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Alps

January 09, 2023

"Alpe" redirects here. For the German river, see Alpe (river). For ‌other uses, see Alps (disambiguation).

The Alps (/ælps/)[a] are the highest and most extensive mountain range system that lies entirely in Europe,[b][2] stretching approximately 1,200 km (750 mi) across seven Alpine countries (from west to east): France, Switzerland, Italy, Liechtenstein, Austria, Germany, and Slovenia.[c][4]

Alps
The Alps seen from outer space, taken from the International Space Station
Highest point
PeakMont Blanc
Elevation4,808.73 m (15,776.7 ft)[1]
Coordinates45°49′58″N 06°51′54″E / 45.83278°N 6.86500°E / 45.83278; 6.86500
Dimensions
Length1,200 km (750 mi)
Width250 km (160 mi)
Area200,000 km2 (77,000 sq mi)
Naming
Native name
Geography
Relief of the Alps. See also map with international borders marked.
Countries
Range coordinates46°30′N 09°19′E / 46.500°N 9.317°E / 46.500; 9.317
Geology
OrogenyAlpine orogeny
Age of rockTertiary
Type of rock

The Alpine arch generally extends from Nice on the western Mediterranean to Trieste on the Adriatic and Vienna at the beginning of the Pannonian Basin. The mountains were formed over tens of millions of years as the African and Eurasian tectonic plates collided. Extreme shortening caused by the event resulted in marine sedimentary rocks rising by thrusting and folding into high mountain peaks such as Mont Blanc and the Matterhorn.

Mont Blanc spans the French–Italian border, and at 4,809 m (15,778 ft) is the highest mountain in the Alps. The Alpine region area contains 128 peaks higher than 4,000 m (13,000 ft).

The altitude and size of the range affect the climate in Europe; in the mountains, precipitation levels vary greatly and climatic conditions consist of distinct zones. Wildlife such as ibex live in the higher peaks to elevations of 3,400 m (11,155 ft), and plants such as edelweiss grow in rocky areas in lower elevations as well as in higher elevations.

Evidence of human habitation in the Alps goes back to the Palaeolithic era. A mummified man, determined to be 5,000 years old, was discovered on a glacier at the Austrian–Italian border in 1991.

By the 6th century BC, the Celtic La Tène culture was well established. Hannibal notably crossed the Alps with a herd of elephants, and the Romans had settlements in the region. In 1800, Napoleon crossed one of the mountain passes with an army of 40,000. The 18th and 19th centuries saw an influx of naturalists, writers, and artists, in particular, the Romantics, followed by the golden age of alpinism as mountaineers began to ascend the peaks.

The Alpine region has a strong cultural identity. The traditional culture of farming, cheesemaking, and woodworking still exists in Alpine villages, although the tourist industry began to grow early in the 20th century and expanded greatly after World War II to become the dominant industry by the end of the century.

The Winter Olympic Games have been hosted in the Swiss, French, Italian, Austrian and German Alps. As of 2010, the region is home to 14 million people and has 120 million annual visitors.[5]

Etymology and toponymy

See also: Albion § Etymology
 
An "Alp" refers to a high elevation pasture frequented only in summer. It often includes several huts and small places of worship (here the Alpe Bardughè in Ticino).

The English word Alps comes from the Latin Alpes.

The Latin word Alpes could possibly come from the adjective albus[6] ("white"), or could possibly come from the Greek goddess Alphito, whose name is related to alphita, the "white flour"; alphos, a dull white leprosy; and finally the Proto-Indo-European word *albʰós. Similarly, the river god Alpheus is also supposed to derive from the Greek alphos and means whitish.[7]

In his commentary on the Aeneid of Vergil, the late fourth-century grammarian Maurus Servius Honoratus says that all high mountains are called Alpes by Celts.[8]

According to the Oxford English Dictionary, the Latin Alpes might derive from a pre-Indo-European word *alb "hill"; "Albania" is a related derivation. Albania, a name not native to the region known as the country of Albania, has been used as a name for several mountainous areas across Europe.

In Roman times, "Albania" was a name for the eastern Caucasus, while in the English languages "Albania" (or "Albany") was occasionally used as a name for Scotland,[9] although it is more likely derived from the Latin word albus,[6] the color white.

In modern languages the term alp, alm, albe or alpe refers to a grazing pastures in the alpine regions below the glaciers, not the peaks.[10]

An alp refers to a high mountain pasture, typically near or above the tree line, where cows and other livestock are taken to be grazed during the summer months and where huts and hay barns can be found, sometimes constituting tiny hamlets. Therefore, the term "the Alps", as a reference to the mountains, is a misnomer.[11][12] The term for the mountain peaks varies by nation and language: words such as Horn, Kogel, Kopf, Gipfel, Spitze, Stock, and Berg are used in German-speaking regions; Mont, Pic, Tête, Pointe, Dent, Roche, and Aiguille in French-speaking regions; and Monte, Picco, Corno, Punta, Pizzo, or Cima in Italian-speaking regions.[13]

Geography

Main article: Geography of the Alps
 
The Alps extend in an arc from France in the south and west to Slovenia in the east, and from Monaco in the south to Germany in the north.

The Alps are a crescent shaped geographic feature of central Europe that ranges in an 800 km (500 mi) arc (curved line) from east to west and is 200 km (120 mi) in width. The mean height of the mountain peaks is 2.5 km (1.6 mi).[14] The range stretches from the Mediterranean Sea north above the Po basin, extending through France from Grenoble, and stretching eastward through mid and southern Switzerland. The range continues onward toward Vienna, Austria, and east to the Adriatic Sea and Slovenia.[15][16][17]

To the south it dips into northern Italy and to the north extends to the southern border of Bavaria in Germany.[17] In areas like Chiasso, Switzerland, and Allgäu, Bavaria, the demarcation between the mountain range and the flatlands are clear; in other places such as Geneva, the demarcation is less clear.

The countries with the greatest alpine territory are Austria (28.7% of the total area), Italy (27.2%), France (21.4%) and Switzerland (13.2%).[18]

 
Aerial view of the Pennine Alps, the second-highest range of the Alps

The highest portion of the range is divided by the glacial trough of the Rhône valley, from Mont Blanc to the Matterhorn and Monte Rosa on the southern side, and the Bernese Alps on the northern. The peaks in the easterly portion of the range, in Austria and Slovenia, are smaller than those in the central and western portions.[17]

The variances in nomenclature in the region spanned by the Alps make classification of the mountains and subregions difficult, but a general classification is that of the Eastern Alps and Western Alps with the divide between the two occurring in eastern Switzerland according to geologist Stefan Schmid,[10] near the Splügen Pass.

 
A typical alpine village in the Tuxertal valley of Tyrol, Austria

The highest peaks of the Western Alps and Eastern Alps, respectively, are Mont Blanc, at 4,810 m (15,780 ft)[19] and Piz Bernina at 4,049 m (13,284 ft). The second-highest major peaks are Monte Rosa at 4,634 m (15,203 ft) and Ortler,[20] at 3,905 m (12,810 ft), respectively.

A Series of lower mountain ranges run parallel to the main chain of the Alps, including the French Prealps in France and the Jura Mountains in Switzerland and France. The secondary chain of the Alps follows the watershed from the Mediterranean Sea to the Wienerwald, passing over many of the highest and most well-known peaks in the Alps. From the Colle di Cadibona to Col de Tende it runs westwards, before turning to the northwest and then, near the Colle della Maddalena, to the north. Upon reaching the Swiss border, the line of the main chain heads approximately east-northeast, a heading it follows until its end near Vienna.[21]

The northeast end of the Alpine arc directly on the Danube, which flows into the Black Sea, is the Leopoldsberg near Vienna. In contrast, the southeastern part of the Alps ends on the Adriatic Sea in the area around Trieste towards Duino and Barcola.[22]

Passes

See also: Principal passes of the Alps
 
Teufelsbrücke (Devil's Bridge) on the route to the Gotthard Pass; the currently used bridge from 1958 over the first drivable bridge from 1830

The Alps have been crossed for war and commerce, and by pilgrims, students and tourists. Crossing routes by road, train, or foot are known as passes, and usually consist of depressions in the mountains in which a valley leads from the plains and hilly pre-mountainous zones.[23]

In the medieval period hospices were established by religious orders at the summits of many of the main passes.[12] The most important passes are the Col de l'Iseran (the highest), the Col Agnel, the Brenner Pass, the Mont-Cenis, the Great St. Bernard Pass, the Col de Tende, the Gotthard Pass, the Semmering Pass, the Simplon Pass, and the Stelvio Pass.[24]

Crossing the Italian-Austrian border, the Brenner Pass separates the Ötztal Alps and Zillertal Alps and has been in use as a trading route since the 14th century. The lowest of the Alpine passes at 985 m (3,232 ft), the Semmering crosses from Lower Austria to Styria; since the 12th century when a hospice was built there, it has seen continuous use. A railroad with a tunnel 1.6 km (1 mi) long was built along the route of the pass in the mid-19th century. With a summit of 2,469 m (8,100 ft), the Great St. Bernard Pass is one of the highest in the Alps, crossing the Italian-Swiss border east of the Pennine Alps along the flanks of Mont Blanc. The pass was used by Napoleon Bonaparte to cross 40,000 troops in 1800.[25]

 
The col du Mont-Cenis (2,081 m (6,827 ft)) at the centre left of the picture gives access to a large alpine lake, and further away to the Italian peninsula 12 kilometres (7.5 mi) beyond the pass.

The Mont Cenis pass has been a major commercial and military road between Western Europe and Italy. The pass was crossed by many troops on their way to the Italian peninsula. From Constantine I, Pepin the Short and Charlemagne to Henry IV, Napoléon and more recently the German Gebirgsjägers during World War II.[26]

Now the pass has been supplanted by the Fréjus Highway Tunnel (opened 1980) and Rail Tunnel (opened 1871).[27]

The Saint Gotthard Pass crosses from Central Switzerland to Ticino; in 1882 the 15 km-long (9.3 mi) Saint Gotthard Railway Tunnel was opened connecting Lucerne in Switzerland, with Milan in Italy. 98 years later followed Gotthard Road Tunnel (16.9 km (10.5 mi) long) connecting the A2 motorway in Göschenen on the north side with Airolo on the south side, exactly like the railway tunnel.[28]

On 1 June 2016 the world's longest railway tunnel, the Gotthard Base Tunnel was opened, which connects Erstfeld in canton of Uri with Bodio in canton of Ticino by two single tubes of 57.1 km (35.5 mi).[29]

It is the first tunnel that traverses the Alps on a flat route.[30]

From 11 December 2016, it has been part of the regular railway timetable and used hourly as standard ride between Basel/Lucerne/Zurich and Bellinzona/Lugano/Milan.[31]

The highest pass in the alps is the Col de l'Iseran in Savoy (France) at 2,770 m (9,088 ft), followed by the Stelvio Pass in northern Italy at 2,756 m (9,042 ft); the road was built in the 1820s.[24]

Highest mountains

See also: List of Alpine four-thousanders
 
The Eiger (shown along with the Mönch and the Jungfrau) has the tallest north face in the Alps.

The Union Internationale des Associations d'Alpinisme (UIAA) has defined a list of 82 "official" Alpine summits that reach at least 4,000 m (13,123 ft).[32] The list includes not only mountains, but also subpeaks with little prominence that are considered important mountaineering objectives. Below are listed the 29 "four-thousanders" with at least 300 m (984 ft) of prominence.

While Mont Blanc was first climbed in 1786 and the Jungfrau in 1811, most of the Alpine four-thousanders were climbed during the second half of the 19th century, notably Piz Bernina (1850), the Dom (1858), the Grand Combin (1859), the Weisshorn (1861) and the Barre des Écrins (1864); the ascent of the Matterhorn in 1865 marked the end of the golden age of alpinism. Karl Blodig (1859–1956) was among the first to successfully climb all the major 4,000 m peaks. He completed his series of ascents in 1911.[33] Many of the big Alpine three-thousanders were climbed in the early 19th century, notably the Grossglockner (1800) and the Ortler (1804), although some of them were climbed only much later, such at Mont Pelvoux (1848), Monte Viso (1861) and La Meije (1877).

The first British Mont Blanc ascent by a man was in 1788; the first ascent by a woman was in 1808. By the mid-1850s Swiss mountaineers had ascended most of the peaks and were eagerly sought as mountain guides. Edward Whymper reached the top of the Matterhorn in 1865 (after seven attempts), and in 1938 the last of the six great north faces of the Alps was climbed with the first ascent of the Eiger Nordwand (north face of the Eiger).[34]

The 29 Alpine four-thousanders with at least 300 metres of topographic prominence[35]
Name Height Name Height Name Height
Mont Blanc 4,810 m (15,781 ft) Grandes Jorasses 4,208 m (13,806 ft) Barre des Écrins 4,102 m (13,458 ft)
Monte Rosa 4,634 m (15,203 ft) Alphubel 4,206 m (13,799 ft) Schreckhorn 4,078 m (13,379 ft)
Dom 4,545 m (14,911 ft) Rimpfischhorn 4,199 m (13,776 ft) Ober Gabelhorn 4,063 m (13,330 ft)
Lyskamm 4,533 m (14,872 ft) Aletschhorn 4,193 m (13,757 ft) Gran Paradiso 4,061 m (13,323 ft)
Weisshorn 4,506 m (14,783 ft) Strahlhorn 4,190 m (13,747 ft) Piz Bernina 4,049 m (13,284 ft)
Matterhorn 4,478 m (14,692 ft) Dent d'Hérens 4,174 m (13,694 ft) Gross Fiescherhorn 4,049 m (13,284 ft)
Dent Blanche 4,357 m (14,295 ft) Breithorn 4,164 m (13,661 ft) Gross Grünhorn 4,047 m (13,278 ft)
Grand Combin 4,314 m (14,154 ft) Jungfrau 4,158 m (13,642 ft) Weissmies 4,017 m (13,179 ft)
Finsteraarhorn 4,274 m (14,022 ft) Aiguille Verte 4,122 m (13,524 ft) Lagginhorn 4,010 m (13,156 ft)
Zinalrothorn 4,221 m (13,848 ft) Mönch 4,107 m (13,474 ft) list continued here

Geology and orogeny

Main articles: Alpine orogeny and Geology of the Alps

Important geological concepts were established as naturalists began studying the rock formations of the Alps in the 18th century. In the mid-19th century, the now-defunct theory of geosynclines was used to explain the presence of "folded" mountain chains but by the mid-20th century the theory of plate tectonics became widely accepted.[36]

 
The geologic folding seen at the Arpanaz waterfall, shown here in a mid-18th-century drawing, was noted by 18th-century geologists.[37]

The formation of the Alps (the Alpine orogeny) was an episodic process that began about 300 million years ago.[38] In the Paleozoic Era the Pangaean supercontinent consisted of a single tectonic plate; it broke into separate plates during the Mesozoic Era and the Tethys sea developed between Laurasia and Gondwana during the Jurassic Period.[36] The Tethys was later squeezed between colliding plates causing the formation of mountain ranges called the Alpide belt, from Gibraltar through the Himalayas to Indonesia—a process that began at the end of the Mesozoic and continues into the present. The formation of the Alps was a segment of this orogenic process,[36] caused by the collision between the African and the Eurasian plates[39] that began in the late Cretaceous Period.[40]

Under extreme compressive stresses and pressure, marine sedimentary rocks were uplifted, creating characteristic recumbent folds, or nappes, and thrust faults.[41] As the rising peaks underwent erosion, a layer of marine flysch sediments was deposited in the foreland basin, and the sediments became involved in younger nappes (folds) as the orogeny progressed. Coarse sediments from the continual uplift and erosion were later deposited in foreland areas as molasse.[39] The molasse regions in Switzerland and Bavaria were well-developed and saw further upthrusting of flysch.[42]

 
The dolomitic peaks of Triglav National Park in the Julian Alps

The Alpine orogeny occurred in ongoing cycles through to the Paleogene causing differences in nappe structures, with a late-stage orogeny causing the development of the Jura Mountains.[43] A series of tectonic events in the Triassic, Jurassic and Cretaceous periods caused different paleogeographic regions.[43] The Alps are subdivided by different lithology (rock composition) and nappe structures according to the orogenic events that affected them.[10] The geological subdivision differentiates the Western, Eastern Alps, and Southern Alps: the Helveticum in the north, the Penninicum and Austroalpine system in the centre and, south of the Periadriatic Seam, the Southern Alpine system.[44]

 
Compressed metamorphosed Tethyan sediments and their oceanic basement are sandwiched between the tip of the Matterhorn (Italian-Swiss border), which consists of gneisses originally part of the African plate, and the base of the peak, which is part of the Eurasian plate.[37]

According to geologist Stefan Schmid, because the Western Alps underwent a metamorphic event in the Cenozoic Era while the Austroalpine peaks underwent an event in the Cretaceous Period, the two areas show distinct differences in nappe formations.[43] Flysch deposits in the Southern Alps of Lombardy probably occurred in the Cretaceous or later.[43]

Peaks in France, Italy and Switzerland lie in the "Houillière zone", which consists of basement with sediments from the Mesozoic Era.[44] High "massifs" with external sedimentary cover are more common in the Western Alps and were affected by Neogene Period thin-skinned thrusting whereas the Eastern Alps have comparatively few high peaked massifs.[42] Similarly the peaks in eastern Switzerland extending to western Austria (Helvetic nappes) consist of thin-skinned sedimentary folding that detached from former basement rock.[45]

In simple terms, the structure of the Alps consists of layers of rock of European, African, and oceanic (Tethyan) origin.[46] The bottom nappe structure is of continental European origin, above which are stacked marine sediment nappes, topped off by nappes derived from the African plate.[47] The Matterhorn is an example of the ongoing orogeny and shows evidence of great folding. The tip of the mountain consists of gneisses from the African plate; the base of the peak, below the glaciated area, consists of European basement rock. The sequence of Tethyan marine sediments and their oceanic basement is sandwiched between rock derived from the African and European plates.[37]

 
Haute Maurienne (Ambin and Vanoise massifs) and its exposed crystalline basement made of high-pressure subduction rocks such as blueschist and metaquartzite (picture taken at 2,400 metres or 7,900 feet)

The core regions of the Alpine orogenic belt have been folded and fractured in such a manner that erosion created the characteristic steep vertical peaks of the Swiss Alps that rise seemingly straight out of the foreland areas.[40] Peaks such as Mont Blanc, the Matterhorn, and high peaks in the Pennine Alps, the Briançonnais, and Hohe Tauern consist of layers of rock from the various orogenies including exposures of basement rock.[48]

Due to the ever-present geologic instability, earthquakes continue in the Alps to this day.[49] Typically, the largest earthquakes in the alps have been between magnitude 6 and 7 on the Richter scale.[50] Geodetic measurements show ongoing topographic uplift at rates of up to about 2.5 mm/a in the North, Western and Central Alps, and at ~1 mm/a in the Eastern and South-Western Alps.[51] The underlying mechanisms that jointly drive the present-day uplift pattern are the isostatic rebound due to the melting of the last glacial maximum ice-cap or long-term erosion, detachment of the Western Alpine subducting slab, mantle convection as well as ongoing horizontal convergence between Africa and Europe, but their relative contributions to the uplift of the Alps are difficult to quantify and likely to vary significantly in space and time.[51]

Minerals

The Alps are a source of minerals that have been mined for thousands of years. In the 8th to 6th centuries, BC during the Hallstatt culture, Celtic tribes mined copper; later the Romans mined gold for coins in the Bad Gastein area. Erzberg in Styria furnishes high-quality iron ore for the steel industry. Crystals, such as cinnabar, amethyst, and quartz, are found throughout much of the Alpine region. The cinnabar deposits in Slovenia are a notable source of cinnabar pigments.[52]

Alpine crystals have been studied and collected for hundreds of years and began to be classified in the 18th century. Leonhard Euler studied the shapes of crystals, and by the 19th-century crystal hunting was common in Alpine regions. David Friedrich Wiser amassed a collection of 8000 crystals that he studied and documented. In the 20th century Robert Parker wrote a well-known work about the rock crystals of the Swiss Alps; at the same period a commission was established to control and standardize the naming of Alpine minerals.[53]

Glaciers

See also: List of glaciers in Switzerland
 
This illustration of the glacier systems of the Mont Blanc massif by Alexander Keith Johnston was first published 1848 in The Physical Atlas.

In the Miocene Epoch the mountains underwent severe erosion because of glaciation,[40] which was noted in the mid-19th century by naturalist Louis Agassiz who presented a paper proclaiming the Alps were covered in ice at various intervals—a theory he formed when studying rocks near his Neuchâtel home which he believed originated to the west in the Bernese Oberland. Because of his work he came to be known as the "father of the ice-age concept" although other naturalists before him put forth similar ideas.[54]

 
Louis Agassiz's studies of the Unteraar Glacier in the 1840s showed that it moved at 100 m (328 ft) per year.[54]

Agassiz studied glacier movement in the 1840s at the Unteraar Glacier where he found the glacier moved 100 m (328 ft) per year, more rapidly in the middle than at the edges. His work was continued by other scientists and now a permanent laboratory exists inside a glacier under the Jungfraujoch, devoted exclusively to the study of Alpine glaciers.[54]

Glaciers pick up rocks and sediment with them as they flow. This causes erosion and the formation of valleys over time. The Inn valley is an example of a valley carved by glaciers during the ice ages with a typical terraced structure caused by erosion. Eroded rocks from the most recent ice age lie at the bottom of the valley while the top of the valley consists of erosion from earlier ice ages.[54] Glacial valleys have characteristically steep walls (reliefs); valleys with lower reliefs and talus slopes are remnants of glacial troughs or previously infilled valleys.[55] Moraines, piles of rock picked up during the movement of the glacier, accumulate at edges, centre, and the terminus of glaciers.[54]

 
The Sphinx Tunnel connecting Jungfraujoch railway station to the Sphinx Observatory, through a glacier at the Jungfraujoch.

Alpine glaciers can be straight rivers of ice, long sweeping rivers, spread in a fan-like shape (Piedmont glaciers), and curtains of ice that hang from vertical slopes of the mountain peaks. The stress of the movement causes the ice to break and crack loudly, perhaps explaining why the mountains were believed to be home to dragons in the medieval period. The cracking creates unpredictable and dangerous crevasses, often invisible under new snowfall, which causes the greatest danger to mountaineers.[56]

Glaciers end in ice caves (the Rhône Glacier), by trailing into a lake or river, or by shedding snowmelt on a meadow. Sometimes a piece of glacier will detach or break resulting in flooding, property damage, and loss of life.[56]

High levels of precipitation cause the glaciers to descend to permafrost levels in some areas whereas in other, more arid regions, glaciers remain above about the 3,500 m (11,483 ft) level.[57] The 1,817 km2 (702 sq mi) of the Alps covered by glaciers in 1876 had shrunk to 1,342 km2 (518 sq mi) by 1973, resulting in decreased river run-off levels.[58] Forty percent of the glaciation in Austria has disappeared since 1850, and 30% of that in Switzerland.[59]

Although the Alpine topography shows marked glacial morphologies,[60] the mechanisms by which glacial reshaping occurs are unclear. Numerical modeling suggests that glacial erosion propagates from low elevations to high elevations leading to an early increase of local relief followed by lowering of the mean orogen elevation.[61]

Rivers and lakes

Main article: List of valleys of the Alps
 
The St. Bartholomew's chapel on the Königssee in Bavaria is a popular tourist destination.[62]

The Alps provide lowland Europe with drinking water, irrigation, and hydroelectric power.[63] Although the area is only about 11% of the surface area of Europe, the Alps provide up to 90% of water to lowland Europe, particularly to arid areas and during the summer months. Cities such as Milan depend on 80% of water from Alpine runoff.[15][64][65] Water from the rivers is used in at least 550 hydroelectricity power plants, considering only those producing at least 10MW of electricity.[66]

Major European rivers flow from the Alps, such as the Rhine, the Rhône, the Inn, and the Po, all of which have headwaters in the Alps and flow into neighbouring countries, finally emptying into the North Sea, the Mediterranean Sea, the Adriatic Sea and the Black Sea. Other rivers such as the Danube have major tributaries flowing into them that originate in the Alps.[15]

The Rhône is second to the Nile as a freshwater source to the Mediterranean Sea; the river begins as glacial meltwater, flows into Lake Geneva, and from there to France where one of its uses is to cool nuclear power plants.[67] The Rhine originates in a 30 km2 (12 sq mi) area in Switzerland and represents almost 60% of water exported from the country.[67] Tributary valleys, some of which are complicated, channel water to the main valleys which can experience flooding during the snowmelt season when rapid runoff causes debris torrents and swollen rivers.[68]

The rivers form lakes, such as Lake Geneva, a crescent-shaped lake crossing the Swiss border with Lausanne on the Swiss side and the town of Evian-les-Bains on the French side. In Germany, the medieval St. Bartholomew's chapel was built on the south side of the Königssee, accessible only by boat or by climbing over the abutting peaks.[69]

 
Southern pre-alpine lakes like Lake Garda are characterised by warmer microclimates than the surrounding areas

Additionally, the Alps have led to the creation of large lakes in Italy. For instance, the Sarca, the primary inflow of Lake Garda, originates in the Italian Alps.[70] The Italian Lakes are a popular tourist destination since the Roman Era for their mild climate.

Scientists have been studying the impact of climate change and water use. For example, each year more water is diverted from rivers for snowmaking in the ski resorts, the effect of which is yet unknown. Furthermore, the decrease of glaciated areas combined with a succession of winters with lower-than-expected precipitation may have a future impact on the rivers in the Alps as well as an effect on the water availability to the lowlands.[64][71]

Climate

Main articles: Climate of the Alps and High Alps

The Alps are a classic example of what happens when a temperate area at lower altitude gives way to higher-elevation terrain. Elevations around the world that have cold climates similar to those of the polar regions have been called Alpine. A rise from sea level into the upper regions of the atmosphere causes the temperature to decrease (see adiabatic lapse rate). The effect of mountain chains on prevailing winds is to carry warm air belonging to the lower region into an upper zone, where it expands in volume at the cost of a proportionate loss of temperature, often accompanied by precipitation in the form of snow or rain.[72] The height of the Alps is sufficient to divide the weather patterns in Europe into a wet north and dry south because moisture is sucked from the air as it flows over the high peaks.[73]

 
The Aletsch Glacier with pine trees growing on the hillside (2007; the surface is 180 m (590 ft) lower than 150 years ago)

The severe weather in the Alps has been studied since the 18th century; particularly the weather patterns such as the seasonal foehn wind. Numerous weather stations were placed in the mountains early in the early 20th century, providing continuous data for climatologists.[14] Some of the valleys are quite arid such as the Aosta valley in Italy, the Maurienne in France, the Valais in Switzerland, and northern Tyrol.[14]

The areas that are not arid and receive high precipitation experience periodic flooding from rapid snowmelt and runoff.[68] The mean precipitation in the Alps ranges from a low of 2,600 mm (100 in) per year to 3,600 mm (140 in) per year, with the higher levels occurring at high altitudes. At altitudes between 1,000 and 3,000 m (3,300 and 9,800 ft), snowfall begins in November and accumulates through to April or May when the melt begins. Snow lines vary from 2,400 to 3,000 m (7,900 to 9,800 ft), above which the snow is permanent and the temperatures hover around the freezing point even during July and August. High-water levels in streams and rivers peak in June and July when the snow is still melting at the higher altitudes.[74]

The Alps are split into five climatic zones, each with different vegetation. The climate, plant life, and animal life vary among the different sections or zones of the mountains. The lowest zone is the colline zone, which exists between 500 and 1,000 m (1,600 and 3,300 ft), depending on the location. The montane zone extends from 800 to 1,700 m (2,600 to 5,600 ft), followed by the sub-Alpine zone from 1,600 to 2,400 m (5,200 to 7,900 ft). The Alpine zone, extending from tree line to the snow line, is followed by the glacial zone, which covers the glaciated areas of the mountain. Climatic conditions show variances within the same zones; for example, weather conditions at the head of a mountain valley, extending directly from the peaks, are colder and more severe than those at the mouth of a valley which tend to be less severe and receive less snowfall.[75]

Various models of climate change have been projected into the 22nd century for the Alps, with an expectation that a trend toward increased temperatures will have an effect on snowfall, snowpack, glaciation, and river runoff.[76][77] Significant changes, of both natural and anthropogenic origins, have already been diagnosed from observations.[78][79][80]

Ecology

Main article: Alps conifer and mixed forests

Flora

Main article: Flora of the Alps
 
Stemless gentian (Gentiana acaulis)

Thirteen thousand species of plants have been identified in the Alpine regions.[5] Alpine plants are grouped by habitat and soil type which can be limestone or non-calcareous. The habitats range from meadows, bogs, and woodland (deciduous and coniferous) areas to soil-less scree and moraines, and rock faces and ridges.[11] A natural vegetation limit with altitude is given by the presence of the chief deciduous trees—oak, beech, ash and sycamore maple. These do not reach the same elevation, nor are they often found growing together, but their upper limit corresponds accurately enough to the change from a temperate to a colder climate that is further proved by a change in the presence of wild herbaceous vegetation.[81] This limit usually lies about 1,200 m (3,900 ft) above the sea on the north side of the Alps, but on the southern slopes it often rises to 1,500 m (4,900 ft), sometimes even to 1,700 m (5,600 ft).[82]

Above the forestry, there is often a band of short pine trees (Pinus mugo), which is in turn superseded by Alpenrosen, dwarf shrubs, typically Rhododendron ferrugineum (on acid soils) or Rhododendron hirsutum (on alkaline soils).[83] Although Alpenrose prefers acidic soil, the plants are found throughout the region.[11] Above the tree line is the area defined as "alpine" where in the alpine meadow plants are found that have adapted well to harsh conditions of cold temperatures, aridity, and high altitudes. The alpine area fluctuates greatly because of regional fluctuations in tree lines.[84]

 
Edelweiss (Leontopodium alpinum)

Alpine plants such as the Alpine gentian grow in abundance in areas such as the meadows above the Lauterbrunnental. Gentians are named after the Illyrian king Gentius, and 40 species of the early-spring blooming flower grow in the Alps, in a range of 1,500 to 2,400 m (4,900 to 7,900 ft).[85] Writing about the gentians in Switzerland D. H. Lawrence described them as "darkening the day-time, torch-like with the smoking blueness of Pluto's gloom."[86] Gentians tend to "appear" repeatedly as the spring blooming takes place at progressively later dates, moving from the lower altitude to the higher altitude meadows where the snow melts much later than in the valleys. On the highest rocky ledges, the spring flowers bloom in the summer.[11]

At these higher altitudes, the plants tend to form isolated cushions. In the Alps, several species of flowering plants have been recorded above 4,000 m (13,000 ft), including Ranunculus glacialis, Androsace alpina and Saxifraga biflora. Eritrichium nanum, commonly known as the King of the Alps, is the most elusive of the alpine flowers, growing on rocky ridges at 2,600 to 3,750 m (8,530 to 12,300 ft).[87] Perhaps the best known of the alpine plants is Edelweiss which grows in rocky areas and can be found at altitudes as low as 1,200 m (3,900 ft) and as high as 3,400 m (11,200 ft).[11] The plants that grow at the highest altitudes have adapted to conditions by specialization such as growing in rock screes that give protection from winds.[88]

The extreme and stressful climatic conditions give way to the growth of plant species with secondary metabolites important for medicinal purposes. Origanum vulgare, Prunella vulgaris, Solanum nigrum, and Urtica dioica are some of the more useful medicinal species found in the Alps.[89]

 
Preserved internal alpine forest and meadow, Vanoise National Park

Human interference has nearly exterminated the trees in many areas, and, except for the beech forests of the Austrian Alps, forests of deciduous trees are rarely found after the extreme deforestation between the 17th and 19th centuries.[90] The vegetation has changed since the second half of the 20th century, as the high alpine meadows cease to be harvested for hay or used for grazing which eventually might result in a regrowth of the forest. In some areas, the modern practice of building ski runs by mechanical means has destroyed the underlying tundra from which the plant life cannot recover during the non-skiing months, whereas areas that still practice a natural piste type of ski slope building preserve the fragile underlayers.[88]

Fauna

The Alps are a habitat for 30,000 species of wildlife, ranging from the tiniest snow fleas to brown bears, many of which have made adaptations to the harsh cold conditions and high altitudes to the point that some only survive in specific micro-climates either directly above or below the snow line.[5][91]

 
Young alpine ibex. When fully grown the horns of this male will be about one metre wide.

The largest mammal to live in the highest altitudes are the alpine ibex, which have been sighted as high as 3,000 m (9,800 ft). The ibex live in caves and descend to eat the succulent alpine grasses.[92] Classified as antelopes,[11] chamois are smaller than ibex and found throughout the Alps, living above the tree line and are common in the entire alpine range.[93] Areas of the eastern Alps are still home to brown bears. In Switzerland the canton of Bern was named for the bears but the last bear is recorded as having been killed in 1792 above Kleine Scheidegg by three hunters from Grindelwald.[94]

Many rodents such as voles live underground. Marmots live almost exclusively above the tree line as high as 2,700 m (8,900 ft). They hibernate in large groups to provide warmth,[95] and can be found in all areas of the Alps, in large colonies they build beneath the alpine pastures.[11] Golden eagles and bearded vultures are the largest birds to be found in the Alps; they nest high on rocky ledges and can be found at altitudes of 2,400 m (7,900 ft). The most common bird is the alpine chough which can be found scavenging at climber's huts or the Jungfraujoch, a high-altitude tourist destination.[96]

 
The alpine Apollo butterfly has adapted to alpine conditions.

Reptiles such as adders and vipers live up to the snow line; because they cannot bear the cold temperatures they hibernate underground and soak up the warmth on rocky ledges.[97] The high-altitude Alpine salamanders have adapted to living above the snow line by giving birth to fully developed young rather than laying eggs. Brown trout can be found in the streams up to the snow line.[97] Molluscs such as the wood snail live up the snow line. Popularly gathered as food, the snails are now protected.[98]

Several species of moths live in the Alps, some of which are believed to have evolved in the same habitat up to 120 million years ago, long before the Alps were created. Blue butterflies can commonly be seen drinking from the snowmelt; some species of blues fly as high as 1,800 m (5,900 ft).[99] The butterflies tend to be large, such as those from the swallowtail Parnassius family, with a habitat that ranges to 1,800 m (5,900 ft). Twelve species of beetles have habitats up to the snow line; the most beautiful and formerly collected for its colours but now protected is Rosalia alpina.[100] Spiders, such as the large wolf spider, live above the snow line and can be seen as high as 400 m (1,300 ft). Scorpions can be found in the Italian Alps.[98]

Some of the species of moths and insects show evidence of having been indigenous to the area from as long ago as the Alpine orogeny. In Émosson in Valais, Switzerland, dinosaur tracks were found in the 1970s, dating probably from the Triassic Period.[101]

History

Main article: History of the Alps

Prehistory to Christianity

 
Pre-historic petroglyphs from Valcamonica, Italy

About 10,000 years ago, when the ice melted after the Würm glaciation, late Palaeolithic communities were established along the lake shores and in cave systems. Evidence of human habitation has been found in caves near Vercors, close to Grenoble and Echirolles; in Austria, the Mondsee culture shows evidence of houses built on piles to keep them dry. Standing stones have been found in the Alpine areas of France and Italy. The Rock Drawings in Valcamonica are more than 5000 years old; more than 200,000 drawings and etchings have been identified at the site.[102]

In 1991, a mummy of a neolithic body, known as Ötzi the Iceman, was discovered by hikers on the Similaun glacier. His clothing and gear indicate that he lived in an alpine farming community, while the location and manner of his death – an arrowhead was discovered in his shoulder – suggests he was travelling from one place to another.[103] Analysis of the mitochondrial DNA of Ötzi, has shown that he belongs to the K1 subclade which cannot be categorized into any of the three modern branches of that subclade. The new subclade has provisionally been named K1ö for Ötzi.[104]

Celtic tribes settled in Switzerland between 1500 and 1000 BC. The Raetians lived in the eastern regions, while the west was occupied by the Helvetii and the Allobrogi settled in the Rhône valley and in Savoy. The Ligurians and Adriatic Veneti lived in north-west Italy and Triveneto respectively. Among the many substances Celtic tribes mined was salt in areas such as Salzburg in Austria where evidence of the Hallstatt culture was found by a mine manager in the 19th century.[102] By the 6th century BC the La Tène culture was well established in the region,[105] and became known for high quality decorated weapons and jewellery.[106] The Celts were the most widespread of the mountain tribes—they had warriors that were strong, tall and fair-skinned, and skilled with iron weapons, which gave them an advantage in warfare.[107]

During the Second Punic War in 218 BC, the Carthaginian general Hannibal probably crossed the Alps with an army numbering 38,000 infantry, 8,000 cavalry, and 37 war elephants. This was one of the most celebrated achievements of any military force in ancient warfare,[108] although no evidence exists of the actual crossing or the place of crossing. The Romans, however, had built roads along the mountain passes, which continued to be used through the medieval period to cross the mountains and Roman road markers can still be found on the mountain passes.[109]

 
Château de Chillon, an early medieval castle on the north shore of Lake Geneva, is shown here against the backdrop of the Dents du Midi.

The Roman expansion brought the defeat of the Allobrogi in 121 BC and during the Gallic Wars in 58 BC Julius Caesar overcame the Helvetii. The Rhaetians continued to resist but were eventually conquered when the Romans turned northward to the Danube valley in Austria and defeated the Brigantes.[110] The Romans built settlements in the Alps; towns such as Aosta (named for Augustus) in Italy, Martigny and Lausanne in Switzerland, and Partenkirchen in Bavaria show remains of Roman baths, villas, arenas, and temples.[111] Much of the Alpine region was gradually settled by Germanic tribes, (Lombards, Alemanni, Bavarii, and Franks) from the 6th to the 13th centuries mixing with the local Celtic tribes.[112]

Christianity, feudalism, and Napoleonic wars

Christianity was established in the region by the Romans and saw the establishment of monasteries and churches in the high regions. The Frankish expansion of the Carolingian Empire and the Bavarian expansion in the eastern Alps introduced feudalism and the building of castles to support the growing number of dukedoms and kingdoms. Castello del Buonconsiglio in Trento, Italy, still has intricate frescoes, excellent examples of Gothic art, in a tower room. In Switzerland, Château de Chillon is preserved as an example of medieval architecture.[113] There are several important alpine saints and one such one is Saint Maurice[114] who gives his name to the town St. Moritz.

Much of the medieval period was a time of power struggles between competing dynasties such as the House of Savoy, the Visconti in northern Italy, and the House of Habsburg in Austria and Slovenia.[115] In 1291, to protect themselves from incursions by the Habsburgs, four cantons in the middle of Switzerland drew up a charter that is considered to be a declaration of independence from neighbouring kingdoms. After a series of battles fought in the 13th, 14th, and 15th centuries, more cantons joined the confederacy and by the 16th century, Switzerland was well-established as a separate state.[116]

 
Russian troops under Suvorov crossing the Alps in 1799

During the Napoleonic Wars in the late 18th century and early 19th century, Napoleon annexed territory formerly controlled by the Habsburgs and Savoys. In 1798, he established the Helvetic Republic in Switzerland; two years later he led an army across the St. Bernard pass and conquered almost all of the Alpine regions.[117]

 
Built from 1300 to 1500 metres high on a rock of quartzite and surrounded by deep cliffs, the Forts de l'Esseillon prevented any invasion.

After the fall of Napoléon, many alpine countries developed heavy protections to prevent any new invasion. Thus, Savoy built a series of fortifications in the Maurienne valley to protect the major alpine passes, such as the col du Mont-Cenis that was even crossed by Charlemagne and his father to defeat the Lombards. The latter indeed became very popular after the construction of a paved road ordered by Napoléon Bonaparte. The Barrière de l'Esseillon is a series of forts with heavy batteries, built on a cliff with a perfect view of the valley, a gorge on one side, and steep mountains on the other side.

In the 19th century, the monasteries built in the high Alps during the medieval period to shelter travellers and as places of pilgrimage became tourist destinations. The Benedictines had built monasteries in Lucerne, Switzerland, and Oberammergau; the Cistercians in the Tyrol and at Lake Constance, and the Augustinians had abbeys in the Savoy and one in the centre of Interlaken, Switzerland.[118] The Great St Bernard Hospice, built in the 9th or 10th centuries, at the summit of the Great Saint Bernard Pass was a shelter for travellers and place for pilgrims since its inception; by the 19th century it became a tourist attraction with notable visitors such as author Charles Dickens and mountaineer Edward Whymper.[119]

Exploration

Main article: Exploration of the High Alps
 
The first ascent of the Matterhorn (1865), lithograph by Gustave Doré

Radiocarbon-dated charcoal placed around 50,000 years ago was found in the Drachloch (Dragon's Hole) cave above the village of Vattis in the canton of St. Gallen, proving that the high peaks were visited by prehistoric people. Seven bear skulls from the cave may have been buried by the same prehistoric people.[120] The peaks, however, were mostly ignored except for a few notable examples, and long left to the exclusive attention of the people of the adjoining valleys.[121][122] The mountain peaks were seen as terrifying, the abode of dragons and demons, to the point that people blindfolded themselves to cross the Alpine passes.[123] The glaciers remained a mystery and many still believed the highest areas to be inhabited by dragons.[124]

Charles VII of France ordered his chamberlain to climb Mont Aiguille in 1356. The knight reached the summit of Rocciamelone where he left a bronze triptych of three crosses, a feat which he conducted with the use of ladders to traverse the ice.[125] In 1492, Antoine de Ville climbed Mont Aiguille, without reaching the summit, an experience he described as "horrifying and terrifying."[122] Leonardo da Vinci was fascinated by variations of light in the higher altitudes, and climbed a mountain—scholars are uncertain which one; some believe it may have been Monte Rosa. From his description of a "blue like that of a gentian" sky it is thought that he reached a significantly high altitude.[126] In the 18th century four Chamonix men almost made the summit of Mont Blanc but were overcome by altitude sickness and snowblindness.[127]

Conrad Gessner was the first naturalist to ascend the mountains in the 16th century, to study them, writing that in the mountains he found the "theatre of the Lord".[128] By the 19th century more naturalists began to arrive to explore, study and conquer the high peaks.[129] Two men who first explored the regions of ice and snow were Horace-Bénédict de Saussure (1740–1799) in the Pennine Alps,[130] and the Benedictine monk of Disentis Placidus a Spescha (1752–1833).[129] Born in Geneva, Saussure was enamoured with the mountains from an early age; he left a law career to become a naturalist and spent many years trekking through the Bernese Oberland, the Savoy, the Piedmont and Valais, studying the glaciers and geology, as he became an early proponent of the theory of rock upheaval.[131] Saussure, in 1787, was a member of the third ascent of Mont Blanc—today the summits of all the peaks have been climbed.[34]

The Romantics and Alpinists

Albrecht von Haller's poem Die Alpen (1732) described the mountains as an area of mythical purity.[132] Jean-Jacques Rousseau was another writer who presented the Alps as a place of allure and beauty, in his novel Julie, or the New Heloise (1761), Later the first wave of Romantics such as Goethe and Turner came to admire the scenery;[133] Wordsworth visited the area in 1790, writing of his experiences in The Prelude (1799). Schiller later wrote the play William Tell (1804), which tells the story of the legendary Swiss marksman William Tell as part of the greater Swiss struggle for independence from the Habsburg Empire in the early 14th century. At the end of the Napoleonic Wars, the Alpine countries began to see an influx of poets, artists, and musicians,[134] as visitors came to experience the sublime effects of monumental nature.[135]

In 1816, Byron, Percy Bysshe Shelley and his wife Mary Shelley visited Geneva and all three were inspired by the scenery in their writings.[134] During these visits Shelley wrote the poem "Mont Blanc", Byron wrote "The Prisoner of Chillon" and the dramatic poem Manfred, and Mary Shelley, who found the scenery overwhelming, conceived the idea for the novel Frankenstein in her villa on the shores of Lake Geneva amid a thunderstorm. When Coleridge travelled to Chamonix, he declaimed, in defiance of Shelley, who had signed himself "Atheos" in the guestbook of the Hotel de Londres near Montenvers,[136] "Who would be, who could be an atheist in this valley of wonders".[137]

By the mid-19th century scientists began to arrive en masse to study the geology and ecology of the region.[138]

From the beginning of the 19th century, the tourism and mountaineering development of the Alps began. In the early years of the "golden age of alpinism" initially scientific activities were mixed with sport, for example by the physicist John Tyndall, with the first ascent of the Matterhorn by Edward Whymper being the highlight. In the later years, the "silver age of alpinism", the focus was on mountain sports and climbing. The first president of the Alpine Club, John Ball, is considered the discoverer of the Dolomites, which for decades were the focus of climbers like Paul Grohmann, Michael Innerkofler and Angelo Dibona.[139][140][141]

The Nazis

 
The Nazis hid looted art in salt mines at Altaussee, such as the Early Netherlandish Ghent Altarpiece which sustained significant damage.

Austrian-born Adolf Hitler had a lifelong romantic fascination with the Alps and by the 1930s established a home at Berghof, in the Obersalzberg region outside of Berchtesgaden. His first visit to the area was in 1923 and he maintained a strong tie there until the end of his life. At the end of World War II, the US Army occupied Obersalzberg, to prevent Hitler from retreating with the Wehrmacht into the mountains.[142]

By 1940 many of the Alpine countries were under the control of the Axis powers. Austria underwent a political coup that made it part of the Third Reich; France had been invaded and Italy was a fascist regime. Switzerland and Liechtenstein were the only countries to avoid an Axis takeover.[143] The Swiss Confederation mobilized its troops—the country follows the doctrine of "armed neutrality" with all males required to have military training—a number that General Eisenhower estimated to be about 850,000. The Swiss commanders wired the infrastructure leading into the country with explosives, and threatened to destroy bridges, railway tunnels, and roads across passes in the event of a Nazi invasion; and if there was an invasion the Swiss army would then have retreated to the heart of the mountain peaks, where conditions were harsher, and a military invasion would involve difficult and protracted battles.[144]

German Ski troops were trained for the war, and battles were waged in mountainous areas such as the battle at Riva Ridge in Italy, where the American 10th Mountain Division encountered heavy resistance in February 1945.[145] At the end of the war, a substantial amount of Nazi plunder was found stored in Austria, where Hitler had hoped to retreat as the war drew to a close. The salt mines surrounding the Altaussee area, where American troops found 75 kg (165 lb) of gold coins stored in a single mine, were used to store looted art, jewels, and currency; vast quantities of looted art were found and returned to the owners.[146]

Largest cities

The largest city within the Alps is the city of Grenoble in France. Other larger and important cities within the Alps with over 100,000 inhabitants are in Tyrol with Bolzano (Italy), Trento (Italy) and Innsbruck (Austria). Larger cities outside the Alps are Milan, Verona, Turin (Italy), Munich (Germany), Graz, Vienna, Salzburg (Austria), Ljubljana, Maribor, Kranj (Slovenia), Zurich, Geneva (Switzerland), Nice and Lyon (France).

Cities with over 100,000 inhabitants in the Alps are:

Rank Municipality Inhabitants Country Region
1   Grenoble 162,780 France   Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes
2   Innsbruck 132,236 Austria   Tyrol
3   Trento 117,417 Italy   Trentino-South Tyrol
4   Bolzano/Bozen 106,951 Italy   Trentino-South Tyrol

Alpine people and culture

Further information: Transhumance in the Alps and Swiss folklore

The population of the region is 14 million spread across eight countries.[5] On the rim of the mountains, on the plateaus, and on the plains the economy consists of manufacturing and service jobs whereas in the higher altitudes and the mountains farming is still essential to the economy.[147] Farming and forestry continue to be mainstays of Alpine culture, industries that provide for export to the cities and maintain the mountain ecology.[148]

The Alpine regions are multicultural and linguistically diverse. Dialects are common and vary from valley to valley and region to region. In the Slavic Alps alone 19 dialects have been identified. Some of the Romance dialects spoken in the French, Swiss and Italian alps of Aosta Valley derive from Arpitan, while the southern part of the western range is related to Occitan; the German dialects derive from Germanic tribal languages.[149] Romansh, spoken by two percent of the population in southeast Switzerland, is an ancient Rhaeto-Romanic language derived from Latin, remnants of ancient Celtic languages and perhaps Etruscan.[149]

 
Hallstatt is known for its production of salt, dating back to prehistoric times.

Much of the Alpine culture is unchanged since the medieval period when skills that guaranteed survival in the mountain valleys and the highest villages became mainstays, leading to strong traditions of carpentry, woodcarving, baking, pastry-making, and cheesemaking.[150]

Farming has been a traditional occupation for centuries, although it became less dominant in the 20th century with the advent of tourism. Grazing and pasture land are limited because of the steep and rocky topography of the Alps. In mid-June, cows are moved to the highest pastures close to the snowline, where they are watched by herdsmen who stay in the high altitudes often living in stone huts or wooden barns during the summers.[150] Villagers celebrate the day the cows are herded up to the pastures and again when they return in mid-September. The Almabtrieb, Alpabzug, Alpabfahrt, Désalpes ("coming down from the alps") is celebrated by decorating the cows with garlands and enormous cowbells while the farmers dress in traditional costumes.[150]

 
In the summers the cows are brought up to the high mountain meadows for grazing. Small summer villages such as the one shown in this photograph taken in Savoy are used.

Cheesemaking is an ancient tradition in most Alpine countries. A wheel of cheese from the Emmental in Switzerland can weigh up to 45 kg (100 lb), and the Beaufort in Savoy can weigh up to 70 kg (150 lb). Owners of the cows traditionally receive from the cheesemakers a portion about the proportion of the cows' milk from the summer months in the high alps. Haymaking is an important farming activity in mountain villages that have become somewhat mechanized in recent years, although the slopes are so steep that scythes are usually necessary to cut the grass. Hay is normally brought in twice a year, often also on festival days.[150]

In the high villages, people live in homes built according to medieval designs that withstand cold winters. The kitchen is separated from the living area (called the stube, the area of the home heated by a stove), and second-floor bedrooms benefit from rising heat. The typical Swiss chalet originated in the Bernese Oberland. Chalets often face south or downhill and are built of solid wood, with a steeply gabled roof to allow accumulated snow to slide off easily. Stairs leading to upper levels are sometimes built on the outside, and balconies are sometimes enclosed.[150][151]

 
Herding sheep in Austria

Food is passed from the kitchen to the stube, where the dining room table is placed. Some meals are communal, such as fondue, where a pot is set in the middle of the table for each person to dip into. Other meals are still served traditionally on carved wooden plates. Furniture has been traditionally elaborately carved and in many Alpine countries, carpentry skills are passed from generation to generation.

 
Alpine chalet being built in Haute-Maurienne (Savoy), the use of thick pieces of orthogneiss (4–7 cm) is by the strict architectural regulations in the region bordering the national parks of Vanoise-Grand Paradis.

Roofs are traditionally constructed from Alpine rocks such as pieces of schist, gneiss, or slate.[152] Such chalets are typically found in the higher parts of the valleys, as in the Maurienne valley in Savoy, where the amount of snow during the cold months is important. The inclination of the roof cannot exceed 40%, allowing the snow to stay on top, thereby functioning as insulation from the cold.[153] In the lower areas where the forests are widespread, wooden tiles are traditionally used. Commonly made of Norway spruce, they are called "tavaillon".

In the German-speaking parts of the Alps (Austria, Bavaria, South Tyrol, Liechtenstein and Switzerland), there is a strong tradition of Alpine folk culture. Old traditions are carefully maintained among inhabitants of Alpine areas, even though this is seldom obvious to the visitor: many people are members of cultural associations where the Alpine folk culture is cultivated. At cultural events, traditional folk costume (in German Tracht) is expected: typically lederhosen for men and dirndls for women. Visitors can get a glimpse of the rich customs of the Alps at public Volksfeste. Even when large events feature only a little folk culture, all participants take part with gusto. Good opportunities to see local people celebrating the traditional culture occur at the many fairs, wine festivals, and firefighting festivals which fill weekends in the countryside from spring to autumn. Alpine festivals vary from country to country. Frequently they include music (e.g. the playing of Alpenhorns), dance (e.g. Schuhplattler), sports (e.g. wrestling marches and archery), as well as traditions with pagan roots such as the lighting of fires on Walpurgis Night and Saint John's Eve. Many areas celebrate Fastnacht in the weeks before Lent. Folk costume also continues to be worn for most weddings and festivals.[154][155]

Tourism

Further information: List of national parks in the Alps, Tourism in Austria, Tourism in France, Tourism in Italy, and Tourism in Switzerland
 
The ski resort in Speikboden, South Tyrol, Italy

The Alps are one of the more popular tourist destinations in the world with many resorts such as Oberstdorf, in Bavaria, Saalbach in Austria, Davos in Switzerland, Chamonix in France, and Cortina d'Ampezzo in Italy recording more than a million annual visitors. With over 120 million visitors a year, tourism is integral to the Alpine economy with much of it coming from winter sports, although summer visitors are also an important component.[156]

The tourism industry began in the early 19th century when foreigners visited the Alps, travelled to the bases of the mountains to enjoy the scenery, and stayed at the spa-resorts. Large hotels were built during the Belle Époque; cog-railways, built early in the 20th century, brought tourists to ever-higher elevations, with the Jungfraubahn terminating at the Jungfraujoch, well above the eternal snow-line, after going through a tunnel in Eiger. During this period winter sports were slowly introduced: in 1882 the first figure skating championship was held in St. Moritz, and downhill skiing became a popular sport with English visitors early in the 20th century,[156] as the first ski-lift was installed in 1908 above Grindelwald.[157]

 
Karl Schranz running the Lauberhorn in 1966

In the first half of the 20th century the Olympic Winter Games were held three times in Alpine venues: the 1924 Winter Olympics in Chamonix, France; the 1928 Winter Olympics in St. Moritz, Switzerland; and the 1936 Winter Olympics in Garmisch-Partenkirchen, Germany. During World War II the winter games were cancelled but after that time the Winter Games have been held in St. Moritz (1948), Cortina d'Ampezzo (1956), Innsbruck, Austria (1964 and 1976), Grenoble, France, (1968), Albertville, France, (1992), and Torino (2006).[158] In 1930, the Lauberhorn Rennen (Lauberhorn Race), was run for the first time on the Lauberhorn above Wengen;[159] the equally demanding Hahnenkamm was first run in the same year in Kitzbühl, Austria.[160] Both races continue to be held each January on successive weekends. The Lauberhorn is the more strenuous downhill race at 4.5 km (2.8 mi) and poses danger to racers who reach 130 km/h (81 mph) within seconds of leaving the start gate.[161]

During the post-World War I period, ski lifts were built in Swiss and Austrian towns to accommodate winter visitors, but summer tourism continued to be important; by the mid-20th century the popularity of downhill skiing increased greatly as it became more accessible and in the 1970s several new villages were built in France devoted almost exclusively to skiing, such as Les Menuires. Until this point, Austria and Switzerland had been the traditional and more popular destinations for winter sports, but by the end of the 20th century and into the early 21st century, France, Italy, and the Tyrol began to see increases in winter visitors.[156] From 1980 to the present, ski-lifts have been modernized and snow-making machines installed at many resorts, leading to mounting concerns regarding the loss of traditional Alpine culture and uncertainties regarding sustainable development.[162] For instance the number of ski resorts and piste kilometres has declined since 2015, a likely result of climatic change.[163]

Avalanche/snow-slide

Transportation

 
Zentralbahn Interregio train following the Lake Brienz shoreline, near Niederried in Switzerland

The region is serviced by 4,200 km (2,600 mi) of roads used by six million vehicles per year.[5] Train travel is well established in the Alps, with, for instance 120 km (75 mi) of track for every 1,000 km2 (390 sq mi) in a country such as Switzerland.[165] Most of Europe's highest railways are located there. In 2007, the new 34.57 km-long (21.48 mi) Lötschberg Base Tunnel was opened, which circumvents the 100 years older Lötschberg Tunnel. With the opening of the 57.1 km-long (35.5 mi) Gotthard Base Tunnel on June 1, 2016, it bypasses the Gotthard Tunnel built in the 19th century and realizes the first flat route through the Alps.[166]

Some high mountain villages are car-free either because of inaccessibility or by choice. Wengen, and Zermatt (in Switzerland) are accessible only by cable car or cog-rail trains. Avoriaz (in France), is car-free, with other Alpine villages considering becoming car-free zones or limiting the number of cars for reasons of sustainability of the fragile Alpine terrain.[167]

The lower regions and larger towns of the Alps are well-served by motorways and main roads, but higher mountain passes and byroads, which are amongst the highest in Europe, can be treacherous even in summer due to steep slopes. Many passes are closed in winter. Several airports around the Alps (and some within), as well as long-distance rail links from all neighbouring countries, afford large numbers of travellers easy access.[5]

See also

Notes

  1. ^ French: Alpes [alp]; German: Alpen [ˈalpm̩] ( listen); Italian: Alpi [ˈalpi]; Romansh: Alps [alps]; Slovene: Alpe [ˈáːlpɛ].
  2. ^ The Caucasus Mountains are higher, and the Urals longer, but both lie partly in Asia.
  3. ^ Depending on the definitions used, a small mountain range in western Hungary may also qualify as part of the Alps, although these are more typically classified as foothills, and Hungary is not considered to be an Alpine country.[3]

References

  1. ^ "Le Mont-Blanc passe de 4.810 mètres à 4.808,7 mètres".
  2. ^ "Alps". The Hutchinson unabridged encyclopedia with atlas and weather guide. Abington, United Kingdom: Helicon. 2014.
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Works cited

  • Alpine Convention. (2010). The Alps: People and pressures in the mountains, the facts at a glance
  • Allaby, Michael et al. The Encyclopedia of Earth. (2008). Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-25471-8
  • Beattie, Andrew. (2006). The Alps: A Cultural History. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-530955-3
  • Benniston, Martin, et al. (2011). "Impact of Climatic Change on Water and Natural Hazards in the Alps". Environmental Science and Policy. Volume 30. 1–9
  • Cebon, Peter, et al. (1998). Views from the Alps: Regional Perspectives on Climate Change. Cambridge MA: MIT Press. ISBN 978-0-262-03252-0
  • Chatré, Baptiste, et al. (2010). The Alps: People and Pressures in the Mountains, the Facts at a Glance. Permanent Secretariat of the Alpine Convention (alpconv.org). Retrieved August 4, 2012. ISBN 978-88-905158-2-8
  •   This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Coolidge, William Augustus Brevoort; Lake, Philip; Knox, Howard Vincent (1911). "Alps". Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 1 (11th ed.). pp. 737–754.
  • De Graciansky, Pierre-Charles et al. (2011). The Western Alps, From Rift to Passive Margin to Orogenic Belt. Amsterdam: Elsevier. ISBN 978-0-444-53724-9
  • Feuer, A.B. (2006). Packs On!: Memoirs of the 10th Mountain Division in World War II. Mechanicsburg, Pennsylvania: Stackpole Books. ISBN 978-0-8117-3289-5
  • Fleming, Fergus. (2000). Killing Dragons: The Conquest of the Alps. New York: Grove. ISBN 978-0-8021-3867-5
  • Gerrard, AJ. (1990) Mountain Environments: An Examination of the Physical Geography of Mountains. Boston: MIT Press. ISBN 978-0-262-07128-4
  • Halbrook, Stephen P. (1998). Target Switzerland: Swiss Armed Neutrality in World War II. Rockville Center, NY: Sarpedon. ISBN 978-1-885119-53-7
  • Halbrook, Stephen P. (2006). The Swiss and the Nazis: How the Alpine Republic Survived in the Shadow of the Third Reich. Havertown, PA: Casemate. ISBN 978-1-932033-42-7
  • Hudson, Simon. (2000). Snow Business: A Study of the International Ski Industry. New York: Cengage ISBN 978-0-304-70471-2
  • Körner, Christian. (2003). Alpine Plant Life. New York: Springer Verlag. ISBN 978-3-540-00347-2
  • Lancel, Serge. (1999). Hannibal. Oxford: Blackwell. ISBN 978-0-631-21848-7
  • Mitchell, Arthur H. (2007). Hitler's Mountain. Jefferson, NC: McFarland. ISBN 978-0-7864-2458-0
  • Prevas, John. (2001). Hannibal Crosses The Alps: The Invasion Of Italy And The Punic Wars. Cambridge, MA: Da Capo Press. ISBN 978-0-306-81070-1
  • Reynolds, Kev. (2012) The Swiss Alps. Cicerone Press. ISBN 978-1-85284-465-3
  • Roth, Philipe. (2007). Minerals first Discovered in Switzerland. Lausanne, CH: Museum of Geology. ISBN 978-3-9807561-8-1
  • Schmid, Stefan M. (2004). "Regional tectonics: from the Rhine graben to the Po plain, a summary of the tectonic evolution of the Alps and their forelands". Basel: Geologisch-Paläontologisches Institut
  • Sharp, Hilary. (2002). Trekking and Climbing in the Western Alps. London: New Holland. ISBN 978-0-8117-2954-3
  • Schmid, Stefan M.; Genschuh, Bernhard; Kissling, Eduard; Schuster, Ralf (2004). "Tectonic map and overall architecture of the Alpine orogen". Eclogae Geologicae Helvetiae. 97: 93–117. doi:10.1007/s00015-004-1113-x. S2CID 22393862.
  • Shoumatoff, Nicholas and Nina. (2001). The Alps: Europe's Mountain Heart. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press. ISBN 978-0-472-11111-4
  • Viazzo, Pier Paolo. (1980). Upland Communities: Environment, Population and Social Structure in the Alps since the Sixteenth Century. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-30663-8

External links

  • 17, 2005 Satellite photo of the Alps, taken on August 31, 2005, by MODIS aboard Terra
  • Official website of the Alpine Space Programme This EU-co-funded programme co-finances transnational projects in the Alpine region

January 09, 2023
alps, alpe, redirects, here, german, river, alpe, river, other, uses, disambiguation, highest, most, extensive, mountain, range, system, that, lies, entirely, europe, stretching, approximately, across, seven, alpine, countries, from, west, east, france, switze. Alpe redirects here For the German river see Alpe river For other uses see Alps disambiguation The Alps ae l p s a are the highest and most extensive mountain range system that lies entirely in Europe b 2 stretching approximately 1 200 km 750 mi across seven Alpine countries from west to east France Switzerland Italy Liechtenstein Austria Germany and Slovenia c 4 AlpsThe Alps seen from outer space taken from the International Space StationHighest pointPeakMont BlancElevation4 808 73 m 15 776 7 ft 1 Coordinates45 49 58 N 06 51 54 E 45 83278 N 6 86500 E 45 83278 6 86500DimensionsLength1 200 km 750 mi Width250 km 160 mi Area200 000 km2 77 000 sq mi NamingNative nameAlpi Italian Alpes French Alpen German Alps Romansh Alpe Slovene not including numerous dialects GeographyRelief of the Alps See also map with international borders marked CountriesAustriaFranceGermanyItalyLiechtensteinSloveniaSwitzerlandRange coordinates46 30 N 09 19 E 46 500 N 9 317 E 46 500 9 317GeologyOrogenyAlpine orogenyAge of rockTertiaryType of rockBundner schistflyschmolasseThe Dolomites Italy are a UNESCO World Heritage Site The Alpine arch generally extends from Nice on the western Mediterranean to Trieste on the Adriatic and Vienna at the beginning of the Pannonian Basin The mountains were formed over tens of millions of years as the African and Eurasian tectonic plates collided Extreme shortening caused by the event resulted in marine sedimentary rocks rising by thrusting and folding into high mountain peaks such as Mont Blanc and the Matterhorn Mont Blanc spans the French Italian border and at 4 809 m 15 778 ft is the highest mountain in the Alps The Alpine region area contains 128 peaks higher than 4 000 m 13 000 ft The altitude and size of the range affect the climate in Europe in the mountains precipitation levels vary greatly and climatic conditions consist of distinct zones Wildlife such as ibex live in the higher peaks to elevations of 3 400 m 11 155 ft and plants such as edelweiss grow in rocky areas in lower elevations as well as in higher elevations Evidence of human habitation in the Alps goes back to the Palaeolithic era A mummified man determined to be 5 000 years old was discovered on a glacier at the Austrian Italian border in 1991 By the 6th century BC the Celtic La Tene culture was well established Hannibal notably crossed the Alps with a herd of elephants and the Romans had settlements in the region In 1800 Napoleon crossed one of the mountain passes with an army of 40 000 The 18th and 19th centuries saw an influx of naturalists writers and artists in particular the Romantics followed by the golden age of alpinism as mountaineers began to ascend the peaks The Alpine region has a strong cultural identity The traditional culture of farming cheesemaking and woodworking still exists in Alpine villages although the tourist industry began to grow early in the 20th century and expanded greatly after World War II to become the dominant industry by the end of the century The Winter Olympic Games have been hosted in the Swiss French Italian Austrian and German Alps As of 2010 the region is home to 14 million people and has 120 million annual visitors 5 Contents 1 Etymology and toponymy 2 Geography 3 Passes 4 Highest mountains 5 Geology and orogeny 6 Minerals 7 Glaciers 8 Rivers and lakes 9 Climate 10 Ecology 10 1 Flora 10 2 Fauna 11 History 11 1 Prehistory to Christianity 11 2 Christianity feudalism and Napoleonic wars 11 3 Exploration 11 4 The Romantics and Alpinists 11 5 The Nazis 12 Largest cities 13 Alpine people and culture 14 Tourism 15 Avalanche snow slide 16 Transportation 17 See also 18 Notes 19 References 20 Works cited 21 External linksEtymology and toponymy EditSee also Albion Etymology An Alp refers to a high elevation pasture frequented only in summer It often includes several huts and small places of worship here the Alpe Bardughe in Ticino The English word Alps comes from the Latin Alpes The Latin word Alpes could possibly come from the adjective albus 6 white or could possibly come from the Greek goddess Alphito whose name is related to alphita the white flour alphos a dull white leprosy and finally the Proto Indo European word albʰos Similarly the river god Alpheus is also supposed to derive from the Greek alphos and means whitish 7 In his commentary on the Aeneid of Vergil the late fourth century grammarian Maurus Servius Honoratus says that all high mountains are called Alpes by Celts 8 According to the Oxford English Dictionary the Latin Alpes might derive from a pre Indo European word alb hill Albania is a related derivation Albania a name not native to the region known as the country of Albania has been used as a name for several mountainous areas across Europe In Roman times Albania was a name for the eastern Caucasus while in the English languages Albania or Albany was occasionally used as a name for Scotland 9 although it is more likely derived from the Latin word albus 6 the color white In modern languages the term alp alm albe or alpe refers to a grazing pastures in the alpine regions below the glaciers not the peaks 10 An alp refers to a high mountain pasture typically near or above the tree line where cows and other livestock are taken to be grazed during the summer months and where huts and hay barns can be found sometimes constituting tiny hamlets Therefore the term the Alps as a reference to the mountains is a misnomer 11 12 The term for the mountain peaks varies by nation and language words such as Horn Kogel Kopf Gipfel Spitze Stock and Berg are used in German speaking regions Mont Pic Tete Pointe Dent Roche and Aiguille in French speaking regions and Monte Picco Corno Punta Pizzo or Cima in Italian speaking regions 13 Geography EditMain article Geography of the Alps The Alps extend in an arc from France in the south and west to Slovenia in the east and from Monaco in the south to Germany in the north The Alps are a crescent shaped geographic feature of central Europe that ranges in an 800 km 500 mi arc curved line from east to west and is 200 km 120 mi in width The mean height of the mountain peaks is 2 5 km 1 6 mi 14 The range stretches from the Mediterranean Sea north above the Po basin extending through France from Grenoble and stretching eastward through mid and southern Switzerland The range continues onward toward Vienna Austria and east to the Adriatic Sea and Slovenia 15 16 17 To the south it dips into northern Italy and to the north extends to the southern border of Bavaria in Germany 17 In areas like Chiasso Switzerland and Allgau Bavaria the demarcation between the mountain range and the flatlands are clear in other places such as Geneva the demarcation is less clear The countries with the greatest alpine territory are Austria 28 7 of the total area Italy 27 2 France 21 4 and Switzerland 13 2 18 Aerial view of the Pennine Alps the second highest range of the Alps The highest portion of the range is divided by the glacial trough of the Rhone valley from Mont Blanc to the Matterhorn and Monte Rosa on the southern side and the Bernese Alps on the northern The peaks in the easterly portion of the range in Austria and Slovenia are smaller than those in the central and western portions 17 The variances in nomenclature in the region spanned by the Alps make classification of the mountains and subregions difficult but a general classification is that of the Eastern Alps and Western Alps with the divide between the two occurring in eastern Switzerland according to geologist Stefan Schmid 10 near the Splugen Pass A typical alpine village in the Tuxertal valley of Tyrol Austria The highest peaks of the Western Alps and Eastern Alps respectively are Mont Blanc at 4 810 m 15 780 ft 19 and Piz Bernina at 4 049 m 13 284 ft The second highest major peaks are Monte Rosa at 4 634 m 15 203 ft and Ortler 20 at 3 905 m 12 810 ft respectively A Series of lower mountain ranges run parallel to the main chain of the Alps including the French Prealps in France and the Jura Mountains in Switzerland and France The secondary chain of the Alps follows the watershed from the Mediterranean Sea to the Wienerwald passing over many of the highest and most well known peaks in the Alps From the Colle di Cadibona to Col de Tende it runs westwards before turning to the northwest and then near the Colle della Maddalena to the north Upon reaching the Swiss border the line of the main chain heads approximately east northeast a heading it follows until its end near Vienna 21 The northeast end of the Alpine arc directly on the Danube which flows into the Black Sea is the Leopoldsberg near Vienna In contrast the southeastern part of the Alps ends on the Adriatic Sea in the area around Trieste towards Duino and Barcola 22 Passes EditSee also Principal passes of the Alps Teufelsbrucke Devil s Bridge on the route to the Gotthard Pass the currently used bridge from 1958 over the first drivable bridge from 1830 The Alps have been crossed for war and commerce and by pilgrims students and tourists Crossing routes by road train or foot are known as passes and usually consist of depressions in the mountains in which a valley leads from the plains and hilly pre mountainous zones 23 In the medieval period hospices were established by religious orders at the summits of many of the main passes 12 The most important passes are the Col de l Iseran the highest the Col Agnel the Brenner Pass the Mont Cenis the Great St Bernard Pass the Col de Tende the Gotthard Pass the Semmering Pass the Simplon Pass and the Stelvio Pass 24 Crossing the Italian Austrian border the Brenner Pass separates the Otztal Alps and Zillertal Alps and has been in use as a trading route since the 14th century The lowest of the Alpine passes at 985 m 3 232 ft the Semmering crosses from Lower Austria to Styria since the 12th century when a hospice was built there it has seen continuous use A railroad with a tunnel 1 6 km 1 mi long was built along the route of the pass in the mid 19th century With a summit of 2 469 m 8 100 ft the Great St Bernard Pass is one of the highest in the Alps crossing the Italian Swiss border east of the Pennine Alps along the flanks of Mont Blanc The pass was used by Napoleon Bonaparte to cross 40 000 troops in 1800 25 The col du Mont Cenis 2 081 m 6 827 ft at the centre left of the picture gives access to a large alpine lake and further away to the Italian peninsula 12 kilometres 7 5 mi beyond the pass The Mont Cenis pass has been a major commercial and military road between Western Europe and Italy The pass was crossed by many troops on their way to the Italian peninsula From Constantine I Pepin the Short and Charlemagne to Henry IV Napoleon and more recently the German Gebirgsjagers during World War II 26 Now the pass has been supplanted by the Frejus Highway Tunnel opened 1980 and Rail Tunnel opened 1871 27 The Saint Gotthard Pass crosses from Central Switzerland to Ticino in 1882 the 15 km long 9 3 mi Saint Gotthard Railway Tunnel was opened connecting Lucerne in Switzerland with Milan in Italy 98 years later followed Gotthard Road Tunnel 16 9 km 10 5 mi long connecting the A2 motorway in Goschenen on the north side with Airolo on the south side exactly like the railway tunnel 28 On 1 June 2016 the world s longest railway tunnel the Gotthard Base Tunnel was opened which connects Erstfeld in canton of Uri with Bodio in canton of Ticino by two single tubes of 57 1 km 35 5 mi 29 It is the first tunnel that traverses the Alps on a flat route 30 From 11 December 2016 it has been part of the regular railway timetable and used hourly as standard ride between Basel Lucerne Zurich and Bellinzona Lugano Milan 31 The highest pass in the alps is the Col de l Iseran in Savoy France at 2 770 m 9 088 ft followed by the Stelvio Pass in northern Italy at 2 756 m 9 042 ft the road was built in the 1820s 24 Highest mountains EditSee also List of Alpine four thousanders The Eiger shown along with the Monch and the Jungfrau has the tallest north face in the Alps The Union Internationale des Associations d Alpinisme UIAA has defined a list of 82 official Alpine summits that reach at least 4 000 m 13 123 ft 32 The list includes not only mountains but also subpeaks with little prominence that are considered important mountaineering objectives Below are listed the 29 four thousanders with at least 300 m 984 ft of prominence While Mont Blanc was first climbed in 1786 and the Jungfrau in 1811 most of the Alpine four thousanders were climbed during the second half of the 19th century notably Piz Bernina 1850 the Dom 1858 the Grand Combin 1859 the Weisshorn 1861 and the Barre des Ecrins 1864 the ascent of the Matterhorn in 1865 marked the end of the golden age of alpinism Karl Blodig 1859 1956 was among the first to successfully climb all the major 4 000 m peaks He completed his series of ascents in 1911 33 Many of the big Alpine three thousanders were climbed in the early 19th century notably the Grossglockner 1800 and the Ortler 1804 although some of them were climbed only much later such at Mont Pelvoux 1848 Monte Viso 1861 and La Meije 1877 The first British Mont Blanc ascent by a man was in 1788 the first ascent by a woman was in 1808 By the mid 1850s Swiss mountaineers had ascended most of the peaks and were eagerly sought as mountain guides Edward Whymper reached the top of the Matterhorn in 1865 after seven attempts and in 1938 the last of the six great north faces of the Alps was climbed with the first ascent of the Eiger Nordwand north face of the Eiger 34 The 29 Alpine four thousanders with at least 300 metres of topographic prominence 35 Name Height Name Height Name HeightMont Blanc 4 810 m 15 781 ft Grandes Jorasses 4 208 m 13 806 ft Barre des Ecrins 4 102 m 13 458 ft Monte Rosa 4 634 m 15 203 ft Alphubel 4 206 m 13 799 ft Schreckhorn 4 078 m 13 379 ft Dom 4 545 m 14 911 ft Rimpfischhorn 4 199 m 13 776 ft Ober Gabelhorn 4 063 m 13 330 ft Lyskamm 4 533 m 14 872 ft Aletschhorn 4 193 m 13 757 ft Gran Paradiso 4 061 m 13 323 ft Weisshorn 4 506 m 14 783 ft Strahlhorn 4 190 m 13 747 ft Piz Bernina 4 049 m 13 284 ft Matterhorn 4 478 m 14 692 ft Dent d Herens 4 174 m 13 694 ft Gross Fiescherhorn 4 049 m 13 284 ft Dent Blanche 4 357 m 14 295 ft Breithorn 4 164 m 13 661 ft Gross Grunhorn 4 047 m 13 278 ft Grand Combin 4 314 m 14 154 ft Jungfrau 4 158 m 13 642 ft Weissmies 4 017 m 13 179 ft Finsteraarhorn 4 274 m 14 022 ft Aiguille Verte 4 122 m 13 524 ft Lagginhorn 4 010 m 13 156 ft Zinalrothorn 4 221 m 13 848 ft Monch 4 107 m 13 474 ft list continued hereGeology and orogeny EditMain articles Alpine orogeny and Geology of the Alps Important geological concepts were established as naturalists began studying the rock formations of the Alps in the 18th century In the mid 19th century the now defunct theory of geosynclines was used to explain the presence of folded mountain chains but by the mid 20th century the theory of plate tectonics became widely accepted 36 The geologic folding seen at the Arpanaz waterfall shown here in a mid 18th century drawing was noted by 18th century geologists 37 The formation of the Alps the Alpine orogeny was an episodic process that began about 300 million years ago 38 In the Paleozoic Era the Pangaean supercontinent consisted of a single tectonic plate it broke into separate plates during the Mesozoic Era and the Tethys sea developed between Laurasia and Gondwana during the Jurassic Period 36 The Tethys was later squeezed between colliding plates causing the formation of mountain ranges called the Alpide belt from Gibraltar through the Himalayas to Indonesia a process that began at the end of the Mesozoic and continues into the present The formation of the Alps was a segment of this orogenic process 36 caused by the collision between the African and the Eurasian plates 39 that began in the late Cretaceous Period 40 Under extreme compressive stresses and pressure marine sedimentary rocks were uplifted creating characteristic recumbent folds or nappes and thrust faults 41 As the rising peaks underwent erosion a layer of marine flysch sediments was deposited in the foreland basin and the sediments became involved in younger nappes folds as the orogeny progressed Coarse sediments from the continual uplift and erosion were later deposited in foreland areas as molasse 39 The molasse regions in Switzerland and Bavaria were well developed and saw further upthrusting of flysch 42 The dolomitic peaks of Triglav National Park in the Julian Alps The Alpine orogeny occurred in ongoing cycles through to the Paleogene causing differences in nappe structures with a late stage orogeny causing the development of the Jura Mountains 43 A series of tectonic events in the Triassic Jurassic and Cretaceous periods caused different paleogeographic regions 43 The Alps are subdivided by different lithology rock composition and nappe structures according to the orogenic events that affected them 10 The geological subdivision differentiates the Western Eastern Alps and Southern Alps the Helveticum in the north the Penninicum and Austroalpine system in the centre and south of the Periadriatic Seam the Southern Alpine system 44 Compressed metamorphosed Tethyan sediments and their oceanic basement are sandwiched between the tip of the Matterhorn Italian Swiss border which consists of gneisses originally part of the African plate and the base of the peak which is part of the Eurasian plate 37 According to geologist Stefan Schmid because the Western Alps underwent a metamorphic event in the Cenozoic Era while the Austroalpine peaks underwent an event in the Cretaceous Period the two areas show distinct differences in nappe formations 43 Flysch deposits in the Southern Alps of Lombardy probably occurred in the Cretaceous or later 43 Peaks in France Italy and Switzerland lie in the Houilliere zone which consists of basement with sediments from the Mesozoic Era 44 High massifs with external sedimentary cover are more common in the Western Alps and were affected by Neogene Period thin skinned thrusting whereas the Eastern Alps have comparatively few high peaked massifs 42 Similarly the peaks in eastern Switzerland extending to western Austria Helvetic nappes consist of thin skinned sedimentary folding that detached from former basement rock 45 In simple terms the structure of the Alps consists of layers of rock of European African and oceanic Tethyan origin 46 The bottom nappe structure is of continental European origin above which are stacked marine sediment nappes topped off by nappes derived from the African plate 47 The Matterhorn is an example of the ongoing orogeny and shows evidence of great folding The tip of the mountain consists of gneisses from the African plate the base of the peak below the glaciated area consists of European basement rock The sequence of Tethyan marine sediments and their oceanic basement is sandwiched between rock derived from the African and European plates 37 Haute Maurienne Ambin and Vanoise massifs and its exposed crystalline basement made of high pressure subduction rocks such as blueschist and metaquartzite picture taken at 2 400 metres or 7 900 feet The core regions of the Alpine orogenic belt have been folded and fractured in such a manner that erosion created the characteristic steep vertical peaks of the Swiss Alps that rise seemingly straight out of the foreland areas 40 Peaks such as Mont Blanc the Matterhorn and high peaks in the Pennine Alps the Brianconnais and Hohe Tauern consist of layers of rock from the various orogenies including exposures of basement rock 48 Due to the ever present geologic instability earthquakes continue in the Alps to this day 49 Typically the largest earthquakes in the alps have been between magnitude 6 and 7 on the Richter scale 50 Geodetic measurements show ongoing topographic uplift at rates of up to about 2 5 mm a in the North Western and Central Alps and at 1 mm a in the Eastern and South Western Alps 51 The underlying mechanisms that jointly drive the present day uplift pattern are the isostatic rebound due to the melting of the last glacial maximum ice cap or long term erosion detachment of the Western Alpine subducting slab mantle convection as well as ongoing horizontal convergence between Africa and Europe but their relative contributions to the uplift of the Alps are difficult to quantify and likely to vary significantly in space and time 51 Minerals EditThe Alps are a source of minerals that have been mined for thousands of years In the 8th to 6th centuries BC during the Hallstatt culture Celtic tribes mined copper later the Romans mined gold for coins in the Bad Gastein area Erzberg in Styria furnishes high quality iron ore for the steel industry Crystals such as cinnabar amethyst and quartz are found throughout much of the Alpine region The cinnabar deposits in Slovenia are a notable source of cinnabar pigments 52 Alpine crystals have been studied and collected for hundreds of years and began to be classified in the 18th century Leonhard Euler studied the shapes of crystals and by the 19th century crystal hunting was common in Alpine regions David Friedrich Wiser amassed a collection of 8000 crystals that he studied and documented In the 20th century Robert Parker wrote a well known work about the rock crystals of the Swiss Alps at the same period a commission was established to control and standardize the naming of Alpine minerals 53 Glaciers EditSee also List of glaciers in Switzerland This illustration of the glacier systems of the Mont Blanc massif by Alexander Keith Johnston was first published 1848 in The Physical Atlas In the Miocene Epoch the mountains underwent severe erosion because of glaciation 40 which was noted in the mid 19th century by naturalist Louis Agassiz who presented a paper proclaiming the Alps were covered in ice at various intervals a theory he formed when studying rocks near his Neuchatel home which he believed originated to the west in the Bernese Oberland Because of his work he came to be known as the father of the ice age concept although other naturalists before him put forth similar ideas 54 Louis Agassiz s studies of the Unteraar Glacier in the 1840s showed that it moved at 100 m 328 ft per year 54 Agassiz studied glacier movement in the 1840s at the Unteraar Glacier where he found the glacier moved 100 m 328 ft per year more rapidly in the middle than at the edges His work was continued by other scientists and now a permanent laboratory exists inside a glacier under the Jungfraujoch devoted exclusively to the study of Alpine glaciers 54 Glaciers pick up rocks and sediment with them as they flow This causes erosion and the formation of valleys over time The Inn valley is an example of a valley carved by glaciers during the ice ages with a typical terraced structure caused by erosion Eroded rocks from the most recent ice age lie at the bottom of the valley while the top of the valley consists of erosion from earlier ice ages 54 Glacial valleys have characteristically steep walls reliefs valleys with lower reliefs and talus slopes are remnants of glacial troughs or previously infilled valleys 55 Moraines piles of rock picked up during the movement of the glacier accumulate at edges centre and the terminus of glaciers 54 The Sphinx Tunnel connecting Jungfraujoch railway station to the Sphinx Observatory through a glacier at the Jungfraujoch Alpine glaciers can be straight rivers of ice long sweeping rivers spread in a fan like shape Piedmont glaciers and curtains of ice that hang from vertical slopes of the mountain peaks The stress of the movement causes the ice to break and crack loudly perhaps explaining why the mountains were believed to be home to dragons in the medieval period The cracking creates unpredictable and dangerous crevasses often invisible under new snowfall which causes the greatest danger to mountaineers 56 Glaciers end in ice caves the Rhone Glacier by trailing into a lake or river or by shedding snowmelt on a meadow Sometimes a piece of glacier will detach or break resulting in flooding property damage and loss of life 56 High levels of precipitation cause the glaciers to descend to permafrost levels in some areas whereas in other more arid regions glaciers remain above about the 3 500 m 11 483 ft level 57 The 1 817 km2 702 sq mi of the Alps covered by glaciers in 1876 had shrunk to 1 342 km2 518 sq mi by 1973 resulting in decreased river run off levels 58 Forty percent of the glaciation in Austria has disappeared since 1850 and 30 of that in Switzerland 59 Although the Alpine topography shows marked glacial morphologies 60 the mechanisms by which glacial reshaping occurs are unclear Numerical modeling suggests that glacial erosion propagates from low elevations to high elevations leading to an early increase of local relief followed by lowering of the mean orogen elevation 61 Rivers and lakes EditMain article List of valleys of the Alps The St Bartholomew s chapel on the Konigssee in Bavaria is a popular tourist destination 62 The Alps provide lowland Europe with drinking water irrigation and hydroelectric power 63 Although the area is only about 11 of the surface area of Europe the Alps provide up to 90 of water to lowland Europe particularly to arid areas and during the summer months Cities such as Milan depend on 80 of water from Alpine runoff 15 64 65 Water from the rivers is used in at least 550 hydroelectricity power plants considering only those producing at least 10MW of electricity 66 Major European rivers flow from the Alps such as the Rhine the Rhone the Inn and the Po all of which have headwaters in the Alps and flow into neighbouring countries finally emptying into the North Sea the Mediterranean Sea the Adriatic Sea and the Black Sea Other rivers such as the Danube have major tributaries flowing into them that originate in the Alps 15 The Rhone is second to the Nile as a freshwater source to the Mediterranean Sea the river begins as glacial meltwater flows into Lake Geneva and from there to France where one of its uses is to cool nuclear power plants 67 The Rhine originates in a 30 km2 12 sq mi area in Switzerland and represents almost 60 of water exported from the country 67 Tributary valleys some of which are complicated channel water to the main valleys which can experience flooding during the snowmelt season when rapid runoff causes debris torrents and swollen rivers 68 The rivers form lakes such as Lake Geneva a crescent shaped lake crossing the Swiss border with Lausanne on the Swiss side and the town of Evian les Bains on the French side In Germany the medieval St Bartholomew s chapel was built on the south side of the Konigssee accessible only by boat or by climbing over the abutting peaks 69 Southern pre alpine lakes like Lake Garda are characterised by warmer microclimates than the surrounding areas Additionally the Alps have led to the creation of large lakes in Italy For instance the Sarca the primary inflow of Lake Garda originates in the Italian Alps 70 The Italian Lakes are a popular tourist destination since the Roman Era for their mild climate Scientists have been studying the impact of climate change and water use For example each year more water is diverted from rivers for snowmaking in the ski resorts the effect of which is yet unknown Furthermore the decrease of glaciated areas combined with a succession of winters with lower than expected precipitation may have a future impact on the rivers in the Alps as well as an effect on the water availability to the lowlands 64 71 Climate EditMain articles Climate of the Alps and High Alps The Alps are a classic example of what happens when a temperate area at lower altitude gives way to higher elevation terrain Elevations around the world that have cold climates similar to those of the polar regions have been called Alpine A rise from sea level into the upper regions of the atmosphere causes the temperature to decrease see adiabatic lapse rate The effect of mountain chains on prevailing winds is to carry warm air belonging to the lower region into an upper zone where it expands in volume at the cost of a proportionate loss of temperature often accompanied by precipitation in the form of snow or rain 72 The height of the Alps is sufficient to divide the weather patterns in Europe into a wet north and dry south because moisture is sucked from the air as it flows over the high peaks 73 The Aletsch Glacier with pine trees growing on the hillside 2007 the surface is 180 m 590 ft lower than 150 years ago The severe weather in the Alps has been studied since the 18th century particularly the weather patterns such as the seasonal foehn wind Numerous weather stations were placed in the mountains early in the early 20th century providing continuous data for climatologists 14 Some of the valleys are quite arid such as the Aosta valley in Italy the Maurienne in France the Valais in Switzerland and northern Tyrol 14 The areas that are not arid and receive high precipitation experience periodic flooding from rapid snowmelt and runoff 68 The mean precipitation in the Alps ranges from a low of 2 600 mm 100 in per year to 3 600 mm 140 in per year with the higher levels occurring at high altitudes At altitudes between 1 000 and 3 000 m 3 300 and 9 800 ft snowfall begins in November and accumulates through to April or May when the melt begins Snow lines vary from 2 400 to 3 000 m 7 900 to 9 800 ft above which the snow is permanent and the temperatures hover around the freezing point even during July and August High water levels in streams and rivers peak in June and July when the snow is still melting at the higher altitudes 74 The Alps are split into five climatic zones each with different vegetation The climate plant life and animal life vary among the different sections or zones of the mountains The lowest zone is the colline zone which exists between 500 and 1 000 m 1 600 and 3 300 ft depending on the location The montane zone extends from 800 to 1 700 m 2 600 to 5 600 ft followed by the sub Alpine zone from 1 600 to 2 400 m 5 200 to 7 900 ft The Alpine zone extending from tree line to the snow line is followed by the glacial zone which covers the glaciated areas of the mountain Climatic conditions show variances within the same zones for example weather conditions at the head of a mountain valley extending directly from the peaks are colder and more severe than those at the mouth of a valley which tend to be less severe and receive less snowfall 75 Various models of climate change have been projected into the 22nd century for the Alps with an expectation that a trend toward increased temperatures will have an effect on snowfall snowpack glaciation and river runoff 76 77 Significant changes of both natural and anthropogenic origins have already been diagnosed from observations 78 79 80 Ecology EditMain article Alps conifer and mixed forests Flora Edit Main article Flora of the Alps Stemless gentian Gentiana acaulis Thirteen thousand species of plants have been identified in the Alpine regions 5 Alpine plants are grouped by habitat and soil type which can be limestone or non calcareous The habitats range from meadows bogs and woodland deciduous and coniferous areas to soil less scree and moraines and rock faces and ridges 11 A natural vegetation limit with altitude is given by the presence of the chief deciduous trees oak beech ash and sycamore maple These do not reach the same elevation nor are they often found growing together but their upper limit corresponds accurately enough to the change from a temperate to a colder climate that is further proved by a change in the presence of wild herbaceous vegetation 81 This limit usually lies about 1 200 m 3 900 ft above the sea on the north side of the Alps but on the southern slopes it often rises to 1 500 m 4 900 ft sometimes even to 1 700 m 5 600 ft 82 Above the forestry there is often a band of short pine trees Pinus mugo which is in turn superseded by Alpenrosen dwarf shrubs typically Rhododendron ferrugineum on acid soils or Rhododendron hirsutum on alkaline soils 83 Although Alpenrose prefers acidic soil the plants are found throughout the region 11 Above the tree line is the area defined as alpine where in the alpine meadow plants are found that have adapted well to harsh conditions of cold temperatures aridity and high altitudes The alpine area fluctuates greatly because of regional fluctuations in tree lines 84 Edelweiss Leontopodium alpinum Alpine plants such as the Alpine gentian grow in abundance in areas such as the meadows above the Lauterbrunnental Gentians are named after the Illyrian king Gentius and 40 species of the early spring blooming flower grow in the Alps in a range of 1 500 to 2 400 m 4 900 to 7 900 ft 85 Writing about the gentians in Switzerland D H Lawrence described them as darkening the day time torch like with the smoking blueness of Pluto s gloom 86 Gentians tend to appear repeatedly as the spring blooming takes place at progressively later dates moving from the lower altitude to the higher altitude meadows where the snow melts much later than in the valleys On the highest rocky ledges the spring flowers bloom in the summer 11 At these higher altitudes the plants tend to form isolated cushions In the Alps several species of flowering plants have been recorded above 4 000 m 13 000 ft including Ranunculus glacialis Androsace alpina and Saxifraga biflora Eritrichium nanum commonly known as the King of the Alps is the most elusive of the alpine flowers growing on rocky ridges at 2 600 to 3 750 m 8 530 to 12 300 ft 87 Perhaps the best known of the alpine plants is Edelweiss which grows in rocky areas and can be found at altitudes as low as 1 200 m 3 900 ft and as high as 3 400 m 11 200 ft 11 The plants that grow at the highest altitudes have adapted to conditions by specialization such as growing in rock screes that give protection from winds 88 The extreme and stressful climatic conditions give way to the growth of plant species with secondary metabolites important for medicinal purposes Origanum vulgare Prunella vulgaris Solanum nigrum and Urtica dioica are some of the more useful medicinal species found in the Alps 89 Preserved internal alpine forest and meadow Vanoise National Park Human interference has nearly exterminated the trees in many areas and except for the beech forests of the Austrian Alps forests of deciduous trees are rarely found after the extreme deforestation between the 17th and 19th centuries 90 The vegetation has changed since the second half of the 20th century as the high alpine meadows cease to be harvested for hay or used for grazing which eventually might result in a regrowth of the forest In some areas the modern practice of building ski runs by mechanical means has destroyed the underlying tundra from which the plant life cannot recover during the non skiing months whereas areas that still practice a natural piste type of ski slope building preserve the fragile underlayers 88 Fauna Edit The Alps are a habitat for 30 000 species of wildlife ranging from the tiniest snow fleas to brown bears many of which have made adaptations to the harsh cold conditions and high altitudes to the point that some only survive in specific micro climates either directly above or below the snow line 5 91 Young alpine ibex When fully grown the horns of this male will be about one metre wide The largest mammal to live in the highest altitudes are the alpine ibex which have been sighted as high as 3 000 m 9 800 ft The ibex live in caves and descend to eat the succulent alpine grasses 92 Classified as antelopes 11 chamois are smaller than ibex and found throughout the Alps living above the tree line and are common in the entire alpine range 93 Areas of the eastern Alps are still home to brown bears In Switzerland the canton of Bern was named for the bears but the last bear is recorded as having been killed in 1792 above Kleine Scheidegg by three hunters from Grindelwald 94 Many rodents such as voles live underground Marmots live almost exclusively above the tree line as high as 2 700 m 8 900 ft They hibernate in large groups to provide warmth 95 and can be found in all areas of the Alps in large colonies they build beneath the alpine pastures 11 Golden eagles and bearded vultures are the largest birds to be found in the Alps they nest high on rocky ledges and can be found at altitudes of 2 400 m 7 900 ft The most common bird is the alpine chough which can be found scavenging at climber s huts or the Jungfraujoch a high altitude tourist destination 96 The alpine Apollo butterfly has adapted to alpine conditions Reptiles such as adders and vipers live up to the snow line because they cannot bear the cold temperatures they hibernate underground and soak up the warmth on rocky ledges 97 The high altitude Alpine salamanders have adapted to living above the snow line by giving birth to fully developed young rather than laying eggs Brown trout can be found in the streams up to the snow line 97 Molluscs such as the wood snail live up the snow line Popularly gathered as food the snails are now protected 98 Several species of moths live in the Alps some of which are believed to have evolved in the same habitat up to 120 million years ago long before the Alps were created Blue butterflies can commonly be seen drinking from the snowmelt some species of blues fly as high as 1 800 m 5 900 ft 99 The butterflies tend to be large such as those from the swallowtail Parnassius family with a habitat that ranges to 1 800 m 5 900 ft Twelve species of beetles have habitats up to the snow line the most beautiful and formerly collected for its colours but now protected is Rosalia alpina 100 Spiders such as the large wolf spider live above the snow line and can be seen as high as 400 m 1 300 ft Scorpions can be found in the Italian Alps 98 Some of the species of moths and insects show evidence of having been indigenous to the area from as long ago as the Alpine orogeny In Emosson in Valais Switzerland dinosaur tracks were found in the 1970s dating probably from the Triassic Period 101 History EditMain article History of the Alps Prehistory to Christianity Edit Pre historic petroglyphs from Valcamonica Italy About 10 000 years ago when the ice melted after the Wurm glaciation late Palaeolithic communities were established along the lake shores and in cave systems Evidence of human habitation has been found in caves near Vercors close to Grenoble and Echirolles in Austria the Mondsee culture shows evidence of houses built on piles to keep them dry Standing stones have been found in the Alpine areas of France and Italy The Rock Drawings in Valcamonica are more than 5000 years old more than 200 000 drawings and etchings have been identified at the site 102 In 1991 a mummy of a neolithic body known as Otzi the Iceman was discovered by hikers on the Similaun glacier His clothing and gear indicate that he lived in an alpine farming community while the location and manner of his death an arrowhead was discovered in his shoulder suggests he was travelling from one place to another 103 Analysis of the mitochondrial DNA of Otzi has shown that he belongs to the K1 subclade which cannot be categorized into any of the three modern branches of that subclade The new subclade has provisionally been named K1o for Otzi 104 Celtic tribes settled in Switzerland between 1500 and 1000 BC The Raetians lived in the eastern regions while the west was occupied by the Helvetii and the Allobrogi settled in the Rhone valley and in Savoy The Ligurians and Adriatic Veneti lived in north west Italy and Triveneto respectively Among the many substances Celtic tribes mined was salt in areas such as Salzburg in Austria where evidence of the Hallstatt culture was found by a mine manager in the 19th century 102 By the 6th century BC the La Tene culture was well established in the region 105 and became known for high quality decorated weapons and jewellery 106 The Celts were the most widespread of the mountain tribes they had warriors that were strong tall and fair skinned and skilled with iron weapons which gave them an advantage in warfare 107 During the Second Punic War in 218 BC the Carthaginian general Hannibal probably crossed the Alps with an army numbering 38 000 infantry 8 000 cavalry and 37 war elephants This was one of the most celebrated achievements of any military force in ancient warfare 108 although no evidence exists of the actual crossing or the place of crossing The Romans however had built roads along the mountain passes which continued to be used through the medieval period to cross the mountains and Roman road markers can still be found on the mountain passes 109 Chateau de Chillon an early medieval castle on the north shore of Lake Geneva is shown here against the backdrop of the Dents du Midi The Roman expansion brought the defeat of the Allobrogi in 121 BC and during the Gallic Wars in 58 BC Julius Caesar overcame the Helvetii The Rhaetians continued to resist but were eventually conquered when the Romans turned northward to the Danube valley in Austria and defeated the Brigantes 110 The Romans built settlements in the Alps towns such as Aosta named for Augustus in Italy Martigny and Lausanne in Switzerland and Partenkirchen in Bavaria show remains of Roman baths villas arenas and temples 111 Much of the Alpine region was gradually settled by Germanic tribes Lombards Alemanni Bavarii and Franks from the 6th to the 13th centuries mixing with the local Celtic tribes 112 Christianity feudalism and Napoleonic wars Edit Christianity was established in the region by the Romans and saw the establishment of monasteries and churches in the high regions The Frankish expansion of the Carolingian Empire and the Bavarian expansion in the eastern Alps introduced feudalism and the building of castles to support the growing number of dukedoms and kingdoms Castello del Buonconsiglio in Trento Italy still has intricate frescoes excellent examples of Gothic art in a tower room In Switzerland Chateau de Chillon is preserved as an example of medieval architecture 113 There are several important alpine saints and one such one is Saint Maurice 114 who gives his name to the town St Moritz Much of the medieval period was a time of power struggles between competing dynasties such as the House of Savoy the Visconti in northern Italy and the House of Habsburg in Austria and Slovenia 115 In 1291 to protect themselves from incursions by the Habsburgs four cantons in the middle of Switzerland drew up a charter that is considered to be a declaration of independence from neighbouring kingdoms After a series of battles fought in the 13th 14th and 15th centuries more cantons joined the confederacy and by the 16th century Switzerland was well established as a separate state 116 Russian troops under Suvorov crossing the Alps in 1799 During the Napoleonic Wars in the late 18th century and early 19th century Napoleon annexed territory formerly controlled by the Habsburgs and Savoys In 1798 he established the Helvetic Republic in Switzerland two years later he led an army across the St Bernard pass and conquered almost all of the Alpine regions 117 Built from 1300 to 1500 metres high on a rock of quartzite and surrounded by deep cliffs the Forts de l Esseillon prevented any invasion After the fall of Napoleon many alpine countries developed heavy protections to prevent any new invasion Thus Savoy built a series of fortifications in the Maurienne valley to protect the major alpine passes such as the col du Mont Cenis that was even crossed by Charlemagne and his father to defeat the Lombards The latter indeed became very popular after the construction of a paved road ordered by Napoleon Bonaparte The Barriere de l Esseillon is a series of forts with heavy batteries built on a cliff with a perfect view of the valley a gorge on one side and steep mountains on the other side In the 19th century the monasteries built in the high Alps during the medieval period to shelter travellers and as places of pilgrimage became tourist destinations The Benedictines had built monasteries in Lucerne Switzerland and Oberammergau the Cistercians in the Tyrol and at Lake Constance and the Augustinians had abbeys in the Savoy and one in the centre of Interlaken Switzerland 118 The Great St Bernard Hospice built in the 9th or 10th centuries at the summit of the Great Saint Bernard Pass was a shelter for travellers and place for pilgrims since its inception by the 19th century it became a tourist attraction with notable visitors such as author Charles Dickens and mountaineer Edward Whymper 119 Exploration Edit Main article Exploration of the High Alps The first ascent of the Matterhorn 1865 lithograph by Gustave Dore Radiocarbon dated charcoal placed around 50 000 years ago was found in the Drachloch Dragon s Hole cave above the village of Vattis in the canton of St Gallen proving that the high peaks were visited by prehistoric people Seven bear skulls from the cave may have been buried by the same prehistoric people 120 The peaks however were mostly ignored except for a few notable examples and long left to the exclusive attention of the people of the adjoining valleys 121 122 The mountain peaks were seen as terrifying the abode of dragons and demons to the point that people blindfolded themselves to cross the Alpine passes 123 The glaciers remained a mystery and many still believed the highest areas to be inhabited by dragons 124 Charles VII of France ordered his chamberlain to climb Mont Aiguille in 1356 The knight reached the summit of Rocciamelone where he left a bronze triptych of three crosses a feat which he conducted with the use of ladders to traverse the ice 125 In 1492 Antoine de Ville climbed Mont Aiguille without reaching the summit an experience he described as horrifying and terrifying 122 Leonardo da Vinci was fascinated by variations of light in the higher altitudes and climbed a mountain scholars are uncertain which one some believe it may have been Monte Rosa From his description of a blue like that of a gentian sky it is thought that he reached a significantly high altitude 126 In the 18th century four Chamonix men almost made the summit of Mont Blanc but were overcome by altitude sickness and snowblindness 127 Conrad Gessner was the first naturalist to ascend the mountains in the 16th century to study them writing that in the mountains he found the theatre of the Lord 128 By the 19th century more naturalists began to arrive to explore study and conquer the high peaks 129 Two men who first explored the regions of ice and snow were Horace Benedict de Saussure 1740 1799 in the Pennine Alps 130 and the Benedictine monk of Disentis Placidus a Spescha 1752 1833 129 Born in Geneva Saussure was enamoured with the mountains from an early age he left a law career to become a naturalist and spent many years trekking through the Bernese Oberland the Savoy the Piedmont and Valais studying the glaciers and geology as he became an early proponent of the theory of rock upheaval 131 Saussure in 1787 was a member of the third ascent of Mont Blanc today the summits of all the peaks have been climbed 34 The Romantics and Alpinists Edit Wanderer above the Sea of Fog Caspar David Friedrich 1818 Albrecht von Haller s poem Die Alpen 1732 described the mountains as an area of mythical purity 132 Jean Jacques Rousseau was another writer who presented the Alps as a place of allure and beauty in his novel Julie or the New Heloise 1761 Later the first wave of Romantics such as Goethe and Turner came to admire the scenery 133 Wordsworth visited the area in 1790 writing of his experiences in The Prelude 1799 Schiller later wrote the play William Tell 1804 which tells the story of the legendary Swiss marksman William Tell as part of the greater Swiss struggle for independence from the Habsburg Empire in the early 14th century At the end of the Napoleonic Wars the Alpine countries began to see an influx of poets artists and musicians 134 as visitors came to experience the sublime effects of monumental nature 135 In 1816 Byron Percy Bysshe Shelley and his wife Mary Shelley visited Geneva and all three were inspired by the scenery in their writings 134 During these visits Shelley wrote the poem Mont Blanc Byron wrote The Prisoner of Chillon and the dramatic poem Manfred and Mary Shelley who found the scenery overwhelming conceived the idea for the novel Frankenstein in her villa on the shores of Lake Geneva amid a thunderstorm When Coleridge travelled to Chamonix he declaimed in defiance of Shelley who had signed himself Atheos in the guestbook of the Hotel de Londres near Montenvers 136 Who would be who could be an atheist in this valley of wonders 137 By the mid 19th century scientists began to arrive en masse to study the geology and ecology of the region 138 From the beginning of the 19th century the tourism and mountaineering development of the Alps began In the early years of the golden age of alpinism initially scientific activities were mixed with sport for example by the physicist John Tyndall with the first ascent of the Matterhorn by Edward Whymper being the highlight In the later years the silver age of alpinism the focus was on mountain sports and climbing The first president of the Alpine Club John Ball is considered the discoverer of the Dolomites which for decades were the focus of climbers like Paul Grohmann Michael Innerkofler and Angelo Dibona 139 140 141 The Nazis Edit The Nazis hid looted art in salt mines at Altaussee such as the Early Netherlandish Ghent Altarpiece which sustained significant damage Austrian born Adolf Hitler had a lifelong romantic fascination with the Alps and by the 1930s established a home at Berghof in the Obersalzberg region outside of Berchtesgaden His first visit to the area was in 1923 and he maintained a strong tie there until the end of his life At the end of World War II the US Army occupied Obersalzberg to prevent Hitler from retreating with the Wehrmacht into the mountains 142 By 1940 many of the Alpine countries were under the control of the Axis powers Austria underwent a political coup that made it part of the Third Reich France had been invaded and Italy was a fascist regime Switzerland and Liechtenstein were the only countries to avoid an Axis takeover 143 The Swiss Confederation mobilized its troops the country follows the doctrine of armed neutrality with all males required to have military training a number that General Eisenhower estimated to be about 850 000 The Swiss commanders wired the infrastructure leading into the country with explosives and threatened to destroy bridges railway tunnels and roads across passes in the event of a Nazi invasion and if there was an invasion the Swiss army would then have retreated to the heart of the mountain peaks where conditions were harsher and a military invasion would involve difficult and protracted battles 144 German Ski troops were trained for the war and battles were waged in mountainous areas such as the battle at Riva Ridge in Italy where the American 10th Mountain Division encountered heavy resistance in February 1945 145 At the end of the war a substantial amount of Nazi plunder was found stored in Austria where Hitler had hoped to retreat as the war drew to a close The salt mines surrounding the Altaussee area where American troops found 75 kg 165 lb of gold coins stored in a single mine were used to store looted art jewels and currency vast quantities of looted art were found and returned to the owners 146 Largest cities EditThe largest city within the Alps is the city of Grenoble in France Other larger and important cities within the Alps with over 100 000 inhabitants are in Tyrol with Bolzano Italy Trento Italy and Innsbruck Austria Larger cities outside the Alps are Milan Verona Turin Italy Munich Germany Graz Vienna Salzburg Austria Ljubljana Maribor Kranj Slovenia Zurich Geneva Switzerland Nice and Lyon France Cities with over 100 000 inhabitants in the Alps are Rank Municipality Inhabitants Country Region1 Grenoble 162 780 France Auvergne Rhone Alpes2 Innsbruck 132 236 Austria Tyrol3 Trento 117 417 Italy Trentino South Tyrol4 Bolzano Bozen 106 951 Italy Trentino South TyrolAlpine people and culture EditFurther information Transhumance in the Alps and Swiss folklore The population of the region is 14 million spread across eight countries 5 On the rim of the mountains on the plateaus and on the plains the economy consists of manufacturing and service jobs whereas in the higher altitudes and the mountains farming is still essential to the economy 147 Farming and forestry continue to be mainstays of Alpine culture industries that provide for export to the cities and maintain the mountain ecology 148 The Alpine regions are multicultural and linguistically diverse Dialects are common and vary from valley to valley and region to region In the Slavic Alps alone 19 dialects have been identified Some of the Romance dialects spoken in the French Swiss and Italian alps of Aosta Valley derive from Arpitan while the southern part of the western range is related to Occitan the German dialects derive from Germanic tribal languages 149 Romansh spoken by two percent of the population in southeast Switzerland is an ancient Rhaeto Romanic language derived from Latin remnants of ancient Celtic languages and perhaps Etruscan 149 Hallstatt is known for its production of salt dating back to prehistoric times Much of the Alpine culture is unchanged since the medieval period when skills that guaranteed survival in the mountain valleys and the highest villages became mainstays leading to strong traditions of carpentry woodcarving baking pastry making and cheesemaking 150 Farming has been a traditional occupation for centuries although it became less dominant in the 20th century with the advent of tourism Grazing and pasture land are limited because of the steep and rocky topography of the Alps In mid June cows are moved to the highest pastures close to the snowline where they are watched by herdsmen who stay in the high altitudes often living in stone huts or wooden barns during the summers 150 Villagers celebrate the day the cows are herded up to the pastures and again when they return in mid September The Almabtrieb Alpabzug Alpabfahrt Desalpes coming down from the alps is celebrated by decorating the cows with garlands and enormous cowbells while the farmers dress in traditional costumes 150 In the summers the cows are brought up to the high mountain meadows for grazing Small summer villages such as the one shown in this photograph taken in Savoy are used Cheesemaking is an ancient tradition in most Alpine countries A wheel of cheese from the Emmental in Switzerland can weigh up to 45 kg 100 lb and the Beaufort in Savoy can weigh up to 70 kg 150 lb Owners of the cows traditionally receive from the cheesemakers a portion about the proportion of the cows milk from the summer months in the high alps Haymaking is an important farming activity in mountain villages that have become somewhat mechanized in recent years although the slopes are so steep that scythes are usually necessary to cut the grass Hay is normally brought in twice a year often also on festival days 150 In the high villages people live in homes built according to medieval designs that withstand cold winters The kitchen is separated from the living area called the stube the area of the home heated by a stove and second floor bedrooms benefit from rising heat The typical Swiss chalet originated in the Bernese Oberland Chalets often face south or downhill and are built of solid wood with a steeply gabled roof to allow accumulated snow to slide off easily Stairs leading to upper levels are sometimes built on the outside and balconies are sometimes enclosed 150 151 Herding sheep in Austria Food is passed from the kitchen to the stube where the dining room table is placed Some meals are communal such as fondue where a pot is set in the middle of the table for each person to dip into Other meals are still served traditionally on carved wooden plates Furniture has been traditionally elaborately carved and in many Alpine countries carpentry skills are passed from generation to generation Alpine chalet being built in Haute Maurienne Savoy the use of thick pieces of orthogneiss 4 7 cm is by the strict architectural regulations in the region bordering the national parks of Vanoise Grand Paradis Roofs are traditionally constructed from Alpine rocks such as pieces of schist gneiss or slate 152 Such chalets are typically found in the higher parts of the valleys as in the Maurienne valley in Savoy where the amount of snow during the cold months is important The inclination of the roof cannot exceed 40 allowing the snow to stay on top thereby functioning as insulation from the cold 153 In the lower areas where the forests are widespread wooden tiles are traditionally used Commonly made of Norway spruce they are called tavaillon In the German speaking parts of the Alps Austria Bavaria South Tyrol Liechtenstein and Switzerland there is a strong tradition of Alpine folk culture Old traditions are carefully maintained among inhabitants of Alpine areas even though this is seldom obvious to the visitor many people are members of cultural associations where the Alpine folk culture is cultivated At cultural events traditional folk costume in German Tracht is expected typically lederhosen for men and dirndls for women Visitors can get a glimpse of the rich customs of the Alps at public Volksfeste Even when large events feature only a little folk culture all participants take part with gusto Good opportunities to see local people celebrating the traditional culture occur at the many fairs wine festivals and firefighting festivals which fill weekends in the countryside from spring to autumn Alpine festivals vary from country to country Frequently they include music e g the playing of Alpenhorns dance e g Schuhplattler sports e g wrestling marches and archery as well as traditions with pagan roots such as the lighting of fires on Walpurgis Night and Saint John s Eve Many areas celebrate Fastnacht in the weeks before Lent Folk costume also continues to be worn for most weddings and festivals 154 155 Tourism EditFurther information List of national parks in the Alps Tourism in Austria Tourism in France Tourism in Italy and Tourism in Switzerland The ski resort in Speikboden South Tyrol Italy The Alps are one of the more popular tourist destinations in the world with many resorts such as Oberstdorf in Bavaria Saalbach in Austria Davos in Switzerland Chamonix in France and Cortina d Ampezzo in Italy recording more than a million annual visitors With over 120 million visitors a year tourism is integral to the Alpine economy with much of it coming from winter sports although summer visitors are also an important component 156 The tourism industry began in the early 19th century when foreigners visited the Alps travelled to the bases of the mountains to enjoy the scenery and stayed at the spa resorts Large hotels were built during the Belle Epoque cog railways built early in the 20th century brought tourists to ever higher elevations with the Jungfraubahn terminating at the Jungfraujoch well above the eternal snow line after going through a tunnel in Eiger During this period winter sports were slowly introduced in 1882 the first figure skating championship was held in St Moritz and downhill skiing became a popular sport with English visitors early in the 20th century 156 as the first ski lift was installed in 1908 above Grindelwald 157 Karl Schranz running the Lauberhorn in 1966 In the first half of the 20th century the Olympic Winter Games were held three times in Alpine venues the 1924 Winter Olympics in Chamonix France the 1928 Winter Olympics in St Moritz Switzerland and the 1936 Winter Olympics in Garmisch Partenkirchen Germany During World War II the winter games were cancelled but after that time the Winter Games have been held in St Moritz 1948 Cortina d Ampezzo 1956 Innsbruck Austria 1964 and 1976 Grenoble France 1968 Albertville France 1992 and Torino 2006 158 In 1930 the Lauberhorn Rennen Lauberhorn Race was run for the first time on the Lauberhorn above Wengen 159 the equally demanding Hahnenkamm was first run in the same year in Kitzbuhl Austria 160 Both races continue to be held each January on successive weekends The Lauberhorn is the more strenuous downhill race at 4 5 km 2 8 mi and poses danger to racers who reach 130 km h 81 mph within seconds of leaving the start gate 161 During the post World War I period ski lifts were built in Swiss and Austrian towns to accommodate winter visitors but summer tourism continued to be important by the mid 20th century the popularity of downhill skiing increased greatly as it became more accessible and in the 1970s several new villages were built in France devoted almost exclusively to skiing such as Les Menuires Until this point Austria and Switzerland had been the traditional and more popular destinations for winter sports but by the end of the 20th century and into the early 21st century France Italy and the Tyrol began to see increases in winter visitors 156 From 1980 to the present ski lifts have been modernized and snow making machines installed at many resorts leading to mounting concerns regarding the loss of traditional Alpine culture and uncertainties regarding sustainable development 162 For instance the number of ski resorts and piste kilometres has declined since 2015 a likely result of climatic change 163 Avalanche snow slide Edit17th century French Italian border avalanche in the 17th century about 2500 people were killed by an avalanche in a village on the French Italian border 19th century Zermatt avalanche in the 19th century 120 homes in a village near Zermatt were destroyed by an avalanche 164 December 13 1916 Marmolada mountain avalanche 1950 1951 winter of terror avalanches February 10 1970 Val d Isere avalanche February 9 1999 Montroc avalanche February 21 1999 Evolene avalanche February 23 1999 Galtur avalanche the deadliest avalanche in the Alps in 40 years July 2014 Mont Blanc avalanche January 13 2016 Les Deux Alpes avalanche January 18 2016 Valfrejus avalanche July 3 2022 Marmolada serac collapseTransportation Edit Zentralbahn Interregio train following the Lake Brienz shoreline near Niederried in Switzerland The region is serviced by 4 200 km 2 600 mi of roads used by six million vehicles per year 5 Train travel is well established in the Alps with for instance 120 km 75 mi of track for every 1 000 km2 390 sq mi in a country such as Switzerland 165 Most of Europe s highest railways are located there In 2007 the new 34 57 km long 21 48 mi Lotschberg Base Tunnel was opened which circumvents the 100 years older Lotschberg Tunnel With the opening of the 57 1 km long 35 5 mi Gotthard Base Tunnel on June 1 2016 it bypasses the Gotthard Tunnel built in the 19th century and realizes the first flat route through the Alps 166 Some high mountain villages are car free either because of inaccessibility or by choice Wengen and Zermatt in Switzerland are accessible only by cable car or cog rail trains Avoriaz in France is car free with other Alpine villages considering becoming car free zones or limiting the number of cars for reasons of sustainability of the fragile Alpine terrain 167 The lower regions and larger towns of the Alps are well served by motorways and main roads but higher mountain passes and byroads which are amongst the highest in Europe can be treacherous even in summer due to steep slopes Many passes are closed in winter Several airports around the Alps and some within as well as long distance rail links from all neighbouring countries afford large numbers of travellers easy access 5 See also Edit Alps portal Mountains portal World portalNotes Edit French Alpes alp German Alpen ˈalpm listen Italian Alpi ˈalpi Romansh Alps alps Slovene Alpe ˈaːlpɛ The Caucasus Mountains are higher and the Urals longer but both lie partly in Asia Depending on the definitions used a small mountain range in western Hungary may also qualify as part of the Alps although these are more typically classified as foothills and Hungary is not considered to be an Alpine country 3 References Edit Le Mont Blanc passe de 4 810 metres a 4 808 7 metres Alps The Hutchinson unabridged encyclopedia with atlas and weather guide Abington United Kingdom Helicon 2014 kutka petr February 21 2022 Vite ze jsou Alpy i v Madarsku Geograficka zajimavost a tip na prijemny vylet Svetobeznik info in Czech Retrieved April 12 2022 Alpine Convention Archived July 29 2011 at the Wayback Machine Alpine Conferences retrieved 3 August 2012 a b c d e f Chatre Baptiste et al 2010 8 a b Alp Origin and meaning of alp by Online Etymology Dictionary Smith Jennifer Nimmo 2004 The river Alpheus in Greek Christian and Byzantine thought Byzantion Maurus Servius Honoratus Book 10 line 13 In Georgius Thilo ed Servii Grammatici qui feruntur in Vergilii carmina commentarii in Latin Online Etymology Dictionary Etymonline com May 14 1955 Retrieved April 18 2012 a b c Schmid et al 2004 93 a b c d e f g Reynolds 2012 43 45 a b Fleming 2000 4 Shoumatoff 2001 117 19 a b c Ceben 1998 22 24 a b c Chatre Baptiste et al 2010 9 Fleming 2000 1 a b c Beattie 2006 xii xiii Alpine Convention the Convention the Alpine Convention in a nutshell the Alps Home Archived from the original on September 25 2018 Retrieved March 9 2019 Shoumtoff 2001 23 Excluding the Piz Zupo and Piz Roseg located in the Bernina range close to Piz Bernina Alps Definition Map amp Facts Encyclopaedia Britannica Retrieved February 4 2019 Die Alpen Hydrologie und Verkehrsubergange German Coolidge Lake amp Knox 1911 p 740 a b Encyclopaedia Britannica Encyclopedia Online Academic Edition Encyclopaedia Britannica retrieved 6 August 2012 History of the Great St Bernard pass Archived from the original on December 8 2012 Retrieved August 8 2007 Thiers Frederic August 10 2016 Ronce le gardien silencieux du col du Mont Cenis Le Dauphine libere Retrieved November 28 2021 Kalla Bishop P M 1971 Italian Railways Newton Abbott Devon England David amp Charles pp 41 42 ISBN 0 7153 5168 0 Swiss National Map Wer hat die grosste Rohre Who has the longest tube Tages Anzeiger graphical animation in German Zurich April 14 2016 Retrieved May 11 2016 Was die Tunnelbauer im Gotthard antrafen Tages Anzeiger graphical animation in German Zurich April 1 2016 Retrieved May 11 2016 Official Timetable in English German French Italian and Romansh Bern Swiss Federal Office for Transport The 4000ers of the Alps Official UIAA List PDF UIAA Bulletin 145 March 1994 Archived from the original PDF on March 7 2010 Michael Huxley The Geographical magazine Volume 59 Geographical Press 1987 a b Shoumatoff 2001 197 200 4000 m Peaks of the Alps Bielefeldt de July 6 2010 Retrieved August 9 2012 a b c Graciansky 2011 1 2 a b c Graciansky 2011 5 Shoumatoff 2001 35 a b Gerrard 1990 9 a b c Gerrard 1990 16 Earth 2008 142 a b Schmid 2004 102 a b c d Schmid 2004 97 a b Schmid 99 Schmid 2004 103 Graciansky 2011 29 Graciansky 2011 31 Beattie 2006 6 8 SED Earthquakes and the Alps The largest earthquakes in the Alps a b Sternai Pietro Sue Christian Husson Laurent Serpelloni Enrico Becker Thorsten W Willett Sean D Faccenna Claudio Di Giulio Andrea Spada Giorgio Jolivet Laurent Valla Pierre Petit Carole Nocquet Jean Mathieu Walpersdorf Andrea Castelltort Sebastien March 2019 Present day uplift of the European Alps Evaluating mechanisms and models of their relative contributions Earth Science Reviews 190 589 604 Bibcode 2019ESRv 190 589S doi 10 1016 j earscirev 2019 01 005 hdl 10281 229017 ISSN 0012 8252 S2CID 96447591 Shoumatoff 2001 49 53 Roth 10 17 a b c d e Shoumatoff 2001 63 68 Gerrard 1990 132 a b Shoumatoff 2001 71 72 Gerrard 1990 78 Gerrard 1990 108 Ceben 1998 38 Sternai P Herman F Fox M R Castelltort S July 13 2011 Hypsometric analysis to identify spatially variable glacial erosion Journal of Geophysical Research 116 F3 F03001 Bibcode 2011JGRF 116 3001S doi 10 1029 2010JF001823 ISSN 0148 0227 Sternai Pietro Herman Frederic Valla Pierre G Champagnac Jean Daniel April 15 2013 Spatial and temporal variations of glacial erosion in the Rhone valley Swiss Alps Insights from numerical modeling Earth and Planetary Science Letters 368 119 131 Bibcode 2013E amp PSL 368 119S doi 10 1016 j epsl 2013 02 039 ISSN 0012 821X S2CID 14687787 Shoumatoff 2001 31 Chatre Baptiste et al 2010 5 a b Benniston et al 2011 1 Price Martin Mountains Globally Important Eco systems University of Oxford Alpine Convention 2010 8 a b Benniston et al 2011 3 a b Ceben 1998 31 Shoumatoff 2001 24 31 Lake Garda Encyclopedia Britannica Retrieved August 27 2018 Chatre Baptiste et al 2010 13 Coolidge Lake amp Knox 1911 p 737 Fleming 2000 3 Ceben 1998 34 36 Viazzo 1980 17 Benniston 2011 3 4 IPCC regional fact sheet Mountains PDF Archived PDF from the original on October 9 2022 Huss Matthias Hock Regine Bauder Andreas Funk Martin May 1 2010 100 year mass changes in the Swiss Alps linked to the Atlantic Multidecadal Oscillation PDF Geophysical Research Letters 37 10 L10501 Bibcode 2010GeoRL 3710501H doi 10 1029 2010GL042616 ISSN 1944 8007 Archived PDF from the original on October 9 2022 Zampieri Matteo Scoccimarro Enrico Gualdi Silvio January 1 2013 Atlantic influence on spring snowfall over the Alps in the past 150 years Environmental Research Letters 8 3 034026 Bibcode 2013ERL 8c4026Z doi 10 1088 1748 9326 8 3 034026 ISSN 1748 9326 Zampieri Matteo Scoccimarro Enrico Gualdi Silvio Navarra Antonio January 15 2015 Observed shift towards earlier spring discharge in the main Alpine rivers Science of the Total Environment Towards a better understanding of the links between stressors hazard assessment and ecosystem services under water scarcity 503 504 222 232 Bibcode 2015ScTEn 503 222Z doi 10 1016 j scitotenv 2014 06 036 hdl 2122 9055 PMID 25005239 Coolidge Lake amp Knox 1911 p 738 Shoumatoff 2001 75 Beattie 2006 17 Korner 2003 9 Shoumatoff 2001 85 qtd in Beattie 2006 17 Shoumatoff 2001 87 a b Sharp 2002 14 Kala C P and Ratajc P 2012 High altitude biodiversity of the Alps and the Himalayas ethnobotany plant distribution and conservation perspective Biodiversity and Conservation 21 4 1115 1126 Gerrard 1990 225 Shoumatoff 2001 90 96 101 Shoumatoff 2001 104 Rupicapra rupicapra Linnaeus 1758 1 Shoumatoff 2001 101 Shoumatoff 2001 102 103 Shoumatoff 2001 97 98 a b Shoumatoff 2001 96 a b Shoumatoff 2001 88 89 Shoumatoff 2001 93 Shoumatoff 2001 91 Reynolds 2012 75 a b Beattie 2006 25 Beattie 2006 21 Luca Ermini et al Complete Mitochondrial Genome Sequence of the Tyrolean Iceman Current Biology vol 18 no 21 30 October 2008 pp 1687 1693 Fleming 2000 2 Shoumatoff 2001 131 Shoumatoff 2001 110 Lancel Serge 1999 71 Prevas 2001 68 69 Beattie 2006 27 Beattie 2006 28 31 Beattie 2006 31 34 Beattie 2006 32 34 37 43 Mershman Francis St Maurice The Catholic Encyclopedia Vol 10 New York City Robert Appleton Company 1911 6 March 2013 Beattie 2006 41 46 48 Beattie 2006 56 66 Shoumatoff 2001 182 183 Beattie 2006 69 70 Beattie 2006 73 75 76 Shoumatoff 2001 108 Coolidge Lake amp Knox 1911 p 748 a b Shoumatoff 2001 188 191 Fleming 2000 6 Fleming 2000 12 Fleming 2000 5 qtd in Shoumatoff 2001 193 Shoumatoff 2001 192 194 Fleming 2000 8 a b Fleming 2000 vii Fleming 2000 27 Fleming 2000 12 13 30 27 Beattie 2006 121 123 Goethe en Suisse et dans les Alpes Voyages de 1775 1779 et 1797 a b Fleming 2000 83 Beattie 2006 125 126 Geoffrey Hartman Gods Ghosts and Shelley s Atheos Literature and Theology Volume 24 Issue 1 pp 4 18 Beattie 2006 127 133 Beattie 2006 139 Fleming Fergus November 3 2000 Cliffhanger at the top of the world The Guardian Gilles Modica 1865 the Golden Age of Mountaineering 2016 pp 10 Die Besteigung der Berge Die Dolomitgipfel werden erobert German The ascent of the mountains the dolomite peaks are conquered Mitchell 2007 7 10 Halbrook 1998 1 Halbrook 2006 1 3 Feuer 2006 viii Mitchell 2007 10 151 Chartes et el 2010 14 Chartes et el 2010 5 a b Shoumataff 2001 114 166 a b c d e Shoumataff 2001 123 126 Shoumataff 2001 134 Shoumataff 2001 131 134 Cahier d architecture Haute Maurienne Vanoise PDF Shoumataff 2001 129 135 Anita Ericson Osterreich Marco Polo travel guide 13th edition Marco Polo Ostfildern Germany 2017 Pp 21f a b c Bartaletti Fabrizio What Role Do the Alps Play within World Tourism Archived April 27 2009 at the Wayback Machine Commission Internationale pour la Protection des Alpes CIRPA org Retrieved August 9 2012 Beattie 2006 198 21 Past Olympic Games Olympic org Retrieved August 13 2012 Lauberhorn History Retrieved August 14 2012 Hahenkamm Races Kitzbuhel Archived February 19 2011 at the Wayback Machine HKR com Retrieved August 13 2012 Lauberhorn Downhill Retrieved August 14 2012 Briand F Dubost M Pitt D Rambaud D 1989 The Alps A system under pressure IUCN p 128 ISBN 2 88032 983 3 Ski resorts of the Alps the development Marmota Maps November 15 2019 Retrieved October 17 2021 Fleming 2000 89 90 Rail Archived May 27 2013 at the Wayback Machine Swissworld org Retrieved August 20 2012 Welcome to the AlpTransit Portal Bern Swiss Federal Archives SFA Hudson 2000 107Works cited EditAlpine Convention 2010 The Alps People and pressures in the mountains the facts at a glance Allaby Michael et al The Encyclopedia of Earth 2008 Berkeley University of California Press ISBN 978 0 520 25471 8 Beattie Andrew 2006 The Alps A Cultural History New York Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0 19 530955 3 Benniston Martin et al 2011 Impact of Climatic Change on Water and Natural Hazards in the Alps Environmental Science and Policy Volume 30 1 9 Cebon Peter et al 1998 Views from the Alps Regional Perspectives on Climate Change Cambridge MA MIT Press ISBN 978 0 262 03252 0 Chatre Baptiste et al 2010 The Alps People and Pressures in the Mountains the Facts at a Glance Permanent Secretariat of the Alpine Convention alpconv org Retrieved August 4 2012 ISBN 978 88 905158 2 8 This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain Coolidge William Augustus Brevoort Lake Philip Knox Howard Vincent 1911 Alps Encyclopaedia Britannica Vol 1 11th ed pp 737 754 De Graciansky Pierre Charles et al 2011 The Western Alps From Rift to Passive Margin to Orogenic Belt Amsterdam Elsevier ISBN 978 0 444 53724 9 Feuer A B 2006 Packs On Memoirs of the 10th Mountain Division in World War II Mechanicsburg Pennsylvania Stackpole Books ISBN 978 0 8117 3289 5 Fleming Fergus 2000 Killing Dragons The Conquest of the Alps New York Grove ISBN 978 0 8021 3867 5 Gerrard AJ 1990 Mountain Environments An Examination of the Physical Geography of Mountains Boston MIT Press ISBN 978 0 262 07128 4 Halbrook Stephen P 1998 Target Switzerland Swiss Armed Neutrality in World War II Rockville Center NY Sarpedon ISBN 978 1 885119 53 7 Halbrook Stephen P 2006 The Swiss and the Nazis How the Alpine Republic Survived in the Shadow of the Third Reich Havertown PA Casemate ISBN 978 1 932033 42 7 Hudson Simon 2000 Snow Business A Study of the International Ski Industry New York Cengage ISBN 978 0 304 70471 2 Korner Christian 2003 Alpine Plant Life New York Springer Verlag ISBN 978 3 540 00347 2 Lancel Serge 1999 Hannibal Oxford Blackwell ISBN 978 0 631 21848 7 Mitchell Arthur H 2007 Hitler s Mountain Jefferson NC McFarland ISBN 978 0 7864 2458 0 Prevas John 2001 Hannibal Crosses The Alps The Invasion Of Italy And The Punic Wars Cambridge MA Da Capo Press ISBN 978 0 306 81070 1 Reynolds Kev 2012 The Swiss Alps Cicerone Press ISBN 978 1 85284 465 3 Roth Philipe 2007 Minerals first Discovered in Switzerland Lausanne CH Museum of Geology ISBN 978 3 9807561 8 1 Schmid Stefan M 2004 Regional tectonics from the Rhine graben to the Po plain a summary of the tectonic evolution of the Alps and their forelands Basel Geologisch Palaontologisches Institut Sharp Hilary 2002 Trekking and Climbing in the Western Alps London New Holland ISBN 978 0 8117 2954 3 Schmid Stefan M Genschuh Bernhard Kissling Eduard Schuster Ralf 2004 Tectonic map and overall architecture of the Alpine orogen Eclogae Geologicae Helvetiae 97 93 117 doi 10 1007 s00015 004 1113 x S2CID 22393862 Shoumatoff Nicholas and Nina 2001 The Alps Europe s Mountain Heart Ann Arbor MI University of Michigan Press ISBN 978 0 472 11111 4 Viazzo Pier Paolo 1980 Upland Communities Environment Population and Social Structure in the Alps since the Sixteenth Century Cambridge Cambridge University Press ISBN 978 0 521 30663 8External links EditAlps at Wikipedia s sister projects Definitions from Wiktionary Media from Commons News from Wikinews Quotations from Wikiquote Texts from Wikisource Textbooks from Wikibooks Travel information from Wikivoyage Resources from Wikiversity 17 2005 Satellite photo of the Alps taken on August 31 2005 by MODIS aboard Terra Official website of the Alpine Space Programme This EU co funded programme co finances transnational projects in the Alpine region Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Alps amp oldid 1132476339, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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