminine traits, females report themselves as identifying primarily with masculine traits), androgynous (either males or females who report themselves as high on both masculine and feminine traits) or undifferentiated (either males or females who report themselves as low on both masculine and feminine traits).[71] Twenge (1997) noted that men are generally more masculine than women and women generally more feminine than men, but the association between biological sex and masculinity/femininity is waning.[72]

Feminist theory and gender studies

Biologist and feminist academic Anne Fausto-Sterling rejects the discourse of biological versus social determinism and advocates a deeper analysis of how interactions between the biological being and the social environment influence individuals' capacities.[73]

The philosopher and feminist Simone de Beauvoir applied existentialism to women's experience of life: "One is not born a woman, one becomes one."[74] In context, this is a philosophical statement. However, it may be analyzed in terms of biology—a girl must pass puberty to become a woman—and sociology, as a great deal of mature relating in social contexts is learned rather than instinctive.[75]

Within feminist theory, terminology for gender issues developed over the 1970s. In the 1974 edition of Masculine/Feminine or Human, the author uses "innate gender" and "learned sex roles",[76] but in the 1978 edition, the use of sex and gender is reversed.[77] By 1980, most feminist writings had agreed on using gender only for socioculturally adapted traits.

In gender studies the term gender refers to proposed social and cultural constructions of masculinities and femininities. In this context, gender explicitly excludes reference to biological differences, to focus on cultural differences.[78] This emerged from a number of different areas: in sociology during the 1950s; from the theories of the psychoanalyst Jacques Lacan; and in the work of French psychoanalysts like Julia Kristeva, Luce Irigaray, and American feminists such as Judith Butler. Those who followed Butler came to regard gender roles as a practice, sometimes referred to as "performative".[79]

Charles E. Hurst states that some people think sex will, "...automatically determine one's gender demeanor and role (social) as well as one's sexual orientation (sexual attractions and behavior).[80] Gender sociologists believe that people have cultural origins and habits for dealing with gender. For example, Michael Schwalbe believes that humans must be taught how to act appropriately in their designated gender to fill the role properly, and that the way people behave as masculine or feminine interacts with social expectations. Schwalbe comments that humans "are the results of many people embracing and acting on similar ideas".[81] People do this through everything from clothing and hairstyle to relationship and employment choices. Schwalbe believes that these distinctions are important, because society wants to identify and categorize people as soon as we see them. They need to place people into distinct categories to know how we should feel about them.

Hurst comments that in a society where we present our genders so distinctly, there can often be severe consequences for breaking these cultural norms. Many of these consequences are rooted in discrimination based on sexual orientation. Gays and lesbians are often discriminated against in our legal system because of societal prejudices.[82][83][84] Hurst describes how this discrimination works against people for breaking gender norms, no matter what their sexual orientation is. He says that "courts often confuse sex, gender, and sexual orientation, and confuse them in a way that results in denying the rights not only of gays and lesbians, but also of those who do not present themselves or act in a manner traditionally expected of their sex".[80] This prejudice plays out in our legal system when a person is judged differently because they do not present themselves as the "correct" gender.

Andrea Dworkin stated her "commitment to destroying male dominance and gender itself" while stating her belief in radical feminism.[85]

Political scientist Mary Hawkesworth addresses gender and feminist theory, stating that since the 1970s the concept of gender has transformed and been used in significantly different ways within feminist scholarship. She notes that a transition occurred when several feminist scholars, such as Sandra Harding and Joan Scott, began to conceive of gender "as an analytic category within which humans think about and organize their social activity". Feminist scholars in Political Science began employing gender as an analytical category, which highlighted "social and political relations neglected by mainstream accounts". However, Hawkesworth states "feminist political science has not become a dominant paradigm within the discipline".[86]

American political scientist Karen Beckwith addresses the concept of gender within political science arguing that a "common language of gender" exists and that it must be explicitly articulated in order to build upon it within the political science discipline. Beckwith describes two ways in which the political scientist may employ 'gender' when conducting empirical research: "gender as a category and as a process." Employing gender as a category allows for political scientists "to delineate specific contexts where behaviours, actions, attitudes and preferences considered masculine or feminine result in particular" political outcomes. It may also demonstrate how gender differences, not necessarily corresponding precisely with sex, may "constrain or facilitate political" actors. Gender as a process has two central manifestations in political science research, firstly in determining "the differential effects of structures and policies upon men and women," and secondly, the ways in which masculine and feminine political actors "actively work to produce favorable gendered outcomes".[87]

With regard to gender studies, Jacquetta Newman states that although sex is determined biologically, the ways in which people express gender is not. Gendering is a socially constructed process based on culture, though often cultural expectations around women and men have a direct relationship to their biology. Because of this, Newman argues, many privilege sex as being a cause of oppression and ignore other issues like race, ability, poverty, etc. Current gender studies classes seek to move away from that and examine the intersectionality of these factors in determining people's lives. She also points out that other non-Western cultures do not necessarily have the same views of gender and gender roles.[88] Newman also debates the meaning of equality, which is often considered the goal of feminism; she believes that equality is a problematic term because it can mean many different things, such as people being treated identically, differently, or fairly based on their gender. Newman believes this is problematic because there is no unified definition as to what equality means or looks like, and that this can be significantly important in areas like public policy.[89]

Social construction of sex hypotheses

 
"Rosie the Riveter" was an iconic symbol of the American homefront in WWII and a departure from restrictive, "feminine", gender roles due to wartime necessity.

The World Health Organization states that 'Gender refers to the characteristics of women, men, girls and boys that are socially constructed.' Sociologists generally regard gender as a social construct, and various researchers, including many feminists, consider sex to only be a matter of biology and something that is not about social or cultural construction. For instance, sexologist John Money suggests the distinction between biological sex and gender as a role.[56] Moreover, Ann Oakley, a professor of sociology and social policy, says "the constancy of sex must be admitted, but so also must the variability of gender."[90] Thus, sex is regarded as a category studied in biology (natural sciences), while gender is studied in humanities and social sciences. Lynda Birke, a feminist biologist, maintains "'biology' is not seen as something which might change."[91] Therefore, it is stated that sex is something that does not change, while gender can change according to social structure.

However, there are scholars who argue that sex is also socially constructed. For example, gender studies writer Judith Butler states that "perhaps this construct called 'sex' is as culturally constructed as gender; indeed, perhaps it was always already gender, with the consequence that the distinction between sex and gender turns out to be no distinction at all."[92]

She continues:

It would make no sense, then, to define gender as the cultural interpretation of sex, if sex is itself a gender-centered category. Gender should not be conceived merely as the cultural inscription of meaning based on a given sex (a juridical conception); gender must also designate the very apparatus of production whereby the sexes themselves are established. [...] This production of sex as the pre-discursive should be understood as the effect of the apparatus of cultural construction designated by gender.[93]

Butler argues that "bodies only appear, only endure, only live within the productive constraints of certain highly gendered regulatory schemas,"[94] and sex is "no longer as a bodily given on which the construct of gender is artificially imposed, but as a cultural norm which governs the materialization of bodies."[95]

With regard to history, Linda Nicholson, a professor of history and women's studies, argues that the understanding of human bodies as sexually dimorphic was historically not recognised. She states that male and female genitals were considered inherently the same in Western society until the 18th century. At that time, female genitals were regarded as incomplete male genitals, and the difference between the two was conceived as a matter of degree. In other words, there was a belief in a gradation of physical forms, or a spectrum.[96] Scholars such as Helen King, Joan Cadden, and Michael Stolberg have criticized this interpretation of history.[97] Cadden notes that the "one-sex" model was disputed even in ancient and medieval medicine,[98] and Stolberg points out that already in the sixteenth century, medicine had begun to move towards a two-sex model.[99]

In addition, drawing from the empirical research of intersex children, Anne Fausto-Sterling, a professor of biology and gender studies, describes how the doctors address the issues of intersexuality. She starts her argument with an example of the birth of an intersexual individual and maintains "our conceptions of the nature of gender difference shape, even as they reflect, the ways we structure our social system and polity; they also shape and reflect our understanding of our physical bodies."[100] Then she adds how gender assumptions affects the scientific study of sex by presenting the research of intersexuals by John Money et al., and she concludes that "they never questioned the fundamental assumption that there are only two sexes, because their goal in studying intersexuals was to find out more about 'normal' development."[101] She also mentions the language the doctors use when they talk with the parents of the intersexuals. After describing how the doctors inform parents about the intersexuality, she asserts that because the doctors believe that the intersexuals are actually male or female, they tell the parents of the intersexuals that it will take a little bit more time for the doctors to determine whether the infant is a boy or a girl. That is to say, the doctors' behavior is formulated by the cultural gender assumption that there are only two sexes. Lastly, she maintains that the differences in the ways in which the medical professionals in different regions treat intersexual people also give us a good example of how sex is socially constructed.[102] In her Sexing the body: gender politics and the construction of sexuality, she introduces the following example:

A group of physicians from Saudi Arabia recently reported on several cases of XX intersex children with congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH), a genetically inherited malfunction of the enzymes that aid in making steroid hormones. [...] In the United States and Europe, such children, because they have the potential to bear children later in life, are usually raised as girls. Saudi doctors trained in this European tradition recommended such a course of action to the Saudi parents of CAH XX children. A number of parents, however, refused to accept the recommendation that their child, initially identified as a son, be raised instead as a daughter. Nor would they accept feminizing surgery for their child. [...] This was essentially an expression of local community attitudes with [...] the preference for male offspring.[103]

Thus it is evident that culture can play a part in assigning gender, particularly in relation to intersex children.[102]

The article Adolescent Gender-Role Identity and Mental Health: Gender Intensification Revisited focuses on the work of Heather A. Priess, Sara M. Lindberg, and Janet Shibley Hyde on whether or not girls and boys diverge in their gender identities during adolescent years. The researchers based their work on ideas previously mentioned by Hill and Lynch in their gender intensification hypothesis in that signals and messages from parents determine and affect their children's gender role identities. This hypothesis argues that parents affect their children's gender role identities and that different interactions spent with either parents will affect gender intensification. Priess and among other's study did not support the hypothesis of Hill and Lynch which stated "that as adolescents experience these and other socializing influences, they will become more stereotypical in their gender-role identities and gendered attitudes and behaviors."[104] However, the researchers did state that perhaps the hypothesis Hill and Lynch proposed was true in the past but is not true now due to changes in the population of teens in respect to their gender-role identities.

Authors of "Unpacking the Gender System: A Theoretical Perspective on Gender Beliefs and Social Relations", Cecilia Ridgeway and Shelley Correll, argue that gender is more than an identity or role but is something that is institutionalized through "social relational contexts." Ridgeway and Correll define "social relational contexts" as "any situation in which individuals define themselves in relation to others in order to act."[105] They also point out that in addition to social relational contexts, cultural beliefs plays a role in the gender system. The coauthors argue that daily people are forced to acknowledge and interact with others in ways that are related to gender. Every day, individuals are interacting with each other and comply with society's set standard of hegemonic beliefs, which includes gender roles. They state that society's hegemonic cultural beliefs sets the rules which in turn create the setting for which social relational contexts are to take place. Ridgeway and Correll then shift their topic towards sex categorization. The authors define sex categorization as "the sociocognitive process by which we label another as male or female."[105]

The failure of an attempt to raise David Reimer from infancy through adolescence as a girl after his genitals were accidentally mutilated is cited as disproving the theory that gender identity is determined solely by parenting.[106][107] Reimer's case is used by organizations such as the Intersex Society of North America to caution against needlessly modifying the genitals of unconsenting minors.[108][109] Between the 1960s and 2000, many other male newborns and infants were surgically and socially reassigned as females if they were born with malformed penises, or if they lost their penises in accidents. At the time, surgical reconstruction of the vagina was more advanced than reconstruction of the penis, leading many doctors and psychologists, including John Money who oversaw Reimer's case, to recommend sex reassignment based on the idea that these patients would be happiest living as women with functioning genitalia.[110] Available evidence indicates that in such instances, parents were deeply committed to raising these children as girls and in as gender-typical a manner as possible.[110]: 72–73  A 2005 review of these cases found that about half of natal males reassigned female lived as women in adulthood, including those who knew their medical history, suggesting that gender assignment and related social factors has a major, though not determinative, influence on eventual gender identity.[109]

In 2015, the American Academy of Pediatrics released a webinar series on gender, gender identity, gender expression, transgender, etc.[111][112] In the first lecture Dr. Sherer explains that parents' influence (through punishment and reward of behavior) can influence gender expression but not gender identity.[113] She cites a Smithsonian article that shows a photo of a 3 year old President Franklin D. Roosevelt with long hair, wearing a dress.[114][115] Children as old as 6 wore gender neutral clothing, consisting of white dresses, until the 1940s.[114] In 1927, Time magazine printed a chart showing sex-appropriate colors, which consisted of pink for boys and blue for girls.[114] Dr. Sherer argued that kids will modify their gender expression to seek reward from their parents and society but this will not affect their gender identity (their internal sense of self).[116]

Biological factors and views

Some gendered behavior is influenced by prenatal and early life androgen exposure. This includes, for example, gender normative play, self-identification with a gender, and tendency to engage in aggressive behavior.[117] Males of most mammals, including humans, exhibit more rough and tumble play behavior, which is influenced by maternal testosterone levels. These levels may also influence sexuality, with non-heterosexual persons exhibiting sex atypical behavior in childhood.[118]

The biology of gender became the subject of an expanding number of studies over the course of the late 20th century. One of the earliest areas of interest was what became known as "gender identity disorder" (GID) and which is now also described as gender dysphoria. Studies in this, and related areas, inform the following summary of the subject by John Money. He stated:

The term "gender role" appeared in print first in 1955. The term gender identity was used in a press release, 21 November 1966, to announce the new clinic for transsexuals at The Johns Hopkins Hospital. It was disseminated in the media worldwide, and soon entered the vernacular. The definitions of gender and gender identity vary on a doctrinal basis. In popularized and scientifically debased usage, sex is what you are biologically; gender is what you become socially; gender identity is your own sense or conviction of maleness or femaleness; and gender role is the cultural stereotype of what is masculine and feminine. Causality with respect to gender identity disorder is sub-divisible into genetic, prenatal hormonal, postnatal social, and post-pubertal hormonal determinants, but there is, as yet, no comprehensive and detailed theory of causality. Gender coding in the brain is bipolar. In gender identity disorder, there is discordance between the natal sex of one's external genitalia and the brain coding of one's gender as masculine or feminine.[119]

Although causation from the biological—genetic and hormonal—to the behavioral has been broadly demonstrated and accepted, Money is careful to also note that understanding of the causal chains from biology to behavior in sex and gender issues is very far from complete.[120]

There are studies concerning women who have a condition called congenital adrenal hyperplasia, which leads to the overproduction of the masculine sex hormone, androgen. These women usually have ordinary female appearances (though nearly all girls with congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH) have corrective surgery performed on their genitals). However, despite taking hormone-balancing medication given to them at birth, these females are statistically more likely to be interested in activities traditionally linked to males than female activities. Psychology professor and CAH researcher Dr. Sheri Berenbaum attributes these differences to an exposure of higher levels of male sex hormones in utero.[121]

Non-human animals

According to biologist Michael J. Ryan, gender identity is a concept exclusively applied to humans.[122] Also, in a letter Ellen Ketterson writes, "[w]hen asked, my colleagues in the Department of Gender Studies agreed that the term gender could be properly applied only to humans, because it involves one's self-concept as man or woman. Sex is a biological concept; gender is a human social and cultural concept."[123] However, Poiani (2010) notes that the question of whether behavioural similarities across species can be associated with gender identity or not is "an issue of no easy resolution",[124] and suggests that mental states, such as gender identity, are more accessible in humans than other species due to their capacity for language.[125] Polani suggests that the potential number of species with members possessing a gender identity must be limited due to the requirement for self-consciousness.[126]

Jacques Balthazart suggests that "there is no animal model for studying sexual identity. It is impossible to ask an animal, whatever its species, to what sex it belongs."[127] He notes that "this would imply that the animal is aware of its own body and sex, which is far from proved", despite recent research demonstrating sophisticated cognitive skills among non-human primates and other species.[128] Hird (2006) has also stated that whether or not non-human animals consider themselves to be feminine or masculine is a "difficult, if not impossible, question to answer", as this would require "judgements about what constitutes femininity or masculinity in any given species". Nonetheless, she asserts that "non-human animals do experience femininity and masculinity to the extent that any given species' behaviour is gender segregated."[129]

Despite this, Poiani and Dixson emphasise the applicability of the concept of gender role to non-human animals[124] such as rodents[130] throughout their book.[131] The concept of gender role has also been applied to non-human primates such as rhesus monkeys.[132][133]

Gender studies

Gender studies is a field of interdisciplinary study and academic field devoted to gender, gender identity and gendered representation as central categories of analysis. This field includes Women's studies (concerning women, feminity, their gender roles and politics, and feminism), Men's studies (concerning men, masculinity, their gender roles, and politics), and LGBT studies.[134] Sometimes Gender studies is offered together with Study of Sexuality. These disciplines study gender and sexuality in the fields of literature and language, history, political science, sociology, anthropology, cinema and media studies, human development, law, and medicine.[135] It also analyses race, ethnicity, location, nationality, and disability.[136][137]

Psychology and sociology

Many of the more complicated human behaviors are influenced by both innate factors and by environmental ones, which include everything from genes, gene expression, and body chemistry, through diet and social pressures. A large area of research in behavioral psychology collates evidence in an effort to discover correlations between behavior and various possible antecedents such as genetics, gene regulation, access to food and vitamins, culture, gender, hormones, physical and social development, and physical and social environments.[138]

A core research area within sociology is the way human behavior operates on itself, in other words, how the behavior of one group or individual influences the behavior of other groups or individuals. Starting in the late 20th century, the feminist movement has contributed extensive study of gender and theories about it, notably within sociology but not restricted to it.[139]

 
Spain's desperate situation when invaded by Napoleon enabled Agustina de Aragón to break into a closely guarded male preserve and become the only female professional officer in the Spanish Army of her time (and long afterwards).

Social theorists have sought to determine the specific nature of gender in relation to biological sex and sexuality,[140][141] with the result being that culturally established gender and sex have become interchangeable identifications that signify the allocation of a specific 'biological' sex within a categorical gender.[141] The second wave feminist view that gender is socially constructed and hegemonic in all societies, remains current in some literary theoretical circles, Kira Hall and Mary Bucholtz publishing new perspectives as recently as 2008.[142]

As the child grows, "...society provides a string of prescriptions, templates, or models of behaviors appropriate to the one sex or the other,"[143] which socialises the child into belonging to a culturally specific gender.[144] There is huge incentive for a child to concede to their socialisation with gender shaping the individual's opportunities for education, work, family, sexuality, reproduction, authority,[145] and to make an impact on the production of culture and knowledge.[146] Adults who do not perform these ascribed roles are perceived from this perspective as deviant and improperly socialized.[147]

Some believe society is constructed in a way that splits gender into a dichotomy via social organisations that constantly invent and reproduce cultural images of gender. Joan Acker believed gendering occurs in at least five different interacting social processes:[148]

  • The construction of divisions along the lines of gender, such as those produced by labor, power, family, the state, even allowed behaviors and locations in physical space
  • The construction of symbols and images such as language, ideology, dress and the media, that explain, express and reinforce, or sometimes oppose, those divisions
  • Interactions between men and women, women and women and men and men that involve any form of dominance and submission. Conversational theorists, for example, have studied the way that interruptions, turn taking and the setting of topics re-create gender inequality in the flow of ordinary talk
  • The way that the preceding three processes help to produce gendered components of individual identity, i.e., the way they create and maintain an image of a gendered self
  • Gender is implicated in the fundamental, ongoing processes of creating and conceptualising social structures.

Looking at gender through a Foucauldian lens, gender is transfigured into a vehicle for the social division of power. Gender difference is merely a construct of society used to enforce the distinctions made between what is assumed to be female and male, and allow for the domination of masculinity over femininity through the attribution of specific gender-related characteristics.[149] "The idea that men and women are more different from one another than either is from anything else, must come from something other than nature... far from being an expression of natural differences, exclusive gender identity is the suppression of natural similarities."[150]

Gender conventions play a large role in attributing masculine and feminine characteristics to a fundamental biological sex.[151] Socio-cultural codes and conventions, the rules by which society functions, and which are both a creation of society as well as a constituting element of it, determine the allocation of these specific traits to the sexes. These traits provide the foundations for the creation of hegemonic gender difference. It follows then, that gender can be assumed as the acquisition and internalisation of social norms. Individuals are therefore socialized through their receipt of society's expectations of 'acceptable' gender attributes that are flaunted within institutions such as the family, the state and the media. Such a notion of 'gender' then becomes naturalized into a person's sense of self or identity, effectively imposing a gendered social category upon a sexed body.[150]

The conception that people are gendered rather than sexed also coincides with Judith Butler's theories of gender performativity. Butler argues that gender is not an expression of what one is, but rather something that one does.[152] It follows then, that if gender is acted out in a repetitive manner it is in fact re-creating and effectively embedding itself within the social consciousness. Contemporary sociological reference to male and female gender roles typically uses masculinities and femininities in the plural rather than singular, suggesting diversity both within cultures as well as across them.

The difference between the sociological and popular definitions of gender involve a different dichotomy and focus. For example, the sociological approach to "gender" (social roles: female versus male) focuses on the difference in (economic/power) position between a male CEO (disregarding the fact that he is heterosexual or homosexual) to female workers in his employ (disregarding whether they are straight or gay). However the popular sexual self-conception approach (self-conception: gay versus straight) focuses on the different self-conceptions and social conceptions of those who are gay/straight, in comparison with those who are straight (disregarding what might be vastly differing economic and power positions between female and male groups in each category). There is then, in relation to definition of and approaches to "gender", a tension between historic feminist sociology and contemporary homosexual sociology.[153]

Legal status

A person's sex as male or female has legal significance—sex is indicated on government documents, and laws provide differently for men and women. Many pension systems have different retirement ages for men or women. Marriage is usually only available to opposite-sex couples; in some countries and jurisdictions there are same-sex marriage laws.

The question then arises as to what legally determines whether someone is female or male. In most cases this can appear obvious, but the matter is complicated for intersex or transgender people. Different jurisdictions have adopted different answers to this question. Almost all countries permit changes of legal gender status in cases of intersexualism, when the gender assignment made at birth is determined upon further investigation to be biologically inaccurate—technically, however, this is not a change of status per se. Rather, it is recognition of a status deemed to exist but unknown from birth. Increasingly, jurisdictions also provide a procedure for changes of legal gender for transgender people.

Gender assignment, when there are indications that genital sex might not be decisive in a particular case, is normally not defined by a single definition, but by a combination of conditions, including chromosomes and gonads. Thus, for example, in many jurisdictions a person with XY chromosomes but female gonads could be recognized as female at birth.

Transgender people

The ability to change legal gender for transgender people in particular has given rise to the phenomena in some jurisdictions of the same person having different genders for the purposes of different areas of the law. For example, in Australia prior to the Re Kevin decisions, transsexual people could be recognized as having the genders they identified with under many areas of the law, including social security law, but not for the law of marriage. Thus, for a period, it was possible for the same person to have two different genders under Australian law.

It is also possible in federal systems for the same person to have one gender under state or provincial law and a different gender under federal law.

Intersex people

For intersex people, who according to the UN Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights, "do not fit typical binary notions of male or female bodies",[154] access to any form of identification document with a gender marker may be an issue.[155] For other intersex people, there may be issues in securing the same rights as other individuals assigned male or female; other intersex people may seek non-binary gender recognition.[156]

Non-binary and third genders

Some countries now legally recognize non-binary or third genders, including Canada, Germany,[157] Australia, New Zealand, India and Pakistan. In the United States, Oregon was the first state to legally recognize non-binary gender in 2017,[158] and was followed by California and the District of Columbia.[159][160]

Gender and society

Languages

  • Grammatical gender is a property of some languages in which every noun is assigned a gender, often with no direct relation to its meaning. For example, the word for "girl" is muchacha (grammatically feminine) in Spanish,[157] Mädchen (grammatically neuter) in German,[157] and cailín (grammatically masculine) in Irish.
  • The term "grammatical gender" is often applied to more complex noun class systems. This is especially true when a noun class system includes masculine and feminine as well as some other non-gender features like animate, edible, manufactured, and so forth. An example of the latter is found in the Dyirbal language. Other gender systems exist with no distinction between masculine and feminine; examples include a distinction between animate and inanimate things, which is common to, amongst others, Ojibwe, Basque and Hittite; and systems distinguishing between people (whether human or divine) and everything else, which are found in the Dravidian languages and Sumerian.
  • A sample of the World Atlas of Language Structures by Greville G Corbett found that fewer than half of the 258 languages sampled have any system of grammatical gender.[161] Of the remaining languages that feature grammatical gender, over half have more than the minimum requirement of two genders.[161] Grammatical gender may be based on biological sex (which is the most common basis for grammatical gender), animacy, or other features, and may be based on a combination of these classes.[162] One of the four genders of the Dyirbal language consists mainly of fruit and vegetables.[163] Languages of the Niger-Congo language family can have as many as twenty genders, including plants, places, and shapes.[164]
  • Many languages include terms that are used asymmetrically in reference to men and women. Concern that current language may be biased in favor of men has led some authors in recent times to argue for the use of a more gender-neutral vocabulary in English and other languages.
  • Several languages attest the use of different vocabulary by men and women, to differing degrees. See, for instance, Gender differences in Japanese. The oldest documented language, Sumerian, records a distinctive sub-language only used by female speakers. Conversely, many Indigenous Australian languages have distinctive registers with a limited lexicon used by men in the presence of their mothers-in-law (see Avoidance speech). As well, quite a few sign languages have a gendered distinction due to boarding schools segregated by gender, such as Irish Sign Language.
  • Several languages such as Persian[157] or Hungarian are gender-neutral. In Persian the same word is used in reference to men and women. Verbs, adjectives and nouns are not gendered. (See Gender-neutrality in genderless languages).
  • Several languages employ different ways to refer to people where there are three or more genders, such as Navajo or Ojibwe.

Science

Historically, science has been portrayed as a masculine pursuit in which women have faced significant barriers to participate.[165] Even after universities began admitting women in the 19th century, women were still largely relegated to certain scientific fields, such as home science, nursing, and child psychology.[166] Women were also typically given tedious, low-paying jobs and denied opportunities for career advancement.[166] This was often justified by the stereotype that women were naturally more suited to jobs that required concentration, patience, and dexterity, rather than creativity, leadership, or intellect.[166] Although these stereotypes have been dispelled in modern times, women are still underrepresented in prestigious "hard science" fields such as physics, and are less likely to hold high-ranking positions,[167] a situation global initiatives such as the United Nations Sustainable Development Goal 5 are trying to rectify.[168]

Religion

This topic includes internal and external religious issues such as gender of God and deities creation myths about human gender, roles and rights (for instance, leadership roles especially ordination of women, sex segregation, gender equality, marriage, abortion, homosexuality).

According to Kati Niemelä of the Church Research Institute, women are universally more religious than men. They believe that the difference in religiosity between genders is due to biological differences, for instance usually people seeking security in life are more religious, and as men are considered to be greater risk takers than women, they are less religious. Although religious fanaticism is more often seen in men than women.[169]

In Taoism, yin and yang are considered feminine and masculine, respectively. The Taijitu and concept of the Zhou period reach into family and gender relations. Yin is female and yang is male. They fit together as two parts of a whole. The male principle was equated with the sun: active, bright, and shining; the female principle corresponds to the moon: passive, shaded, and reflective. Male toughness was balanced by female gentleness, male action and initiative by female endurance and need for completion, and male leadership by female supportiveness.[170]

In Judaism, God is traditionally described in the masculine, but in the mystical tradition of the Kabbalah, the Shekhinah represents the feminine aspect of God's essence.[171] However, Judaism traditionally holds that God is completely non-corporeal, and thus neither male nor female. Conceptions of the gender of God notwithstanding, traditional Judaism places a strong emphasis on individuals following Judaism's traditional gender roles, though many modern denominations of Judaism strive for greater egalitarianism. As well, traditional Jewish culture dictates that there are six genders.

In Christianity, God is traditionally described in masculine terms and the Church has historically been described in feminine terms. On the other hand, Christian theology in many churches distinguishes between the masculine images used of God (Father, King, God the Son) and the reality they signify, which transcends gender, embodies all the virtues of both men and women perfectly, which may be seen through the doctrine of Imago Dei. In the New Testament, Jesus at several times mentions the Holy Spirit with the masculine pronoun i.e. John 15:26 among other verses. Hence, the Father, the Son and the Holy Spirit (i.e. Trinity) are all mentioned with the masculine pronoun; though the exact meaning of the masculinity of the Christian triune God is contended.

In Hinduism, one of the several forms of the Hindu God Shiva, is Ardhanarishwar (literally half-female God). Here Shiva manifests himself so that the left half is Female and the right half is Male. The left represents Shakti (energy, power) in the form of Goddess Parvati (otherwise his consort) and the right half Shiva. Whereas Parvati is the cause of arousal of Kama (desires), Shiva is the killer. Shiva is pervaded by the power of Parvati and Parvati is pervaded by the power of Shiva.[172]

While the stone images may seem to represent a half-male and half-female God, the true symbolic representation is of a being the whole of which is Shiva and the whole of which is Shakti at the same time. It is a 3-D representation of only shakti from one angle and only Shiva from the other. Shiva and Shakti are hence the same being representing a collective of Jnana (knowledge) and Kriya (activity).

Adi Shankaracharya, the founder of non-dualistic philosophy (Advaita–"not two") in Hindu thought says in his "Saundaryalahari"—Shivah Shaktayaa yukto yadi bhavati shaktah prabhavitum na che devum devona khalu kushalah spanditam api " i.e., It is only when Shiva is united with Shakti that He acquires the capability of becoming the Lord of the Universe. In the absence of Shakti, He is not even able to stir. In fact, the term "Shiva" originated from "Shva," which implies a dead body. It is only through his inherent shakti that Shiva realizes his true nature.

This mythology projects the inherent view in ancient Hinduism, that each human carries within himself both female and male components, which are forces rather than sexes, and it is the harmony between the creative and the annihilative, the strong and the soft, the proactive and the passive, that makes a true person. Such thought, leave alone entail gender equality, in fact obliterates any material distinction between the male and female altogether. This may explain why in ancient India we find evidence of homosexuality, bisexuality, androgyny, multiple sex partners and open representation of sexual pleasures in artworks like the Khajuraho temples, being accepted within prevalent social frameworks.[173]

Poverty

Gender inequality is most common in women dealing with poverty. Many women must shoulder all the responsibility of the household because they must take care of the family. Oftentimes this may include tasks such as tilling land, grinding grain, carrying water and cooking.[174] Also, women are more likely to earn low incomes because of gender discrimination, as men are more likely to receive higher pay, have more opportunities, and have overall more political and social capital then women.[175] Approximately 75% of world's women are unable to obtain bank loans because they have unstable jobs.[174] It shows that there are many women in the world's population but only a few represent world's wealth. In many countries, the financial sector largely neglects women even though they play an important role in the economy, as Nena Stoiljkovic pointed out in D+C Development and Cooperation.[176] In 1978 Diana M. Pearce coined the term feminization of poverty to describe the problem of women having higher rates of poverty.[177] Women are more vulnerable to chronic poverty because of gender inequalities in the distribution of income, property ownership, credit, and control over earned income.[178] Resource allocation is typically gender-biased within households, and continue on a higher level regarding state institutions.[178]

 
A bar graph comparing poverty differences based on age and gender in 2012.

Gender and Development (GAD) is a holistic approach to give aid to countries where gender inequality has a great effect of not improving the social and economic development. It is a program focused on the gender development of women to empower them and decrease the level of inequality between men and women.[179]

The largest discrimination study of the transgender community, conducted in 2013, found that the transgender community is four times more likely to live in extreme poverty (income of less than $10,000 a year) than people who are cisgender.[180][181]

General strain theory

According to general strain theory, studies suggest that gender differences between individuals can lead to externalized anger that may result in violent outbursts.[182] These violent actions related to gender inequality can be measured by comparing violent neighborhoods to non-violent neighborhoods.[182] By noticing the independent variables (neighborhood violence) and the dependent variable (individual violence), it's possible to analyze gender roles.[183] The strain in the general strain theory is the removal of a positive stimulus and or the introduction of a negative stimulus, which would create a negative effect (strain) within individual, which is either inner-directed (depression/guilt) or outer-directed (anger/frustration), which depends on whether the individual blames themselves or their environment.[184] Studies reveal that even though males and females are equally likely to react to a strain with anger, the origin of the anger and their means of coping with it can vary drastically.[184]

Males are likely to put the blame on others for adversity and therefore externalize feelings of anger.[182] Females typically internalize their angers and tend to blame themselves instead.[182] Female internalized anger is accompanied by feelings of guilt, fear, anxiety and depression.[183] Women view anger as a sign that they've somehow lost control, and thus worry that this anger may lead them to harm others and/or damage relationships. On the other end of the spectrum, men are less concerned with damaging relationships and more focused on using anger as a means of affirming their masculinity.[183] According to the general strain theory, men would more likely engage in aggressive behavior directed towards others due to externalized anger whereas women would direct their anger towards themselves rather than others.[184]

Economic development

Gender, and particularly the role of women is widely recognized as vitally important to international development issues.[185] This often means a focus on gender-equality, ensuring participation, but includes an understanding of the different roles and expectation of the genders within the community.[186]

Climate change

Gender is a topic of increasing concern within climate change policy and science.[187] Generally, gender approaches to climate change address gender-differentiated consequences of climate change, as well as unequal adaptation capacities and gendered contribution to climate change. Furthermore, the intersection of climate change and gender raises questions regarding the complex and intersecting power relations arising from it. These differences, however, are mostly not due to biological or physical differences, but are formed by the social, institutional and legal context. Subsequently, vulnerability is less an intrinsic feature of women and girls but rather a product of their marginalization.[188] Roehr[189] notes that, while the United Nations officially committed to gender mainstreaming, in practice gender equality is not reached in the context of climate change policies. This is reflected in the fact that discourses of and negotiations over climate change are mostly dominated by men.[190][191][192] Some feminist scholars hold that the debate on climate change is not only dominated by men but also primarily shaped in 'masculine' principles, which limits discussions about climate change to a perspective that focuses on technical solutions.[191] This perception of climate change hides subjectivity and power relations that actually condition climate-change policy and science, leading to a phenomenon that Tuana[191] terms 'epistemic injustice'. Similarly, MacGregor[190] attests that by framing climate change as an issue of 'hard' natural scientific conduct and natural security, it is kept within the traditional domains of hegemonic masculinity.[190][192]

Social media

Gender roles and stereotypes have slowly started to change in society within the past few decades. These changes occur mostly in communication, but more specifically during social interactions.[193] The ways in which people communicate and socialize have also started to change due to advancements in technology.[115] One of the biggest reasons for this change is the growth of social media.

Over the past few years, the use of social media globally has started to rise.[116] This rise can be attributed to the abundance of technology available for use among youth. Recent studies suggest that men and women value and use technology differently.[115][116][194] Forbes published an article in 2010 that reported 57% of Facebook users are women, which was attributed to the fact that women are more active on social media. On average women have 8% more friends and account for 62% of posts that are shared via Facebook.[195] Another study in 2010 found that in most Western cultures, women spend more time sending text messages compared to men as well as spending more time on social networking sites as a way to communicate with friends and family.[196] Hayat, Lesser and Samuel-Azran (2017) have further shown that while men write more posts in social networking sites, women commented on other people's posts more often. They further showed that women's posts enjoyed higher popularity than men's posts.

Social media is more than just the communication of words. With social media increasing in popularity, pictures have come to play a large role in how many people communicate. Research conducted in 2013 found that over 57% of pictures posted on social networking sites were sexual and were created to gain attention.[197] Moreover, 58% of women and 45% of men don't look into the camera, which creates an illusion of withdrawal.[197] Other factors to be considered are the poses in pictures such as women lying down in subordinate positions or even touching themselves in childlike ways.[197] Research has found that images shared online through social networking sites help establish personal self-reflections that individuals want to share with the world.[197]

According to recent research, gender plays a strong role in structuring our social lives, especially since society assigns and creates "male" and "female" categories.[198] Individuals in society might be able to learn the similarities between gender rather than the differences.[199] Social media helps create more equality, because every individual is able to self-express however they like. Every individual also has the right to express their opinion, even though some might disagree, but it still gives each gender an equal amount of power to be heard.[200]

Young adults in the U.S. frequently use social networking sites as a way to connect and communicate with one another, as well as to satisfy their curiosity.[201] Adolescent girls generally use social networking sites as a tool to communicate with peers and reinforce existing relationships; boys on the other hand tend to use social networking sites as a tool to meet new friends and acquaintances.[202] Furthermore, social networking sites have allowed individuals to truly express themselves, as they are able to create an identity and socialize with other individuals that can relate.[203] Social networking sites have also given individuals access to create a space where they feel more comfortable about their sexuality.[203] Recent research has indicated that social media is becoming a stronger part of younger individuals' media culture, as more intimate stories are being told via social media and are being intertwined with gender, sexuality, and relationships.[203]

Teens are avid internet and social media users in the United States. Research has found that almost all U.S. teens (95%) aged 12 through 17 are online, compared to only 78% of adults. Of these teens, 80% have profiles on social media sites, as compared to only 64% of the online population aged 30 and older. According to a study conducted by the Kaiser Family Foundation, 11-to-18-year-olds spend on average over one and a half hours a day using a computer and 27 minutes per day visiting social network sites, i.e. the latter accounts for about one fourth of their daily computer use.[204]

Teen girls and boys differ in what they post in their online profiles. Studies have shown that female users tend to post more "cute" pictures, while male participants were more likely to post pictures of themselves in activities. Women in the U.S. also tend to post more pictures of friends, while men tend to post more about sports and humorous links. The study also found that males would post more alcohol and sexual references.[204] The roles were reversed however, when looking at a teenage dating site: women made sexual references significantly more often than males.

Boys share more personal information, such as their hometown and phone number, while girls are more conservative about the personal information they allow to go public on these social networking sites. Boys, meanwhile, are more likely to orient towards technology, sports, and humor in the information they post to their profile.[205]

Social media goes beyond the role of helping individuals express themselves, as it has grown to help individuals create relationships, particularly romantic relationships. A large number of social media users have found it easier to create relationships in a less direct approach, compared to a traditional approach of awkwardly asking for someone's number.[206]

Social media plays a big role when it comes to communication between genders. Therefore, it's important to understand how gender stereotypes develop during online interactions. Research in the 1990s suggested that different genders display certain traits, such as being active, attractive, dependent, dominant, independent, sentimental, sexy, and submissive, in online interaction.[207] Even though these traits continue to be displayed through gender stereotypes, recent studies show that this isn't necessarily the case any more.[208]

See also

References

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Bibliography

  • Butler, Judith (1990). Gender Trouble: Feminism and the Subversion of Identity. Thinking Gender'. New York & London: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-38955-6.
  • Butler, Judith (1993). Bodies That Matter: On the Discursive Limits of "Sex". New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-61015-5.
  • Fausto-Sterling, Anne (2000). Sexing the body: gender politics and the construction of sexuality. New York: Basic Books. ISBN 978-0-465-07714-4.
  • Hayat, T.; Lesser, O.; Samuel-Azran, T. (2017). "Gendered discourse patterns on online social networks:a social network analysis perspective". Computers in Human Behavior. 77: 132–159. doi:10.1016/j.chb.2017.08.041.

External links

  • GenPORT: Your gateway to gender and science resources
  • Gender in Agriculture Sourcebook

gender, grammatical, concept, grammatical, gender, other, uses, disambiguation, look, gender, wiktionary, free, dictionary, includes, social, psychological, cultural, behavioral, aspects, being, woman, other, gender, identity, depending, context, this, include. For the grammatical concept see Grammatical gender For other uses see Gender disambiguation Look up gender in Wiktionary the free dictionary Gender includes the social psychological cultural and behavioral aspects of being a man woman or other gender identity 1 2 Depending on the context this may include sex based social structures i e gender roles and gender expression 3 4 5 Most cultures use a gender binary in which gender is divided into two categories and people are considered part of one or the other boys men and girls women 6 7 8 those who are outside these groups may fall under the umbrella term non binary Some societies have specific genders besides man and woman such as the hijras of South Asia these are often referred to as third genders and fourth genders etc Most scholars agree that gender is a central characteristic for social organization 9 Gender symbols intertwined The red left is the female Venus symbol The blue right represents the male Mars symbol Sexologist John Money is often regarded as the first to introduce a terminological distinction between biological sex and gender role which as originally defined includes the concepts of both gender role and what would later become known as gender identity in 1955 10 11 although Madison Bentley had already in 1945 defined gender as the socialized obverse of sex 12 13 and Simone de Beauvoir s 1949 book The Second Sex has been interpreted as the beginning of the distinction between sex and gender in feminist theory 14 15 although this interpretation is contested 16 Before Money s work it was uncommon to use the word gender to refer to anything but grammatical categories 3 1 However Money s meaning of the word did not become widespread until the 1970s when feminist theory embraced the concept of a distinction between biological sex and the social construct of gender Most contemporary social scientists 17 18 19 behavioral scientists and biologists 20 many legal systems and government bodies 21 and intergovernmental agencies such as the WHO 22 make a distinction between gender and sex In other contexts the term gender has been used as a synonym for sex without representing a clear conceptual difference For instance in non human animal research gender is commonly used to refer to the biological sex of the animals 1 This change in the meaning of gender can be traced to the 1980s In 1993 the US Food and Drug Administration FDA started to use gender instead of sex to avoid confusion with sexual intercourse 23 Later in 2011 the FDA reversed its position and began using sexas the biological classification and gender as a person s self representation as male or female or how that person is responded to by social institutions based on the individual s gender presentation 24 The social sciences have a branch devoted to gender studies Other sciences such as sexology and neuroscience are also interested in the subject The social sciences sometimes approach gender as a social construct and gender studies particularly do while research in the natural sciences investigates whether biological differences in females and males influence the development of gender in humans both inform the debate about how far biological differences influence the formation of gender identity and gendered behavior In some English literature there is also a trichotomy between biological sex psychological gender and social gender role This framework first appeared in a feminist paper on transsexualism in 1978 1 25 Contents 1 Etymology and usage 1 1 Derivation 1 2 History of the concept 1 2 1 As a grammatical category 1 2 2 As a social role 2 Gender identity and gender roles 2 1 Social assignment and gender fluidity 2 2 Social categories 2 2 1 Non binary and third genders 2 3 Measurement of gender identity 2 4 Feminist theory and gender studies 2 5 Social construction of sex hypotheses 3 Biological factors and views 3 1 Non human animals 4 Gender studies 5 Psychology and sociology 6 Legal status 6 1 Transgender people 6 2 Intersex people 6 3 Non binary and third genders 7 Gender and society 7 1 Languages 7 2 Science 7 3 Religion 7 4 Poverty 7 5 General strain theory 7 6 Economic development 7 7 Climate change 7 8 Social media 8 See also 9 References 10 Bibliography 11 External linksEtymology and usageDerivation The modern English word gender comes from the Middle English gender gendre a loanword from Anglo Norman and Middle French gendre This in turn came from Latin genus Both words mean kind type or sort They derive ultimately from a Proto Indo European PIE root ǵenh to beget 26 which is also the source of kin kind king and many other English words with cognates widely attested in many Indo European languages 27 It appears in Modern French in the word genre type kind also genre sexuel and is related to the Greek root gen to produce appearing in gene genesis and oxygen The Oxford Etymological Dictionary of the English Language of 1882 defined gender as kind breed sex derived from the Latin ablative case of genus like genere natus which refers to birth 28 The first edition of the Oxford English Dictionary OED1 Volume 4 1900 notes the original meaning of gender as kind had already become obsolete History of the concept The concept of gender in the modern sense is a recent invention in human history 29 The ancient world had no basis of understanding gender as it has been understood in the humanities and social sciences for the past few decades 29 The term gender had been associated with grammar for most of history and only started to move towards it being a malleable cultural construct in the 1950s and 1960s 30 Before sexologist John Money and colleagues introduced the terminological distinction between biological sex and gender as a role in 1955 it was uncommon to use the word gender to refer to anything but grammatical categories 3 1 For example in a bibliography of 12 000 references on marriage and family from 1900 to 1964 the term gender does not even emerge once 3 Analysis of more than 30 million academic article titles from 1945 to 2001 showed that the uses of the term gender were much rarer than uses of sex was often used as a grammatical category early in this period By the end of this period uses of gender outnumbered uses of sex in the social sciences arts and humanities 1 It was in the 1970s that feminist scholars adopted the term gender as way of distinguishing socially constructed aspects of male female differences gender from biologically determined aspects sex 1 In the last two decades of the 20th century the use of gender in academia has increased greatly outnumbering uses of sex in the social sciences While the spread of the word in science publications can be attributed to the influence of feminism its use as a synonym for sex is attributed to the failure to grasp the distinction made in feminist theory and the distinction has sometimes become blurred with the theory itself David Haig stated Among the reasons that working scientists have given me for choosing gender rather than sex in biological contexts are desires to signal sympathy with feminist goals to use a more academic term or to avoid the connotation of copulation 1 In legal cases alleging discrimination a 2006 law review article by Meredith Render notes as notions of gender and sexuality have evolved over the last few decades legal theories concerning what it means to discriminate because of sex under Title VII have experienced a similar evolution 31 135 In a 1999 law review article proposing a legal definition of sex that emphasizes gender self identification Julie Greenberg writes Most legislation utilizes the word sex yet courts legislators and administrative agencies often substitute the word gender for sex when they interpret these statutes 32 270 274 In J E B v Alabama ex rel T B a 1994 United States Supreme Court case addressing whether the Equal Protection Clause forbids intentional discrimination on the basis of gender the majority opinion noted that with regard to gender It is necessary only to acknowledge that our Nation has had a long and unfortunate history of sex discrimination id at 684 93 S Ct at 1769 a history which warrants the heightened scrutiny we afford all gender based classifications today and stated When state actors exercise peremptory challenges in reliance on gender stereotypes they ratify and reinforce prejudicial views of the relative abilities of men and women 33 As a grammatical category The word was still widely used however in the specific sense of grammatical gender the assignment of nouns to categories such as masculine feminine and neuter According to Aristotle this concept was introduced by the Greek philosopher Protagoras 34 page needed In 1926 Henry Watson Fowler stated that the definition of the word pertained to this grammar related meaning Gender is a grammatical term only To talk of persons of the masculine or feminine g ender meaning of the male or female sex is either a jocularity permissible or not according to context or a blunder 35 As a social role Sexologist John Money coined the term gender role and was the first to use it in print in a scientific trade journal In a seminal 1955 paper he defined it as all those things that a person says or does to disclose himself or herself as having the status of boy or man girl or woman 36 The modern academic sense of the word in the context of social roles of men and women dates at least back to 1945 37 and was popularized and developed by the feminist movement from the 1970s onwards see Feminism theory and gender studies below which theorizes that human nature is essentially epicene and social distinctions based on sex are arbitrarily constructed In this context matters pertaining to this theoretical process of social construction were labelled matters of gender The popular use of gender simply as an alternative to sex as a biological category is also widespread although attempts are still made to preserve the distinction The American Heritage Dictionary 2000 uses the following two sentences to illustrate the difference noting that the distinction is useful in principle but it is by no means widely observed and considerable variation in usage occurs at all levels 38 The effectiveness of the medication appears to depend on the sex not gender of the patient In peasant societies gender not sex roles are likely to be more clearly defined Gender identity and gender rolesMain articles Gender identity and Gender role Gender depicted as an ambiguous phenomenon by a young Swedish actor Gender identity refers to a personal identification with a particular gender and gender role in society The term woman has historically been used interchangeably with reference to the female body though more recently this usage has been viewed as controversial by some feminists 39 There are qualitative analyses that explore and present the representations of gender however feminists challenge these dominant ideologies concerning gender roles and biological sex One s biological sex is directly tied to specific social roles and the expectations Judith Butler considers the concept of being a woman to have more challenges owing not only to society s viewing women as a social category but also as a felt sense of self a culturally conditioned or constructed subjective identity 40 Social identity refers to the common identification with a collectivity or social category that creates a common culture among participants concerned 41 According to social identity theory 42 an important component of the self concept is derived from memberships in social groups and categories this is demonstrated by group processes and how inter group relationships impact significantly on individuals self perception and behaviors The groups people belong to therefore provide members with the definition of who they are and how they should behave within their social sphere 43 A protester holding a flyer with the words Gender is like that old jumper from my cousin It was given to me and it doesn t fit at a rally for transgender equality in Washington D C in 2013 Categorizing males and females into social roles creates a problem for some individuals who feel they have to be at one end of a linear spectrum and must identify themselves as man or woman rather than being allowed to choose a section in between 44 Globally communities interpret biological differences between men and women to create a set of social expectations that define the behaviors that are appropriate for men and women and determine their different access to rights resources power in society and health behaviors 45 Although the specific nature and degree of these differences vary from one society to the next they still tend to typically favor men creating an imbalance in power and gender inequalities within most societies 46 Many cultures have different systems of norms and beliefs based on gender but there is no universal standard to a masculine or feminine role across all cultures 47 Social roles of men and women in relation to each other is based on the cultural norms of that society which lead to the creation of gender systems The gender system is the basis of social patterns in many societies which include the separation of sexes and the primacy of masculine norms 46 Philosopher Michel Foucault said that as sexual subjects humans are the object of power which is not an institution or structure rather it is a signifier or name attributed to complex strategical situation 48 Because of this power is what determines individual attributes behaviors etc and people are a part of an ontologically and epistemologically constructed set of names and labels For example being female characterizes one as a woman and being a woman signifies one as weak emotional and irrational and incapable of actions attributed to a man Butler said that gender and sex are more like verbs than nouns She reasoned that her actions are limited because she is female I am not permitted to construct my gender and sex willy nilly she said 40 This is so because gender is politically and therefore socially controlled Rather than woman being something one is it is something one does 40 More recent criticisms of Judith Butler s theories critique her writing for reinforcing the very conventional dichotomies of gender 49 Social assignment and gender fluidity See also Sex assignment and Gender fluidity According to gender theorist Kate Bornstein gender can have ambiguity and fluidity 50 There are two 51 52 contrasting ideas regarding the definition of gender and the intersection of both of them is definable as below The World Health Organization defines gender as the characteristics of women men girls and boys that are socially constructed 53 The beliefs values and attitude taken up and exhibited by them is as per the agreeable norms of the society and the personal opinions of the person is not taken into the primary consideration of assignment of gender and imposition of gender roles as per the assigned gender 2 The assignment of gender involves taking into account the physiological and biological attributes assigned by nature followed by the imposition of the socially constructed conduct Gender is a term used to exemplify the attributes that a society or culture constitutes as masculine or feminine Although a person s sex as male or female stands as a biological fact that is identical in any culture what that specific sex means in reference to a person s gender role as a man or a woman in society varies cross culturally according to what things are considered to be masculine or feminine 54 These roles are learned from various intersecting sources such as parental influences the socialization a child receives in school and what is portrayed in the local media Learning gender roles starts from birth and includes seemingly simple things like what color outfits a baby is clothed in or what toys they are given to play with However a person s gender does not always align with what has been assigned at birth Factors other than learned behaviors play a role in the development of gender 55 Social categories This article needs additional citations for verification Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources Unsourced material may be challenged and removed Find sources Gender news newspapers books scholar JSTOR June 2021 Learn how and when to remove this template message Mary Frith Moll Cutpurse scandalized 17th century society by wearing male clothing smoking in public and otherwise defying gender roles Sexologist John Money coined the term gender role in 1955 The term gender role is defined as the actions or responses that may reveal their status as boy man girl or woman respectively 56 Elements surrounding gender roles include clothing speech patterns movement occupations and other factors not limited to biological sex In contrast to taxonomic approaches some feminist philosophers have argued that gender is a vast orchestration of subtle mediations between oneself and others rather than a private cause behind manifest behaviours 57 Non binary and third genders Main articles Genderqueer and Third gender Historically most societies have recognized only two distinct broad classes of gender roles a binary of masculine and feminine largely corresponding to the biological sexes of male and female 8 58 59 When a baby is born society allocates the child to one gender or the other on the basis of what their genitals resemble 54 However some societies have historically acknowledged and even honored people who fulfill a gender role that exists more in the middle of the continuum between the feminine and masculine polarity For example the Hawaiian mahu who occupy a place in the middle between male and female 60 61 or the Ojibwe ikwekaazo men who choose to function as women 62 or ininiikaazo women who function as men 62 In the language of the sociology of gender some of these people may be considered third gender especially by those in gender studies or anthropology Contemporary Native American and FNIM people who fulfill these traditional roles in their communities may also participate in the modern two spirit community 63 however these umbrella terms neologisms and ways of viewing gender are not necessarily the type of cultural constructs that more traditional members of these communities agree with 64 The hijras of India and Pakistan are often cited as third gender 65 66 Another example may be the muxe pronounced ˈmuʃe found in the state of Oaxaca in southern Mexico 67 The Bugis people of Sulawesi Indonesia have a tradition that incorporates all the features above 68 In addition to these traditionally recognized third genders many cultures now recognize to differing degrees various non binary gender identities People who are non binary or genderqueer have gender identities that are not exclusively masculine or feminine They may identify as having an overlap of gender identities having two or more genders having no gender having a fluctuating gender identity or being third gender or other gendered Recognition of non binary genders is still somewhat new to mainstream Western culture 69 and non binary people may face increased risk of assault harassment and discrimination 70 Measurement of gender identity This section needs additional citations for verification Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources Unsourced material may be challenged and removed July 2021 Learn how and when to remove this template message Two instruments incorporating the multidimensional nature of masculinity and femininity have dominated gender identity research The Bem Sex Role Inventory BSRI and the Personal Attributes Questionnaire PAQ Both instruments categorize individuals as either being sex typed males report themselves as identifying primarily with masculine traits females report themselves as identifying primarily with feminine traits cross sex typed males report themselves as identifying primarily with feminine traits females report themselves as identifying primarily with masculine traits androgynous either males or females who report themselves as high on both masculine and feminine traits or undifferentiated either males or females who report themselves as low on both masculine and feminine traits 71 Twenge 1997 noted that men are generally more masculine than women and women generally more feminine than men but the association between biological sex and masculinity femininity is waning 72 Feminist theory and gender studies Biologist and feminist academic Anne Fausto Sterling rejects the discourse of biological versus social determinism and advocates a deeper analysis of how interactions between the biological being and the social environment influence individuals capacities 73 The philosopher and feminist Simone de Beauvoir applied existentialism to women s experience of life One is not born a woman one becomes one 74 In context this is a philosophical statement However it may be analyzed in terms of biology a girl must pass puberty to become a woman and sociology as a great deal of mature relating in social contexts is learned rather than instinctive 75 Within feminist theory terminology for gender issues developed over the 1970s In the 1974 edition of Masculine Feminine or Human the author uses innate gender and learned sex roles 76 but in the 1978 edition the use of sex and gender is reversed 77 By 1980 most feminist writings had agreed on using gender only for socioculturally adapted traits In gender studies the term gender refers to proposed social and cultural constructions of masculinities and femininities In this context gender explicitly excludes reference to biological differences to focus on cultural differences 78 This emerged from a number of different areas in sociology during the 1950s from the theories of the psychoanalyst Jacques Lacan and in the work of French psychoanalysts like Julia Kristeva Luce Irigaray and American feminists such as Judith Butler Those who followed Butler came to regard gender roles as a practice sometimes referred to as performative 79 Charles E Hurst states that some people think sex will automatically determine one s gender demeanor and role social as well as one s sexual orientation sexual attractions and behavior 80 Gender sociologists believe that people have cultural origins and habits for dealing with gender For example Michael Schwalbe believes that humans must be taught how to act appropriately in their designated gender to fill the role properly and that the way people behave as masculine or feminine interacts with social expectations Schwalbe comments that humans are the results of many people embracing and acting on similar ideas 81 People do this through everything from clothing and hairstyle to relationship and employment choices Schwalbe believes that these distinctions are important because society wants to identify and categorize people as soon as we see them They need to place people into distinct categories to know how we should feel about them Hurst comments that in a society where we present our genders so distinctly there can often be severe consequences for breaking these cultural norms Many of these consequences are rooted in discrimination based on sexual orientation Gays and lesbians are often discriminated against in our legal system because of societal prejudices 82 83 84 Hurst describes how this discrimination works against people for breaking gender norms no matter what their sexual orientation is He says that courts often confuse sex gender and sexual orientation and confuse them in a way that results in denying the rights not only of gays and lesbians but also of those who do not present themselves or act in a manner traditionally expected of their sex 80 This prejudice plays out in our legal system when a person is judged differently because they do not present themselves as the correct gender Andrea Dworkin stated her commitment to destroying male dominance and gender itself while stating her belief in radical feminism 85 Political scientist Mary Hawkesworth addresses gender and feminist theory stating that since the 1970s the concept of gender has transformed and been used in significantly different ways within feminist scholarship She notes that a transition occurred when several feminist scholars such as Sandra Harding and Joan Scott began to conceive of gender as an analytic category within which humans think about and organize their social activity Feminist scholars in Political Science began employing gender as an analytical category which highlighted social and political relations neglected by mainstream accounts However Hawkesworth states feminist political science has not become a dominant paradigm within the discipline 86 American political scientist Karen Beckwith addresses the concept of gender within political science arguing that a common language of gender exists and that it must be explicitly articulated in order to build upon it within the political science discipline Beckwith describes two ways in which the political scientist may employ gender when conducting empirical research gender as a category and as a process Employing gender as a category allows for political scientists to delineate specific contexts where behaviours actions attitudes and preferences considered masculine or feminine result in particular political outcomes It may also demonstrate how gender differences not necessarily corresponding precisely with sex may constrain or facilitate political actors Gender as a process has two central manifestations in political science research firstly in determining the differential effects of structures and policies upon men and women and secondly the ways in which masculine and feminine political actors actively work to produce favorable gendered outcomes 87 With regard to gender studies Jacquetta Newman states that although sex is determined biologically the ways in which people express gender is not Gendering is a socially constructed process based on culture though often cultural expectations around women and men have a direct relationship to their biology Because of this Newman argues many privilege sex as being a cause of oppression and ignore other issues like race ability poverty etc Current gender studies classes seek to move away from that and examine the intersectionality of these factors in determining people s lives She also points out that other non Western cultures do not necessarily have the same views of gender and gender roles 88 Newman also debates the meaning of equality which is often considered the goal of feminism she believes that equality is a problematic term because it can mean many different things such as people being treated identically differently or fairly based on their gender Newman believes this is problematic because there is no unified definition as to what equality means or looks like and that this can be significantly important in areas like public policy 89 Social construction of sex hypotheses See also Sex and gender distinction Rosie the Riveter was an iconic symbol of the American homefront in WWII and a departure from restrictive feminine gender roles due to wartime necessity The World Health Organization states that Gender refers to the characteristics of women men girls and boys that are socially constructed Sociologists generally regard gender as a social construct and various researchers including many feminists consider sex to only be a matter of biology and something that is not about social or cultural construction For instance sexologist John Money suggests the distinction between biological sex and gender as a role 56 Moreover Ann Oakley a professor of sociology and social policy says the constancy of sex must be admitted but so also must the variability of gender 90 Thus sex is regarded as a category studied in biology natural sciences while gender is studied in humanities and social sciences Lynda Birke a feminist biologist maintains biology is not seen as something which might change 91 Therefore it is stated that sex is something that does not change while gender can change according to social structure However there are scholars who argue that sex is also socially constructed For example gender studies writer Judith Butler states that perhaps this construct called sex is as culturally constructed as gender indeed perhaps it was always already gender with the consequence that the distinction between sex and gender turns out to be no distinction at all 92 She continues It would make no sense then to define gender as the cultural interpretation of sex if sex is itself a gender centered category Gender should not be conceived merely as the cultural inscription of meaning based on a given sex a juridical conception gender must also designate the very apparatus of production whereby the sexes themselves are established This production of sex as the pre discursive should be understood as the effect of the apparatus of cultural construction designated by gender 93 Butler argues that bodies only appear only endure only live within the productive constraints of certain highly gendered regulatory schemas 94 and sex is no longer as a bodily given on which the construct of gender is artificially imposed but as a cultural norm which governs the materialization of bodies 95 With regard to history Linda Nicholson a professor of history and women s studies argues that the understanding of human bodies as sexually dimorphic was historically not recognised She states that male and female genitals were considered inherently the same in Western society until the 18th century At that time female genitals were regarded as incomplete male genitals and the difference between the two was conceived as a matter of degree In other words there was a belief in a gradation of physical forms or a spectrum 96 Scholars such as Helen King Joan Cadden and Michael Stolberg have criticized this interpretation of history 97 Cadden notes that the one sex model was disputed even in ancient and medieval medicine 98 and Stolberg points out that already in the sixteenth century medicine had begun to move towards a two sex model 99 In addition drawing from the empirical research of intersex children Anne Fausto Sterling a professor of biology and gender studies describes how the doctors address the issues of intersexuality She starts her argument with an example of the birth of an intersexual individual and maintains our conceptions of the nature of gender difference shape even as they reflect the ways we structure our social system and polity they also shape and reflect our understanding of our physical bodies 100 Then she adds how gender assumptions affects the scientific study of sex by presenting the research of intersexuals by John Money et al and she concludes that they never questioned the fundamental assumption that there are only two sexes because their goal in studying intersexuals was to find out more about normal development 101 She also mentions the language the doctors use when they talk with the parents of the intersexuals After describing how the doctors inform parents about the intersexuality she asserts that because the doctors believe that the intersexuals are actually male or female they tell the parents of the intersexuals that it will take a little bit more time for the doctors to determine whether the infant is a boy or a girl That is to say the doctors behavior is formulated by the cultural gender assumption that there are only two sexes Lastly she maintains that the differences in the ways in which the medical professionals in different regions treat intersexual people also give us a good example of how sex is socially constructed 102 In her Sexing the body gender politics and the construction of sexuality she introduces the following example A group of physicians from Saudi Arabia recently reported on several cases of XX intersex children with congenital adrenal hyperplasia CAH a genetically inherited malfunction of the enzymes that aid in making steroid hormones In the United States and Europe such children because they have the potential to bear children later in life are usually raised as girls Saudi doctors trained in this European tradition recommended such a course of action to the Saudi parents of CAH XX children A number of parents however refused to accept the recommendation that their child initially identified as a son be raised instead as a daughter Nor would they accept feminizing surgery for their child This was essentially an expression of local community attitudes with the preference for male offspring 103 Thus it is evident that culture can play a part in assigning gender particularly in relation to intersex children 102 The article Adolescent Gender Role Identity and Mental Health Gender Intensification Revisited focuses on the work of Heather A Priess Sara M Lindberg and Janet Shibley Hyde on whether or not girls and boys diverge in their gender identities during adolescent years The researchers based their work on ideas previously mentioned by Hill and Lynch in their gender intensification hypothesis in that signals and messages from parents determine and affect their children s gender role identities This hypothesis argues that parents affect their children s gender role identities and that different interactions spent with either parents will affect gender intensification Priess and among other s study did not support the hypothesis of Hill and Lynch which stated that as adolescents experience these and other socializing influences they will become more stereotypical in their gender role identities and gendered attitudes and behaviors 104 However the researchers did state that perhaps the hypothesis Hill and Lynch proposed was true in the past but is not true now due to changes in the population of teens in respect to their gender role identities Authors of Unpacking the Gender System A Theoretical Perspective on Gender Beliefs and Social Relations Cecilia Ridgeway and Shelley Correll argue that gender is more than an identity or role but is something that is institutionalized through social relational contexts Ridgeway and Correll define social relational contexts as any situation in which individuals define themselves in relation to others in order to act 105 They also point out that in addition to social relational contexts cultural beliefs plays a role in the gender system The coauthors argue that daily people are forced to acknowledge and interact with others in ways that are related to gender Every day individuals are interacting with each other and comply with society s set standard of hegemonic beliefs which includes gender roles They state that society s hegemonic cultural beliefs sets the rules which in turn create the setting for which social relational contexts are to take place Ridgeway and Correll then shift their topic towards sex categorization The authors define sex categorization as the sociocognitive process by which we label another as male or female 105 The failure of an attempt to raise David Reimer from infancy through adolescence as a girl after his genitals were accidentally mutilated is cited as disproving the theory that gender identity is determined solely by parenting 106 107 Reimer s case is used by organizations such as the Intersex Society of North America to caution against needlessly modifying the genitals of unconsenting minors 108 109 Between the 1960s and 2000 many other male newborns and infants were surgically and socially reassigned as females if they were born with malformed penises or if they lost their penises in accidents At the time surgical reconstruction of the vagina was more advanced than reconstruction of the penis leading many doctors and psychologists including John Money who oversaw Reimer s case to recommend sex reassignment based on the idea that these patients would be happiest living as women with functioning genitalia 110 Available evidence indicates that in such instances parents were deeply committed to raising these children as girls and in as gender typical a manner as possible 110 72 73 A 2005 review of these cases found that about half of natal males reassigned female lived as women in adulthood including those who knew their medical history suggesting that gender assignment and related social factors has a major though not determinative influence on eventual gender identity 109 In 2015 the American Academy of Pediatrics released a webinar series on gender gender identity gender expression transgender etc 111 112 In the first lecture Dr Sherer explains that parents influence through punishment and reward of behavior can influence gender expression but not gender identity 113 She cites a Smithsonian article that shows a photo of a 3 year old President Franklin D Roosevelt with long hair wearing a dress 114 115 Children as old as 6 wore gender neutral clothing consisting of white dresses until the 1940s 114 In 1927 Time magazine printed a chart showing sex appropriate colors which consisted of pink for boys and blue for girls 114 Dr Sherer argued that kids will modify their gender expression to seek reward from their parents and society but this will not affect their gender identity their internal sense of self 116 Biological factors and viewsSee also Sexual differentiation and Sexual differentiation in humans Some gendered behavior is influenced by prenatal and early life androgen exposure This includes for example gender normative play self identification with a gender and tendency to engage in aggressive behavior 117 Males of most mammals including humans exhibit more rough and tumble play behavior which is influenced by maternal testosterone levels These levels may also influence sexuality with non heterosexual persons exhibiting sex atypical behavior in childhood 118 The biology of gender became the subject of an expanding number of studies over the course of the late 20th century One of the earliest areas of interest was what became known as gender identity disorder GID and which is now also described as gender dysphoria Studies in this and related areas inform the following summary of the subject by John Money He stated The term gender role appeared in print first in 1955 The term gender identity was used in a press release 21 November 1966 to announce the new clinic for transsexuals at The Johns Hopkins Hospital It was disseminated in the media worldwide and soon entered the vernacular The definitions of gender and gender identity vary on a doctrinal basis In popularized and scientifically debased usage sex is what you are biologically gender is what you become socially gender identity is your own sense or conviction of maleness or femaleness and gender role is the cultural stereotype of what is masculine and feminine Causality with respect to gender identity disorder is sub divisible into genetic prenatal hormonal postnatal social and post pubertal hormonal determinants but there is as yet no comprehensive and detailed theory of causality Gender coding in the brain is bipolar In gender identity disorder there is discordance between the natal sex of one s external genitalia and the brain coding of one s gender as masculine or feminine 119 Although causation from the biological genetic and hormonal to the behavioral has been broadly demonstrated and accepted Money is careful to also note that understanding of the causal chains from biology to behavior in sex and gender issues is very far from complete 120 There are studies concerning women who have a condition called congenital adrenal hyperplasia which leads to the overproduction of the masculine sex hormone androgen These women usually have ordinary female appearances though nearly all girls with congenital adrenal hyperplasia CAH have corrective surgery performed on their genitals However despite taking hormone balancing medication given to them at birth these females are statistically more likely to be interested in activities traditionally linked to males than female activities Psychology professor and CAH researcher Dr Sheri Berenbaum attributes these differences to an exposure of higher levels of male sex hormones in utero 121 Non human animals According to biologist Michael J Ryan gender identity is a concept exclusively applied to humans 122 Also in a letter Ellen Ketterson writes w hen asked my colleagues in the Department of Gender Studies agreed that the term gender could be properly applied only to humans because it involves one s self concept as man or woman Sex is a biological concept gender is a human social and cultural concept 123 However Poiani 2010 notes that the question of whether behavioural similarities across species can be associated with gender identity or not is an issue of no easy resolution 124 and suggests that mental states such as gender identity are more accessible in humans than other species due to their capacity for language 125 Polani suggests that the potential number of species with members possessing a gender identity must be limited due to the requirement for self consciousness 126 Jacques Balthazart suggests that there is no animal model for studying sexual identity It is impossible to ask an animal whatever its species to what sex it belongs 127 He notes that this would imply that the animal is aware of its own body and sex which is far from proved despite recent research demonstrating sophisticated cognitive skills among non human primates and other species 128 Hird 2006 has also stated that whether or not non human animals consider themselves to be feminine or masculine is a difficult if not impossible question to answer as this would require judgements about what constitutes femininity or masculinity in any given species Nonetheless she asserts that non human animals do experience femininity and masculinity to the extent that any given species behaviour is gender segregated 129 Despite this Poiani and Dixson emphasise the applicability of the concept of gender role to non human animals 124 such as rodents 130 throughout their book 131 The concept of gender role has also been applied to non human primates such as rhesus monkeys 132 133 Gender studiesMain article Gender studies Gender studies is a field of interdisciplinary study and academic field devoted to gender gender identity and gendered representation as central categories of analysis This field includes Women s studies concerning women feminity their gender roles and politics and feminism Men s studies concerning men masculinity their gender roles and politics and LGBT studies 134 Sometimes Gender studies is offered together with Study of Sexuality These disciplines study gender and sexuality in the fields of literature and language history political science sociology anthropology cinema and media studies human development law and medicine 135 It also analyses race ethnicity location nationality and disability 136 137 Psychology and sociologySee also Sex and psychology Many of the more complicated human behaviors are influenced by both innate factors and by environmental ones which include everything from genes gene expression and body chemistry through diet and social pressures A large area of research in behavioral psychology collates evidence in an effort to discover correlations between behavior and various possible antecedents such as genetics gene regulation access to food and vitamins culture gender hormones physical and social development and physical and social environments 138 A core research area within sociology is the way human behavior operates on itself in other words how the behavior of one group or individual influences the behavior of other groups or individuals Starting in the late 20th century the feminist movement has contributed extensive study of gender and theories about it notably within sociology but not restricted to it 139 Spain s desperate situation when invaded by Napoleon enabled Agustina de Aragon to break into a closely guarded male preserve and become the only female professional officer in the Spanish Army of her time and long afterwards Social theorists have sought to determine the specific nature of gender in relation to biological sex and sexuality 140 141 with the result being that culturally established gender and sex have become interchangeable identifications that signify the allocation of a specific biological sex within a categorical gender 141 The second wave feminist view that gender is socially constructed and hegemonic in all societies remains current in some literary theoretical circles Kira Hall and Mary Bucholtz publishing new perspectives as recently as 2008 142 As the child grows society provides a string of prescriptions templates or models of behaviors appropriate to the one sex or the other 143 which socialises the child into belonging to a culturally specific gender 144 There is huge incentive for a child to concede to their socialisation with gender shaping the individual s opportunities for education work family sexuality reproduction authority 145 and to make an impact on the production of culture and knowledge 146 Adults who do not perform these ascribed roles are perceived from this perspective as deviant and improperly socialized 147 Some believe society is constructed in a way that splits gender into a dichotomy via social organisations that constantly invent and reproduce cultural images of gender Joan Acker believed gendering occurs in at least five different interacting social processes 148 The construction of divisions along the lines of gender such as those produced by labor power family the state even allowed behaviors and locations in physical space The construction of symbols and images such as language ideology dress and the media that explain express and reinforce or sometimes oppose those divisions Interactions between men and women women and women and men and men that involve any form of dominance and submission Conversational theorists for example have studied the way that interruptions turn taking and the setting of topics re create gender inequality in the flow of ordinary talk The way that the preceding three processes help to produce gendered components of individual identity i e the way they create and maintain an image of a gendered self Gender is implicated in the fundamental ongoing processes of creating and conceptualising social structures Looking at gender through a Foucauldian lens gender is transfigured into a vehicle for the social division of power Gender difference is merely a construct of society used to enforce the distinctions made between what is assumed to be female and male and allow for the domination of masculinity over femininity through the attribution of specific gender related characteristics 149 The idea that men and women are more different from one another than either is from anything else must come from something other than nature far from being an expression of natural differences exclusive gender identity is the suppression of natural similarities 150 Gender conventions play a large role in attributing masculine and feminine characteristics to a fundamental biological sex 151 Socio cultural codes and conventions the rules by which society functions and which are both a creation of society as well as a constituting element of it determine the allocation of these specific traits to the sexes These traits provide the foundations for the creation of hegemonic gender difference It follows then that gender can be assumed as the acquisition and internalisation of social norms Individuals are therefore socialized through their receipt of society s expectations of acceptable gender attributes that are flaunted within institutions such as the family the state and the media Such a notion of gender then becomes naturalized into a person s sense of self or identity effectively imposing a gendered social category upon a sexed body 150 The conception that people are gendered rather than sexed also coincides with Judith Butler s theories of gender performativity Butler argues that gender is not an expression of what one is but rather something that one does 152 It follows then that if gender is acted out in a repetitive manner it is in fact re creating and effectively embedding itself within the social consciousness Contemporary sociological reference to male and female gender roles typically uses masculinities and femininities in the plural rather than singular suggesting diversity both within cultures as well as across them The difference between the sociological and popular definitions of gender involve a different dichotomy and focus For example the sociological approach to gender social roles female versus male focuses on the difference in economic power position between a male CEO disregarding the fact that he is heterosexual or homosexual to female workers in his employ disregarding whether they are straight or gay However the popular sexual self conception approach self conception gay versus straight focuses on the different self conceptions and social conceptions of those who are gay straight in comparison with those who are straight disregarding what might be vastly differing economic and power positions between female and male groups in each category There is then in relation to definition of and approaches to gender a tension between historic feminist sociology and contemporary homosexual sociology 153 Legal statusThis section needs additional citations for verification Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources Unsourced material may be challenged and removed June 2019 Learn how and when to remove this template message A person s sex as male or female has legal significance sex is indicated on government documents and laws provide differently for men and women Many pension systems have different retirement ages for men or women Marriage is usually only available to opposite sex couples in some countries and jurisdictions there are same sex marriage laws The question then arises as to what legally determines whether someone is female or male In most cases this can appear obvious but the matter is complicated for intersex or transgender people Different jurisdictions have adopted different answers to this question Almost all countries permit changes of legal gender status in cases of intersexualism when the gender assignment made at birth is determined upon further investigation to be biologically inaccurate technically however this is not a change of status per se Rather it is recognition of a status deemed to exist but unknown from birth Increasingly jurisdictions also provide a procedure for changes of legal gender for transgender people Gender assignment when there are indications that genital sex might not be decisive in a particular case is normally not defined by a single definition but by a combination of conditions including chromosomes and gonads Thus for example in many jurisdictions a person with XY chromosomes but female gonads could be recognized as female at birth Transgender people Main article Legal status of transgender people The ability to change legal gender for transgender people in particular has given rise to the phenomena in some jurisdictions of the same person having different genders for the purposes of different areas of the law For example in Australia prior to the Re Kevin decisions transsexual people could be recognized as having the genders they identified with under many areas of the law including social security law but not for the law of marriage Thus for a period it was possible for the same person to have two different genders under Australian law It is also possible in federal systems for the same person to have one gender under state or provincial law and a different gender under federal law Intersex people Main article Legal recognition of intersex people For intersex people who according to the UN Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights do not fit typical binary notions of male or female bodies 154 access to any form of identification document with a gender marker may be an issue 155 For other intersex people there may be issues in securing the same rights as other individuals assigned male or female other intersex people may seek non binary gender recognition 156 Non binary and third genders Main article Legal recognition of non binary gender Some countries now legally recognize non binary or third genders including Canada Germany 157 Australia New Zealand India and Pakistan In the United States Oregon was the first state to legally recognize non binary gender in 2017 158 and was followed by California and the District of Columbia 159 160 Gender and societyLanguages This section needs additional citations for verification Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources Unsourced material may be challenged and removed Find sources Gender news newspapers books scholar JSTOR July 2021 Learn how and when to remove this template message Grammatical gender is a property of some languages in which every noun is assigned a gender often with no direct relation to its meaning For example the word for girl is muchacha grammatically feminine in Spanish 157 Madchen grammatically neuter in German 157 and cailin grammatically masculine in Irish The term grammatical gender is often applied to more complex noun class systems This is especially true when a noun class system includes masculine and feminine as well as some other non gender features like animate edible manufactured and so forth An example of the latter is found in the Dyirbal language Other gender systems exist with no distinction between masculine and feminine examples include a distinction between animate and inanimate things which is common to amongst others Ojibwe Basque and Hittite and systems distinguishing between people whether human or divine and everything else which are found in the Dravidian languages and Sumerian A sample of the World Atlas of Language Structures by Greville G Corbett found that fewer than half of the 258 languages sampled have any system of grammatical gender 161 Of the remaining languages that feature grammatical gender over half have more than the minimum requirement of two genders 161 Grammatical gender may be based on biological sex which is the most common basis for grammatical gender animacy or other features and may be based on a combination of these classes 162 One of the four genders of the Dyirbal language consists mainly of fruit and vegetables 163 Languages of the Niger Congo language family can have as many as twenty genders including plants places and shapes 164 Many languages include terms that are used asymmetrically in reference to men and women Concern that current language may be biased in favor of men has led some authors in recent times to argue for the use of a more gender neutral vocabulary in English and other languages Several languages attest the use of different vocabulary by men and women to differing degrees See for instance Gender differences in Japanese The oldest documented language Sumerian records a distinctive sub language only used by female speakers Conversely many Indigenous Australian languages have distinctive registers with a limited lexicon used by men in the presence of their mothers in law see Avoidance speech As well quite a few sign languages have a gendered distinction due to boarding schools segregated by gender such as Irish Sign Language Several languages such as Persian 157 or Hungarian are gender neutral In Persian the same word is used in reference to men and women Verbs adjectives and nouns are not gendered See Gender neutrality in genderless languages Several languages employ different ways to refer to people where there are three or more genders such as Navajo or Ojibwe Science Historically science has been portrayed as a masculine pursuit in which women have faced significant barriers to participate 165 Even after universities began admitting women in the 19th century women were still largely relegated to certain scientific fields such as home science nursing and child psychology 166 Women were also typically given tedious low paying jobs and denied opportunities for career advancement 166 This was often justified by the stereotype that women were naturally more suited to jobs that required concentration patience and dexterity rather than creativity leadership or intellect 166 Although these stereotypes have been dispelled in modern times women are still underrepresented in prestigious hard science fields such as physics and are less likely to hold high ranking positions 167 a situation global initiatives such as the United Nations Sustainable Development Goal 5 are trying to rectify 168 See also Women in science Religion Further information Gender and religion This section needs additional citations for verification Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources Unsourced material may be challenged and removed June 2019 Learn how and when to remove this template message This topic includes internal and external religious issues such as gender of God and deities creation myths about human gender roles and rights for instance leadership roles especially ordination of women sex segregation gender equality marriage abortion homosexuality According to Kati Niemela of the Church Research Institute women are universally more religious than men They believe that the difference in religiosity between genders is due to biological differences for instance usually people seeking security in life are more religious and as men are considered to be greater risk takers than women they are less religious Although religious fanaticism is more often seen in men than women 169 Yin and yang In Taoism yin and yang are considered feminine and masculine respectively The Taijitu and concept of the Zhou period reach into family and gender relations Yin is female and yang is male They fit together as two parts of a whole The male principle was equated with the sun active bright and shining the female principle corresponds to the moon passive shaded and reflective Male toughness was balanced by female gentleness male action and initiative by female endurance and need for completion and male leadership by female supportiveness 170 In Judaism God is traditionally described in the masculine but in the mystical tradition of the Kabbalah the Shekhinah represents the feminine aspect of God s essence 171 However Judaism traditionally holds that God is completely non corporeal and thus neither male nor female Conceptions of the gender of God notwithstanding traditional Judaism places a strong emphasis on individuals following Judaism s traditional gender roles though many modern denominations of Judaism strive for greater egalitarianism As well traditional Jewish culture dictates that there are six genders In Christianity God is traditionally described in masculine terms and the Church has historically been described in feminine terms On the other hand Christian theology in many churches distinguishes between the masculine images used of God Father King God the Son and the reality they signify which transcends gender embodies all the virtues of both men and women perfectly which may be seen through the doctrine of Imago Dei In the New Testament Jesus at several times mentions the Holy Spirit with the masculine pronoun i e John 15 26 among other verses Hence the Father the Son and the Holy Spirit i e Trinity are all mentioned with the masculine pronoun though the exact meaning of the masculinity of the Christian triune God is contended In Hinduism one of the several forms of the Hindu God Shiva is Ardhanarishwar literally half female God Here Shiva manifests himself so that the left half is Female and the right half is Male The left represents Shakti energy power in the form of Goddess Parvati otherwise his consort and the right half Shiva Whereas Parvati is the cause of arousal of Kama desires Shiva is the killer Shiva is pervaded by the power of Parvati and Parvati is pervaded by the power of Shiva 172 While the stone images may seem to represent a half male and half female God the true symbolic representation is of a being the whole of which is Shiva and the whole of which is Shakti at the same time It is a 3 D representation of only shakti from one angle and only Shiva from the other Shiva and Shakti are hence the same being representing a collective of Jnana knowledge and Kriya activity Adi Shankaracharya the founder of non dualistic philosophy Advaita not two in Hindu thought says in his Saundaryalahari Shivah Shaktayaa yukto yadi bhavati shaktah prabhavitum na che devum devona khalu kushalah spanditam api i e It is only when Shiva is united with Shakti that He acquires the capability of becoming the Lord of the Universe In the absence of Shakti He is not even able to stir In fact the term Shiva originated from Shva which implies a dead body It is only through his inherent shakti that Shiva realizes his true nature This mythology projects the inherent view in ancient Hinduism that each human carries within himself both female and male components which are forces rather than sexes and it is the harmony between the creative and the annihilative the strong and the soft the proactive and the passive that makes a true person Such thought leave alone entail gender equality in fact obliterates any material distinction between the male and female altogether This may explain why in ancient India we find evidence of homosexuality bisexuality androgyny multiple sex partners and open representation of sexual pleasures in artworks like the Khajuraho temples being accepted within prevalent social frameworks 173 Poverty Main article Feminization of poverty Gender inequality is most common in women dealing with poverty Many women must shoulder all the responsibility of the household because they must take care of the family Oftentimes this may include tasks such as tilling land grinding grain carrying water and cooking 174 Also women are more likely to earn low incomes because of gender discrimination as men are more likely to receive higher pay have more opportunities and have overall more political and social capital then women 175 Approximately 75 of world s women are unable to obtain bank loans because they have unstable jobs 174 It shows that there are many women in the world s population but only a few represent world s wealth In many countries the financial sector largely neglects women even though they play an important role in the economy as Nena Stoiljkovic pointed out in D C Development and Cooperation 176 In 1978 Diana M Pearce coined the term feminization of poverty to describe the problem of women having higher rates of poverty 177 Women are more vulnerable to chronic poverty because of gender inequalities in the distribution of income property ownership credit and control over earned income 178 Resource allocation is typically gender biased within households and continue on a higher level regarding state institutions 178 A bar graph comparing poverty differences based on age and gender in 2012 Gender and Development GAD is a holistic approach to give aid to countries where gender inequality has a great effect of not improving the social and economic development It is a program focused on the gender development of women to empower them and decrease the level of inequality between men and women 179 The largest discrimination study of the transgender community conducted in 2013 found that the transgender community is four times more likely to live in extreme poverty income of less than 10 000 a year than people who are cisgender 180 181 General strain theory According to general strain theory studies suggest that gender differences between individuals can lead to externalized anger that may result in violent outbursts 182 These violent actions related to gender inequality can be measured by comparing violent neighborhoods to non violent neighborhoods 182 By noticing the independent variables neighborhood violence and the dependent variable individual violence it s possible to analyze gender roles 183 The strain in the general strain theory is the removal of a positive stimulus and or the introduction of a negative stimulus which would create a negative effect strain within individual which is either inner directed depression guilt or outer directed anger frustration which depends on whether the individual blames themselves or their environment 184 Studies reveal that even though males and females are equally likely to react to a strain with anger the origin of the anger and their means of coping with it can vary drastically 184 Males are likely to put the blame on others for adversity and therefore externalize feelings of anger 182 Females typically internalize their angers and tend to blame themselves instead 182 Female internalized anger is accompanied by feelings of guilt fear anxiety and depression 183 Women view anger as a sign that they ve somehow lost control and thus worry that this anger may lead them to harm others and or damage relationships On the other end of the spectrum men are less concerned with damaging relationships and more focused on using anger as a means of affirming their masculinity 183 According to the general strain theory men would more likely engage in aggressive behavior directed towards others due to externalized anger whereas women would direct their anger towards themselves rather than others 184 Economic development Gender and particularly the role of women is widely recognized as vitally important to international development issues 185 This often means a focus on gender equality ensuring participation but includes an understanding of the different roles and expectation of the genders within the community 186 Climate change Main article Climate change and gender Gender is a topic of increasing concern within climate change policy and science 187 Generally gender approaches to climate change address gender differentiated consequences of climate change as well as unequal adaptation capacities and gendered contribution to climate change Furthermore the intersection of climate change and gender raises questions regarding the complex and intersecting power relations arising from it These differences however are mostly not due to biological or physical differences but are formed by the social institutional and legal context Subsequently vulnerability is less an intrinsic feature of women and girls but rather a product of their marginalization 188 Roehr 189 notes that while the United Nations officially committed to gender mainstreaming in practice gender equality is not reached in the context of climate change policies This is reflected in the fact that discourses of and negotiations over climate change are mostly dominated by men 190 191 192 Some feminist scholars hold that the debate on climate change is not only dominated by men but also primarily shaped in masculine principles which limits discussions about climate change to a perspective that focuses on technical solutions 191 This perception of climate change hides subjectivity and power relations that actually condition climate change policy and science leading to a phenomenon that Tuana 191 terms epistemic injustice Similarly MacGregor 190 attests that by framing climate change as an issue of hard natural scientific conduct and natural security it is kept within the traditional domains of hegemonic masculinity 190 192 Social media Gender roles and stereotypes have slowly started to change in society within the past few decades These changes occur mostly in communication but more specifically during social interactions 193 The ways in which people communicate and socialize have also started to change due to advancements in technology 115 One of the biggest reasons for this change is the growth of social media Over the past few years the use of social media globally has started to rise 116 This rise can be attributed to the abundance of technology available for use among youth Recent studies suggest that men and women value and use technology differently 115 116 194 Forbes published an article in 2010 that reported 57 of Facebook users are women which was attributed to the fact that women are more active on social media On average women have 8 more friends and account for 62 of posts that are shared via Facebook 195 Another study in 2010 found that in most Western cultures women spend more time sending text messages compared to men as well as spending more time on social networking sites as a way to communicate with friends and family 196 Hayat Lesser and Samuel Azran 2017 have further shown that while men write more posts in social networking sites women commented on other people s posts more often They further showed that women s posts enjoyed higher popularity than men s posts Social media is more than just the communication of words With social media increasing in popularity pictures have come to play a large role in how many people communicate Research conducted in 2013 found that over 57 of pictures posted on social networking sites were sexual and were created to gain attention 197 Moreover 58 of women and 45 of men don t look into the camera which creates an illusion of withdrawal 197 Other factors to be considered are the poses in pictures such as women lying down in subordinate positions or even touching themselves in childlike ways 197 Research has found that images shared online through social networking sites help establish personal self reflections that individuals want to share with the world 197 According to recent research gender plays a strong role in structuring our social lives especially since society assigns and creates male and female categories 198 Individuals in society might be able to learn the similarities between gender rather than the differences 199 Social media helps create more equality because every individual is able to self express however they like Every individual also has the right to express their opinion even though some might disagree but it still gives each gender an equal amount of power to be heard 200 Young adults in the U S frequently use social networking sites as a way to connect and communicate with one another as well as to satisfy their curiosity 201 Adolescent girls generally use social networking sites as a tool to communicate with peers and reinforce existing relationships boys on the other hand tend to use social networking sites as a tool to meet new friends and acquaintances 202 Furthermore social networking sites have allowed individuals to truly express themselves as they are able to create an identity and socialize with other individuals that can relate 203 Social networking sites have also given individuals access to create a space where they feel more comfortable about their sexuality 203 Recent research has indicated that social media is becoming a stronger part of younger individuals media culture as more intimate stories are being told via social media and are being intertwined with gender sexuality and relationships 203 Teens are avid internet and social media users in the United States Research has found that almost all U S teens 95 aged 12 through 17 are online compared to only 78 of adults Of these teens 80 have profiles on social media sites as compared to only 64 of the online population aged 30 and older According to a study conducted by the Kaiser Family Foundation 11 to 18 year olds spend on average over one and a half hours a day using a computer and 27 minutes per day visiting social network sites i e the latter accounts for about one fourth of their daily computer use 204 Teen girls and boys differ in what they post in their online profiles Studies have shown that female users tend to post more cute pictures while male participants were more likely to post pictures of themselves in activities Women in the U S also tend to post more pictures of friends while men tend to post more about sports and humorous links The study also found that males would post more alcohol and sexual references 204 The roles were reversed however when looking at a teenage dating site women made sexual references significantly more often than males Boys share more personal information such as their hometown and phone number while girls are more conservative about the personal information they allow to go public on these social networking sites Boys meanwhile are more likely to orient towards technology sports and humor in the information they post to their profile 205 Social media goes beyond the role of helping individuals express themselves as it has grown to help individuals create relationships particularly romantic relationships A large number of social media users have found it easier to create relationships in a less direct approach compared to a traditional approach of awkwardly asking for someone s number 206 Social media plays a big role when it comes to communication between genders Therefore it s important to understand how gender stereotypes develop during online interactions Research in the 1990s suggested that different genders display certain traits such as being active attractive dependent dominant independent sentimental sexy and submissive in online interaction 207 Even though these traits continue to be displayed through gender stereotypes recent studies show that this isn t necessarily the case any more 208 See alsoAndrocentrism Anti gender movement 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