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Wikipedia

Masculinity

January 23, 2023

"Masculine" redirects here. For other uses, see Masculine (disambiguation).
"Manliness" redirects here. For the book by Harvey Mansfield, see Manliness (book).
"Masc" redirects here. For the band, see Masc (band).

Masculinity (also called manhood or manliness) is a set of attributes, behaviors, and roles associated with men and boys. Masculinity can be theoretically understood as socially constructed,[1] and there is also evidence that some behaviors considered masculine are influenced by both cultural factors and biological factors.[1][2][3][4] To what extent masculinity is biologically or socially influenced is subject to debate.[2][3][4] It is distinct from the definition of the biological male sex,[5][6] as anyone can exhibit masculine traits.[7] Standards of masculinity vary across different cultures and historical periods.

In Roman mythology, Mars was the god of war and masculinity.[dubious – discuss]

Overview

 
Lewis Hine's photo of a power house mechanic working on a steam pump

Masculine qualities and roles are considered typical of, appropriate for, and expected of boys and men. Standards of manliness or masculinity vary across different cultures, subcultures, ethnic groups and historical periods.[8] Traits traditionally viewed as masculine in Western society include strength, courage, independence, leadership, and assertiveness.[9][10][11][12] When women’s labor participation increased, there were men who felt less comfortable in their masculinity because it was increasingly difficult for them to reconfirm their status as the breadwinner.[13]

The academic study of masculinity received increased attention during the late 1980s and early 1990s, with the number of courses on the subject in the United States rising from 30 to over 300.[14] This has sparked investigation of the intersection of masculinity with concepts from other fields, such as the social construction of gender difference[15] (prevalent in a number of philosophical and sociological theories).

People regardless of biological sex may exhibit masculine traits and behavior. Those exhibiting both masculine and feminine characteristics are considered androgynous, and feminist philosophers have argued that gender ambiguity may blur gender classification.[16][17]

History

The concept of masculinity varies historically and culturally.[18]: 1–3  Since what constitutes masculinity has varied by time and place, according to Raewyn Connell, it is more appropriate to discuss "masculinities" than a single overarching concept.[19]: 185 

Antiquity

 
Odysseus, hero of the Odyssey

Ancient literature dates back to about 3000 BC, with explicit expectations for men in the form of laws and implied masculine ideals in myths of gods and heroes. According to the Code of Hammurabi (about 1750 BC):

  • Rule 3: "If any one bring an accusation of any crime before the elders, and does not prove what he has charged, he shall, if it be a capital offense charged, be put to death."
  • Rule 128: "If a man takes a woman to wife, but has no intercourse with her, this woman is no wife to him."[20]

In the Hebrew Bible of 1000 BC, when King David of Israel drew near to death, he told his son Solomon: "I go the way of all the earth: be thou strong therefore, and shew thyself a man".[21]

In his book Germania (98 AD), Tacitus stated that the men from the ancient Germanic tribes fought aggressively in battle to protect their women from capture by the enemy.[22][23][24]

"It stands on record that armies already wavering and on the point of collapse have been rallied by the women, pleading heroically with their men, thrusting forward their bared bosoms, and making them realize the imminent prospect of enslavement - a fate which the Germans fear more desperately for their women than for themselves." -Tacitus (Germania)[25]

Tacitus presented the Germanic warrior Arminius as a masculine hero in his account of ancient Germany whose already violent nature was further heightened by the abduction of his beloved wife Thusnelda by the Roman general Germanicus. In his rage Arminius demanded war against the Roman empire.[26][27][28][29]

Medieval and Victorian eras

 
Beowulf fighting the dragon

Jeffrey Richards describes a European "medieval masculinity which was essentially Christian and chivalric".[30] Courage, respect for women of all classes and generosity characterize the portrayal of men in literary history.[citation needed] According to David Rosen, the traditional view of scholars (such as J. R. R. Tolkien) that Beowulf is a tale of medieval heroism overlooks the similarities between Beowulf and the monster Grendel. The masculinity exemplified by Beowulf "cut[s] men off from women, other men, passion and the household".[31]

During the Victorian era, masculinity underwent a transformation from traditional heroism. Scottish philosopher Thomas Carlyle wrote in 1831: "The old ideal of Manhood has grown obsolete, and the new is still invisible to us, and we grope after it in darkness, one clutching this phantom, another that; Werterism, Byronism, even Brummelism, each has its day".[32]

Boxing was professionalized in America and Europe in the 19th century; it emphasized the physical and confrontational aspects of masculinity.[33] Bare-knuckle boxing without gloves represented "the manly art" in 19th-century America.[34]

20th century to present

At the beginning of the 20th century, a traditional family consisted of the father as breadwinner and the mother as homemaker.[clarification needed] Despite women's increasing participation in the paid labor force and contributions to family income, men's identities remained centered on their working lives and specifically their economic contributions.[clarification needed] In 1963, social theorist Erving Goffman's seminal work on stigma management presented a list of traits prescribed as categorically masculine for American men:

In an important sense there is only one complete unblushing male in America: a young, married, white, urban, northern, heterosexual Protestant father of college education, fully employed, of good complexion, weight and height, and a recent record in sports.[35]:128

Writing in 1974, R. Gould asserted that the provider role was central to adult men's identities, as masculinity is often measured by the size of a man's economic contribution to the family.[36] Masculinity is also secured by denying any semblance of softness, emotion, femininity, or any characteristic associated with women.[37][clarification needed] Overwhelmingly, the construction of masculinity most valued in the latter part of the 20th century and the early 21st century is one that is independent, sexually assertive, and athletic, among other normative markers of manhood.[38][39][dubious – discuss] There is some evidence of this construction developing slightly however. A 2008 study showed that men frequently rank good health, a harmonious family life and a good relationship with their spouse or partner as more important to their quality of life than physical attractiveness and success with women.[40]

Development

 
An early color photograph of a construction worker

Nature versus nurture

Main article: Nature versus nurture

Scholars have debated the extent to which gender identity and gender-specific behaviors are due to socialization versus biological factors.[4]: 29 [41][42] Social and biological influences are thought to be mutually interacting during development.[4]: 29 [3]: 218–225  Studies of prenatal androgen exposure have provided some evidence that femininity and masculinity are partly biologically determined.[2]: 8–9 [3]: 153–154  Other possible biological influences include evolution, genetics, epigenetics, and hormones (both during development and in adulthood).[4]: 29–31 [2]: 7–13 [3]: 153–154  Scholars suggest that innate differences between the sexes are compounded or exaggerated by the influences of social factors.[43][44][45]

Social construction of masculinity

In many cultures, displaying characteristics not typical of one's gender may be a social problem. In sociology, this labeling is known as gender assumptions and is part of socialization to meet the mores of a society. Non-standard behavior may be considered indicative of homosexuality, despite the fact that gender expression, gender identity and sexual orientation are widely accepted as distinct concepts.[46][when?][where?] When sexuality is defined in terms of object choice (as in early sexology studies), male homosexuality may be interpreted as effeminacy.[47] Machismo is a form of masculinity that emphasizes power and is often associated with a disregard for consequences and responsibility.[48]

Some believe that masculinity is linked to the male body; in this view, masculinity is associated with male genitalia.[18]: 3  Others have suggested that although masculinity may be influenced by biology, it is also a cultural construct.[18]: 3  Many aspects of masculinity assumed to be natural are linguistically and culturally driven.[49] It is argued[by whom?] that masculinity does not have a single source. Although the military has a vested interest in constructing and promoting a specific form of masculinity, it does not create it.[18]: 17–21  Facial hair is linked to masculinity through language, in stories about boys becoming men when they begin to shave.[18]: 30–31 

Some social scientists conceptualize masculinity (and femininity) as a performance.[50][51][52] Gender performances may not necessarily be intentional and people may not even be aware of the extent to which they are performing gender, as one outcome of lifelong gender socialization is the feeling that one's gender is "natural" or biologically-ordained.

Masculine performance varies over the life course, but also from one context to another. For instance, the sports world may elicit more traditionally normative masculinities in participants than would other settings.[53] Men who exhibit a tough and aggressive masculinity on the sports field may display a softer masculinity in familial contexts. Masculinities vary by social class as well. Studies suggest working class constructions of masculinity to be more normative than are those from middle class men and boys.[54][55] As these contexts and comparisons illustrate, theorists suggest a multiplicity of masculinities, not simply one single construction of masculinity.[51]

Historian Kate Cooper wrote: "Wherever a woman is mentioned a man's character is being judged – and along with it what he stands for."[56] Scholars cite integrity and equality as masculine values in male-male relationships.[57]

Gay and lesbian people

See also: Effeminacy § Gay men

Gay men are considered by some[who?] to "deviate from the masculine norm" and are benevolently stereotyped as "gentle and refined", even by other gay men. According to gay human-rights campaigner Peter Tatchell:

Contrary to the well-intentioned claim that gays are "just the same" as straights, there is a difference. What is more, the distinctive style of gay masculinity is of great social benefit. Wouldn't life be dull without the flair and imagination of queer fashion designers and interior decorators? How could the NHS cope with no gay nurses, or the education system with no gay teachers? Society should thank its lucky stars that not all men turn out straight, macho and insensitive. The different hetero and homo modes of maleness are not, of course, biologically fixed.[58]

Psychologist Joseph Pleck argues that a hierarchy of masculinity exists largely as a dichotomy of homosexual and heterosexual males: "Our society uses the male heterosexual-homosexual dichotomy as a central symbol for all the rankings of masculinity, for the division on any grounds between males who are "real men" and have power, and males who are not".[59] Michael Kimmel adds that the trope "You're so gay" indicates a lack of masculinity, rather than homosexual orientation.[60] According to Pleck, to avoid male oppression of women, themselves and other men, patriarchal structures, institutions and discourse must be eliminated from Western society.

In the documentary The Butch Factor, gay men (one of them transgender) were asked about their views of masculinity. Masculine traits were generally seen as an advantage in and out of the closet, allowing "butch" gay men to conceal their sexual orientation longer while engaged in masculine activities such as sports. Effeminacy is inaccurately[46] associated with homosexuality,[47] and some gay men doubted their sexual orientation; they did not see themselves as effeminate, and felt little connection to gay culture.[61] Some effeminate gay men in The Butch Factor felt uncomfortable about their femininity (despite being comfortable with their sexuality),[62] and feminine gay men may be derided by stereotypically-masculine gays.[63]

Feminine-looking men tended to come out earlier after being labeled gay by their peers. More likely to face bullying and harassment throughout their lives,[61] they are taunted by derogatory words (such as "sissy") implying feminine qualities. Effeminate, "campy" gay men sometimes use what John R. Ballew called "camp humor", such as referring to one another by female pronouns (according to Ballew, "a funny way of defusing hate directed toward us [gay men]"); however, such humor "can cause us [gay men] to become confused in relation to how we feel about being men".[64] He further stated:

[Heterosexual] men are sometimes advised to get in touch with their "inner feminine." Maybe gay men need to get in touch with their "inner masculine" instead. Identifying those aspects of being a man we most value and then cultivate those parts of our selves can lead to a healthier and less distorted sense of our own masculinity.[64]

A study by the Center for Theoretical Study at Charles University in Prague and the Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic found significant differences in shape among the faces of heterosexual and gay men, with gay men having more "stereotypically masculine" features ("undermin[ing] stereotypical notions of gay men as more feminine looking.")[65]

Gay men have been presented in the media as feminine and open to ridicule, although films such as Brokeback Mountain are countering the stereotype.[64] A recent development is the portrayal of gay men in the LGBT community as "bears", a subculture of gay men celebrating rugged masculinity[66][67] and "secondary sexual characteristics of the male: facial hair, body hair, proportional size, baldness".[68]

Second-wave pro-feminism paid greater attention to issues of sexuality, particularly the relationship between homosexual men and hegemonic masculinity. This shift led to increased cooperation between the men's liberation and gay liberation movements developing, in part, because masculinity was understood as a social construct and in response to the universalization of "men" in previous men's movements. Men's-rights activists worked to stop second-wave feminists from influencing the gay-rights movement, promoting hypermasculinity as inherent to gay sexuality.[69]

Masculinity has played an important role in lesbian culture,[70] although lesbians vary widely in the degree to which they express masculinity and femininity. In LGBT cultures, masculine women are often referred to as "butch".[71][72][73]

Hegemonic masculinity

Main article: Hegemonic masculinity
 
Contests of physical skill and strength appear in some form in many cultures. Here, two U.S. Marines compete in a wrestling match.

Traditional avenues for men to gain honor were providing for their families and exercising leadership.[74] Raewyn Connell has labeled traditional male roles and privileges hegemonic masculinity, encouraged in men and discouraged in women: "Hegemonic masculinity can be defined as the configuration of gender practice which embodies the currently accepted answer to the problem of the legitimacy of patriarchy, which guarantees the dominant position of men and the subordination of women".[19]: 77  Connell (1987) placed emphasis on heterosexuality and its influence on the construction of gender. From this perspective, there is a dominant (hegemonic) and idealized form of masculinity in every social system and an apotheosized form of femininity that is considered proper for men and women. This idealized form of masculinity (hegemonic masculinity) legitimates and normalizes certain performances of men, and pathologizes, marginalizes, and subordinates any other expressions of masculinities or femininities (masculine and feminine subject positions). Alongside hegemonic masculinity, Connell postulated that there are other forms of masculinities (marginalized and subordinated), which, according to a plethora of studies, are constructed in oppressive ways (Thorne 1993). This is symptomatic of the fact that hegemonic masculinity is relational, which means that it is constructed in relation to and against an Other (emphasized femininity, marginalized and subordinated masculinities).[75] In addition to describing forceful articulations of violent masculine identities, hegemonic masculinity has also been used to describe implicit, indirect, or coercive forms of gendered socialization, enacted through video games, fashion, humor, and so on.[76]

Precarious manhood

Researchers have argued that the "precariousness" of manhood contributes to traditionally-masculine behavior.[77] "Precarious" means that manhood is not inborn, but must be achieved. In many cultures, boys endure painful initiation rituals to become men. Manhood may also be lost, as when a man is derided for not "being a man". Researchers have found that men respond to threats to their manhood by engaging in stereotypically-masculine behaviors and beliefs, such as supporting hierarchy, espousing homophobic beliefs, supporting aggression and choosing physical tasks over intellectual ones.[78][non-primary source needed]

In 2014, Winegard and Geary wrote that the precariousness of manhood involves social status (prestige or dominance), and manhood may be more (or less) precarious due to the avenues men have for achieving status.[79]

In women

 
Vaudeville trapeze artist and strongwoman, Charmion

Although often ignored in discussions of masculinity, women can also express masculine traits and behaviors.[80][81] In Western culture, female masculinity has been codified into identities such as "tomboy" and "butch". Although female masculinity is often associated with lesbianism, expressing masculinity is not necessarily related to a woman's sexuality. In feminist philosophy, female masculinity is often characterized as a type of gender performance which challenges traditional masculinity and male dominance.[82] Zachary A. Kramer argues that the discussion of masculinity should be opened up "to include constructions of masculinity that uniquely affect women."[83] Masculine women are often subject to social stigma and harassment, although the influence of the feminist movement has led to greater acceptance of women expressing masculinity in recent decades.[84]

Women who participate in sports, especially male-dominated sports, are sometimes derided as being masculine. Even though most sports emphasize stereotypically masculine qualities, such as strength, competition, and aggression, women who participate in sports are still expected to conform to strictly feminine gender norms. This is known as the "female athlete paradox". Although traditional gender norms are gradually changing, female athletes, especially those that participate in male-dominated sports such as boxing, weight lifting, American football, rugby, ice hockey, and motorsport, are still often viewed as deviating from the boundaries of femininity and may suffer negative repercussions.[85][86]

Women face a similar paradox in the business world, as corporate leadership roles are widely associated with stereotypically masculine characteristics. Women who adopt these characteristics may be more successful, but also more disliked due to not conforming with expected feminine stereotypes.[87] According to a study in the UK, women with stereotypically masculine personality traits are more likely to gain access to high-paying occupations than women with feminine personality traits.[88] According to another study conducted in Germany, women who fit the stereotypical masculine gender role are generally more successful in their careers.[89]

Health

 
A British soldier drinks a pint glass of beer after his return from Afghanistan. Fighting in wars and drinking alcohol are both traditionally masculine activities in many cultures.

Evidence points to the negative impact of hegemonic masculinity on men's health-related behavior, with American men making 134.5 million fewer physician visits per year than women. Twenty-five percent of men aged 45 to 60 do not have a personal physician, increasing their risk of death from heart disease. Men between 25 and 65 are four times more likely to die from cardiovascular disease than women, and are more likely to be diagnosed with a terminal illness because of their reluctance to see a doctor. Reasons cited for not seeing a physician include fear, denial, embarrassment, a dislike of situations out of their control and the belief that visiting a doctor is not worth the time or cost.[90]

Studies of men in North America and Europe show that men who consume alcoholic drinks often do so in order to fulfill certain social expectations of manliness. While the causes of drinking and alcoholism are complex and varied, gender roles and social expectations have a strong influence encouraging men to drink.[91][92]

In 2004, Arran Stibbe published an analysis of a well-known men's-health magazine in 2000. According to Stibbe, although the magazine ostensibly focused on health it also promoted traditional masculine behaviors such as excessive consumption of convenience foods and meat, alcohol consumption and unsafe sex.[93] Masculinity and sexual health is also a complex issue in the Global South, as well. In South Africa, HIV transmission was one of the significant reasons for the development of masculinities research.[94] Risky actions commonly representative of toxic masculinity are also present in Western and Chinese male clients' attitudes and behaviors toward female sex workers in China's commercial sex industry. While many male clients frequently exhibited physical violence toward the female workers, in order to more overtly display their manliness, some men also admitted to being more sexually aggressive at times and purposefully having unprotected sex without the worker's knowledge.[95]

Research on beer-commercial content by Lance Strate[96] yielded results relevant to a study of masculinity.[97] In beer commercials, masculine behavior (especially risk-taking) is encouraged. Commercials often focus on situations in which a man overcomes an obstacle in a group, working or playing hard (construction workers, farm workers or cowboys). Those involving play have central themes of mastery (of nature or each other), risk and adventure: fishing, camping, playing sports or socializing in bars. There is usually an element of danger and a focus on movement and speed (watching fast cars or driving fast). The bar is a setting for the measurement of masculinity in skills such as billiards, strength, and drinking ability.[96] Men engage in positive health practices, such as reducing fat intake and alcohol, to conform to masculine ideals.[98][clarification needed]

Men, boys and people who were assigned male at birth face gender policing from people who think they are not masculine enough. Gender policing can increase the risk of alcoholism, anxiety, and depression.[99]

Criticism

Study of the history of masculinity emerged during the 1980s, aided by the fields of women's and (later) gender history. Before women's history was examined, there was a "strict gendering of the public/private divide"; regarding masculinity, this meant little study of how men related to the household, domesticity and family life.[100] Although women's historical role was negated, despite the writing of history by (and primarily about) men, a significant portion of the male experience was missing. This void was questioned during the late 1970s, when women's history began to analyze gender and women to deepen the female experience.[101] Joan Scott's seminal article, calling for gender studies as an analytical concept to explore society, power and discourse, laid the foundation for this field.[102]

According to Scott, gender should be used in two ways: productive and produced. Productive gender examined its role in creating power relationships, and produced gender explored the use and change of gender throughout history. This has influenced the field of masculinity, as seen in Pierre Bourdieu's definition of masculinity: produced by society and culture, and reproduced in daily life.[103] A flurry of work in women's history led to a call for study of the male role (initially influenced by psychoanalysis) in society and emotional and interpersonal life. Connell wrote that these initial works were marked by a "high level of generality" in "broad surveys of cultural norms". The scholarship was aware of contemporary societal changes aiming to understand and evolve (or liberate) the male role in response to feminism.[19]: 28 John Tosh calls for a return to this aim for the history of masculinity to be useful, academically and in the public sphere.[104]

Two concerns over the study of the history of masculinity are that it would stabilize the historical process (rather than change it) and that a cultural overemphasis on the approach to masculinity lacks the reality of actual experience. According to John Tosh, masculinity has become a conceptual framework used by historians to enhance their cultural explorations instead of a specialty in its own right.[105] This draws attention from reality to representation and meaning, not only in the realm of masculinity; culture was becoming "the bottom line, the real historical reality".[104] Tosh critiques Martin Francis' work in this light because popular culture, rather than the experience of family life, is the basis for Francis' argument.[106] Francis uses contemporary literature and film to demonstrate that masculinity was restless, shying away from domesticity and commitment, during the late 1940s and 1950s.[106] Francis wrote that this flight from commitment was "most likely to take place at the level of fantasy (individual and collective)". In focusing on culture, it is difficult to gauge the degree to which films such as Scott of the Antarctic represented the era's masculine fantasies.[106] Michael Roper's call to focus on the subjectivity of masculinity addresses this cultural bias, because broad understanding is set aside for an examination "of what the relationship of the codes of masculinity is to actual men, to existential matters, to persons and to their psychic make-up" (Tosh's human experience).[107]

According to Tosh, the culture of masculinity has outlived its usefulness because it cannot fulfill the initial aim of this history (to discover how manhood was conditioned and experienced) and he urged "questions of behaviour and agency".[105] His work on Victorian masculinity uses individual experience in letters and sketches to illustrate broader cultural and social customs, such as birthing or Christmas traditions.[100]

Stefan Dudink believes that the methodological approach (trying to categorize masculinity as a phenomenon) undermined its historiographic development.[108] Abigail Solomou-Godeau's work on post-revolutionary French art addresses a strong, constant patriarchy.[109]

Tosh's overall assessment is that a shift is needed in conceptualizing the topic[105] back to the history of masculinity as a speciality aiming to reach a broader audience, rather than as an analytical tool of cultural and social history. The importance he places on public history hearkens back to the initial aims of gender history, which sought to use history to enlighten and change the present. Tosh appeals to historians to live up to the "social expectation" of their work,[105] which would also require a greater focus on subjectivity and masculinity. This view is contrary to Dudink's; the latter called for an "outflanking movement" towards the history of masculinity, in response to the errors he perceived in the study.[108] This would do the opposite of what Tosh called for, deconstructing masculinity by not placing it at the center of historical exploration and using discourse and culture as indirect avenues towards a more-representational approach. In a study of the Low Countries, Dudink proposes moving beyond the history of masculinity by embedding analysis into the exploration of nation and nationalism (making masculinity a lens through which to view conflict and nation-building).[110] Martin Francis' work on domesticity through a cultural lens moves beyond the history of masculinity because "men constantly travelled back and forward across the frontier of domesticity, if only in the realm of the imagination"; normative codes of behavior do not fully encompass the male experience.[106]

Media images of boys and young men may lead to the persistence of harmful concepts of masculinity. According to men's-rights activists, the media does not address men's-rights issues and men are often portrayed negatively in advertising.[111] Peter Jackson called hegemonic masculinity "economically exploitative" and "socially oppressive": "The form of oppression varies from patriarchal controls over women's bodies and reproductive rights, through ideologies of domesticity, femininity and compulsory heterosexuality, to social definitions of the value of work, the nature of skill and the differential remuneration of 'productive' and 'reproductive' labor."[112]

Psychological research

According to a paper submitted by Tracy Tylka to the American Psychological Association, "Instead of seeing a decrease in objectification of women in society, there has just been an increase in the objectification of both sexes. And you can see that in the media today." Men and women restrict food intake in an effort to achieve what they consider an attractively-thin body; in extreme cases, this leads to eating disorders.[113] Psychiatrist Thomas Holbrook cited a recent Canadian study indicating that as many as one in six people with eating disorders are men.[114]

Research in the United Kingdom found, "Younger men and women who read fitness and fashion magazines could be psychologically harmed by the images of perfect female and male physiques." Young women and men exercise excessively in an effort to achieve what they consider an attractively-fit and muscular body, which may lead to body dysmorphic disorder or muscle dysmorphia.[115][116][117] Although the stereotypes may have remained constant, the value attached to masculine stereotypes has changed; Todd Reeser has argued that masculinity is an unstable phenomenon, never ultimately achieved.[18]: 30–31 

In January 2019, the American Psychological Association warns that conforming to traditional standards of masculinity can cause harm to mental health.[118]

Gender-role stress

 
According to social learning theory, teaching boys to suppress vulnerable emotions, as in the saying "big boys don't cry", is a significant part of gender socialization in Western society.[119][120][121]
See also: Toxic masculinity

In 1987 Eisler and Skidmore studied masculinity, creating the idea of "masculine stress" and finding three elements of masculinity which often result in emotional stress:

  • The emphasis on prevailing in situations requiring body and fitness
  • Being perceived as emotional
  • The need for adequacy in sexual matters and financial status

Because of social norms and pressures associated with masculinity, men with spinal-cord injuries must adapt their self-identity to the losses associated with such injuries; this may "lead to feelings of decreased physical and sexual prowess with lowered self-esteem and a loss of male identity. Feelings of guilt and overall loss of control are also experienced."[122] Research also suggests that men feel social pressure to endorse traditional masculine male models in advertising. Brett Martin and Juergen Gnoth (2009) found that although feminine men privately preferred feminine models, they expressed a preference for traditional masculine models in public; according to the authors, this reflected social pressure on men to endorse traditional masculine norms.[123]

In their book Raising Cain: Protecting The Emotional Life of Boys, Dan Kindlon and Michael Thompson wrote that although all boys are born loving and empathic, exposure to gender socialization (the tough male ideal and hypermasculinity) limits their ability to function as emotionally-healthy adults. According to Kindlon and Thompson, boys lack the ability to understand and express emotions productively because of the stress imposed by masculine gender roles.[124]

In the article "Sexual Ethics, Masculinity and Mutual Vulnerability", Rob Cover works to unpack Judith Butler's study of masculinity. Cover goes over issues such as sexual assault and how it can be partially explained by hypermasculinity.[125]

Masculinity in crisis

A theory of masculinity in crisis has emerged;[126][127] Australian archeologist Peter McAllister said, "I have a strong feeling that masculinity is in crisis. Men are really searching for a role in modern society; the things we used to do aren't in much demand anymore".[128] Others see the changing labor market as a source of stress. Deindustrialization and the replacement of smokestack industries by technology have allowed more women to enter the labor force, reducing its emphasis on physical strength.[129]: 86–89 

The crisis has also been attributed to the questioning of male dominance and rights granted to men solely on the basis of sex following the feminist movement.[129]: 83–86  British sociologist John MacInnes wrote that "masculinity has always been in one crisis or another", suggesting that the crises arise from the "fundamental incompatibility between the core principle of modernity that all human beings are essentially equal (regardless of their sex) and the core tenet of patriarchy that men are naturally superior to women and thus destined to rule over them".[130]

According to John Beynon, masculinity and men are often conflated and it is unclear whether masculinity, men or both are in crisis. He writes that the "crisis" is not a recent phenomenon, illustrating several periods of masculine crisis throughout history (some predating the women's movement and post-industrial society), suggesting that due to masculinity's fluid nature "crisis is constitutive of masculinity itself".[129] Film scholar Leon Hunt also writes: "Whenever masculinity's 'crisis' actually started, it certainly seems to have been in place by the 1970s".[131]

East Asian cultures

Main articles: Herbivore men and Straight man cancer

In 2008, the word "herbivore men" became popular in Japan and was reported worldwide. Herbivore men refers to young Japanese men who naturally detach themselves from masculinity. Masahiro Morioka characterizes them as men 1) having gentle nature, 2) not bound by manliness, 3) not aggressive when it comes to romance, 4) viewing women as equals, and 5) hating emotional pain. Herbivore men are severely criticized by men who love masculinity.[132]

In Chinese and Taiwanese popular culture, phrases such as "大 男人" (lit. 'big man'), "死 異 男" (lit. 'damned hetero male'), and "直男癌" (lit. 'straight male cancer') are used as pejoratives referring to men exhibiting misogyny, dominance, and homophobia.[133]

East African cultures

During Margrethe Silberschmidt's research of urban and rural men in East Africa, she concludes that men experience disempowerment when they cannot not fulfill their role as breadwinner and feel inferior to women when they cannot provide for their family.[134] The changes in East Africa's cultural and economic framework can partially be attributed to British colonial rule because it altered the gender division of labor.[134] There was an increase in wage labor which led to a demand for more skilled workers in an environment where there were primarily unskilled workers.[134] Eventually, there was a shift to growing cash crops and the emphasis was put on men to be the breadwinner.[134] A man's social value is traditionally connected to his ability to provide so when he can no longer do that, it negatively impacts his ego.[134] Masculinity is seen as en entity to be protected, and when a man feels disempowered, he finds other ways to reaffirm their masculinity.[134] Research that examines the struggles among men and look into their personal experiences can help to understand the social structures of masculinity.[135]

In the Global South

Westernized influence in the media

Masculinities as depicted in the media of countries categorized as the Global South can depict stereotypical gender roles in various ways. In India, such roles have been pushed through Bollywood films.[136] Additionally, there is some indication that Westernized views of masculinity have been pushed onto a global audience through print media advertisements, as well. This has been observed in India with the expansion of availability of transnational men's magazines.[137] While there is some evidence of Western and specifically, North American, influence in advertisements found in Chinese and Taiwanese men's magazines as well, it seems that more often than not, those countries' magazines have just adopted a globally uniform perception of masculinity.[138] This theme also presents itself in visual depictions of men in Afghanistan and the Democratic Republic of the Congo.[139]

Sports media outlets have not necessarily promoted a completely "Westernized" version of masculinity, and white, male sports icons may have had an impact when presented alongside those players of other races, such as Asians or black people. A 2019 study found that in Major League Baseball, for example, Korean players and their respective accomplishments tend to be pushed to the side when compared with white, male players in print media and online news outlets.[140]

Novels may be affected by Westernized perceptions. Amjad Alsyouf argues that African novelists Tayeb Salih and Chinua Achebe, for example, bring some Western influence to the gender roles portrayed in their respective novels.[141]

Visual portrayals in fashion

Masculinity is also an important concept in advertisement branding in the Islamic culture. In Kuwait, Muslim men must remain vigilant in making sure that their consumption decisions are representative of the socially accepted masculine norms — particularly in regard to their fashion choices.[142] Additionally, advertising in fashion branding choices and its effectiveness has been examined in the context of Chinese male consumers' choices. Men interested in wearing luxury fashion brands were often more concerned with making sure their choices were visually representative of a more professional and refined person, as opposed to someone that simply looked tough or strong.[143] This kind of focus on visual portrayals can also appear in media depictions. In the Japanese film Sooshokukeidanshi, one of the main characters is made to appear like more of an outsider than the other male characters because of his unique style choices being seen as less traditionally masculine than the cultural expectation is, in Japan.[144]

Effects on youth

Adharsh Raj and Manash Pratim Goswami write that in India, young people often copy negative behaviors seen as being traditionally masculine in Bollywood films.[136] Turkish young people can also fall prey to such negative media influence, According to Özlem Akkaya.[145] In a 2018 study, young males often thought that the violent behavior displayed by the main character, "Behzat," in the Turkish television crime series, Behzat Ç. Bir Ankara Polisiyesi, was relatable to what they already experienced in their own day to day lives (and therefore, saw violence as a seemingly reasonable thing to occur in the series).[145]

Amongst secondary school students in New Zealand, a 2017 study found that when examining print media advertisements, young girls occasionally fall back into a preconceived idea of what constitutes "typical" masculine behavior.[146]

Fatherhood

In the Global South, many societies still follow very patriarchal norms. Through media depictions and real-life scenarios, men are seen as being the head of the family — those that provide financially, have decision making power, and really are in charge. The image of the nuclear family being the societal norm is also ever-present in many places. When men are not able to fulfill that traditionally masculine, fatherly role, they may have a difficult time proving themselves as being worthy enough to have relationships with their children.[147] In South Africa, for example, females often take on more of a culturally masculine role in providing for the household, due to the high percentage of absent fathers in some communities.[148][149][150] Unfortunately, fathers' decision to desert the mother and their biological child is fairly common in South Africa, particularly with regard to those fathers who are younger and come from lower income families. They are often trying to provide for their own nuclear families and cannot also fulfill the cultural obligations commonly attached to fatherhood.[147]

Efforts toward gender equality

While gender equality has not been achieved, changes are happening in regard to these commonly believed gender roles, particularly with gender justice work in the Global South. In New Delhi, India, males are more frequently becoming involved in this work, while also trying to remain mindful of how their privileged status as men affects the public perception of what they are doing.[151] In Pakistan and Afghanistan, the tide is also turning, and men's involvement in opposing violence against women is generally seen as being very positive, a good thing for all. However, there are some who still very much see conflict and violence against women as simply going hand in hand with the those cultures.[152]

Some want to shift the focus from specifically viewing females as the ones deserving of stronger rights to everyone deserving the opportunity to be viewed as an equal; however, this can create the potential for men to fall back into the mindset of "male victimhood," as opposed to focusing on female oppression.[151] Although gender equality is becoming a more acknowledged topic in South Africa, for instance, fathers would often rather still hold on to the more traditional gender roles — and pass those ideas down to their sons.[153]

The International Men and Gender Equality Survey (IMAGES) has also been developed and the results from countries in the Global South studied more in recent years. Although the survey indicated areas for further improvement, a significant recent finding comes in regard to men's childhood upbringing and their attitudes surrounding gender equality. If men were raised seeing more equal division of household labor tasks, older female relatives working in non-traditional occupations, less violence toward females, etc., those behaviors and attitudes had a tendency to carry over into their adult lives, according to the survey.[154]

A 2012 study found some evidence that youth have perhaps, inadvertently, made contributions toward greater acceptance of gender equality. Popular culture consumed by youth and those of lesser social status in East Asia, including manga, singing competitions, bands, and more are starting to showcase more modernized males that combine some stereotypically masculine and feminine aspects in their behaviors.[155]

In South Africa, stricter governmental policies are being put into place regarding abuse and violence. Additionally, initiatives like the "One Man Can" program were formed, which aim to provide HIV prevention and an anti-violence program to men in the country.[156] The 'We Can End Violence against Women' campaign is another anti-violence initiative in Pakistan, developed by the Oxfam GB group in South Asia. In 2019, the program garnered much voluntary male participation in its gender equality work out of Afghanistan and Pakistan.[152]

See also

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Further reading

Contemporary

  • Arrindell, Willem A. (1 October 2005). "Masculine gender role stress". Psychiatric Times. XXII (11): 31.
  • Arrindell, Willem A.; et al. (September–December 2003). "Masculine gender role stress: a potential predictor of phobic and obsessive-compulsive behaviour". Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry. 34 (3–4): 251–267. doi:10.1016/j.jbtep.2003.10.002. PMID 14972672.
  • Ashe, Fidelma (2006). The New Politics of Masculinity: Men, Power and Resistance. London New York: Routledge. ISBN 9781281062505.
  • Biddulph, Steve (2010). The new manhood: The handbook for a new kind of man. Warriewood, N.S.W: Finch Pub. ISBN 978-1876451882.
  • Broom, Alex; Tovey, Philip, eds. (2009). Men's health: body, identity, and social context. Chichester, West Sussex, U.K. Hoboken, New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 9780470516560.
  • Buchbinder, David (2014). "Deciphering men: reading the masculine in Modern Family". Qualitative Research Journal. 14 (1): 16–27. doi:10.1108/QRJ-03-2014-0003.
  • Burstin, Fay (15 October 2005). "What's killing men". Herald Sun. Melbourne.
  • Coffey-Glover, Laura (2015). "Ideologies of masculinity in women's magazines: a critical stylistic approach" (PDF). Gender and Language. 9 (3): 337–364. doi:10.1558/genl.v9i3.17360.
  • Corneau, Guy (1991). Absent fathers, lost sons: the search for masculine identity. Boston New York: Shambhala. ISBN 9780877736035.
  • Courtenay, Will H. (May 2000). "Constructions of masculinity and their influence on men's well-being: a theory of gender and health" (PDF). Social Science & Medicine. 50 (10): 1385–1401. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.462.4452. doi:10.1016/S0277-9536(99)00390-1. PMID 10741575.
  • Durham, Meenakshi G.; Oates, Thomas P. (2004). "The mismeasure of masculinity: the male body, 'race' and power in the enumerative discourses of the NFL Draft". Patterns of Prejudice. 38 (3): 301–320. doi:10.1080/0031322042000250475. S2CID 146256628.
  • Eldredge, John (2001). Wild at heart: discovering the secret of a man's soul. Nashville, Tennessee: T. Nelson. ISBN 9780785218951.
  • Evans, Joan; et al. (March 2011). (PDF). Journal of Men's Health. 8 (1): 7–15. doi:10.1016/j.jomh.2010.09.227. hdl:1903/24529. Archived from the original (PDF) on 8 February 2016. Retrieved 14 June 2017.
  • Galdas, Paul M.; Cheater, Francine M. (2010). "Indian and Pakistani men's accounts of seeking medical help for cardiac chest pain in the United Kingdom: constructions of marginalised masculinity or another version of hegemonic masculinity?". Qualitative Research in Psychology. 7 (2): 122–139. doi:10.1080/14780880802571168. S2CID 143576618.
  • Halberstam, Jack (1998). Female masculinity. Durham: Duke University Press. ISBN 9780822322436.
  • Hamber, Brandon (December 2007). "Masculinity and transitional justice: an exploratory essay". International Journal of Transitional Justice. 1 (3): 375–390. doi:10.1093/ijtj/ijm037. S2CID 145584255.
  • hooks, bell (2004). We real cool: Black men and masculinity. New York: Routledge. ISBN 9780415969277.
  • Juergensmeyer, Mark (2003). (PDF). Terror in the Mind of God: The Global Rise of Religious Violence (౩rd ed.). Berkeley: University of California Press. pp. 198–210. ISBN 978-0-52-024011-7. Archived from the original (PDF) on 3 November 2006.
  • Kang, John M. (2013). "Does manly courage exist?". Nevada Law Journal. 13 (2): 10.
  • Kimmel, Michael; Messner, Michael, eds. (2001). Men's lives (5th ed.). Boston: Allyn and Bacon. ISBN 9780205321056.
  • Lawson, Robert (2013). "The construction of 'tough' masculinity: Negotiation, alignment and rejection". Gender and Language. 7 (3): 369–395. doi:10.1558/genl.v7i3.369.
  • Levant, Ronald F.; Pollack, William S., eds. (1995). A new psychology of men. New York: Basic Books. ISBN 9780465039166.
  • Levant, Ronald F.; Wong, Y. Joel (2017). The Psychology of Men and Masculinities. Washington, D.C.: American Psychological Association. ISBN 978-1-43-382690-0.
  • Levine, Martin (1998). Gay macho: the life and death of the homosexual clone. New York: New York University Press. ISBN 9780814746943.
  • Lupton, Ben (March 2006). "Explaining men's entry into female-concentrated occupations: issues of masculinity and social class". Gender, Work and Organization. 13 (2): 103–128. doi:10.1111/j.1468-0432.2006.00299.x. S2CID 145124069.
  • Mansfield, Harvey (2006). Manliness. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. ISBN 9780300106640.
  • Reeser, T. (2010). "Masculinities in Theory". Wiley-Blackwell. Malden, MA.
  • Robinson, L. (21 October 2005). "Not just boys being boys: Brutal hazings are a product of a culture of masculinity defined by violence, aggression and domination". Ottawa Citizen. Ottawa, Ontario.
  • Shapiro, Stephen A. (1984). Manhood: a new definition. New York: Putnam. ISBN 9780399129926.
  • Shuttleworth, Russell (2004), "Disabled masculinity", in Smith, Bonnie G.; Hutchison, Beth (eds.), Gendering disability, New Brunswick, New Jersey: Rutgers University Press, pp. 166–178, ISBN 9780813533735
  • Simpson, Mark (1994). Male impersonators: men performing masculinity. New York, NY: Routledge. ISBN 9780415909914.
    • Also available as: Simpson, Mark (1993). Male impersonators: men performing masculinity. London: Cassell. ISBN 9780304328086.
  • Stephenson, June (1995). Men are not cost-effective: male crime in America. New York: HarperPerennial. ISBN 9780060950989.
  • Tozer, Malcolm (2015). The ideal of manliness: the legacy of Thring's Uppingham. Truro: Sunnyrest Books. ISBN 9781329542730.
  • Walsh, Fintan (2010). Male trouble: masculinity and the performance of crisis. Basingstoke, Hampshire England New York: Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 9781349368242.
  • Williamson, P. (29 November 1995). "Their own worst enemy". Nursing Times. 91 (48): 24–27. OCLC 937998604.
  • Wong, Y. Joel; et al. (2017). "Meta-analyses of the relationship between conformity to masculine norms and mental health-related outcomes" (PDF). Journal of Counseling Psychology. 64 (1): 80–93. doi:10.1037/cou0000176. PMID 27869454. S2CID 8385.
  • World Health Organization (2000). What About Boys?: A Literature Review on the Health and Development of Adolescent Boys (PDF). Geneva, Switzerland. WHO/FCH/CAH/00.7.
  • Wray, Herbert (26 September 2005). "Survival skills". U.S. News & World Report. Vol. 139, no. 11. p. 63.

Historical

  • Buchbinder, David (2013). "Color and movement: the male dancer, masculinity and race in film". In Jackson II, Ronald L.; Moshin, Jamie E. (eds.). Communicating marginalized masculinities: identity politics in TV, film, and new media. Routledge Studies in Rhetoric and Communication. New York: Routledge. pp. 65–79. ISBN 9780415623070.
  • Jenkins, Earnestine; Clark Hine, Darlene (1999). A question of manhood: a reader in U.S. Black men's history and masculinity. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. ISBN 9780253213433.
  • Kimmel, Michael (2012) [1996]. Manhood in America: A Cultural History (3rd ed.). New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780199781553.
  • Laurie, Ross (1999), "Masculinity", in Boyd, Kelly (ed.), Encyclopedia of Historians and Historical Writing vol 2, Taylor & Francis, pp. 778–80, ISBN 9781884964336, Historiography.
  • Pleck, Elizabeth Hafkin; Pleck, Joseph H. (1980). The American man. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall. ISBN 9780130281425.
  • Pozzo, Barbara (2013). "Masculinity Italian style". Nevada Law Journal. 13 (2): 15.
  • Taylor, Gary (2002). Castration: an abbreviated history of western manhood. New York: Routledge. ISBN 9780415938815.
  • Theweleit, Klaus (1987). Male fantasies. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press. ISBN 9780816614516.
  • Stearns, Peter N. (1990). Be a man!: males in modern society. New York: Holmes & Meier. ISBN 9780841912816.

External links

 
Wikiquote has quotations related to Masculinity.
 
Look up masculinity in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

Bibliographic

  • The Men's Bibliography, a comprehensive bibliography of writing on men, masculinities, gender and sexualities, listing over 16,700 works. (mainly from a constructionist perspective)
  • , features a 2200+ bibliography of young masculinities.

Other

  • Men in America, series by National Public Radio

January 23, 2023
masculinity, masculine, redirects, here, other, uses, masculine, disambiguation, manliness, redirects, here, book, harvey, mansfield, manliness, book, masc, redirects, here, band, masc, band, also, called, manhood, manliness, attributes, behaviors, roles, asso. Masculine redirects here For other uses see Masculine disambiguation Manliness redirects here For the book by Harvey Mansfield see Manliness book Masc redirects here For the band see Masc band Masculinity also called manhood or manliness is a set of attributes behaviors and roles associated with men and boys Masculinity can be theoretically understood as socially constructed 1 and there is also evidence that some behaviors considered masculine are influenced by both cultural factors and biological factors 1 2 3 4 To what extent masculinity is biologically or socially influenced is subject to debate 2 3 4 It is distinct from the definition of the biological male sex 5 6 as anyone can exhibit masculine traits 7 Standards of masculinity vary across different cultures and historical periods In Roman mythology Mars was the god of war and masculinity dubious discuss Contents 1 Overview 2 History 2 1 Antiquity 2 2 Medieval and Victorian eras 2 3 20th century to present 3 Development 3 1 Nature versus nurture 3 2 Social construction of masculinity 3 2 1 Gay and lesbian people 3 2 2 Hegemonic masculinity 3 2 3 Precarious manhood 4 In women 5 Health 6 Criticism 6 1 Psychological research 6 2 Gender role stress 6 3 Masculinity in crisis 6 4 East Asian cultures 6 5 East African cultures 7 In the Global South 7 1 Westernized influence in the media 7 2 Visual portrayals in fashion 7 3 Effects on youth 7 4 Fatherhood 7 5 Efforts toward gender equality 8 See also 9 References 10 Further reading 10 1 Contemporary 10 2 Historical 11 External linksOverview Edit Lewis Hine s photo of a power house mechanic working on a steam pump Masculine qualities and roles are considered typical of appropriate for and expected of boys and men Standards of manliness or masculinity vary across different cultures subcultures ethnic groups and historical periods 8 Traits traditionally viewed as masculine in Western society include strength courage independence leadership and assertiveness 9 10 11 12 When women s labor participation increased there were men who felt less comfortable in their masculinity because it was increasingly difficult for them to reconfirm their status as the breadwinner 13 The academic study of masculinity received increased attention during the late 1980s and early 1990s with the number of courses on the subject in the United States rising from 30 to over 300 14 This has sparked investigation of the intersection of masculinity with concepts from other fields such as the social construction of gender difference 15 prevalent in a number of philosophical and sociological theories People regardless of biological sex may exhibit masculine traits and behavior Those exhibiting both masculine and feminine characteristics are considered androgynous and feminist philosophers have argued that gender ambiguity may blur gender classification 16 17 History EditThe concept of masculinity varies historically and culturally 18 1 3 Since what constitutes masculinity has varied by time and place according to Raewyn Connell it is more appropriate to discuss masculinities than a single overarching concept 19 185 Antiquity Edit Odysseus hero of the Odyssey Ancient literature dates back to about 3000 BC with explicit expectations for men in the form of laws and implied masculine ideals in myths of gods and heroes According to the Code of Hammurabi about 1750 BC Rule 3 If any one bring an accusation of any crime before the elders and does not prove what he has charged he shall if it be a capital offense charged be put to death Rule 128 If a man takes a woman to wife but has no intercourse with her this woman is no wife to him 20 In the Hebrew Bible of 1000 BC when King David of Israel drew near to death he told his son Solomon I go the way of all the earth be thou strong therefore and shew thyself a man 21 In his book Germania 98 AD Tacitus stated that the men from the ancient Germanic tribes fought aggressively in battle to protect their women from capture by the enemy 22 23 24 It stands on record that armies already wavering and on the point of collapse have been rallied by the women pleading heroically with their men thrusting forward their bared bosoms and making them realize the imminent prospect of enslavement a fate which the Germans fear more desperately for their women than for themselves Tacitus Germania 25 Tacitus presented the Germanic warrior Arminius as a masculine hero in his account of ancient Germany whose already violent nature was further heightened by the abduction of his beloved wife Thusnelda by the Roman general Germanicus In his rage Arminius demanded war against the Roman empire 26 27 28 29 Medieval and Victorian eras Edit Beowulf fighting the dragon Jeffrey Richards describes a European medieval masculinity which was essentially Christian and chivalric 30 Courage respect for women of all classes and generosity characterize the portrayal of men in literary history citation needed According to David Rosen the traditional view of scholars such as J R R Tolkien that Beowulf is a tale of medieval heroism overlooks the similarities between Beowulf and the monster Grendel The masculinity exemplified by Beowulf cut s men off from women other men passion and the household 31 During the Victorian era masculinity underwent a transformation from traditional heroism Scottish philosopher Thomas Carlyle wrote in 1831 The old ideal of Manhood has grown obsolete and the new is still invisible to us and we grope after it in darkness one clutching this phantom another that Werterism Byronism even Brummelism each has its day 32 Boxing was professionalized in America and Europe in the 19th century it emphasized the physical and confrontational aspects of masculinity 33 Bare knuckle boxing without gloves represented the manly art in 19th century America 34 20th century to present EditAt the beginning of the 20th century a traditional family consisted of the father as breadwinner and the mother as homemaker clarification needed Despite women s increasing participation in the paid labor force and contributions to family income men s identities remained centered on their working lives and specifically their economic contributions clarification needed In 1963 social theorist Erving Goffman s seminal work on stigma management presented a list of traits prescribed as categorically masculine for American men In an important sense there is only one complete unblushing male in America a young married white urban northern heterosexual Protestant father of college education fully employed of good complexion weight and height and a recent record in sports 35 128 Writing in 1974 R Gould asserted that the provider role was central to adult men s identities as masculinity is often measured by the size of a man s economic contribution to the family 36 Masculinity is also secured by denying any semblance of softness emotion femininity or any characteristic associated with women 37 clarification needed Overwhelmingly the construction of masculinity most valued in the latter part of the 20th century and the early 21st century is one that is independent sexually assertive and athletic among other normative markers of manhood 38 39 dubious discuss There is some evidence of this construction developing slightly however A 2008 study showed that men frequently rank good health a harmonious family life and a good relationship with their spouse or partner as more important to their quality of life than physical attractiveness and success with women 40 Development Edit An early color photograph of a construction worker Nature versus nurture Edit Main article Nature versus nurture Scholars have debated the extent to which gender identity and gender specific behaviors are due to socialization versus biological factors 4 29 41 42 Social and biological influences are thought to be mutually interacting during development 4 29 3 218 225 Studies of prenatal androgen exposure have provided some evidence that femininity and masculinity are partly biologically determined 2 8 9 3 153 154 Other possible biological influences include evolution genetics epigenetics and hormones both during development and in adulthood 4 29 31 2 7 13 3 153 154 Scholars suggest that innate differences between the sexes are compounded or exaggerated by the influences of social factors 43 44 45 Social construction of masculinity Edit In many cultures displaying characteristics not typical of one s gender may be a social problem In sociology this labeling is known as gender assumptions and is part of socialization to meet the mores of a society Non standard behavior may be considered indicative of homosexuality despite the fact that gender expression gender identity and sexual orientation are widely accepted as distinct concepts 46 when where When sexuality is defined in terms of object choice as in early sexology studies male homosexuality may be interpreted as effeminacy 47 Machismo is a form of masculinity that emphasizes power and is often associated with a disregard for consequences and responsibility 48 Some believe that masculinity is linked to the male body in this view masculinity is associated with male genitalia 18 3 Others have suggested that although masculinity may be influenced by biology it is also a cultural construct 18 3 Many aspects of masculinity assumed to be natural are linguistically and culturally driven 49 It is argued by whom that masculinity does not have a single source Although the military has a vested interest in constructing and promoting a specific form of masculinity it does not create it 18 17 21 Facial hair is linked to masculinity through language in stories about boys becoming men when they begin to shave 18 30 31 Some social scientists conceptualize masculinity and femininity as a performance 50 51 52 Gender performances may not necessarily be intentional and people may not even be aware of the extent to which they are performing gender as one outcome of lifelong gender socialization is the feeling that one s gender is natural or biologically ordained Masculine performance varies over the life course but also from one context to another For instance the sports world may elicit more traditionally normative masculinities in participants than would other settings 53 Men who exhibit a tough and aggressive masculinity on the sports field may display a softer masculinity in familial contexts Masculinities vary by social class as well Studies suggest working class constructions of masculinity to be more normative than are those from middle class men and boys 54 55 As these contexts and comparisons illustrate theorists suggest a multiplicity of masculinities not simply one single construction of masculinity 51 Historian Kate Cooper wrote Wherever a woman is mentioned a man s character is being judged and along with it what he stands for 56 Scholars cite integrity and equality as masculine values in male male relationships 57 Gay and lesbian people Edit See also Effeminacy Gay men Gay men are considered by some who to deviate from the masculine norm and are benevolently stereotyped as gentle and refined even by other gay men According to gay human rights campaigner Peter Tatchell Contrary to the well intentioned claim that gays are just the same as straights there is a difference What is more the distinctive style of gay masculinity is of great social benefit Wouldn t life be dull without the flair and imagination of queer fashion designers and interior decorators How could the NHS cope with no gay nurses or the education system with no gay teachers Society should thank its lucky stars that not all men turn out straight macho and insensitive The different hetero and homo modes of maleness are not of course biologically fixed 58 Psychologist Joseph Pleck argues that a hierarchy of masculinity exists largely as a dichotomy of homosexual and heterosexual males Our society uses the male heterosexual homosexual dichotomy as a central symbol for all the rankings of masculinity for the division on any grounds between males who are real men and have power and males who are not 59 Michael Kimmel adds that the trope You re so gay indicates a lack of masculinity rather than homosexual orientation 60 According to Pleck to avoid male oppression of women themselves and other men patriarchal structures institutions and discourse must be eliminated from Western society In the documentary The Butch Factor gay men one of them transgender were asked about their views of masculinity Masculine traits were generally seen as an advantage in and out of the closet allowing butch gay men to conceal their sexual orientation longer while engaged in masculine activities such as sports Effeminacy is inaccurately 46 associated with homosexuality 47 and some gay men doubted their sexual orientation they did not see themselves as effeminate and felt little connection to gay culture 61 Some effeminate gay men in The Butch Factor felt uncomfortable about their femininity despite being comfortable with their sexuality 62 and feminine gay men may be derided by stereotypically masculine gays 63 Feminine looking men tended to come out earlier after being labeled gay by their peers More likely to face bullying and harassment throughout their lives 61 they are taunted by derogatory words such as sissy implying feminine qualities Effeminate campy gay men sometimes use what John R Ballew called camp humor such as referring to one another by female pronouns according to Ballew a funny way of defusing hate directed toward us gay men however such humor can cause us gay men to become confused in relation to how we feel about being men 64 He further stated Heterosexual men are sometimes advised to get in touch with their inner feminine Maybe gay men need to get in touch with their inner masculine instead Identifying those aspects of being a man we most value and then cultivate those parts of our selves can lead to a healthier and less distorted sense of our own masculinity 64 A study by the Center for Theoretical Study at Charles University in Prague and the Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic found significant differences in shape among the faces of heterosexual and gay men with gay men having more stereotypically masculine features undermin ing stereotypical notions of gay men as more feminine looking 65 Gay men have been presented in the media as feminine and open to ridicule although films such as Brokeback Mountain are countering the stereotype 64 A recent development is the portrayal of gay men in the LGBT community as bears a subculture of gay men celebrating rugged masculinity 66 67 and secondary sexual characteristics of the male facial hair body hair proportional size baldness 68 Second wave pro feminism paid greater attention to issues of sexuality particularly the relationship between homosexual men and hegemonic masculinity This shift led to increased cooperation between the men s liberation and gay liberation movements developing in part because masculinity was understood as a social construct and in response to the universalization of men in previous men s movements Men s rights activists worked to stop second wave feminists from influencing the gay rights movement promoting hypermasculinity as inherent to gay sexuality 69 Masculinity has played an important role in lesbian culture 70 although lesbians vary widely in the degree to which they express masculinity and femininity In LGBT cultures masculine women are often referred to as butch 71 72 73 Hegemonic masculinity Edit Main article Hegemonic masculinity Contests of physical skill and strength appear in some form in many cultures Here two U S Marines compete in a wrestling match Traditional avenues for men to gain honor were providing for their families and exercising leadership 74 Raewyn Connell has labeled traditional male roles and privileges hegemonic masculinity encouraged in men and discouraged in women Hegemonic masculinity can be defined as the configuration of gender practice which embodies the currently accepted answer to the problem of the legitimacy of patriarchy which guarantees the dominant position of men and the subordination of women 19 77 Connell 1987 placed emphasis on heterosexuality and its influence on the construction of gender From this perspective there is a dominant hegemonic and idealized form of masculinity in every social system and an apotheosized form of femininity that is considered proper for men and women This idealized form of masculinity hegemonic masculinity legitimates and normalizes certain performances of men and pathologizes marginalizes and subordinates any other expressions of masculinities or femininities masculine and feminine subject positions Alongside hegemonic masculinity Connell postulated that there are other forms of masculinities marginalized and subordinated which according to a plethora of studies are constructed in oppressive ways Thorne 1993 This is symptomatic of the fact that hegemonic masculinity is relational which means that it is constructed in relation to and against an Other emphasized femininity marginalized and subordinated masculinities 75 In addition to describing forceful articulations of violent masculine identities hegemonic masculinity has also been used to describe implicit indirect or coercive forms of gendered socialization enacted through video games fashion humor and so on 76 Precarious manhood Edit Researchers have argued that the precariousness of manhood contributes to traditionally masculine behavior 77 Precarious means that manhood is not inborn but must be achieved In many cultures boys endure painful initiation rituals to become men Manhood may also be lost as when a man is derided for not being a man Researchers have found that men respond to threats to their manhood by engaging in stereotypically masculine behaviors and beliefs such as supporting hierarchy espousing homophobic beliefs supporting aggression and choosing physical tasks over intellectual ones 78 non primary source needed In 2014 Winegard and Geary wrote that the precariousness of manhood involves social status prestige or dominance and manhood may be more or less precarious due to the avenues men have for achieving status 79 In women Edit Vaudeville trapeze artist and strongwoman Charmion Although often ignored in discussions of masculinity women can also express masculine traits and behaviors 80 81 In Western culture female masculinity has been codified into identities such as tomboy and butch Although female masculinity is often associated with lesbianism expressing masculinity is not necessarily related to a woman s sexuality In feminist philosophy female masculinity is often characterized as a type of gender performance which challenges traditional masculinity and male dominance 82 Zachary A Kramer argues that the discussion of masculinity should be opened up to include constructions of masculinity that uniquely affect women 83 Masculine women are often subject to social stigma and harassment although the influence of the feminist movement has led to greater acceptance of women expressing masculinity in recent decades 84 Women who participate in sports especially male dominated sports are sometimes derided as being masculine Even though most sports emphasize stereotypically masculine qualities such as strength competition and aggression women who participate in sports are still expected to conform to strictly feminine gender norms This is known as the female athlete paradox Although traditional gender norms are gradually changing female athletes especially those that participate in male dominated sports such as boxing weight lifting American football rugby ice hockey and motorsport are still often viewed as deviating from the boundaries of femininity and may suffer negative repercussions 85 86 Women face a similar paradox in the business world as corporate leadership roles are widely associated with stereotypically masculine characteristics Women who adopt these characteristics may be more successful but also more disliked due to not conforming with expected feminine stereotypes 87 According to a study in the UK women with stereotypically masculine personality traits are more likely to gain access to high paying occupations than women with feminine personality traits 88 According to another study conducted in Germany women who fit the stereotypical masculine gender role are generally more successful in their careers 89 Health Edit A British soldier drinks a pint glass of beer after his return from Afghanistan Fighting in wars and drinking alcohol are both traditionally masculine activities in many cultures Evidence points to the negative impact of hegemonic masculinity on men s health related behavior with American men making 134 5 million fewer physician visits per year than women Twenty five percent of men aged 45 to 60 do not have a personal physician increasing their risk of death from heart disease Men between 25 and 65 are four times more likely to die from cardiovascular disease than women and are more likely to be diagnosed with a terminal illness because of their reluctance to see a doctor Reasons cited for not seeing a physician include fear denial embarrassment a dislike of situations out of their control and the belief that visiting a doctor is not worth the time or cost 90 Studies of men in North America and Europe show that men who consume alcoholic drinks often do so in order to fulfill certain social expectations of manliness While the causes of drinking and alcoholism are complex and varied gender roles and social expectations have a strong influence encouraging men to drink 91 92 In 2004 Arran Stibbe published an analysis of a well known men s health magazine in 2000 According to Stibbe although the magazine ostensibly focused on health it also promoted traditional masculine behaviors such as excessive consumption of convenience foods and meat alcohol consumption and unsafe sex 93 Masculinity and sexual health is also a complex issue in the Global South as well In South Africa HIV transmission was one of the significant reasons for the development of masculinities research 94 Risky actions commonly representative of toxic masculinity are also present in Western and Chinese male clients attitudes and behaviors toward female sex workers in China s commercial sex industry While many male clients frequently exhibited physical violence toward the female workers in order to more overtly display their manliness some men also admitted to being more sexually aggressive at times and purposefully having unprotected sex without the worker s knowledge 95 Research on beer commercial content by Lance Strate 96 yielded results relevant to a study of masculinity 97 In beer commercials masculine behavior especially risk taking is encouraged Commercials often focus on situations in which a man overcomes an obstacle in a group working or playing hard construction workers farm workers or cowboys Those involving play have central themes of mastery of nature or each other risk and adventure fishing camping playing sports or socializing in bars There is usually an element of danger and a focus on movement and speed watching fast cars or driving fast The bar is a setting for the measurement of masculinity in skills such as billiards strength and drinking ability 96 Men engage in positive health practices such as reducing fat intake and alcohol to conform to masculine ideals 98 clarification needed Men boys and people who were assigned male at birth face gender policing from people who think they are not masculine enough Gender policing can increase the risk of alcoholism anxiety and depression 99 Criticism EditStudy of the history of masculinity emerged during the 1980s aided by the fields of women s and later gender history Before women s history was examined there was a strict gendering of the public private divide regarding masculinity this meant little study of how men related to the household domesticity and family life 100 Although women s historical role was negated despite the writing of history by and primarily about men a significant portion of the male experience was missing This void was questioned during the late 1970s when women s history began to analyze gender and women to deepen the female experience 101 Joan Scott s seminal article calling for gender studies as an analytical concept to explore society power and discourse laid the foundation for this field 102 According to Scott gender should be used in two ways productive and produced Productive gender examined its role in creating power relationships and produced gender explored the use and change of gender throughout history This has influenced the field of masculinity as seen in Pierre Bourdieu s definition of masculinity produced by society and culture and reproduced in daily life 103 A flurry of work in women s history led to a call for study of the male role initially influenced by psychoanalysis in society and emotional and interpersonal life Connell wrote that these initial works were marked by a high level of generality in broad surveys of cultural norms The scholarship was aware of contemporary societal changes aiming to understand and evolve or liberate the male role in response to feminism 19 28 John Tosh calls for a return to this aim for the history of masculinity to be useful academically and in the public sphere 104 Two concerns over the study of the history of masculinity are that it would stabilize the historical process rather than change it and that a cultural overemphasis on the approach to masculinity lacks the reality of actual experience According to John Tosh masculinity has become a conceptual framework used by historians to enhance their cultural explorations instead of a specialty in its own right 105 This draws attention from reality to representation and meaning not only in the realm of masculinity culture was becoming the bottom line the real historical reality 104 Tosh critiques Martin Francis work in this light because popular culture rather than the experience of family life is the basis for Francis argument 106 Francis uses contemporary literature and film to demonstrate that masculinity was restless shying away from domesticity and commitment during the late 1940s and 1950s 106 Francis wrote that this flight from commitment was most likely to take place at the level of fantasy individual and collective In focusing on culture it is difficult to gauge the degree to which films such as Scott of the Antarctic represented the era s masculine fantasies 106 Michael Roper s call to focus on the subjectivity of masculinity addresses this cultural bias because broad understanding is set aside for an examination of what the relationship of the codes of masculinity is to actual men to existential matters to persons and to their psychic make up Tosh s human experience 107 According to Tosh the culture of masculinity has outlived its usefulness because it cannot fulfill the initial aim of this history to discover how manhood was conditioned and experienced and he urged questions of behaviour and agency 105 His work on Victorian masculinity uses individual experience in letters and sketches to illustrate broader cultural and social customs such as birthing or Christmas traditions 100 Stefan Dudink believes that the methodological approach trying to categorize masculinity as a phenomenon undermined its historiographic development 108 Abigail Solomou Godeau s work on post revolutionary French art addresses a strong constant patriarchy 109 Tosh s overall assessment is that a shift is needed in conceptualizing the topic 105 back to the history of masculinity as a speciality aiming to reach a broader audience rather than as an analytical tool of cultural and social history The importance he places on public history hearkens back to the initial aims of gender history which sought to use history to enlighten and change the present Tosh appeals to historians to live up to the social expectation of their work 105 which would also require a greater focus on subjectivity and masculinity This view is contrary to Dudink s the latter called for an outflanking movement towards the history of masculinity in response to the errors he perceived in the study 108 This would do the opposite of what Tosh called for deconstructing masculinity by not placing it at the center of historical exploration and using discourse and culture as indirect avenues towards a more representational approach In a study of the Low Countries Dudink proposes moving beyond the history of masculinity by embedding analysis into the exploration of nation and nationalism making masculinity a lens through which to view conflict and nation building 110 Martin Francis work on domesticity through a cultural lens moves beyond the history of masculinity because men constantly travelled back and forward across the frontier of domesticity if only in the realm of the imagination normative codes of behavior do not fully encompass the male experience 106 Media images of boys and young men may lead to the persistence of harmful concepts of masculinity According to men s rights activists the media does not address men s rights issues and men are often portrayed negatively in advertising 111 Peter Jackson called hegemonic masculinity economically exploitative and socially oppressive The form of oppression varies from patriarchal controls over women s bodies and reproductive rights through ideologies of domesticity femininity and compulsory heterosexuality to social definitions of the value of work the nature of skill and the differential remuneration of productive and reproductive labor 112 Psychological research Edit According to a paper submitted by Tracy Tylka to the American Psychological Association Instead of seeing a decrease in objectification of women in society there has just been an increase in the objectification of both sexes And you can see that in the media today Men and women restrict food intake in an effort to achieve what they consider an attractively thin body in extreme cases this leads to eating disorders 113 Psychiatrist Thomas Holbrook cited a recent Canadian study indicating that as many as one in six people with eating disorders are men 114 Research in the United Kingdom found Younger men and women who read fitness and fashion magazines could be psychologically harmed by the images of perfect female and male physiques Young women and men exercise excessively in an effort to achieve what they consider an attractively fit and muscular body which may lead to body dysmorphic disorder or muscle dysmorphia 115 116 117 Although the stereotypes may have remained constant the value attached to masculine stereotypes has changed Todd Reeser has argued that masculinity is an unstable phenomenon never ultimately achieved 18 30 31 In January 2019 the American Psychological Association warns that conforming to traditional standards of masculinity can cause harm to mental health 118 Gender role stress Edit According to social learning theory teaching boys to suppress vulnerable emotions as in the saying big boys don t cry is a significant part of gender socialization in Western society 119 120 121 See also Toxic masculinity In 1987 Eisler and Skidmore studied masculinity creating the idea of masculine stress and finding three elements of masculinity which often result in emotional stress The emphasis on prevailing in situations requiring body and fitness Being perceived as emotional The need for adequacy in sexual matters and financial statusBecause of social norms and pressures associated with masculinity men with spinal cord injuries must adapt their self identity to the losses associated with such injuries this may lead to feelings of decreased physical and sexual prowess with lowered self esteem and a loss of male identity Feelings of guilt and overall loss of control are also experienced 122 Research also suggests that men feel social pressure to endorse traditional masculine male models in advertising Brett Martin and Juergen Gnoth 2009 found that although feminine men privately preferred feminine models they expressed a preference for traditional masculine models in public according to the authors this reflected social pressure on men to endorse traditional masculine norms 123 In their book Raising Cain Protecting The Emotional Life of Boys Dan Kindlon and Michael Thompson wrote that although all boys are born loving and empathic exposure to gender socialization the tough male ideal and hypermasculinity limits their ability to function as emotionally healthy adults According to Kindlon and Thompson boys lack the ability to understand and express emotions productively because of the stress imposed by masculine gender roles 124 In the article Sexual Ethics Masculinity and Mutual Vulnerability Rob Cover works to unpack Judith Butler s study of masculinity Cover goes over issues such as sexual assault and how it can be partially explained by hypermasculinity 125 Masculinity in crisis Edit A theory of masculinity in crisis has emerged 126 127 Australian archeologist Peter McAllister said I have a strong feeling that masculinity is in crisis Men are really searching for a role in modern society the things we used to do aren t in much demand anymore 128 Others see the changing labor market as a source of stress Deindustrialization and the replacement of smokestack industries by technology have allowed more women to enter the labor force reducing its emphasis on physical strength 129 86 89 The crisis has also been attributed to the questioning of male dominance and rights granted to men solely on the basis of sex following the feminist movement 129 83 86 British sociologist John MacInnes wrote that masculinity has always been in one crisis or another suggesting that the crises arise from the fundamental incompatibility between the core principle of modernity that all human beings are essentially equal regardless of their sex and the core tenet of patriarchy that men are naturally superior to women and thus destined to rule over them 130 According to John Beynon masculinity and men are often conflated and it is unclear whether masculinity men or both are in crisis He writes that the crisis is not a recent phenomenon illustrating several periods of masculine crisis throughout history some predating the women s movement and post industrial society suggesting that due to masculinity s fluid nature crisis is constitutive of masculinity itself 129 Film scholar Leon Hunt also writes Whenever masculinity s crisis actually started it certainly seems to have been in place by the 1970s 131 East Asian cultures Edit Main articles Herbivore men and Straight man cancer In 2008 the word herbivore men became popular in Japan and was reported worldwide Herbivore men refers to young Japanese men who naturally detach themselves from masculinity Masahiro Morioka characterizes them as men 1 having gentle nature 2 not bound by manliness 3 not aggressive when it comes to romance 4 viewing women as equals and 5 hating emotional pain Herbivore men are severely criticized by men who love masculinity 132 In Chinese and Taiwanese popular culture phrases such as 大 男人 lit big man 死 異 男 lit damned hetero male and 直男癌 lit straight male cancer are used as pejoratives referring to men exhibiting misogyny dominance and homophobia 133 East African cultures Edit During Margrethe Silberschmidt s research of urban and rural men in East Africa she concludes that men experience disempowerment when they cannot not fulfill their role as breadwinner and feel inferior to women when they cannot provide for their family 134 The changes in East Africa s cultural and economic framework can partially be attributed to British colonial rule because it altered the gender division of labor 134 There was an increase in wage labor which led to a demand for more skilled workers in an environment where there were primarily unskilled workers 134 Eventually there was a shift to growing cash crops and the emphasis was put on men to be the breadwinner 134 A man s social value is traditionally connected to his ability to provide so when he can no longer do that it negatively impacts his ego 134 Masculinity is seen as en entity to be protected and when a man feels disempowered he finds other ways to reaffirm their masculinity 134 Research that examines the struggles among men and look into their personal experiences can help to understand the social structures of masculinity 135 In the Global South EditThis section needs additional citations to secondary or tertiary sourcessuch as review articles monographs or textbooks Please add such references to provide context and establish the relevance of any primary research articles cited Unsourced or poorly sourced material may be challenged and removed December 2020 Learn how and when to remove this template message Westernized influence in the media Edit Masculinities as depicted in the media of countries categorized as the Global South can depict stereotypical gender roles in various ways In India such roles have been pushed through Bollywood films 136 Additionally there is some indication that Westernized views of masculinity have been pushed onto a global audience through print media advertisements as well This has been observed in India with the expansion of availability of transnational men s magazines 137 While there is some evidence of Western and specifically North American influence in advertisements found in Chinese and Taiwanese men s magazines as well it seems that more often than not those countries magazines have just adopted a globally uniform perception of masculinity 138 This theme also presents itself in visual depictions of men in Afghanistan and the Democratic Republic of the Congo 139 Sports media outlets have not necessarily promoted a completely Westernized version of masculinity and white male sports icons may have had an impact when presented alongside those players of other races such as Asians or black people A 2019 study found that in Major League Baseball for example Korean players and their respective accomplishments tend to be pushed to the side when compared with white male players in print media and online news outlets 140 Novels may be affected by Westernized perceptions Amjad Alsyouf argues that African novelists Tayeb Salih and Chinua Achebe for example bring some Western influence to the gender roles portrayed in their respective novels 141 Visual portrayals in fashion Edit Masculinity is also an important concept in advertisement branding in the Islamic culture In Kuwait Muslim men must remain vigilant in making sure that their consumption decisions are representative of the socially accepted masculine norms particularly in regard to their fashion choices 142 Additionally advertising in fashion branding choices and its effectiveness has been examined in the context of Chinese male consumers choices Men interested in wearing luxury fashion brands were often more concerned with making sure their choices were visually representative of a more professional and refined person as opposed to someone that simply looked tough or strong 143 This kind of focus on visual portrayals can also appear in media depictions In the Japanese film Sooshokukeidanshi one of the main characters is made to appear like more of an outsider than the other male characters because of his unique style choices being seen as less traditionally masculine than the cultural expectation is in Japan 144 Effects on youth Edit Adharsh Raj and Manash Pratim Goswami write that in India young people often copy negative behaviors seen as being traditionally masculine in Bollywood films 136 Turkish young people can also fall prey to such negative media influence According to Ozlem Akkaya 145 In a 2018 study young males often thought that the violent behavior displayed by the main character Behzat in the Turkish television crime series Behzat C Bir Ankara Polisiyesi was relatable to what they already experienced in their own day to day lives and therefore saw violence as a seemingly reasonable thing to occur in the series 145 Amongst secondary school students in New Zealand a 2017 study found that when examining print media advertisements young girls occasionally fall back into a preconceived idea of what constitutes typical masculine behavior 146 Fatherhood Edit In the Global South many societies still follow very patriarchal norms Through media depictions and real life scenarios men are seen as being the head of the family those that provide financially have decision making power and really are in charge The image of the nuclear family being the societal norm is also ever present in many places When men are not able to fulfill that traditionally masculine fatherly role they may have a difficult time proving themselves as being worthy enough to have relationships with their children 147 In South Africa for example females often take on more of a culturally masculine role in providing for the household due to the high percentage of absent fathers in some communities 148 149 150 Unfortunately fathers decision to desert the mother and their biological child is fairly common in South Africa particularly with regard to those fathers who are younger and come from lower income families They are often trying to provide for their own nuclear families and cannot also fulfill the cultural obligations commonly attached to fatherhood 147 Efforts toward gender equality Edit While gender equality has not been achieved changes are happening in regard to these commonly believed gender roles particularly with gender justice work in the Global South In New Delhi India males are more frequently becoming involved in this work while also trying to remain mindful of how their privileged status as men affects the public perception of what they are doing 151 In Pakistan and Afghanistan the tide is also turning and men s involvement in opposing violence against women is generally seen as being very positive a good thing for all However there are some who still very much see conflict and violence against women as simply going hand in hand with the those cultures 152 Some want to shift the focus from specifically viewing females as the ones deserving of stronger rights to everyone deserving the opportunity to be viewed as an equal however this can create the potential for men to fall back into the mindset of male victimhood as opposed to focusing on female oppression 151 Although gender equality is becoming a more acknowledged topic in South Africa for instance fathers would often rather still hold on to the more traditional gender roles and pass those ideas down to their sons 153 The International Men and Gender Equality Survey IMAGES has also been developed and the results from countries in the Global South studied more in recent years Although the survey indicated areas for further improvement a significant recent finding comes in regard to men s childhood upbringing and their attitudes surrounding gender equality If men were raised seeing more equal division of household labor tasks older female relatives working in non traditional occupations less violence toward females etc those behaviors and attitudes had a tendency to carry over into their adult lives according to the survey 154 A 2012 study found some evidence that youth have perhaps inadvertently made contributions toward greater acceptance of gender equality Popular culture consumed by youth and those of lesser social status in East Asia including manga singing competitions bands and more are starting to showcase more modernized males that combine some stereotypically masculine and feminine aspects in their behaviors 155 In South Africa stricter governmental policies are being put into place regarding abuse and violence Additionally initiatives like the One Man Can program were formed which aim to provide HIV prevention and an anti violence program to men in the country 156 The We Can End Violence against Women campaign is another anti violence initiative in Pakistan developed by the Oxfam GB group in South Asia In 2019 the program garnered much voluntary male participation in its gender equality work out of Afghanistan and Pakistan 152 See also EditEmasculation Gender role Men s World Day Model of masculinity under fascist Italy Mythopoetic men s movement Virility Christian manliness FemininityReferences Edit a b Shehan Constance L 2018 Gale Researcher Guide for The Continuing Significance of Gender Gale Cengage Learning pp 1 5 ISBN 9781535861175 a b c d Martin Hale Finn Stephen E 2010 Masculinity and Femininity in the MMPI 2 and MMPI A University of Minnesota Press pp 5 13 ISBN 978 0 8166 2444 7 a b c d e Lippa Richard A 2005 Gender Nature and Nurture 2nd ed Routledge pp 153 154 218 225 ISBN 9781135604257 a b c d e Wharton Amy S 2005 The Sociology of Gender An Introduction to Theory and Research John Wiley amp Sons pp 29 31 ISBN 978 1 40 514343 1 Ferrante Joan January 2010 Sociology A Global Perspective 7th ed Belmont CA Thomson Wadsworth pp 269 272 ISBN 978 0 8400 3204 1 What do we mean by sex and gender World Health Organization Archived from the original on 8 September 2014 Halberstam Judith 2004 Female masculinity In Kimmel Michael S Aronson Amy eds Men and Masculinities A Social Cultural and Historical Encyclopedia Volume 1 Santa Barbara Calif ABC CLIO pp 294 5 ISBN 978 1 57 607774 0 Kimmel Michael S Aronson Amy eds 2004 Men and Masculinities A Social Cultural and Historical Encyclopedia Volume 1 Santa Barbara Calif ABC CLIO p xxiii ISBN 978 1 57 607774 0 Kimmel Michael S 1994 Masculinity as Homophobia Fear Shame and Silence in the Construction of Gender Identity Theorizing Masculinities Thousand Oaks SAGE Publications Inc pp 119 141 doi 10 4135 9781452243627 ISBN 9780803949041 Vetterling Braggin Mary 1982 Introduction Femininity masculinity and androgyny a modern philosophical discussion Totowa N J Littlefield Adams p 6 ISBN 9780822603993 the personality theorist might classify a person as masculine if the person thought that person to have any or all of the following P traits personality traits GROUP Y TRAITS strength of will ambition courage independence assertiveness aggressiveness Carli Linda L 2001 Assertiveness In Worell Judith ed Encyclopedia of women and gender sex similarities and differences and the impact of society on gender Volume 1 San Diego California Academic Press pp 157 168 ISBN 9780122272462 Thomas R Murray 2001 Feminist perspectives in Thomas R Murray ed 2001 Recent theories of human development Thousand Oaks California SAGE p 248 ISBN 9780761922476 Gender feminists also consider traditional feminine traits gentleness modesty humility sacrifice supportiveness empathy compassion tenderness nurturance intuitiveness sensitivity unselfishness morally superior to the traditional masculine traits courage strong will ambition independence assertiveness initiative rationality and emotional control Pearson Ruth December 2000 All Change Men Women and Reproductive Work in the Global Economy The European Journal of Development Research 12 2 219 237 doi 10 1080 09578810008426773 ISSN 0957 8811 S2CID 153869428 Bradley Rolla M 2008 Masculinity and self perception of men identified as informal leaders PhD thesis University of the Incarnate Word OCLC 1004500685 View online preview Flood Michael 2007 International encyclopedia of men and masculinities London New York Routledge p viii ISBN 9780415333436 Butler Judith 2006 1990 Gender trouble feminism and the subversion of identity New York London Routledge ISBN 9780415389556 Laurie Timothy 2014 The ethics of nobody I know gender and the politics of 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ETNEWS新聞雲 鍵盤大檸檬 in Chinese Taiwan Retrieved 16 July 2017 a b c d e f Silberschmidt Margrethe 1 April 2001 Disempowerment of Men in Rural and Urban East Africa Implications for Male Identity and Sexual Behavior World Development 29 4 657 671 doi 10 1016 S0305 750X 00 00122 4 ISSN 0305 750X White Sarah C 1 June 1997 Men masculinities and the politics of development Gender amp Development 5 2 14 22 doi 10 1080 741922357 ISSN 1355 2074 PMID 12292610 a b Raj Adharsh Goswami Manash Pratim June 2020 Is Macho the In thing Effects of the Representation of Masculinity in Bollywood Cinema on Youngsters Global Media Journal Indian Edition 12 1 1 24 Mishra Suman December 2017 Looking westwards Men in transnational men s magazine advertising in India Global Media and Communication 13 3 249 266 doi 10 1177 1742766517734254 ISSN 1742 7665 S2CID 149389725 Shaw Ping Tan Yue 18 February 2014 Race and Masculinity A Comparison of Asian and Western Models in Men s Lifestyle Magazine Advertisements Journalism amp Mass Communication Quarterly 91 1 118 138 doi 10 1177 1077699013514410 S2CID 145119356 Myrttinen Henri 2 October 2017 Depictions and reflections photographing visualizations of masculinities in Afghanistan and Democratic Republic of the Congo International Feminist Journal of Politics 19 4 530 536 doi 10 1080 14616742 2017 1364910 ISSN 1461 6742 S2CID 148885845 Choi Yeomi 29 January 2019 Major League Baseball and Racialized Masculinities in Korean Digital Media Communication amp Sport 8 2 168 187 doi 10 1177 2167479519825618 S2CID 150733468 Alsyouf Amjad 1 December 2018 Hegemonic Masculinity in Archetypal African Novels Informasi 48 2 169 179 doi 10 21831 informasi v48i2 21657 ISSN 2502 3837 Al Mutawa Fajer Saleh 1 January 2016 Negotiating Muslim masculinity androgynous spaces within feminized fashion Journal of Fashion Marketing and Management 20 1 19 33 doi 10 1108 JFMM 11 2014 0080 ISSN 1361 2026 Jiang Jiani Huhmann Bruce A Hyman Michael R 20 November 2019 Emerging 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2018 1502161 ISSN 0966 369X S2CID 150074837 Lesch Elmien Brooks Shannon 1 August 2019 Man Talk Exploring Sexual Communication Between Fathers and Sons in a Minority South African Community Sex Roles 81 3 173 191 doi 10 1007 s11199 018 0988 3 ISSN 1573 2762 S2CID 149873689 Levtov Ruti Galia Barker Gary Contreras Urbina Manuel Heilman Brian Verma Ravi 6 November 2014 Pathways to Gender equitable Men Findings from the International Men and Gender Equality Survey in Eight Countries Men and Masculinities 17 5 467 501 doi 10 1177 1097184X14558234 S2CID 145452643 Louie Kam November 2012 Popular Culture and Masculinity Ideals in East Asia with Special Reference to China The Journal of Asian Studies 71 4 929 943 doi 10 1017 S0021911812001234 ISSN 0021 9118 Dworkin Shari L Hatcher Abigail M Colvin Chris Peacock Dean June 2013 Impact of a Gender Transformative HIV and Antiviolence Program on Gender Ideologies and Masculinities in Two Rural South African Communities Men and Masculinities 16 2 181 202 doi 10 1177 1097184X12469878 ISSN 1097 184X PMC 3848879 PMID 24311940 Further reading EditContemporary Edit Arrindell Willem A 1 October 2005 Masculine gender role stress Psychiatric Times XXII 11 31 Arrindell Willem A et al September December 2003 Masculine gender role stress a potential predictor of phobic and obsessive compulsive behaviour Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry 34 3 4 251 267 doi 10 1016 j jbtep 2003 10 002 PMID 14972672 Ashe Fidelma 2006 The New Politics of Masculinity Men Power and Resistance London New York Routledge ISBN 9781281062505 Biddulph Steve 2010 The new manhood The handbook for a new kind of man Warriewood N S W Finch Pub ISBN 978 1876451882 Broom Alex Tovey Philip eds 2009 Men s health body identity and social context Chichester West Sussex U K Hoboken New Jersey John Wiley amp Sons ISBN 9780470516560 Buchbinder David 2014 Deciphering men reading the masculine in Modern Family Qualitative Research Journal 14 1 16 27 doi 10 1108 QRJ 03 2014 0003 Burstin Fay 15 October 2005 What s killing men Herald Sun Melbourne Coffey Glover Laura 2015 Ideologies of masculinity in women s magazines a critical stylistic approach PDF Gender and Language 9 3 337 364 doi 10 1558 genl v9i3 17360 Corneau Guy 1991 Absent fathers lost sons the search for masculine identity Boston New York Shambhala ISBN 9780877736035 Courtenay Will H May 2000 Constructions of masculinity and their influence on men s well being a theory of gender and health PDF Social Science amp Medicine 50 10 1385 1401 CiteSeerX 10 1 1 462 4452 doi 10 1016 S0277 9536 99 00390 1 PMID 10741575 Durham Meenakshi G Oates Thomas P 2004 The mismeasure of masculinity the male body race and power in the enumerative discourses of the NFL Draft Patterns of Prejudice 38 3 301 320 doi 10 1080 0031322042000250475 S2CID 146256628 Eldredge John 2001 Wild at heart discovering the secret of a man s soul Nashville Tennessee T Nelson ISBN 9780785218951 Evans Joan et al March 2011 Health Illness Men and Masculinities HIMM a theoretical framework for understanding men and their health PDF Journal of Men s Health 8 1 7 15 doi 10 1016 j jomh 2010 09 227 hdl 1903 24529 Archived from the original PDF on 8 February 2016 Retrieved 14 June 2017 Galdas Paul M Cheater Francine M 2010 Indian and Pakistani men s accounts of seeking medical help for cardiac chest pain in the United Kingdom constructions of marginalised masculinity or another version of hegemonic masculinity Qualitative Research in Psychology 7 2 122 139 doi 10 1080 14780880802571168 S2CID 143576618 Halberstam Jack 1998 Female masculinity Durham Duke University Press ISBN 9780822322436 Hamber Brandon December 2007 Masculinity and transitional justice an exploratory essay International Journal of Transitional Justice 1 3 375 390 doi 10 1093 ijtj ijm037 S2CID 145584255 hooks bell 2004 We real cool Black men and masculinity New York Routledge ISBN 9780415969277 Juergensmeyer Mark 2003 Why Guys Throw Bombs PDF Terror in the Mind of God The Global Rise of Religious Violence ౩rd ed Berkeley University of California Press pp 198 210 ISBN 978 0 52 024011 7 Archived from the original PDF on 3 November 2006 Kang John M 2013 Does manly courage exist Nevada Law Journal 13 2 10 Kimmel Michael Messner Michael eds 2001 Men s lives 5th ed Boston Allyn and Bacon ISBN 9780205321056 Lawson Robert 2013 The construction of tough masculinity Negotiation alignment and rejection Gender and Language 7 3 369 395 doi 10 1558 genl v7i3 369 Levant Ronald F Pollack William S eds 1995 A new psychology of men New York Basic Books ISBN 9780465039166 Levant Ronald F Wong Y Joel 2017 The Psychology of Men and Masculinities Washington D C American Psychological Association ISBN 978 1 43 382690 0 Levine Martin 1998 Gay macho the life and death of the homosexual clone New York New York University Press ISBN 9780814746943 Lupton Ben March 2006 Explaining men s entry into female concentrated occupations issues of masculinity and social class Gender Work and Organization 13 2 103 128 doi 10 1111 j 1468 0432 2006 00299 x S2CID 145124069 Mansfield Harvey 2006 Manliness New Haven CT Yale University Press ISBN 9780300106640 Reeser T 2010 Masculinities in Theory Wiley Blackwell Malden MA Robinson L 21 October 2005 Not just boys being boys Brutal hazings are a product of a culture of masculinity defined by violence aggression and domination Ottawa Citizen Ottawa Ontario Shapiro Stephen A 1984 Manhood a new definition New York Putnam ISBN 9780399129926 Shuttleworth Russell 2004 Disabled masculinity in Smith Bonnie G Hutchison Beth eds Gendering disability New Brunswick New Jersey Rutgers University Press pp 166 178 ISBN 9780813533735 Simpson Mark 1994 Male impersonators men performing masculinity New York NY Routledge ISBN 9780415909914 Also available as Simpson Mark 1993 Male impersonators men performing masculinity London Cassell ISBN 9780304328086 Stephenson June 1995 Men are not cost effective male crime in America New York HarperPerennial ISBN 9780060950989 Tozer Malcolm 2015 The ideal of manliness the legacy of Thring s Uppingham Truro Sunnyrest Books ISBN 9781329542730 Walsh Fintan 2010 Male trouble masculinity and the performance of crisis Basingstoke Hampshire England New York Palgrave Macmillan ISBN 9781349368242 Williamson P 29 November 1995 Their own worst enemy Nursing Times 91 48 24 27 OCLC 937998604 Wong Y Joel et al 2017 Meta analyses of the relationship between conformity to masculine norms and mental health related outcomes PDF Journal of Counseling Psychology 64 1 80 93 doi 10 1037 cou0000176 PMID 27869454 S2CID 8385 World Health Organization 2000 What About Boys A Literature Review on the Health and Development of Adolescent Boys PDF Geneva Switzerland WHO FCH CAH 00 7 Wray Herbert 26 September 2005 Survival skills U S News amp World Report Vol 139 no 11 p 63 Historical Edit Buchbinder David 2013 Color and movement the male dancer masculinity and race in film In Jackson II Ronald L Moshin Jamie E eds Communicating marginalized masculinities identity politics in TV film and new media Routledge Studies in Rhetoric and Communication New York Routledge pp 65 79 ISBN 9780415623070 Jenkins Earnestine Clark Hine Darlene 1999 A question of manhood a reader in U S Black men s history and masculinity Bloomington Indiana University Press ISBN 9780253213433 Kimmel Michael 2012 1996 Manhood in America A Cultural History 3rd ed New York Oxford University Press ISBN 9780199781553 Laurie Ross 1999 Masculinity in Boyd Kelly ed Encyclopedia of Historians and Historical Writing vol 2 Taylor amp Francis pp 778 80 ISBN 9781884964336 Historiography Pleck Elizabeth Hafkin Pleck Joseph H 1980 The American man Englewood Cliffs New Jersey Prentice Hall ISBN 9780130281425 Pozzo Barbara 2013 Masculinity Italian style Nevada Law Journal 13 2 15 Taylor Gary 2002 Castration an abbreviated history of western manhood New York Routledge ISBN 9780415938815 Theweleit Klaus 1987 Male fantasies Minneapolis University of Minnesota Press ISBN 9780816614516 Stearns Peter N 1990 Be a man males in modern society New York Holmes amp Meier ISBN 9780841912816 External links Edit Wikiquote has quotations related to Masculinity Look up masculinity in Wiktionary the free dictionary Bibliographic The Men s Bibliography a comprehensive bibliography of writing on men masculinities gender and sexualities listing over 16 700 works mainly from a constructionist perspective Boyhood Studies features a 2200 bibliography of young masculinities Other Men in America series by National Public Radio Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Masculinity amp oldid 1134244458, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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