fbpx
Wikipedia

Golden eagle

January 19, 2024

For other uses, see Golden Eagle (disambiguation).

The golden eagle (Aquila chrysaetos) is a bird of prey living in the Northern Hemisphere. It is the most widely distributed species of eagle. Like all eagles, it belongs to the family Accipitridae. They are one of the best-known birds of prey in the Northern Hemisphere. These birds are dark brown, with lighter golden-brown plumage on their napes. Immature eagles of this species typically have white on the tail and often have white markings on the wings. Golden eagles use their agility and speed combined with powerful feet and large, sharp talons to hunt a variety of prey, mainly hares, rabbits, and marmots and other ground squirrels.[4] Golden eagles maintain home ranges or territories that may be as large as 200 km2 (77 sq mi). They build large nests in cliffs and other high places to which they may return for several breeding years. Most breeding activities take place in the spring; they are monogamous and may remain together for several years or possibly for life. Females lay up to four eggs, and then incubate them for six weeks. Typically, one or two young survive to fledge in about three months. These juvenile golden eagles usually attain full independence in the fall, after which they wander widely until establishing a territory for themselves in four to five years.

Golden eagle
Temporal range: Pliocene–recent[1]
Wild golden in flight at Pfyn-Finges, Switzerland.
Call of a golden eagle in Scotland
CITES Appendix II (CITES)[3]
Scientific classification
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Aves
Order: Accipitriformes
Family: Accipitridae
Genus: Aquila
Species:
A. chrysaetos
Binomial name
Aquila chrysaetos
Subspecies

6, see text

Range of A. chrysaetos
  Nesting, present in summer
  Nesting, present all year
  Non-nesting
Synonyms
  • Falco chrysaëtos Linnaeus, 1758
  • Falco fulvus Linnaeus, 1758

Once widespread across the Holarctic, it has disappeared from many areas that are heavily populated by humans. Despite being extirpated from or uncommon in some of its former range, the species is still widespread, being present in sizeable stretches of Eurasia, North America, and parts of North Africa. It is the largest and least populous of the five species of true accipitrid to occur as a breeding species in both the Palearctic and the Nearctic.[5]

For centuries, this species has been one of the most highly regarded birds used in falconry. Because of its hunting prowess, the golden eagle is regarded with great mystic reverence in some ancient, tribal cultures. It is one of the most extensively studied species of raptor in the world in some parts of its range, such as the Western United States and the Western Palearctic.

Taxonomy and systematics

This species was first described by Carl Linnaeus in his landmark 1758 10th edition of Systema Naturae as Falco chrysaetos.[6] Since birds were grouped largely on superficial characteristics at that time, many species were grouped by Linnaeus into the genus Falco. The type locality was given simply as "Europa"; it was later fixed to Sweden. It was moved to the new genus Aquila by French ornithologist Mathurin Jacques Brisson in 1760.[7] Aquila is Latin for "eagle", possibly derived from aquilus, "dark in colour" and chrysaetos is Ancient Greek for the golden eagle from khrusos, "gold" and aetos, "eagle".[8]

The golden eagle is part of a broad group of raptors called "booted eagles" which are defined by the feature that all species have feathering over their tarsus, unlike many other accipitrids which have bare legs. Included in this group are all species described as "hawk eagles" including the genera Spizaetus and Nisaetus, as well as assorted monotypical genera such as Oroaetus, Lophaetus, Stephanoaetus, Polemaetus, Lophotriorchis and Ictinaetus.

The genus Aquila is distributed across every continent but for South America and Antarctica. Up to 20 species have been classified in the genus, but more recently the taxonomic placement of some of the traditional species has been questioned. Traditionally, the Aquila eagles have been grouped superficially as largish, mainly brownish or dark-colored booted eagles that vary little in transition from their juvenile to their adult plumages. Genetic research has recently indicated the golden eagle is included in a clade with Verreaux's eagle in Africa as well as the Gurney's eagle (A. gurneyi) and the wedge-tailed eagle (clearly part of an Australasian radiation of the lineage). This identification of this particular clade has long been suspected based on similar morphological characteristics amongst these large-bodied species.[5] More surprisingly, the smaller, much paler-bellied sister species Bonelli's eagle (A. fasciatus) and African hawk-eagle (A. spilogaster), previously included in the genus Hieraaetus, have been revealed to be genetically much closer to the Verreaux's and golden eagle lineage than to other species traditionally included in the genus Aquila.[4][9][10] Other largish Aquila species, the eastern imperial, the Spanish imperial, the tawny and the steppe eagles, are now thought to be separate, close-knit clade, which attained some similar characteristics to the prior clade via convergent evolution.[9][10]

 
Wintering eagle of the nominate subspecies in Finland

Genetically, the "spotted eagles" (A. pomarina, hastata and clanga), have been discovered to be more closely related to the long-crested eagle (Lophaetus occipitalis) and the black eagle (Ictinaetus malayensis), and many generic reassignments have been advocated.[9][11] The genus Hieraaetus, including the booted eagle (H. pennatus), little eagle (H. morphnoides) and Ayres's hawk-eagle (H. ayresii), consists of much smaller species, that are in fact smallest birds called eagles outside of the unrelated Spilornis serpent-eagle genus. This genus has recently been eliminated by many authorities and is now occasionally also included in Aquila, although not all ornithological unions have followed this suit in this re-classification.[4][10][12] The small-bodied Wahlberg's eagle (H. wahlbergi) has been traditionally considered a Aquila species due to its lack of change from juvenile to adult plumage and brownish color but it is actually genetically aligned to the Hieraaetus lineage.[9][13] Cassin's hawk-eagle (H. africanus) is also probably closely related to the Hieraaetus group rather than the Spizaetus/Nisaetus "hawk-eagle" group (in which it was previously classified) which is not known to have radiated to Africa.[14]

Subspecies and distribution

 
A captive Aquila chrysaetos canadensis shows the typical rusty coloration of the subspecies.
 
Aquila chrysaetos homeyeri – MHNT

There are six extant subspecies of golden eagle that differ slightly in size and plumage. Individuals of any of the subspecies are somewhat variable and the differences between the subspecies are clinal, especially in terms of body size. Other than these characteristics, there is little variation across the range of the species.[15] Some recent studies have gone so far as to propose that only two subspecies be recognized based on genetic markers: Aquila chrysaetos chrysaetos (including A. c. homeyeri) and A. c. canadensis (including A. c. japonica, A. c. daphanea and A. c. kamtschatica).[16]

  • Aquila chrysaetos chrysaetos (Linnaeus, 1758) – sometimes referred to as the European golden eagle.[17] This is the nominate subspecies. This subspecies is found almost throughout Europe, including the British Isles (mainly in Scotland), the majority of Scandinavia, southern and northernmost France, Italy and Austria. In Eastern Europe, it is found from Estonia to Romania, Greece, Serbia and Bulgaria in southeastern Europe. It is also distributed through European Russia, reportedly reaching its eastern limit around the Yenisei River in Russia, also ranging south at a similar longitude into western Kazakhstan and northern Iran.[4][15] Male wing length is from 56.5 to 67 cm (22.2 to 26.4 in), averaging 62 cm (24 in), and female wing length is from 61.5 to 71.2 cm (24.2 to 28.0 in), averaging 67 cm (26 in). Males weigh from 2.8 to 4.6 kg (6.2 to 10.1 lb), averaging 3.69 kg (8.1 lb), and females weigh from 3.8 to 6.7 kg (8.4 to 14.8 lb), averaging 5.17 kg (11.4 lb).[4][15] The male of this subspecies has a wingspan of 1.89 to 2.15 m (6 ft 2 in to 7 ft 1 in), with an average of 2.02 m (6 ft 8 in), with the female's typical wingspan range is 2.12 to 2.2 m (6 ft 11 in to 7 ft 3 in), with an average of 2.16 m (7 ft 1 in).[17] This is a medium-sized subspecies and is the palest. As opposed to golden eagles found further east in Eurasia, the adults of this subspecies are a tawny golden-brown on the upperside. The nape patch is often gleaming golden in color and the feathers here are exceptionally long.[5][15][18]
  • Aquila chrysaetos homeyeri Severtzov, 1888 – commonly known as the Iberian golden eagle. This subspecies occurs in almost the entirety of the Iberian peninsula as well as the island of Crete, though it is absent from the rest of continental Europe. It also ranges in North Africa in a narrow sub-coastal strip from Morocco to Tunisia. A completely isolated population of golden eagles is found in Ethiopia's Bale Mountains, at the southern limit of the species' range worldwide. Although this latter population has not been formally assigned to a subspecies, there is a high probability that it belongs with A. c. homeyeri. This subspecies also ranges in much of Asia Minor, mainly Turkey, spottily through the Middle East and the Arabian Peninsula into northern Yemen and Oman to its eastern limits throughout the Caucasus,[19] much of Iran and north to southwestern Kazakhstan.[4][15] Male wing length is from 55 to 64.3 cm (21.7 to 25.3 in), averaging 59 cm (23 in), and female wing length is from 60 to 70.5 cm (23.6 to 27.8 in), averaging 64 cm (25 in). Weight is from 2.9 to 6 kg (6.4 to 13.2 lb) with no known reports of average masses.[4][15] This subspecies is slightly smaller and darker plumaged than the nominate subspecies, but it is not as dark as the golden eagles found further to the east. The forehead and crown are dark brownish, with the nape patch being short-feathered and a relatively light rusty color.[20]
  • Aquila chrysaetos daphanea Severtzov, 1888 – known variously as the Asian golden eagle, Himalayan golden eagle or berkut.[21] This subspecies is distributed in central Kazakhstan, eastern Iran, and the easternmost Caucasus, distributed to Manchuria and central China and along the Himalayas from northern Pakistan to Bhutan and discontinuing in northeastern Myanmar (rarely ranging over into northernmost India).[4][15][22] This subspecies is the largest on average. Male wing length is from 60 to 68 cm (24 to 27 in), averaging 64 cm (25 in), and female wing length is from 66 to 72 cm (26 to 28 in), averaging 70 cm (28 in). No range of body weights are known, but males will weigh approximately 4.05 kg (8.9 lb) and females 6.35 kg (14.0 lb).[4][15] Although the wingspan of this subspecies reportedly averages 2.21 m (7 ft 3 in), some individuals can have much longer wings.[21] One female berkut had an authenticated wingspan of 2.81 m (9 ft 3 in), although she was a captive specimen.[21] It is generally the second-darkest subspecies, being blackish on the back. The forehead and crown are dark with a blackish cap near the end of the crown. The feathers of the nape and top-neck are rich brown-red. The nape feathers are slightly shorter than in the nominate subspecies and are similar in length to A. c. homeyeri.[23][24]
  • Aquila chrysaetos japonica Severtzov, 1888 – commonly known as the Japanese golden eagle. This subspecies is found in northern Japan (the islands of Honshu, Hokkaido and discontinuously in Kyushu) and undefined parts of Korea.[4][15] Male wing length is from 58 to 59.5 cm (22.8 to 23.4 in), averaging 59 cm (23 in), and female wing length is from 62 to 64.5 cm (24.4 to 25.4 in), averaging 63 cm (25 in). No range of body weights are known, but males will weigh approximately 2.5 kg (5.5 lb) and females 3.25 kg (7.2 lb). This is, by far, the smallest-bodied subspecies. It is also the darkest, with even adults being a slaty-grayish black on the back and crown and juveniles being similar, but with darker black plumage contrasting with brownish color and white scaling on the wings, flank and tail. This subspecies has bright rufous nape feathers that are quite loose and long. Adult Japanese golden eagles often maintain extensive white mottling on the inner-webs of the tail that tend to be more typical of juvenile eagles in other subspecies.[4][15]
  • Aquila chrysaetos canadensis (Linnaeus, 1758) – commonly known as the North American golden eagle. Occupies the species' entire range in North America, which comprises the great majority of Alaska, western Canada, Western United States and Mexico. The species is found breeding occasionally in all Canadian provinces but for Nova Scotia. It is currently absent in the Eastern United States as breeding species east of a line from North Dakota down through westernmost Nebraska and Oklahoma to West Texas. The southern limits of its range are in central Mexico, from the Guadalajara area in the west to the Tampico area in the east; it is the "Mexican eagle" featured on the coat of arms of Mexico.[25] It is the subspecies with the largest breeding range and is probably the most numerous subspecies, especially if A. c. kamtschatica is included.[4][15] Male wing length is from 59.1 to 64 cm (23.3 to 25.2 in), averaging 61 cm (24 in), and female wing length is from 60.1 to 67.4 cm (23.7 to 26.5 in), averaging 65 cm (26 in).[4][15][26] The average wingspan in both sexes is about 2.04 m (6 ft 8 in).[5] Males weigh from 2.5 to 4.47 kg (5.5 to 9.9 lb), averaging 3.48 kg (7.7 lb), and females typically weigh from 3.6 to 6.4 kg (7.9 to 14.1 lb), averaging 4.91 kg (10.8 lb).[4][15] The subspecies does not appear to follow Bergmann's rule (the rule that widely distributed organisms are larger-bodied further away from the Equator), as specimens of both sexes from Idaho had a mean weight of 4.22 kg (9.3 lb) and where slightly heavier than those from Alaska, with a mean weight of 3.76 kg (8.3 lb).[4][5] It is medium-sized, being generally intermediate in size between the nominate and A. c. homeyeri, but with much overlap. It is blackish to dark brown on the back. The long feathers of the nape and top-neck are rusty-reddish and slightly narrower and darker than in the nominate subspecies.[15][27]
  • Aquila chrysaetos kamtschatica Severtzov, 1888 – sometimes referred to as the Siberian golden eagle or the Kamchatkan golden eagle. This subspecies ranges from Western Siberia (where overlap with A. c. chrysaetos is probable), across most of Russia, including the Altay (spilling over into Northern Mongolia), to the Kamchatka Peninsula and the Anadyrsky District. This subspecies is often included in A. c. canadensis.[4][15] Male wing length is from 61.8 to 70.5 cm (24.3 to 27.8 in), averaging 64 cm (25 in), and female wing length is from 65 to 72 cm (26 to 28 in), averaging 69 cm (27 in).[28] No weights are known in this subspecies.[4] The coloration of these eagles is almost exactly the same as in A. c. canadensis. The main difference is that this subspecies is much larger in size, being nearly the equal of A. c. daphanea if going on wing-length.[15]

The larger Middle Pleistocene golden eagles of France (and possibly elsewhere) are referred to a paleosubspecies Aquila chrysaetos bonifacti, and the huge specimens of the Late Pleistocene of Liko Cave (Crete) have been named Aquila chrysaetos simurgh (Weesie, 1988).[29][30][31] Similarly, an ancestral golden eagle, with a heavier, broader skull, larger wings and shorter legs when compared to modern birds, has been found in the La Brea Tar Pits of southern California.[32]

Description

Size

 
The foot and talons of a golden eagle

The golden eagle is a very large raptor, 66 to 102 centimetres (26 to 40 in) in length. Its wings are broad and the wingspan is 1.8 to 2.34 metres (5 ft 11 in to 7 ft 8 in).[33][15][34][35] The wingspan of golden eagles is the fifth largest among living eagle species.[15] Females are larger than males, with a bigger difference in larger subspecies. Females of the large Himalayan golden eagles are about 37% heavier than males and have nearly 9% longer wings, whereas in the smaller Japanese golden eagles, females are only 26% heavier with around 6% longer wings.[4][36] In the largest subspecies (A. c. daphanea), males and females weigh typically 4.05 and 6.35 kg (8.9 and 14.0 lb), respectively. In the smallest subspecies, A. c. japonica, males weigh 2.5 kg (5.5 lb) and females 3.25 kg (7.2 lb).[4] In the species overall, males average around 3.6 kg (7.9 lb) and females around 5.1 kg (11 lb).[37] The maximum size of golden eagles is debated. Large subspecies are the heaviest representatives of the genus Aquila and this species is on average the seventh-heaviest living eagle species. The golden eagle is the second heaviest breeding eagle in North America, Europe and Africa and the fourth heaviest in Asia.[5][15] For some time, the largest known mass authenticated for a wild female was the specimen from the A. c. chrysaetos subspecies which weighed around 6.7 kg (15 lb) and spanned 2.55 m (8 ft 4 in) across the wings.[21] American golden eagles are typically somewhat smaller than the large Eurasian species, but a massive female that was banded and released in 2006 around Wyoming's Bridger-Teton National Forest became the heaviest wild golden eagle on record, at 7.7 kg (17 lb).[38] Captive birds have been measured with a wingspan of 2.81 m (9 ft 3 in) and a mass of 12.1 kg (27 lb), though this mass was for an eagle bred for falconry, which tend to be unnaturally heavy.[21]

The standard measurements of the species include a wing chord length of 52–72 cm (20–28 in), a tail length of 26.5–38 cm (10.4–15.0 in) and a tarsus length of 9.4–12.2 cm (3.7–4.8 in).[15] The culmen (upper ridge of beak) reportedly averages around 4.5 cm (1.8 in), with a range of 3.6 to 5 cm (1.4 to 2.0 in). The bill length from the gape measures around 6 cm (2.4 in).[39][40] The long, straight and powerful hallux-claw (hind claw) can range from 4.5 to 6.34 cm (1.77 to 2.50 in), about one centimetre longer than in a bald eagle and a little more than one centimetre less than a harpy eagle.[26][41][42]

Colour

 
Subadult, showing white in tail and dark neck

Adults of both sexes have similar plumage and are primarily dark brown, with some grey on the inner wing and tail, and a paler, typically golden colour on the back of the crown and nape that gives the species its common name.[43] Unlike other Aquila species, where the tarsal feathers are typically similar in colour to the rest of the plumage, the tarsal feathers of golden eagles tend to be paler, ranging from light golden to white.[4] In addition, some full-grown birds (especially in North America) have white "epaulettes" on the upper part of each scapular feather tract.[5][44] The bill is dark at the tip, fading to a lighter horn colour, with a yellow cere.[45] As in many accipitrids, the bare portion of the feet is yellow.[15] There are subtle differences in colouration among subspecies, described below.

Juvenile golden eagles are similar to adults but tend to be darker, appearing black on the back especially in East Asia. They have a less faded colour. Young birds are white for about two-thirds of their tail length, ending with a broad, black band.[36] Occasionally, juvenile eagles have white patches on the remiges at the bases of the inner primaries and the outer secondaries, forming a crescent marking on the wings which tends to be divided by darker feathers.[4][46] Rarely, juvenile birds may have only traces of white on the tail. Compared to the relatively consistently white tail, the white patches on the wing are extremely variable; some juveniles have almost no white visible. Juveniles of less than 12 months of age tend to have the most white in their plumage.[44] By their second summer, the white underwing coverts are usually replaced by a characteristic rusty brown colour. By the third summer, the upper-wing coverts are largely replaced by dark brown feathers, although not all feathers moult at once which leaves many juvenile birds with a grizzled pattern. The tail follows a similar pattern of maturation to the wings.[44][46] Due to the variability between individuals, juvenile eagles cannot be reliably aged by sight alone.[47] Many golden eagles still have white on the tail during their first attempt at nesting.[48] The final adult plumage is not fully attained until the birds are between 5+1⁄2 and 6+1⁄2 years old.[47]

Moulting

 
Captive adult of the North American subspecies Aquila chrysaetos canadensis

This species moults gradually beginning in March or April until September or October each year. Moulting usually decreases in winter. Moult of the contour feathers begins on the head and neck region and progresses along the feather tracts in a general front-to-back direction. Feathers on head, neck, back and scapulars may be replaced annually. With large feathers of the wing and tail, moult begins with the innermost feathers and proceeds outwards in a straightforward manner known as "descendant" moult.[44]

Vocalisations

 
Golden eagles are often silent.

While many accipitrids are not known for their strong voices, golden eagles have a particular tendency for silence, even while breeding.[17] That being said, some vocalization has been recorded, usually centering around the nesting period. The voice of the golden eagle is considered weak, high, and shrill, has been called "quite pathetic" and "puppy-like", and seems incongruous with the formidable size and nature of the species.[15] Most known vocalisations seem to function as contact calls between eagles, sometimes adults to their offspring, occasionally territorial birds to intruders and rarely between a breeding pair. In western Montana, nine distinct calls were noted: a chirp, a seeir, a pssa, a skonk, a cluck, a wonk, a honk and a hiss.[49]

Flight

 
In flight
 
Golden eagle flying in dihedral with food

Golden eagles are sometimes considered the best fliers among eagles and perhaps among all raptorial birds.[17] They are equipped with broad, long wings with somewhat finger-like indentations on the tips of the wing.[15] Golden eagles are unique among their genus in that they often fly in a slight dihedral, which means the wings are often held in a slight, upturned V-shape.[15] When they need to flap, golden eagles appear at their most laboured, but this is less common than soaring or gliding––.[4] Flapping flight usually consists of 6–8 deep wing-beats, interspersed with 2–3 second glides.[4] While soaring, the wings and tail are held in one plane with the primary tips often spread.[50] A typical, unhurried soaring speed in golden eagles is around 45–52 kilometres per hour (28–32 mph).[51] When hunting or displaying, the golden eagle can glide very fast, reaching speeds of up to 190 kilometres per hour (120 mph).[4][50] When stooping (diving) in the direction of prey or during territorial displays, the eagle holds its legs up against its tail, and holds its wings tight and partially closed against its body. When diving after prey, a golden eagle can reach 240 to 320 kilometres per hour (150 to 200 mph). Although less agile and manoeuvrable, the golden eagle is apparently quite the equal and possibly even the superior of the peregrine falcon's stooping and gliding speeds.[5][52] This makes the golden eagle one of the two fastest living animals.[21] Although most flight in golden eagles has a clear purpose (e.g., territoriality, hunting), some flights, such as those by solitary birds or between well-established breeding pairs, seem to be play.[5][17][53]

Distinguishing from other species

 
Golden eagles are readily distinguished by their brown plumage, paler than most other Aquila, and pale nape patch.

Size readily distinguishes this species from most other raptors when it is seen well. Most other raptors are considerably smaller. Buteo hawks, which are perhaps most similar to the golden eagle in structure among the species outside of the "booted eagle" group, are often counted among the larger very common raptors. However, a mid-sized Buteo is dwarfed by a golden eagle, as an adult female eagle has about double the wingspan and about five times the weight. Buteos are also usually distinctly paler below, although some species occur in dark morphs which can be darker than a golden eagle.[15][54] Among raptorial birds that share the golden eagle's range, only some Old World vultures and the California condor are distinctly larger, with longer, broader wings, typically held more evenly in a slower, less forceful flight; they often have dramatically different colour patterns. In North America, the golden eagle may be confused with the turkey vulture from a great distance, as it is a large species that, like the golden eagle, often flies with a pronounced dihedral. The turkey vulture can be distinguished by its less controlled, forceful flying style (they frequently rock back and forth unsteadily in even moderate winds) and its smaller, thinner body, much smaller head and, at closer range, its slaty black-brown colour and silvery wing secondaries.[55] Compared to Haliaeetus eagles, the golden eagle has wings that are only somewhat more slender but are more hawk-like and lack the flat, plank-like wing positioning seen in the other genus.[55] Large northern Haliaeetus species usually have a larger bill and larger head which protrudes more distinctly than a golden eagle's in flight. The tail of the golden eagle is longer on average than those of Haliaeetus eagles, appearing to be two or three times the length of the head in soaring flight, whereas in the other eagles the head is often more than twice the length of the tail.[55] Confusion is most likely between juvenile Haliaeetus and golden eagles, as the adult golden has a more solidly golden-brown coloration and all Haliaeetus eagles have obvious distinctive plumages as adults. Haliaeetus eagles are often heavily streaked in their juvenile phase. Juvenile golden eagles can have large patches of white on their wings and tail that are quite different from the random, sometimes large and splotchy-looking distribution of white typical of juvenile Haliaeetus.[15][55]

Distinguishing the golden eagle from other Aquila eagles in Eurasia is more difficult. Identification may rely on the golden eagle's relatively long tail and patterns of white or grey on the wings and tail. Unlike golden eagles, other Aquila eagles do not generally fly in a pronounced dihedral. At close range, the golden to rufous nape-shawl of the golden eagle is distinctive from other Aquila. Most other Aquila eagles have darker plumage, although the smaller tawny eagle is often paler than the golden eagle (the overlap in range is verified only in Bale Mountains, Ethiopia). Among Eurasian Aquila, the adult eastern imperial and Spanish imperial eagle come closest to reaching the size of golden eagles, but both are distinguished by their longer necks, flatter wings in flight, white markings on their shoulder forewing-coverts, paler cream-straw coloured nape patch and generally darker colouration. Juvenile imperial eagles are much paler overall (caramel-cream in the Spanish; cream and tawny streaks in the eastern) and are not likely to be confused.[15] Steppe eagles can also approach golden eagles in size but are more compact and smaller headed with little colour variation to their dark earth-brown plumage, apart from juvenile birds which have distinctive cream-coloured bands running through their coverts and secondaries.[5] Verreaux's eagles are most similar in size and body shape to the golden, the body of the Verreaux's eagle being slightly longer overall but marginally less heavy and long-winged than the golden eagle's.[15] The plumage is very distinctly different, however, as Verreaux's eagles are almost entirely jet-black except for some striking, contrasting white on the wing primaries, shoulders and upper-wing.[15] This closely related species is known to co-occur with the golden eagle only in the Bale Mountains of Ethiopia.[4] Other booted eagles in the golden eagle's range are unlikely to be confused due to differences in size and form. The only species in the genus Aquila that exceeds the golden eagle in average wingspan and length is the wedge-tailed eagle of Australasia; however, the wedge-tailed eagle is a slightly less heavy bird.[21]

Habitat and distribution

 
Beinn Mhor on the Isle of Mull, Scotland is typical golden eagle habitat: rugged and mountainous.
 
An adult flying above Himalayan mountains from Shingba Rhododendron Sanctuary in Sikkim, India

Golden eagles are fairly adaptable in habitat but often reside in areas with a few shared ecological characteristics. They are best suited to hunting in open or semi-open areas and search them out year-around. Native vegetation seems to be attractive to them and they typically avoid developed areas of any type from urban to agricultural as well as heavily forested regions. In desolate areas (e.g., the southern Yukon), they can occur regularly at roadkills and garbage dumps.[56] The largest numbers of golden eagles are found in mountainous regions today, with many eagles doing a majority of their hunting and nesting on rock formations. However, they are not solely tied to high elevations and can breed in lowlands if the local habitats are suitable. Below are more detailed descriptions of habitats occupied by golden eagles in both continents where they occur.[4]

Eurasia

 
Portrait of a golden eagle near the Alps

In the Arctic fringe of Eurasia, golden eagles occur along the edge of the tundra and the taiga from the Kola peninsula to Anadyr in eastern Siberia, nesting in forests and hunting over nearby arctic heathland. Typical vegetation is stunted, fragmented larch woodland merging into low birch-willow scrub and various heathland. In the rocky, wet, windy maritime climate of Scotland, Ireland, and western Scandinavia, the golden eagle dwells in mountains. These areas include upland grasslands, blanket bog, and sub-Arctic heaths but also fragmented woodland and woodland edge, including boreal forests. In Western Europe, golden eagle habitat is dominated by open, rough grassland, heath and bogs, and rocky ridges, spurs, crags, scree, slopes and grand plateaux. In Sweden, Finland, the Baltic States, Belarus and almost the entire distribution in Russia all the way to the Pacific Ocean, golden eagles occur sparsely in lowland taiga forest. These areas are dominated by stands of evergreens such as pine, larch and spruce, occasionally supplemented by birch and alder stands in southern Scandinavia and the Baltic States. This is largely marginal country for golden eagles and they occur where tree cover is thin and abuts open habitat. Golden eagle taiga habitat usually consists of extensive peatland formations caused by poorly drained soils. In central Europe, golden eagles today occur almost exclusively in the major mountain ranges, such as the Pyrenees, Alps, Carpathians, and the Caucasus. Here, the species nests near the tree line and hunt subalpine and alpine pastures, grassland and heath above. Golden eagles also occur in moderately mountainous habitat along the Mediterranean Sea, from the Iberian Peninsula and the Atlas Mountains in Morocco, to Greece, Turkey and Iraq. This area is characterized by low mountains, Mediterranean maquis vegetation, and sub-temperate open woodland. The local pine-oak vegetation, with a variety of Sclerophyllous shrubs are well-adapted to prolonged summer droughts. From Turkey and the southern Caspian Sea to the foothills of the Hindu Kush Mountains in Afghanistan, the typical golden eagle habitat is temperate desert-like mountain ranges surrounded by steppe landscapes interspersed with forest. Here the climate is colder and more continental than around the Mediterranean. Golden eagles occupy the alpine ranges from the Altai Mountains and the Pamir Mountains to Tibet, in the great Himalayan massif, and Xinjiang, China, where they occupy the Tien Shan range.[citation needed] In these mountain ranges, the species often lives at very high elevations, living above tree line at more than 2,500 m (8,200 ft), often nesting in rocky scree and hunting in adjacent meadows. In Tibet, golden eagles inhabit high ridges and passes in the Lhasa River watershed, where they regularly join groups of soaring Himalayan vultures (Gyps himalayensis).[57] One golden eagle was recorded circling at 6,190 m (20,310 ft) above sea-level in Khumbu in May 1975.[58] In the mountains of Japan and Korea, the golden eagle occupies deciduous scrub woodland and carpet-like stands of Siberian dwarf pine (Pinus pumila) that merge into grasslands and alpine heathland. The golden eagle occurs in mountains from the Adrar Plateau in Mauritania to northern Yemen and Oman where the desert habitat is largely bereft of vegetation but offers many rocky plateaus to support both the eagles and their prey. In Israel, their habitat is mainly rocky slopes and wide wadi areas, chiefly in desert and to a lesser extent in semi-desert and Mediterranean climates, extending to open areas.[59] In Northeastern Africa, the habitat is often of a sparse, desert-like character and is quite similar to the habitat in Middle East and the Arabian peninsula. In Ethiopia's Bale Mountains, where the vegetation is more lush and the climate is clearly less arid than in Northeastern Africa, the golden eagle occupies verdant mountains.[4]

North America

The biomes occupied by golden eagles are roughly concurrent with those of Eurasia. In western and northern Alaska and northern Canada to the Ungava Peninsula in Quebec, the eagles occupy the Arctic fringe of North America (the species does not range into the true high Arctic tundra), where open canopy gives way to dwarf-shrub heathland with cottongrass and tussock tundra. In land-locked areas of the sub-Arctic, golden eagles are by far the largest raptor. From the Alaska Range to Washington and Oregon, it is often found in high mountains above the tree line or on bluffs and cliffs along river valleys below the tree line.[60][61] In Washington state, golden eagles can be found in clear-cut sections of otherwise dense coniferous forest zones with relatively little annual precipitation.[62] From east of the Canadian Rocky Mountains to the mountains of Labrador, the golden eagle is found in small numbers in boreal forest peatlands and similar mixed woodland areas. In the foothills of the Rocky Mountains in the United States are plains and prairies where golden eagles are widespread, especially where there is a low human presence. Here, grassland on low rolling hills and flat plains are typical, interrupted only by cottonwood stands around river valleys and wetlands where the eagles may build their nests. Golden eagles also occupy the desert-like Great Basin from southern Idaho to northern Arizona and New Mexico. In this habitat, trees are generally absent other than junipers with vegetation being dominated by sagebrush (Artemisia) and other low shrub species. Although the vegetation varies a bit more, similar habitat is occupied by golden eagles in Mexico.[63][64][65] However, golden eagles are typically absent in North America from true deserts, like the Sonora Desert, where annual precipitation is less than 20 cm (7.9 in).[66] Golden eagles occupy the mountains and coastal areas of California and Baja California in Mexico where hot, dry summers and moist winters are typical. The golden eagles here often nest in chaparral and oak woodland, oak savanna and grassland amongst low rolling hill typified by diverse vegetation.[67] In the Eastern United States, the species once bred widely in the Appalachian Plateau near burns, open marshes, meadows, bogs and lakes.[68][69] In Eastern North America, the species still breeds on the Gaspe Peninsula, Quebec. Until 1999, a pair of golden eagles were still known to nest in Maine but they are now believed to be absent as a breeding bird from the Eastern United States.[4] The golden eagles who breed in eastern Canada winter on montane grass and heath fields in the Appalachian Plateau region, especially in Pennsylvania, New York, West Virginia, Maryland and Virginia. Most sightings in the Eastern United States recently are concentrated within or along southwestern border of the Appalachian Plateau (30% of records) and within the Coastal Plain physiographic region (33% of records).[70]

Though they do regularly nest in the marsh-like peatland of the boreal forest, golden eagles are not generally associated with wetlands and, in fact, they can be found near some of the most arid spots on earth. In the wintering population of Eastern United States, however, they are often associated with steep river valleys, reservoirs, and marshes in inland areas as well as estuarine marshlands, barrier islands, managed wetlands, sounds, and mouths of major river systems in coastal areas. These wetlands are attractive due to a dominance of open vegetation, large concentrations of prey, and the general absence of human disturbance.[70] In the midwestern United States, they are not uncommon during winter near reservoirs and wildlife refuges that provide foraging opportunities at waterfowl concentrations.[71]

Feeding

Main article: Dietary biology of the golden eagle

Golden eagles usually hunt during daylight hours, but were recorded hunting from one hour before sunrise to one hour after sunset during the breeding season in southwestern Idaho.[72] The hunting success rate of golden eagles was calculated in Idaho, showing that, out of 115 hunting attempts, 20% were successful in procuring prey.[73] A fully-grown golden eagle requires about 230 to 250 g (8.1 to 8.8 oz) of food per day but in the life of most eagles there are cycles of feast and famine, and eagles have been known to go without food for up to a week and then gorge on up to 900 g (2.0 lb) at one sitting.[5]

The diet of golden eagles is composed primarily of small mammals such as rabbits, hares, ground squirrels, prairie dogs, and marmots. They also eat other birds (usually of medium size, such as gamebirds),[74] reptiles, and fish in smaller numbers. Golden eagles occasionally capture large prey, including seals, ungulates, coyotes, and badgers. They have also been known to capture large flying birds such as geese or cranes.[75] They have also been known to prey on other raptors, including owls and falcons.[74]

Activity and movements

 
In Spain, golden eagles such as this one in the Province of Ávila are sedentary.

Despite the dramatic ways in which they attain food and interact with raptors of their own and other species, the daily life of golden eagles is often rather uneventful. In Idaho, adult male golden eagles were observed to sit awake on a perch for an average of 78% of daylight, whereas adult females sat on nest or perched for an average of 85% of the day.[76] During the peak of summer in Utah, hunting and territorial flights occurred mostly between 9:00 and 11:00 am and 4:00 and 6:00 pm, with the remaining 15 or so hours of daylight spent perching or resting.[17] When conditions are heavily anticyclonic, there is less soaring during the day.[4] During winter in Scotland, golden eagles soar frequently in order to scan the environment for carrion.[4] In the more wooded environments of Norway during autumn and winter, much less aerial activity is reported, since the eagles tend to avoid detection by actively contour-hunting rather than looking for carrion.[77] Golden eagles are believed to sleep through much of the night. Although usually highly solitary outside of the bond between breeding pairs, exceptionally cold weather in winter may cause eagles to put their usual guard down and perch together. The largest known congregation of golden eagles was observed on an extremely cold winter's night in eastern Idaho when 124 individuals were observed perched closely along a line of 85 power poles.[78]

Migration

Most populations of golden eagles are sedentary, but the species is actually a partial migrant. Golden eagles are very hardy species, being well adapted to cold climates, however they cannot abide declining available food sources in the northern stretches of their range. Eagles raised at latitudes greater than 60° N are usually migratory, though a short migration may be untaken by those who breed or hatch at about 50° N.[79] During migration, they often use soaring-gliding flight, rather than powered flight.[79] In Finland, most banded juveniles move between 1,000 and 2,000 km (620 and 1,240 mi) due south, whereas adults stay locally through winter. Further east, conditions are too harsh for even wintering territorial adults.[4] Golden eagles that breed from the Kola peninsula to Anadyr in the Russian Far East migrate south to winter on the Russian and Mongolian steppes, and the North China Plains. The flat, relatively open landscapes in these regions hold relatively few resident breeding golden eagles.[80] Similarly the entire population of golden eagles from northern and central Alaska and northern Canada migrates south. At Mount Lorette in Alberta, approximately 4,000 golden eagles may pass during the fall, the largest recorded migration of golden eagles on earth.[81] Here the mountain ranges are relatively moderate and consistent, thus being reliable for thermals and updrafts which made long-distance migrating feasible.[81] Birds hatched in Denali National Park in Alaska traveled from 818 to 4,815 km (508 to 2,992 mi) to their winter ranges in western North America.[79] These western migrants may winter anywhere from southern Alberta and Montana to New Mexico and Arizona and from inland California to Nebraska. Adults who bred in northeastern Hudson Bay area of Canada reached their wintering grounds, which range from central Michigan to southern Pennsylvania to northeastern Alabama, in 26 to 40 days, with arrival dates from November to early December.[82] The departure dates from wintering grounds are variable. In southwestern Canada, they leave their wintering grounds by 6 April to 8 May (the mean being 21 April); in southwestern Idaho, wintering birds leave from 20 March to 13 April (mean of 29 March); and in the Southwestern United States, wintering birds may depart by early March.[4][79][83] Elsewhere in the species' breeding range, golden eagles (i.e., those who breed in the contiguous Western United States, all of Europe but for Northern Scandinavia, North Africa and all of Asia but for Northern Russia) are non-migratory and tend to remain within striking distance of their breeding territories throughout the year.[15] In Scotland, among all recovered, banded golden eagles (36 out of 1000, the rest mostly died or disappeared) the average distance between ringing and recovery was 44 km (27 mi), averaging 63 km (39 mi) in juveniles and 36 km (22 mi) in older birds.[4] In the dry Southwestern United States, golden eagles tend to move to higher elevations once the breeding season is complete.[53] In North Africa, populations breeding at lower latitudes, like Morocco, are mostly sedentary, although some occasionally disperse after breeding to areas outside of the normal breeding range.[84]

Territoriality

 
Two golden eagles in an aerial conflict over their home ranges, the upper bird clearly a juvenile.

Territoriality is believed to be the primary cause of interactions and confrontations between non-paired golden eagles. Golden eagles maintain some of the largest known home ranges (or territories) of any bird species but there is much variation of home range size across the range, possibly dictated by food abundance and habitat preference. Home ranges in most of the range can vary from 20 to 200 km2 (7.7 to 77.2 sq mi).[85] In San Diego County in California, the home ranges varied from 49 to 137 km2 (19 to 53 sq mi), with an average of 93 km2 (36 sq mi).[86] However, some home ranges have been much smaller, such as in southwestern Idaho where, possibly due to an abundance of jackrabbits, home ranges as small as 4.85 km2 (1.87 sq mi) are maintained.[64] The smallest known home ranges on record for golden eagles are in the Bale Mountains of Ethiopia, where they range from 1.5 to 9 km2 (0.58 to 3.47 sq mi).[87] 46% of undulating displays in Montana occurred shortly after the juvenile eagles left their parents range, suggesting that some residents defend and maintain territories year-round.[88] Elsewhere it is stated that home ranges are less strictly maintained during winter but hunting grounds are basically exclusive.[4] In Israel and Scotland, aggressive encounters peaked from winter until just before egg-laying and were less common during the nesting season.[4][89] Threat displays include undulating flight and aggressive direct flapping flight with exaggerated downstrokes.[49] Most displays by mature golden eagles (67% for males and 76% for females) occur, rather than around the nest, at the edge of their home ranges.[76] In Western Norway, most recorded undulating flight displays occur during the pre-laying period in late winter/early spring.[77] Display flights seem to be triggered by the presence of other golden eagles.[4] The use of display flights has a clear benefit in that it lessens the need for physical confrontations, which can be fatal.[76] Usually, non-breeding birds are treated aggressively by the golden eagle maintaining their home range, normally being chased to the apparent limit of the range but with no actual physical contact.[4] The territorial flight of the adult golden eagle is sometimes preceded or followed by intense bouts of undulating displays. The invader often responds by rolling over and presenting talons to the aggressor. Rarely, the two eagles will lock talons and tumble through the air; sometimes fall several revolutions and in some cases even tumble to the ground before releasing their grip.[77][90] In some parts of the Alps, the golden eagle population has reached the saturation point in appropriate habitat and apparently violent confrontations are more common than in other parts of the range.[91] Golden eagles may express their aggression via body language while perched, typically the adult female when confronted by an intruding eagle: the head and body are upright, feathers on head and neck are erect; the wings may be slightly spread and beak open; often accompanied by intense gaze. They then often engage in a similar posture with wings spread wide and oriented toward the threat; sometimes rocking back on tail and even flopping over onto the back with talons extended upward as defense. Such behavior may be accompanied by wing slap against the threatening intruder.[49] When approached by an intruder, the defending eagle turns away, partially spreads tail, lowers head, and remains still; adults on the nest may lower head and "freeze" when approached by a person or a helicopter.[49] Females in Israel displayed more than males and mostly against interspecific intruders; males apparently displayed primarily as part of courtship.[89] Five of 7 aggressive encounters at carcasses during winter in Norway were won by females; in 15 of 21 conflicts, the younger bird dominated an older conspecific.[92] However, obvious juvenile eagles (apparent to the adult eagles due to the amount of white on their wings and tail) are sometimes allowed to penetrate deeply into a pair's home range and all parties commonly ignore each other.[93][94] In North Dakota, it was verified that parent eagles were not aggressive towards their own young after the nesting period and some juveniles stayed on their parents territory until their 2nd spring and then left by their own accord.[95]

Reproduction

Main article: Reproduction and life cycle of the golden eagle
 
Eyrie (in hollow at left center) in the Valley of the Siagne de la Pare, Alpes-Maritimes, France
 
Aquila chrysaetos - MHNT

Golden eagles usually mate for life. A breeding pair is formed in a courtship display. This courtship includes undulating displays by both in the pair, with the male bird picking up a piece of rock or a small stick, and dropping it only to enter into a steep dive and catch it in mid-air, repeating the maneuver 3 or more times. The female takes a clump of earth and drops and catches it in the same fashion.[4][27] Golden eagles typically build several eyries within their territory (preferring cliffs) and use them alternately for several years. Their nesting areas are characterized by the extreme regularity of the nest spacing.[96] Mating and egg-laying timing for golden eagle is variable depending on the locality. Copulation normally lasts 10–20 seconds. Mating seems to occur around 40–46 days before the initial egg-laying.[4] The golden eagle chick may be heard from within the egg 15 hours before it begins hatching. After the first chip is broken off of the egg, there is no activity for around 27 hours. Hatching activity accelerates and the shell is broken apart in 35 hours. The chick is completely free in 37 hours.[49]

In the first 10 days, chicks mainly lie down on the nest substrate.[49] They are capable of preening on their second day but their parents keep them warm until around 20 days.[4] They grow considerably, weighing around 500 g (1.1 lb).[97] They also start sitting up more.[49] Around 20 days of age, the chicks generally start standing, which becomes the main position over the course of the next 40 days.[49] The whitish down continues until around 25 days of age, at which point it is gradually replaced by dark contour feathers that eclipse the down and the birds attain a general piebald appearance.[4] After hatching, 80% of food items and 90% of food biomass is captured and brought to the nest by the adult male. Fledging occurs at 66 to 75 days of age in Idaho and 70 to 81 days in Scotland. The first attempted flight departure after fledging can be abrupt, with the young jumping off and using a series of short, stiff wing-beats to glide downward or being blown out of nest while wing-flapping. 18 to 20 days after first fledging, the young eagles will take their first circling flight, but they cannot gain height as efficiently as their parents until approximately 60 days after fledging. In Cumbria, young golden eagles were first seen hunting large prey 59 days after fledging. 75 to 85 days after fledging, the young were largely independent of parents. Generally, breeding success seems to be greatest where prey is available in abundance.[4]

Longevity

Golden eagles are fairly long-living birds in natural conditions if they survive their first few years. The survival rate of raptorial birds tends to increase with larger body size, with a 30–50% annual loss of population rate in small falcons/accipiters, a 15–25% loss of population rate in medium-sized hawks (e.g., Buteos or kites) and a 5% or less rate of loss in eagles and vultures. The oldest known wild golden eagle was a bird banded in Sweden which was recovered 32 years later.[4] The longest-lived known wild golden eagle in North America was 31 years and 8 months.[98] The longest-lived known captive golden eagle, a specimen in Europe, survived to 46 years of age.[99] The estimated adult annual survival rate on the Isle of Skye in Scotland is around 97.5%.[100] When this extrapolated into an estimated lifespan this results in 39 and half years as the average for adult golden eagles in this area, which is probably far too high an estimate.[4] Survival rates are usually much lower in juvenile eagles than in adult eagles. In the western Rocky Mountains, 50% of golden eagles banded in the nest died by the time they were 2+1⁄2 years and an estimated 75% died by the time they were 5 years old.[101] Near a wind turbine facility in west-central California, estimated survival rates, based on conventional telemetry of 257 individuals, were 84% for first-year eagles, 79% for 1- to 3-year-olds and adult floaters and 91% for breeders; with no difference in survival rates between sexes.[67] Survival rates may be lower for migrating populations of golden eagles.[102] A 19–34% survival rate was estimated for juvenile eagles from Denali National Park in their first 11 months.[102] The average life expectancy of golden eagles in Germany is 13 years, extrapolated from a reported mere 92.5% survival rate.[103]

Natural mortality

Natural sources of mortality are largely reported in anecdotes. On rare occasions, golden eagles have been killed by competing predators or by hunting mammalian carnivores, including the aforementioned wolverine, snow leopard, cougar, brown bear and white-tailed eagle attacks. Most competitive attacks resulting in death probably occur at the talons of other golden eagles. Nestlings and fledglings are more likely to be killed by another predator than free-flying juveniles and adults. It has been suspected that golden eagle nests may be predated more frequently by other predators (especially birds, which are often the only other large animals that can access a golden eagle nest without the assistance of man-made climbing equipment) in areas where golden eagles are regularly disturbed at the nest by humans. Jeff Watson believed that common raven occasionally eats golden eagle eggs but only in situations where the parent eagles have abandoned their nesting attempt.[4] However, there are no confirmed accounts of predation by other bird species on golden eagle nests.[4] Occasionally, golden eagles may be killed by their prey in self-defense. There is an account of a golden eagle dying from the quills of a North American porcupine (Erethizon dorsatum) it had attempted to hunt.[104] On the Isle of Rùm in Scotland, there are a few cases of red deer trampling golden eagles to death, probably the result of a doe having intercepted a bird that was trying to kill a fawn.[105] Although usually well out-matched by the predator, occasionally other large birds can put up a formidable fight against a golden eagle. An attempted capture of a great blue heron by a golden eagle resulted in the death of both birds from wounds sustained in the ensuing fight.[106] There is at least one case in Scotland of a golden eagle dying after being "oiled" by a northern fulmar, a bird whose primary defense against predators is to disgorge an oily secretion which may inhibit the predator's ability to fly.[107] Of natural sources of death, starvation is probably under-reported. 11 of 16 dead juvenile eagles which had hatched in Denali National Park had died of starvation.[102] Of 36 deaths of golden eagles in Idaho, 55% were possibly attributable to natural causes, specifically 8 (26%) from unknown trauma, 3 (10%) from disease and 6 (19%) from unknown causes.[108] Of 266 golden eagle deaths in Spain, only 6% were from unknown causes that could not be directly attributed to human activities.[109] Avian cholera caused by bacteria (Pasteurella multocida) infects eagles that eat waterfowl that have died from the disease. The protozoan Trichomonas sp. caused the deaths of four fledglings in a study of wild golden eagles in Idaho.[110] Several further diseases that contribute to golden eagle deaths have been examined in Japan.[111] A captive eagle died from two malignant tumors – one in the liver and one in the kidney.[112]

Killing permits

In December 2016, the US Fish and Wildlife Service proposed allowing wind-turbine electric generation companies to kill golden eagles without penalty, so long as "companies take steps to minimize the losses". If issued, the permits would last 30 years, six times the current 5-year permits.[113][114]

In human culture

Main article: Golden eagles in human culture
 
1870s illustration of burkut falconers in Kazakhstan

Human beings have been fascinated by the golden eagle as early as the beginning of recorded history. Most early-recorded cultures regarded the golden eagle with reverence. In pre-Hispanic Mesoamerica, the eagle was a major Mexica (Aztec) symbol: the tribal and sun god, Huitzilopochtli, had told his people that when they saw the sun (i.e., Huitzilopochtli) in the form of an eagle perched on a cactus whose fruit was red and shaped like a human heart, there they should build their city, Tenochtitlan. The scene—shown on a well-known sculpture, in early manuscripts, and on the present-day Mexican flag—surely had astronomical and geomantic, as well as mythological meaning.[115]

It was only after the Industrial Revolution, when sport-hunting became widespread and commercial stock farming became internationally common, that humans started to widely regard golden eagles as a threat to their livelihoods. This period also brought about the firearm and industrialized poisons, which made it easy for humans to kill the evasive and powerful birds.

In 2017 the French Army trained golden eagles to catch drones.[116] The golden eagle is officially Utah's state bird of prey.

Status and conservation

Main article: Status and conservation of the golden eagle
 
In flight in Czech Republic

At one time, the golden eagle lived in a great majority of temperate Europe, North Asia, North America, North Africa, and Japan. Although widespread and quite secure in some areas, in many parts of the range golden eagles have experienced sharp population declines and have even been extirpated from some areas. The number of golden eagles from around the range is estimated to be between 170,000 and 250,000 while the estimates of breeding pairs are from 60,000 to 100,000.[4][117] It has the largest known range of any member of its family, with a range estimated at 140 million square kilometers. If its taxonomic order is considered, it is the second most wide-ranging species after only the osprey (Pandion haliaetus).[2][118] Few other eagle species are as numerous, though some species like the tawny eagle, wedge-tailed eagle and bald eagle have total estimated populations of a similar size to the golden eagle's despite their more restricted distributions.[5][15] The world's most populous eagle may be the African fish eagle (Haliaeetus vocifer), which has a stable total population estimated at 300,000 and is found solely in Africa.[5][119] On a global scale, the golden eagle is not considered threatened by the IUCN.[2]

References

  1. ^ "Aquila chrysaetos Linnaeus 1758 (golden eagle)" (PBDB). Paleobiology Database.
  2. ^ a b c BirdLife International (2021). "Aquila chrysaetos". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2021: e.T22696060A202078899. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2021-3.RLTS.T22696060A202078899.en. Retrieved 14 January 2023.
  3. ^ "Appendices | CITES". cites.org. Retrieved 14 January 2022.
  4. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad ae af ag ah ai aj ak al am an ao ap aq ar as at au Watson, Jeff (2010). The Golden Eagle. A&C Black. ISBN 978-1-4081-1420-9.
  5. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m Brown, Leslie; Amadon, Dean (1986). Eagles, Hawks and Falcons of the World. Wellfleet. ISBN 978-1555214722.
  6. ^ Linnaeus, C. (1758). Systema Naturæ per regna tria naturae, secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis, Volume 1 (in Latin). Vol. v.1 (10th ed.). Holmiae:Laurentii Salvii. p. 88. [Falco] cera lutea, pedibus lanatis, corpore fusco ferrugineo vario, cauda nigra basi cinereo-undulata.– (A [diurnal raptor] with yellow cere, [feathered tarsometatarsus], body dusky brown variegated with rusty, tail black with ashy-waved base.)
  7. ^ Brisson, Mathurin-Jacques; Martinet, François Nicolas (1760). Ornithologie; ou, Méthode contenant la division des oiseaux en ordres, sections, genres, espéces & leurs variétés. &c. Paris: C.J.B. Bauche. pp. 28, 419.
  8. ^ Jobling, James A (2010). The Helm Dictionary of Scientific Bird Names. London: Christopher Helm. pp. 52, 104. ISBN 978-1-4081-2501-4.
  9. ^ a b c d Helbig, A.J.; Kocum, A.; Seibold, I.; Braun, M.J. (2005). (PDF). Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution. 35 (1): 147–164. doi:10.1016/j.ympev.2004.10.003. PMID 15737588. Archived from the original (PDF) on 13 August 2012.
  10. ^ a b c Lerner, H.R.; Mindell, D.P. (November 2005). "Phylogeny of eagles, Old World vultures, and other Accipitridae based on nuclear and mitochondrial DNA" (PDF). Mol. Phylogenet. Evol. 37 (2): 327–46. doi:10.1016/j.ympev.2005.04.010. PMID 15925523. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022.
  11. ^ "Lophaetus pomarinus". The Peregrine Fund. Retrieved 22 April 2013.
  12. ^ "Aquila morphnoides". The Peregrine Fund. Retrieved 22 April 2013.
  13. ^ "Aquila wahlbergi". The Peregrine Fund. Retrieved 23 April 2013.
  14. ^ "Aquila africana". The Peregrine Fund. Retrieved 23 April 2013.
  15. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad ae Ferguson-Lees, James; Christie, David A. (2001). Raptors of the World. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. ISBN 0-618-12762-3.
  16. ^ Wink, M.; Sauer-Gürth, H. (2004). "Phylogenetic relationships in diurnal raptors based on nucleotide sequences of mitochondrial and nuclear marker genes". In Chancellor, R.D.; Meyburg, B.-U. (eds.). Raptors Worldwide: Proceedings of the VI World Conference on Birds of Prey and Owls, Budapest, Hungary, 18–23 May 2003. World Working Group on Birds of Prey/MME-BirdLife Hungary. pp. 483–495. ISBN 9638641819.
  17. ^ a b c d e f Brown, L. (1976). Eagles of the World. David and Charles. ISBN 0360003184.
  18. ^ "Birds of Kazakhstan. Golden Eagle (Aquila chrysaetos chrysaetos)". birds.kz. Retrieved 23 April 2013.
  19. ^ Golden Eagle in Armenia. 2017. TSE NGO, Armenian Bird Census Council. Retrieved from abcc-am.org on 10 October 2017.
  20. ^ "Birds of Kazakhstan. Golden Eagle (Aquila chrysaetos homeyeri)". birds.kz. Retrieved 23 April 2013.
  21. ^ a b c d e f g Wood, Gerald (1983). The Guinness Book of Animal Facts and Feats. Enfield, Middlesex : Guinness Superlatives. ISBN 978-0-85112-235-9.
  22. ^ Rasmussen, PC; Anderton, JC (2005). Birds of South Asia. The Ripley Guide. Volume 2. Smithsonian Institution & Lynx Edicions. p. 107.
  23. ^ "Birds of Kazakhstan. Himalayan Golden Eagle (Aquila chrysaetos daphanea)". birds.kz. Retrieved 23 April 2013.
  24. ^ "Himalayan Golden Eagle". Foundation for Ecological Security- Indian Biodiversity. Archived from the original on 4 July 2013. Retrieved 23 April 2013.
  25. ^ "Information about Mexico". Embassy of Mexico in South Africa. 31 March 2016. The national seal is an image of the left profile of a Mexican eagle; "Symbols of Mexico". Mexican Cultural Institute of Washington, DC. Retrieved 16 September 2018. Mexico's Coat of Arms depicts a golden eagle perched on a prickly pear cactus, with a rattlesnake in its beak.
  26. ^ a b Bortolotti, G.R. (1984). "Age and sex size variation in Golden Eagles". Journal of Field Ornithology. 55 (1): 54–66. JSTOR 4512857.
  27. ^ a b Cornell University. Bna.birds.cornell.edu. Retrieved on 2012-08-22.
  28. ^ "Birds of Kazakhstan. Golden Eagle (Aquila chrysaetos kamtschatica)". birds.kz. Retrieved 23 April 2013.
  29. ^ Simurgh is a mythical bird. Some say the Persian word simurgh or its Middle Persian form sēn-murw also meant golden eagle; see "Simorğ" in Encyclopædia Iranica.
  30. ^ Weesie, P.D.M. (1988). "The Quaternary avifauna of. Crete, Greece". Palaeovertebrata. 18 (1): 1–94.
  31. ^ Sánchez Marco, A. (2004). "Avian zoogeographical patterns during the Quaternary in the Mediterranean region and paleoclimatic interpretation" (PDF). Ardeola. 51 (1): 91–132. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022.
  32. ^ Howard, H. (1947). "An ancestral Golden Eagles a question in taxonomy". Auk. 64 (2): 287–291. doi:10.2307/4080550. JSTOR 4080550.
  33. ^ "Golden Eagle, Life History". All About Birds. Cornell Lab of Ornithology. 2009. Retrieved 26 December 2010.
  34. ^ Peterson, Roger Tory (1998). A Field Guide to Western Birds: A Completely New Guide to Field Marks of All Species Found in North America West of the 100th Meridian and North of Mexico. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. pp. 180–. ISBN 978-0-395-91174-7.
  35. ^ National Geographic Field Guide To The Birds Of North America (4th ed.). 2002. ISBN 978-0-79226-877-2.
  36. ^ a b Terres, John K. (1980). "Golden Eagle". The Audubon Society Encyclopedia of North American Birds. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. p. 478. ISBN 0-517-03288-0.
  37. ^ del Hoyo, J; Elliot, A; Sargatal, J (1996). Handbook of the Birds of the World. Vol. 3. Barcelona: Lynx Edicions. ISBN 84-87334-20-2.
  38. ^ "Golden Eagle May Set Record". Newwest. Retrieved 26 June 2015.
  39. ^ Sagip Eagle 28 September 2013 at the Wayback Machine. Gbgm-umc.org. Retrieved on 2012-08-22.
  40. ^ "Birds of North America Online—Birds of North America Online". Bna.birds.cornell.edu. Retrieved 8 November 2012.
  41. ^ Fowler, J.M.; Cope, J.B. (1964). "Notes on the Harpy Eagle in British Guiana". Auk. 81 (3): 257–273. doi:10.2307/4082683. JSTOR 4082683.
  42. ^ Nye, Peter. "Journey North Bald Eagles". Journey North. Retrieved 22 April 2013.
  43. ^ Clark, William S.; Wheeler, Brian K. (2001). A field guide to hawks of North America. New York: Houghton Mifflin Company. p. 241. ISBN 0-395-67067-5.
  44. ^ a b c d Jollie, Malcolm (1947). "Plumage Changes in the Golden Eagle" (PDF). Auk. American Ornithologists' Union. 64 (4): 549–576. doi:10.2307/4080715. JSTOR 4080715. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved 27 December 2010.
  45. ^ Clark, William S (1983). "The field identification of North American eagles" (PDF). North American Birds. 37 (5): 822–826. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved 27 December 2010.
  46. ^ a b Liguori, Jerry (2004). (PDF). Birding: 278–283. Archived from the original (PDF) on 6 March 2012. Retrieved 27 December 2010.
  47. ^ a b Tjernberg, M. (1988). "Age determination of Golden Eagles, Aquila chrysaetos". Vår Fågelvärld. 47: 321–334. ISSN 0042-2649.
  48. ^ Ellis, D.H.; Lish, J.W. (2006). "Thinking about feathers: adaptations of golden eagle rectrices". Journal of Raptor Research. 40 (1): 1–28. doi:10.3356/0892-1016(2006)40[1:TAFAOG]2.0.CO;2. S2CID 86154133.
  49. ^ a b c d e f g h Ellis, D.H. (1979). Development of behaviour in the Golden Eagle. Wildlife Monographs. Vol. 70. Wiley. pp. 3–94. JSTOR 3830587.
  50. ^ a b . San Diego Zoo. Archived from the original on 12 October 2013. Retrieved 1 May 2013.
  51. ^ ADW: Aquila chrysaetos: Information. Animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu. Retrieved on 2012-08-22.
  52. ^ Darling, F.F. (1934). "Speed of a Golden Eagle's flight". Nature. 134 (3383): 325–6. Bibcode:1934Natur.134..325D. doi:10.1038/134325c0. S2CID 4104511.
  53. ^ a b Palmer, R.S. (1988). "Golden eagle: Aquila chrysaetos". Family Accipitridae (concluded) Buteos, Golden Eagle, Family Falconidae, Crested Caracara, Falcons. Handbook of North American birds. Vol. 5. Yale University Press. pp. 180–231. ISBN 0300040601.
  54. ^ Cornell University. Bna.birds.cornell.edu. Retrieved on 2012-08-22.
  55. ^ a b c d Sutton, C.; Dunne, P.; Sibley, D. (1989). Hawks in Flight: The Flight Identification of North American Migrant Raptors. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. ISBN 0-3955-1022-8.
  56. ^ Burles, D. W. & Frey, R. (1981). Raptor monitoring program, 1980 report. Kluane National Park, YT.
  57. ^ Lang, A.; Bishop, M.A.; Le Seuer, A. (2007). "An annotated list of birds wintering in the Lhasa river watershed and Yamzho Yumco, Tibet Autonomous Region, China" (PDF). Forktail. 23. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022.
  58. ^ Inskipp, C.; Inskipp, T. (1991). A guide to the birds of Nepal (2nd ed.). Smithsonian Institution Press. ISBN 0713681098.
  59. ^ Shirihai, H.; Roselaar, C.S. (1996). The Birds of Israel: A Complete Avifauna and Bird Atlas of Israel. Academic Press. ISBN 0126402558.
  60. ^ Ritchie, R.J.; Curatolo, J.A. (1982). "Notes on Golden Eagle productivity and nest site characteristics, Porcupine River, Alaska, 1979–1982" (PDF). Raptor Research. 16 (4): 123–7. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022.
  61. ^ Petersen, M.R.; Weir, D.N.; Dick, M.H. (1991). "Birds of the Kilbuck and Ahklun Mountain Region, Alaska" (PDF). North American Fauna. 76: 1–158. doi:10.3996/nafa.76.0001. hdl:2027/uc1.31822033875303.
  62. ^ Marr, N.V.; Knight, R.L. (1983). "Food Habits of Golden Eagles in Eastern Washington". Murrelet. 64 (3): 73–77. doi:10.2307/3535265. JSTOR 3535265.
  63. ^ Craig, T.H.; Craig, E.H. (1984). "Results of a helicopter survey of cliff nesting raptors in a deep canyon in southern Idaho" (PDF). Journal of Raptor Research. 18 (1): 20–25. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022.
  64. ^ a b Marzluff, J.M.; Knick, S.T.; Vekasy, M.S.; Schueck, L.S.; Zarriello, T.J. (1997). "Spatial use and habitat selection of Golden Eagles in southwestern Idaho" (PDF). Auk. 114 (4): 673–687. doi:10.2307/4089287. JSTOR 4089287. S2CID 55398508. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022.
  65. ^ Millsap, B.A. (1981). Distributional status of Falconiformes in west central Arizona-with notes on ecology, reproductive success and management. Technical Note. Vol. 355. U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Land Management.
  66. ^ Root, T.L. (1988). Atlas of wintering North American birds; an analysis of Christmas Bird Count data. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0226725391.
  67. ^ a b Hunt, W. G., Jackman, R.E. Brown, T. L., Gilardi, J. G., Driscoll, D. E. & Culp, L. 1995. A pilot Golden Eagle population study in the Altamont Pass Wind Resource Area, California. Predatory Bird Research Group, University of California, Santa Cruz.
  68. ^ Spofford, W.R. (1971). "The breeding status of the Golden Eagle in the Appalachians". American Birds. 25: 3–7.
  69. ^ Singer, F.J. (1974). "Status of the Osprey, Bald Eagle, and Golden Eagle in the Adirondacks". New York Fish & Game Commission Journal. 21: 18–31.
  70. ^ a b Millsap, B.A.; Vana, S.L. (1984). "Distribution of wintering Golden Eagles in the eastern United States". Wilson Bulletin. 96 (4): 692–701. JSTOR 4162004.
  71. ^ Wingfield, G.A. (1991). "Central plains buteos and Golden Eagle". In Pendleton, B.G. (ed.). Proceedings of the Midwest raptor management symposium and workshop. National Wildlife Federation. pp. 60–68. ISBN 0945051506.
  72. ^ Dunstan, T. C., Harper, J.H. & Phipps, K.B. 1978. Habitat use and hunting strategies of Prairie Falcons, Red-tailed Hawks, and Golden Eagles. Fin. Rep. Western Illinois University, Macomb.
  73. ^ Collopy, M.W. "Foraging Behavior and Success of Golden Eagles" (PDF). Auk. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved 24 April 2013.
  74. ^ a b "Golden Eagle | the Peregrine Fund".
  75. ^ "Aquila chrysaetos (Golden eagle)". Animal Diversity Web.
  76. ^ a b c Collopy, M.W.; Edwards, T.C. Jr. (1989). "Territory size, activity budget, and role of undulating flight in nesting Golden Eagles" (PDF). Journal of Field Ornithology. 60 (1): 43–51. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022.
  77. ^ a b c Bergo, G. (1987). "Territorial behaviour of Golden Eagles in western Norway" (PDF). British Birds. 80 (8): 361–376. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022.
  78. ^ Craig, T.H.; Craig, E.H. (1984). "A large concentration of roosting Golden Eagles in southwestern Idaho" (PDF). Auk. 101 (3): 610–3. doi:10.1093/auk/101.3.610. JSTOR 4086618. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022.
  79. ^ a b c d McIntyre, C.L.; Douglas, D.C.; Collopy, M.W. (2008). "Movements of golden eagles (Aquila chrysaetos) from interior Alaska during their first year of independence". Auk. 125 (1): 214–224. doi:10.1525/auk.2008.125.1.214. S2CID 55922914.
  80. ^ Dementiev, G.P. & Gladkov, N.A. (1966). Birds of the Soviet Union, Vol. 1. Israel Programme of Scientific Translations, Jerusalem.
  81. ^ a b Sherrington, P. (1993). "Golden Eagle migration the Front Ranges of the Alberta Rocky Mountains". Birders Journal. 2: 195–204.
  82. ^ Brodeur, S.; Décarie, R.; Bird, D.M.; Fuller, M. (1996). "Complete migration cycle of Golden Eagles breeding in northern Quebec" (PDF). Condor. 98 (2): 293–9. doi:10.2307/1369147. JSTOR 1369147. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022.
  83. ^ Boeker, E.L.; Ray, T.D. (1971). "Golden Eagle population studies in the Southwest" (PDF). Condor. 73 (4): 463–7. doi:10.2307/1366668. JSTOR 1366668. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022.
  84. ^ Thévenot, M.; Bergier, P. & Beaubrun, P. (1985). "Present distribution and status of raptors in Morocco". In Newton, I. & Chancellor, R.D. (eds.). Conservation studies on raptors. ICBP Technical Publication. Vol. 5. International Council for Bird Preservation. pp. 83–101. ISBN 094688806X.
  85. ^ McGrady, M.J. (1997). "Golden Eagle". BWP Update. 1: 99–114.
  86. ^ Dixon, J.B. (1937). "The Golden Eagle in San Diego County, California". Condor. 39 (2): 49–58. doi:10.2307/1363773. JSTOR 1363773. S2CID 88449730.
  87. ^ Clouet, M.; Barrau, C.; Goar, J.L. (1999). "The Golden Eagle (Aquila chrysaetos) in the Bale Mountains, Ethiopia" (PDF). Journal of Raptor Research. 33 (2): 102–9. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022.
  88. ^ Harmata, A. R. (1982). "What is the function of undulating flight display in Golden Eagles?" (PDF). Raptor Research. 16 (4): 103–9. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022.
  89. ^ a b Bahat, O. (1989). Aspects in the ecology and biodynamics of the Golden Eagle (Aquila chrysaetos homeyeri) in the arid regions of Israel. Master's Thesis. Tel Aviv Univ. Tel Aviv, Israel.
  90. ^ Haller, H. (1982). "Spatial organization and dynamics of a population of Golden Eagles (Aquila chrysaetos) in the central Alps". Ornithol. Beob. 79: 163–211. ISSN 0030-5707. OCLC 689312112.
  91. ^ Haller, H. 1996. The Golden Eagle in the Grisons: Long-term studies on the population ecology of Aquila chrysaetos in the centre of the Alps. Ornithol. Beob. Beiheft 9:1–167.
  92. ^ Halley, D.J.; Gjershaug, J.O. (1998). "Inter- and intra-specific dominance relationships and feeding behaviour of golden eagles Aquila chrysaetos and Sea Eagles Haliaeetus albicilla at carcass". Ibis. 140 (2): 295–301. doi:10.1111/j.1474-919X.1998.tb04392.x.
  93. ^ Kochert, M.N. (1972). Population status and chemical contamination in Golden Eagles in southwestern Idaho. Masters in Science thesis. University of Idaho, Moscow.
  94. ^ Brown, L.H.; Watson, A. (1964). "The Golden Eagle in relation to its food supply". Ibis. 106 (1): 78–100. doi:10.1111/j.1474-919X.1964.tb03682.x.
  95. ^ O'Toole, L.T.; Kennedy, P.L.; Knight, R.L.; McEwen, L.C. (1999). "Postfledging behavior of Golden Eagles" (PDF). Wilson Bulletin. 111 (4): 472–7. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022.
  96. ^ Watson, A.; Rothery, P. (1986). "Regularity in spacing of Golden Eagle Aquila chrysaetos nests used within years in northeast Scotland". Ibis. 131 (3): 336–348. doi:10.1111/j.1474-919X.1989.tb02783.x.
  97. ^ Collopy, M.W. (1984). "Parental care and feeding ecology of Golden Eagle nestlings". Auk. 101 (4): 753–760. doi:10.2307/4086902. JSTOR 4086902.
  98. ^ "Bird Banding Laboratory". www.pwrc.usgs.gov. Retrieved 25 June 2019.
  99. ^ Gordon, S. (1955). The Golden Eagle; king of birds. 1st Am. ed. Citadel Press, New York.
  100. ^ Perrins, C.M. & Birkhead, T.R. (1983). Avian ecology. New York: Chapman & Hall
  101. ^ Harmata, A.R. (2002). "Encounters of Golden Eagles banded in the Rocky Mountain West". Journal of Field Ornithology. 73: 27–32. doi:10.1648/0273-8570-73.1.23. S2CID 85824107.
  102. ^ a b c McIntyre, C.L.; Collopy, M.W.; Lindberg, M.S. (2006). "Survival probability and mortality of migratory juvenile Golden Eagles from Interior Alaska". Journal of Wildlife Management. 70 (3): 717–722. doi:10.2193/0022-541x(2006)70[717:spamom]2.0.co;2. JSTOR 3803426. S2CID 86291969.
  103. ^ Bezzel, E.; Funfstuck, H.-J. (1994). "Brut biologie und Populations dynamic des Steinadlers Aquila chrysaetos im Werdenfelser Land/Oberbayern". Acta Ornithologica. 3: 5–32.
  104. ^ Lano, A. (1922). "Golden Eagle Aquila chrysaetos and porcupine". Auk. 39 (2): 258–9. doi:10.2307/4073972. JSTOR 4073972.
  105. ^ Love, J. A. (1989). Eagles. Whittet Books, London.
  106. ^ Santy, D. (1964). "A recollection of an encounter between a Golden Eagle and a Great Blue Heron". Blue Jay. 22 (2): 55. doi:10.29173/bluejay2691.
  107. ^ Gordon, S. (1971). Oil and the eagle: an unsolved riddle. Country Life, December: 1639.
  108. ^ Bortolotti, G.R. (1984). "Trap and poison mortality of Golden and Bald Eagles". Journal of Wildlife Management. 48 (4): 1173–9. doi:10.2307/3801778. JSTOR 3801778.
  109. ^ Arroyo, B., Ferreiro, E. & Garza, V. (1990). El Aquila Real Aquila chrysaetos en Spana: distribution, reproduccion y conservacion. ICONA, Madrid.
  110. ^ Beecham, I.J.; Kochert, M.N. (1975). "Breeding biology of the golden eagle in southwestern Idaho" (PDF). Wilson Bulletin. 87 (4): 506–513. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022.
  111. ^ Ikedia, Y.; Yamazaki, T. (1988). "Diseases of Golden Eagles: a review". Aquila Chrysaetos. 6: 36–40.
  112. ^ Mikaelian, I.R.; Patenaude, Robert; Girard, Christiane; Martineau, Daniel (1998). "Metastatic cholangiocellular carcinoma and renal adenocarcinoma in a golden eagle (Aquila chrysaetos)". Avian Pathology. 27 (3): 321–5. doi:10.1080/03079459808419345. PMID 18484007.
  113. ^ Daly, Matthew (April 18, 2013). "New federal rule would permit thousands of eagle deaths". Associated Press. Retrieved March 14, 2017.
  114. ^ Khan, Mariam (May 4, 2016). "New Wind Energy Permits Would Raise Kill Limit of Bald Eagles But Still Boost Conservation, Officials Say". ABC News. Retrieved March 14, 2017.
  115. ^ Benson, Elizabeth P. "Eagles." In David Carrasco (ed). The Oxford Encyclopedia of Mesoamerican Cultures. : Oxford University Press, 2001
  116. ^ Nickalls, Sammy (23 February 2017). "France Is Destroying Drones by Using Real, Live Eagles". Esquire. Retrieved 16 September 2021.
  117. ^ Rich, T.D.; Beardmore, C.J.; Berlanga, H.; Blancher, P.J.; Bradstreet, M.S.W.; Butcher, G.S.; Demarest, D.W.; Dunn, E.H.; Hunter, W.C.; Inigo-Elias, E.E.; Martell, A.M.; Panjabi, A.O.; Pashley, D.N.; Rosenberg, K.V.; Rustay, C.M.; Wendt, J.S.; Will, T.C. (2004). Partners in flight: North American landbird conservation plan. Cornell Lab of Ornithology, Ithaca, NY.
  118. ^ "Osprey Pandion haliaetus" (Data Zone). BirdLife International. 2020. Retrieved November 21, 2020.
  119. ^ "African Fish Eagle, Haliaeetus vocifer". The Peregrine Fund. Retrieved May 24, 2013.

Further reading

  • Cramp, Stanley, ed. (1979). Handbook of the Birds of Europe the Middle East and North Africa, the Birds of the Western Palearctic. Vol. 2: Hawks to Bustards. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-857505-4.
  • López Luján, Leonardo. The Offerings of the Templo Mayor of Tenochtitlan. Translated by Bernard R. Ortiz de Montellano and Thelma Ortiz de Montellano. Niwot, Colo., 1994. In addition to descriptions of eagles as offerings, there is discussion of the founding of the city of Tenochtitlan and its major temple

External links

 
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Aquila chrysaetos.
 
Wikispecies has information related to Aquila chrysaetos.
  • Kazakh hunter. Fox Hunting with a Golden Eagle – Human Planet: Mountains, preview – BBC One
  • "Golden eagle media". Internet Bird Collection.
  • Website on the Golden Eagle maintained by Raptor Protection of Slovakia
  • Åldersbestämning av kungsörn – Ageing of Golden Eagles (in Swedish and English) 10 May 2015 at the Wayback Machine
  • Golden Eagle Records from the Midwinter Bald Eagle Survey: Information for Wind Energy Management and Planning United States Geological Survey
  • "Aquila chrysaetos". NCBI Taxonomy Browser. 8962.

January 19, 2024
golden, eagle, other, uses, golden, eagle, disambiguation, golden, eagle, aquila, chrysaetos, bird, prey, living, northern, hemisphere, most, widely, distributed, species, eagle, like, eagles, belongs, family, accipitridae, they, best, known, birds, prey, nort. For other uses see Golden Eagle disambiguation The golden eagle Aquila chrysaetos is a bird of prey living in the Northern Hemisphere It is the most widely distributed species of eagle Like all eagles it belongs to the family Accipitridae They are one of the best known birds of prey in the Northern Hemisphere These birds are dark brown with lighter golden brown plumage on their napes Immature eagles of this species typically have white on the tail and often have white markings on the wings Golden eagles use their agility and speed combined with powerful feet and large sharp talons to hunt a variety of prey mainly hares rabbits and marmots and other ground squirrels 4 Golden eagles maintain home ranges or territories that may be as large as 200 km2 77 sq mi They build large nests in cliffs and other high places to which they may return for several breeding years Most breeding activities take place in the spring they are monogamous and may remain together for several years or possibly for life Females lay up to four eggs and then incubate them for six weeks Typically one or two young survive to fledge in about three months These juvenile golden eagles usually attain full independence in the fall after which they wander widely until establishing a territory for themselves in four to five years Golden eagleTemporal range Pliocene recent 1 PreꞒ Ꞓ O S D C P T J K Pg NWild golden in flight at Pfyn Finges Switzerland source source Call of a golden eagle in ScotlandConservation statusLeast Concern IUCN 3 1 2 CITES Appendix II CITES 3 Scientific classificationDomain EukaryotaKingdom AnimaliaPhylum ChordataClass AvesOrder AccipitriformesFamily AccipitridaeGenus AquilaSpecies A chrysaetosBinomial nameAquila chrysaetos Linnaeus 1758 Subspecies6 see textRange of A chrysaetos Nesting present in summer Nesting present all year Non nestingSynonymsFalco chrysaetos Linnaeus 1758 Falco fulvus Linnaeus 1758Once widespread across the Holarctic it has disappeared from many areas that are heavily populated by humans Despite being extirpated from or uncommon in some of its former range the species is still widespread being present in sizeable stretches of Eurasia North America and parts of North Africa It is the largest and least populous of the five species of true accipitrid to occur as a breeding species in both the Palearctic and the Nearctic 5 For centuries this species has been one of the most highly regarded birds used in falconry Because of its hunting prowess the golden eagle is regarded with great mystic reverence in some ancient tribal cultures It is one of the most extensively studied species of raptor in the world in some parts of its range such as the Western United States and the Western Palearctic Contents 1 Taxonomy and systematics 1 1 Subspecies and distribution 2 Description 2 1 Size 2 2 Colour 2 3 Moulting 2 4 Vocalisations 2 5 Flight 2 6 Distinguishing from other species 3 Habitat and distribution 3 1 Eurasia 3 2 North America 4 Feeding 5 Activity and movements 5 1 Migration 5 2 Territoriality 6 Reproduction 7 Longevity 7 1 Natural mortality 8 Killing permits 9 In human culture 10 Status and conservation 11 References 12 Further reading 13 External linksTaxonomy and systematicsThis species was first described by Carl Linnaeus in his landmark 1758 10th edition of Systema Naturae as Falco chrysaetos 6 Since birds were grouped largely on superficial characteristics at that time many species were grouped by Linnaeus into the genus Falco The type locality was given simply as Europa it was later fixed to Sweden It was moved to the new genus Aquila by French ornithologist Mathurin Jacques Brisson in 1760 7 Aquila is Latin for eagle possibly derived from aquilus dark in colour and chrysaetos is Ancient Greek for the golden eagle from khrusos gold and aetos eagle 8 The golden eagle is part of a broad group of raptors called booted eagles which are defined by the feature that all species have feathering over their tarsus unlike many other accipitrids which have bare legs Included in this group are all species described as hawk eagles including the genera Spizaetus and Nisaetus as well as assorted monotypical genera such as Oroaetus Lophaetus Stephanoaetus Polemaetus Lophotriorchis and Ictinaetus The genus Aquila is distributed across every continent but for South America and Antarctica Up to 20 species have been classified in the genus but more recently the taxonomic placement of some of the traditional species has been questioned Traditionally the Aquila eagles have been grouped superficially as largish mainly brownish or dark colored booted eagles that vary little in transition from their juvenile to their adult plumages Genetic research has recently indicated the golden eagle is included in a clade with Verreaux s eagle in Africa as well as the Gurney s eagle A gurneyi and the wedge tailed eagle clearly part of an Australasian radiation of the lineage This identification of this particular clade has long been suspected based on similar morphological characteristics amongst these large bodied species 5 More surprisingly the smaller much paler bellied sister species Bonelli s eagle A fasciatus and African hawk eagle A spilogaster previously included in the genus Hieraaetus have been revealed to be genetically much closer to the Verreaux s and golden eagle lineage than to other species traditionally included in the genus Aquila 4 9 10 Other largish Aquila species the eastern imperial the Spanish imperial the tawny and the steppe eagles are now thought to be separate close knit clade which attained some similar characteristics to the prior clade via convergent evolution 9 10 nbsp Wintering eagle of the nominate subspecies in FinlandGenetically the spotted eagles A pomarina hastata and clanga have been discovered to be more closely related to the long crested eagle Lophaetus occipitalis and the black eagle Ictinaetus malayensis and many generic reassignments have been advocated 9 11 The genus Hieraaetus including the booted eagle H pennatus little eagle H morphnoides and Ayres s hawk eagle H ayresii consists of much smaller species that are in fact smallest birds called eagles outside of the unrelated Spilornis serpent eagle genus This genus has recently been eliminated by many authorities and is now occasionally also included in Aquila although not all ornithological unions have followed this suit in this re classification 4 10 12 The small bodied Wahlberg s eagle H wahlbergi has been traditionally considered a Aquila species due to its lack of change from juvenile to adult plumage and brownish color but it is actually genetically aligned to the Hieraaetus lineage 9 13 Cassin s hawk eagle H africanus is also probably closely related to the Hieraaetus group rather than the Spizaetus Nisaetus hawk eagle group in which it was previously classified which is not known to have radiated to Africa 14 Subspecies and distribution nbsp A captive Aquila chrysaetos canadensis shows the typical rusty coloration of the subspecies nbsp Aquila chrysaetos homeyeri MHNTThere are six extant subspecies of golden eagle that differ slightly in size and plumage Individuals of any of the subspecies are somewhat variable and the differences between the subspecies are clinal especially in terms of body size Other than these characteristics there is little variation across the range of the species 15 Some recent studies have gone so far as to propose that only two subspecies be recognized based on genetic markers Aquila chrysaetos chrysaetos including A c homeyeri and A c canadensis including A c japonica A c daphanea and A c kamtschatica 16 Aquila chrysaetos chrysaetos Linnaeus 1758 sometimes referred to as the European golden eagle 17 This is the nominate subspecies This subspecies is found almost throughout Europe including the British Isles mainly in Scotland the majority of Scandinavia southern and northernmost France Italy and Austria In Eastern Europe it is found from Estonia to Romania Greece Serbia and Bulgaria in southeastern Europe It is also distributed through European Russia reportedly reaching its eastern limit around the Yenisei River in Russia also ranging south at a similar longitude into western Kazakhstan and northern Iran 4 15 Male wing length is from 56 5 to 67 cm 22 2 to 26 4 in averaging 62 cm 24 in and female wing length is from 61 5 to 71 2 cm 24 2 to 28 0 in averaging 67 cm 26 in Males weigh from 2 8 to 4 6 kg 6 2 to 10 1 lb averaging 3 69 kg 8 1 lb and females weigh from 3 8 to 6 7 kg 8 4 to 14 8 lb averaging 5 17 kg 11 4 lb 4 15 The male of this subspecies has a wingspan of 1 89 to 2 15 m 6 ft 2 in to 7 ft 1 in with an average of 2 02 m 6 ft 8 in with the female s typical wingspan range is 2 12 to 2 2 m 6 ft 11 in to 7 ft 3 in with an average of 2 16 m 7 ft 1 in 17 This is a medium sized subspecies and is the palest As opposed to golden eagles found further east in Eurasia the adults of this subspecies are a tawny golden brown on the upperside The nape patch is often gleaming golden in color and the feathers here are exceptionally long 5 15 18 Aquila chrysaetos homeyeri Severtzov 1888 commonly known as the Iberian golden eagle This subspecies occurs in almost the entirety of the Iberian peninsula as well as the island of Crete though it is absent from the rest of continental Europe It also ranges in North Africa in a narrow sub coastal strip from Morocco to Tunisia A completely isolated population of golden eagles is found in Ethiopia s Bale Mountains at the southern limit of the species range worldwide Although this latter population has not been formally assigned to a subspecies there is a high probability that it belongs with A c homeyeri This subspecies also ranges in much of Asia Minor mainly Turkey spottily through the Middle East and the Arabian Peninsula into northern Yemen and Oman to its eastern limits throughout the Caucasus 19 much of Iran and north to southwestern Kazakhstan 4 15 Male wing length is from 55 to 64 3 cm 21 7 to 25 3 in averaging 59 cm 23 in and female wing length is from 60 to 70 5 cm 23 6 to 27 8 in averaging 64 cm 25 in Weight is from 2 9 to 6 kg 6 4 to 13 2 lb with no known reports of average masses 4 15 This subspecies is slightly smaller and darker plumaged than the nominate subspecies but it is not as dark as the golden eagles found further to the east The forehead and crown are dark brownish with the nape patch being short feathered and a relatively light rusty color 20 Aquila chrysaetos daphanea Severtzov 1888 known variously as the Asian golden eagle Himalayan golden eagle or berkut 21 This subspecies is distributed in central Kazakhstan eastern Iran and the easternmost Caucasus distributed to Manchuria and central China and along the Himalayas from northern Pakistan to Bhutan and discontinuing in northeastern Myanmar rarely ranging over into northernmost India 4 15 22 This subspecies is the largest on average Male wing length is from 60 to 68 cm 24 to 27 in averaging 64 cm 25 in and female wing length is from 66 to 72 cm 26 to 28 in averaging 70 cm 28 in No range of body weights are known but males will weigh approximately 4 05 kg 8 9 lb and females 6 35 kg 14 0 lb 4 15 Although the wingspan of this subspecies reportedly averages 2 21 m 7 ft 3 in some individuals can have much longer wings 21 One female berkut had an authenticated wingspan of 2 81 m 9 ft 3 in although she was a captive specimen 21 It is generally the second darkest subspecies being blackish on the back The forehead and crown are dark with a blackish cap near the end of the crown The feathers of the nape and top neck are rich brown red The nape feathers are slightly shorter than in the nominate subspecies and are similar in length to A c homeyeri 23 24 Aquila chrysaetos japonica Severtzov 1888 commonly known as the Japanese golden eagle This subspecies is found in northern Japan the islands of Honshu Hokkaido and discontinuously in Kyushu and undefined parts of Korea 4 15 Male wing length is from 58 to 59 5 cm 22 8 to 23 4 in averaging 59 cm 23 in and female wing length is from 62 to 64 5 cm 24 4 to 25 4 in averaging 63 cm 25 in No range of body weights are known but males will weigh approximately 2 5 kg 5 5 lb and females 3 25 kg 7 2 lb This is by far the smallest bodied subspecies It is also the darkest with even adults being a slaty grayish black on the back and crown and juveniles being similar but with darker black plumage contrasting with brownish color and white scaling on the wings flank and tail This subspecies has bright rufous nape feathers that are quite loose and long Adult Japanese golden eagles often maintain extensive white mottling on the inner webs of the tail that tend to be more typical of juvenile eagles in other subspecies 4 15 Aquila chrysaetos canadensis Linnaeus 1758 commonly known as the North American golden eagle Occupies the species entire range in North America which comprises the great majority of Alaska western Canada Western United States and Mexico The species is found breeding occasionally in all Canadian provinces but for Nova Scotia It is currently absent in the Eastern United States as breeding species east of a line from North Dakota down through westernmost Nebraska and Oklahoma to West Texas The southern limits of its range are in central Mexico from the Guadalajara area in the west to the Tampico area in the east it is the Mexican eagle featured on the coat of arms of Mexico 25 It is the subspecies with the largest breeding range and is probably the most numerous subspecies especially if A c kamtschatica is included 4 15 Male wing length is from 59 1 to 64 cm 23 3 to 25 2 in averaging 61 cm 24 in and female wing length is from 60 1 to 67 4 cm 23 7 to 26 5 in averaging 65 cm 26 in 4 15 26 The average wingspan in both sexes is about 2 04 m 6 ft 8 in 5 Males weigh from 2 5 to 4 47 kg 5 5 to 9 9 lb averaging 3 48 kg 7 7 lb and females typically weigh from 3 6 to 6 4 kg 7 9 to 14 1 lb averaging 4 91 kg 10 8 lb 4 15 The subspecies does not appear to follow Bergmann s rule the rule that widely distributed organisms are larger bodied further away from the Equator as specimens of both sexes from Idaho had a mean weight of 4 22 kg 9 3 lb and where slightly heavier than those from Alaska with a mean weight of 3 76 kg 8 3 lb 4 5 It is medium sized being generally intermediate in size between the nominate and A c homeyeri but with much overlap It is blackish to dark brown on the back The long feathers of the nape and top neck are rusty reddish and slightly narrower and darker than in the nominate subspecies 15 27 Aquila chrysaetos kamtschatica Severtzov 1888 sometimes referred to as the Siberian golden eagle or the Kamchatkan golden eagle This subspecies ranges from Western Siberia where overlap with A c chrysaetos is probable across most of Russia including the Altay spilling over into Northern Mongolia to the Kamchatka Peninsula and the Anadyrsky District This subspecies is often included in A c canadensis 4 15 Male wing length is from 61 8 to 70 5 cm 24 3 to 27 8 in averaging 64 cm 25 in and female wing length is from 65 to 72 cm 26 to 28 in averaging 69 cm 27 in 28 No weights are known in this subspecies 4 The coloration of these eagles is almost exactly the same as in A c canadensis The main difference is that this subspecies is much larger in size being nearly the equal of A c daphanea if going on wing length 15 The larger Middle Pleistocene golden eagles of France and possibly elsewhere are referred to a paleosubspecies Aquila chrysaetos bonifacti and the huge specimens of the Late Pleistocene of Liko Cave Crete have been named Aquila chrysaetos simurgh Weesie 1988 29 30 31 Similarly an ancestral golden eagle with a heavier broader skull larger wings and shorter legs when compared to modern birds has been found in the La Brea Tar Pits of southern California 32 DescriptionSize nbsp The foot and talons of a golden eagleThe golden eagle is a very large raptor 66 to 102 centimetres 26 to 40 in in length Its wings are broad and the wingspan is 1 8 to 2 34 metres 5 ft 11 in to 7 ft 8 in 33 15 34 35 The wingspan of golden eagles is the fifth largest among living eagle species 15 Females are larger than males with a bigger difference in larger subspecies Females of the large Himalayan golden eagles are about 37 heavier than males and have nearly 9 longer wings whereas in the smaller Japanese golden eagles females are only 26 heavier with around 6 longer wings 4 36 In the largest subspecies A c daphanea males and females weigh typically 4 05 and 6 35 kg 8 9 and 14 0 lb respectively In the smallest subspecies A c japonica males weigh 2 5 kg 5 5 lb and females 3 25 kg 7 2 lb 4 In the species overall males average around 3 6 kg 7 9 lb and females around 5 1 kg 11 lb 37 The maximum size of golden eagles is debated Large subspecies are the heaviest representatives of the genus Aquila and this species is on average the seventh heaviest living eagle species The golden eagle is the second heaviest breeding eagle in North America Europe and Africa and the fourth heaviest in Asia 5 15 For some time the largest known mass authenticated for a wild female was the specimen from the A c chrysaetos subspecies which weighed around 6 7 kg 15 lb and spanned 2 55 m 8 ft 4 in across the wings 21 American golden eagles are typically somewhat smaller than the large Eurasian species but a massive female that was banded and released in 2006 around Wyoming s Bridger Teton National Forest became the heaviest wild golden eagle on record at 7 7 kg 17 lb 38 Captive birds have been measured with a wingspan of 2 81 m 9 ft 3 in and a mass of 12 1 kg 27 lb though this mass was for an eagle bred for falconry which tend to be unnaturally heavy 21 The standard measurements of the species include a wing chord length of 52 72 cm 20 28 in a tail length of 26 5 38 cm 10 4 15 0 in and a tarsus length of 9 4 12 2 cm 3 7 4 8 in 15 The culmen upper ridge of beak reportedly averages around 4 5 cm 1 8 in with a range of 3 6 to 5 cm 1 4 to 2 0 in The bill length from the gape measures around 6 cm 2 4 in 39 40 The long straight and powerful hallux claw hind claw can range from 4 5 to 6 34 cm 1 77 to 2 50 in about one centimetre longer than in a bald eagle and a little more than one centimetre less than a harpy eagle 26 41 42 Colour nbsp Subadult showing white in tail and dark neckAdults of both sexes have similar plumage and are primarily dark brown with some grey on the inner wing and tail and a paler typically golden colour on the back of the crown and nape that gives the species its common name 43 Unlike other Aquila species where the tarsal feathers are typically similar in colour to the rest of the plumage the tarsal feathers of golden eagles tend to be paler ranging from light golden to white 4 In addition some full grown birds especially in North America have white epaulettes on the upper part of each scapular feather tract 5 44 The bill is dark at the tip fading to a lighter horn colour with a yellow cere 45 As in many accipitrids the bare portion of the feet is yellow 15 There are subtle differences in colouration among subspecies described below Juvenile golden eagles are similar to adults but tend to be darker appearing black on the back especially in East Asia They have a less faded colour Young birds are white for about two thirds of their tail length ending with a broad black band 36 Occasionally juvenile eagles have white patches on the remiges at the bases of the inner primaries and the outer secondaries forming a crescent marking on the wings which tends to be divided by darker feathers 4 46 Rarely juvenile birds may have only traces of white on the tail Compared to the relatively consistently white tail the white patches on the wing are extremely variable some juveniles have almost no white visible Juveniles of less than 12 months of age tend to have the most white in their plumage 44 By their second summer the white underwing coverts are usually replaced by a characteristic rusty brown colour By the third summer the upper wing coverts are largely replaced by dark brown feathers although not all feathers moult at once which leaves many juvenile birds with a grizzled pattern The tail follows a similar pattern of maturation to the wings 44 46 Due to the variability between individuals juvenile eagles cannot be reliably aged by sight alone 47 Many golden eagles still have white on the tail during their first attempt at nesting 48 The final adult plumage is not fully attained until the birds are between 5 1 2 and 6 1 2 years old 47 Moulting nbsp Captive adult of the North American subspecies Aquila chrysaetos canadensisThis species moults gradually beginning in March or April until September or October each year Moulting usually decreases in winter Moult of the contour feathers begins on the head and neck region and progresses along the feather tracts in a general front to back direction Feathers on head neck back and scapulars may be replaced annually With large feathers of the wing and tail moult begins with the innermost feathers and proceeds outwards in a straightforward manner known as descendant moult 44 Vocalisations nbsp Golden eagles are often silent While many accipitrids are not known for their strong voices golden eagles have a particular tendency for silence even while breeding 17 That being said some vocalization has been recorded usually centering around the nesting period The voice of the golden eagle is considered weak high and shrill has been called quite pathetic and puppy like and seems incongruous with the formidable size and nature of the species 15 Most known vocalisations seem to function as contact calls between eagles sometimes adults to their offspring occasionally territorial birds to intruders and rarely between a breeding pair In western Montana nine distinct calls were noted a chirp a seeir a pssa a skonk a cluck a wonk a honk and a hiss 49 Flight nbsp In flight nbsp Golden eagle flying in dihedral with foodGolden eagles are sometimes considered the best fliers among eagles and perhaps among all raptorial birds 17 They are equipped with broad long wings with somewhat finger like indentations on the tips of the wing 15 Golden eagles are unique among their genus in that they often fly in a slight dihedral which means the wings are often held in a slight upturned V shape 15 When they need to flap golden eagles appear at their most laboured but this is less common than soaring or gliding 4 Flapping flight usually consists of 6 8 deep wing beats interspersed with 2 3 second glides 4 While soaring the wings and tail are held in one plane with the primary tips often spread 50 A typical unhurried soaring speed in golden eagles is around 45 52 kilometres per hour 28 32 mph 51 When hunting or displaying the golden eagle can glide very fast reaching speeds of up to 190 kilometres per hour 120 mph 4 50 When stooping diving in the direction of prey or during territorial displays the eagle holds its legs up against its tail and holds its wings tight and partially closed against its body When diving after prey a golden eagle can reach 240 to 320 kilometres per hour 150 to 200 mph Although less agile and manoeuvrable the golden eagle is apparently quite the equal and possibly even the superior of the peregrine falcon s stooping and gliding speeds 5 52 This makes the golden eagle one of the two fastest living animals 21 Although most flight in golden eagles has a clear purpose e g territoriality hunting some flights such as those by solitary birds or between well established breeding pairs seem to be play 5 17 53 Distinguishing from other species nbsp Golden eagles are readily distinguished by their brown plumage paler than most other Aquila and pale nape patch Size readily distinguishes this species from most other raptors when it is seen well Most other raptors are considerably smaller Buteo hawks which are perhaps most similar to the golden eagle in structure among the species outside of the booted eagle group are often counted among the larger very common raptors However a mid sized Buteo is dwarfed by a golden eagle as an adult female eagle has about double the wingspan and about five times the weight Buteos are also usually distinctly paler below although some species occur in dark morphs which can be darker than a golden eagle 15 54 Among raptorial birds that share the golden eagle s range only some Old World vultures and the California condor are distinctly larger with longer broader wings typically held more evenly in a slower less forceful flight they often have dramatically different colour patterns In North America the golden eagle may be confused with the turkey vulture from a great distance as it is a large species that like the golden eagle often flies with a pronounced dihedral The turkey vulture can be distinguished by its less controlled forceful flying style they frequently rock back and forth unsteadily in even moderate winds and its smaller thinner body much smaller head and at closer range its slaty black brown colour and silvery wing secondaries 55 Compared to Haliaeetus eagles the golden eagle has wings that are only somewhat more slender but are more hawk like and lack the flat plank like wing positioning seen in the other genus 55 Large northern Haliaeetus species usually have a larger bill and larger head which protrudes more distinctly than a golden eagle s in flight The tail of the golden eagle is longer on average than those of Haliaeetus eagles appearing to be two or three times the length of the head in soaring flight whereas in the other eagles the head is often more than twice the length of the tail 55 Confusion is most likely between juvenile Haliaeetus and golden eagles as the adult golden has a more solidly golden brown coloration and all Haliaeetus eagles have obvious distinctive plumages as adults Haliaeetus eagles are often heavily streaked in their juvenile phase Juvenile golden eagles can have large patches of white on their wings and tail that are quite different from the random sometimes large and splotchy looking distribution of white typical of juvenile Haliaeetus 15 55 Distinguishing the golden eagle from other Aquila eagles in Eurasia is more difficult Identification may rely on the golden eagle s relatively long tail and patterns of white or grey on the wings and tail Unlike golden eagles other Aquila eagles do not generally fly in a pronounced dihedral At close range the golden to rufous nape shawl of the golden eagle is distinctive from other Aquila Most other Aquila eagles have darker plumage although the smaller tawny eagle is often paler than the golden eagle the overlap in range is verified only in Bale Mountains Ethiopia Among Eurasian Aquila the adult eastern imperial and Spanish imperial eagle come closest to reaching the size of golden eagles but both are distinguished by their longer necks flatter wings in flight white markings on their shoulder forewing coverts paler cream straw coloured nape patch and generally darker colouration Juvenile imperial eagles are much paler overall caramel cream in the Spanish cream and tawny streaks in the eastern and are not likely to be confused 15 Steppe eagles can also approach golden eagles in size but are more compact and smaller headed with little colour variation to their dark earth brown plumage apart from juvenile birds which have distinctive cream coloured bands running through their coverts and secondaries 5 Verreaux s eagles are most similar in size and body shape to the golden the body of the Verreaux s eagle being slightly longer overall but marginally less heavy and long winged than the golden eagle s 15 The plumage is very distinctly different however as Verreaux s eagles are almost entirely jet black except for some striking contrasting white on the wing primaries shoulders and upper wing 15 This closely related species is known to co occur with the golden eagle only in the Bale Mountains of Ethiopia 4 Other booted eagles in the golden eagle s range are unlikely to be confused due to differences in size and form The only species in the genus Aquila that exceeds the golden eagle in average wingspan and length is the wedge tailed eagle of Australasia however the wedge tailed eagle is a slightly less heavy bird 21 Habitat and distribution nbsp Beinn Mhor on the Isle of Mull Scotland is typical golden eagle habitat rugged and mountainous nbsp An adult flying above Himalayan mountains from Shingba Rhododendron Sanctuary in Sikkim IndiaGolden eagles are fairly adaptable in habitat but often reside in areas with a few shared ecological characteristics They are best suited to hunting in open or semi open areas and search them out year around Native vegetation seems to be attractive to them and they typically avoid developed areas of any type from urban to agricultural as well as heavily forested regions In desolate areas e g the southern Yukon they can occur regularly at roadkills and garbage dumps 56 The largest numbers of golden eagles are found in mountainous regions today with many eagles doing a majority of their hunting and nesting on rock formations However they are not solely tied to high elevations and can breed in lowlands if the local habitats are suitable Below are more detailed descriptions of habitats occupied by golden eagles in both continents where they occur 4 Eurasia nbsp Portrait of a golden eagle near the AlpsIn the Arctic fringe of Eurasia golden eagles occur along the edge of the tundra and the taiga from the Kola peninsula to Anadyr in eastern Siberia nesting in forests and hunting over nearby arctic heathland Typical vegetation is stunted fragmented larch woodland merging into low birch willow scrub and various heathland In the rocky wet windy maritime climate of Scotland Ireland and western Scandinavia the golden eagle dwells in mountains These areas include upland grasslands blanket bog and sub Arctic heaths but also fragmented woodland and woodland edge including boreal forests In Western Europe golden eagle habitat is dominated by open rough grassland heath and bogs and rocky ridges spurs crags scree slopes and grand plateaux In Sweden Finland the Baltic States Belarus and almost the entire distribution in Russia all the way to the Pacific Ocean golden eagles occur sparsely in lowland taiga forest These areas are dominated by stands of evergreens such as pine larch and spruce occasionally supplemented by birch and alder stands in southern Scandinavia and the Baltic States This is largely marginal country for golden eagles and they occur where tree cover is thin and abuts open habitat Golden eagle taiga habitat usually consists of extensive peatland formations caused by poorly drained soils In central Europe golden eagles today occur almost exclusively in the major mountain ranges such as the Pyrenees Alps Carpathians and the Caucasus Here the species nests near the tree line and hunt subalpine and alpine pastures grassland and heath above Golden eagles also occur in moderately mountainous habitat along the Mediterranean Sea from the Iberian Peninsula and the Atlas Mountains in Morocco to Greece Turkey and Iraq This area is characterized by low mountains Mediterranean maquis vegetation and sub temperate open woodland The local pine oak vegetation with a variety of Sclerophyllous shrubs are well adapted to prolonged summer droughts From Turkey and the southern Caspian Sea to the foothills of the Hindu Kush Mountains in Afghanistan the typical golden eagle habitat is temperate desert like mountain ranges surrounded by steppe landscapes interspersed with forest Here the climate is colder and more continental than around the Mediterranean Golden eagles occupy the alpine ranges from the Altai Mountains and the Pamir Mountains to Tibet in the great Himalayan massif and Xinjiang China where they occupy the Tien Shan range citation needed In these mountain ranges the species often lives at very high elevations living above tree line at more than 2 500 m 8 200 ft often nesting in rocky scree and hunting in adjacent meadows In Tibet golden eagles inhabit high ridges and passes in the Lhasa River watershed where they regularly join groups of soaring Himalayan vultures Gyps himalayensis 57 One golden eagle was recorded circling at 6 190 m 20 310 ft above sea level in Khumbu in May 1975 58 In the mountains of Japan and Korea the golden eagle occupies deciduous scrub woodland and carpet like stands of Siberian dwarf pine Pinus pumila that merge into grasslands and alpine heathland The golden eagle occurs in mountains from the Adrar Plateau in Mauritania to northern Yemen and Oman where the desert habitat is largely bereft of vegetation but offers many rocky plateaus to support both the eagles and their prey In Israel their habitat is mainly rocky slopes and wide wadi areas chiefly in desert and to a lesser extent in semi desert and Mediterranean climates extending to open areas 59 In Northeastern Africa the habitat is often of a sparse desert like character and is quite similar to the habitat in Middle East and the Arabian peninsula In Ethiopia s Bale Mountains where the vegetation is more lush and the climate is clearly less arid than in Northeastern Africa the golden eagle occupies verdant mountains 4 North America The biomes occupied by golden eagles are roughly concurrent with those of Eurasia In western and northern Alaska and northern Canada to the Ungava Peninsula in Quebec the eagles occupy the Arctic fringe of North America the species does not range into the true high Arctic tundra where open canopy gives way to dwarf shrub heathland with cottongrass and tussock tundra In land locked areas of the sub Arctic golden eagles are by far the largest raptor From the Alaska Range to Washington and Oregon it is often found in high mountains above the tree line or on bluffs and cliffs along river valleys below the tree line 60 61 In Washington state golden eagles can be found in clear cut sections of otherwise dense coniferous forest zones with relatively little annual precipitation 62 From east of the Canadian Rocky Mountains to the mountains of Labrador the golden eagle is found in small numbers in boreal forest peatlands and similar mixed woodland areas In the foothills of the Rocky Mountains in the United States are plains and prairies where golden eagles are widespread especially where there is a low human presence Here grassland on low rolling hills and flat plains are typical interrupted only by cottonwood stands around river valleys and wetlands where the eagles may build their nests Golden eagles also occupy the desert like Great Basin from southern Idaho to northern Arizona and New Mexico In this habitat trees are generally absent other than junipers with vegetation being dominated by sagebrush Artemisia and other low shrub species Although the vegetation varies a bit more similar habitat is occupied by golden eagles in Mexico 63 64 65 However golden eagles are typically absent in North America from true deserts like the Sonora Desert where annual precipitation is less than 20 cm 7 9 in 66 Golden eagles occupy the mountains and coastal areas of California and Baja California in Mexico where hot dry summers and moist winters are typical The golden eagles here often nest in chaparral and oak woodland oak savanna and grassland amongst low rolling hill typified by diverse vegetation 67 In the Eastern United States the species once bred widely in the Appalachian Plateau near burns open marshes meadows bogs and lakes 68 69 In Eastern North America the species still breeds on the Gaspe Peninsula Quebec Until 1999 a pair of golden eagles were still known to nest in Maine but they are now believed to be absent as a breeding bird from the Eastern United States 4 The golden eagles who breed in eastern Canada winter on montane grass and heath fields in the Appalachian Plateau region especially in Pennsylvania New York West Virginia Maryland and Virginia Most sightings in the Eastern United States recently are concentrated within or along southwestern border of the Appalachian Plateau 30 of records and within the Coastal Plain physiographic region 33 of records 70 Though they do regularly nest in the marsh like peatland of the boreal forest golden eagles are not generally associated with wetlands and in fact they can be found near some of the most arid spots on earth In the wintering population of Eastern United States however they are often associated with steep river valleys reservoirs and marshes in inland areas as well as estuarine marshlands barrier islands managed wetlands sounds and mouths of major river systems in coastal areas These wetlands are attractive due to a dominance of open vegetation large concentrations of prey and the general absence of human disturbance 70 In the midwestern United States they are not uncommon during winter near reservoirs and wildlife refuges that provide foraging opportunities at waterfowl concentrations 71 FeedingMain article Dietary biology of the golden eagle Golden eagles usually hunt during daylight hours but were recorded hunting from one hour before sunrise to one hour after sunset during the breeding season in southwestern Idaho 72 The hunting success rate of golden eagles was calculated in Idaho showing that out of 115 hunting attempts 20 were successful in procuring prey 73 A fully grown golden eagle requires about 230 to 250 g 8 1 to 8 8 oz of food per day but in the life of most eagles there are cycles of feast and famine and eagles have been known to go without food for up to a week and then gorge on up to 900 g 2 0 lb at one sitting 5 The diet of golden eagles is composed primarily of small mammals such as rabbits hares ground squirrels prairie dogs and marmots They also eat other birds usually of medium size such as gamebirds 74 reptiles and fish in smaller numbers Golden eagles occasionally capture large prey including seals ungulates coyotes and badgers They have also been known to capture large flying birds such as geese or cranes 75 They have also been known to prey on other raptors including owls and falcons 74 Activity and movements nbsp In Spain golden eagles such as this one in the Province of Avila are sedentary Despite the dramatic ways in which they attain food and interact with raptors of their own and other species the daily life of golden eagles is often rather uneventful In Idaho adult male golden eagles were observed to sit awake on a perch for an average of 78 of daylight whereas adult females sat on nest or perched for an average of 85 of the day 76 During the peak of summer in Utah hunting and territorial flights occurred mostly between 9 00 and 11 00 am and 4 00 and 6 00 pm with the remaining 15 or so hours of daylight spent perching or resting 17 When conditions are heavily anticyclonic there is less soaring during the day 4 During winter in Scotland golden eagles soar frequently in order to scan the environment for carrion 4 In the more wooded environments of Norway during autumn and winter much less aerial activity is reported since the eagles tend to avoid detection by actively contour hunting rather than looking for carrion 77 Golden eagles are believed to sleep through much of the night Although usually highly solitary outside of the bond between breeding pairs exceptionally cold weather in winter may cause eagles to put their usual guard down and perch together The largest known congregation of golden eagles was observed on an extremely cold winter s night in eastern Idaho when 124 individuals were observed perched closely along a line of 85 power poles 78 Migration Most populations of golden eagles are sedentary but the species is actually a partial migrant Golden eagles are very hardy species being well adapted to cold climates however they cannot abide declining available food sources in the northern stretches of their range Eagles raised at latitudes greater than 60 N are usually migratory though a short migration may be untaken by those who breed or hatch at about 50 N 79 During migration they often use soaring gliding flight rather than powered flight 79 In Finland most banded juveniles move between 1 000 and 2 000 km 620 and 1 240 mi due south whereas adults stay locally through winter Further east conditions are too harsh for even wintering territorial adults 4 Golden eagles that breed from the Kola peninsula to Anadyr in the Russian Far East migrate south to winter on the Russian and Mongolian steppes and the North China Plains The flat relatively open landscapes in these regions hold relatively few resident breeding golden eagles 80 Similarly the entire population of golden eagles from northern and central Alaska and northern Canada migrates south At Mount Lorette in Alberta approximately 4 000 golden eagles may pass during the fall the largest recorded migration of golden eagles on earth 81 Here the mountain ranges are relatively moderate and consistent thus being reliable for thermals and updrafts which made long distance migrating feasible 81 Birds hatched in Denali National Park in Alaska traveled from 818 to 4 815 km 508 to 2 992 mi to their winter ranges in western North America 79 These western migrants may winter anywhere from southern Alberta and Montana to New Mexico and Arizona and from inland California to Nebraska Adults who bred in northeastern Hudson Bay area of Canada reached their wintering grounds which range from central Michigan to southern Pennsylvania to northeastern Alabama in 26 to 40 days with arrival dates from November to early December 82 The departure dates from wintering grounds are variable In southwestern Canada they leave their wintering grounds by 6 April to 8 May the mean being 21 April in southwestern Idaho wintering birds leave from 20 March to 13 April mean of 29 March and in the Southwestern United States wintering birds may depart by early March 4 79 83 Elsewhere in the species breeding range golden eagles i e those who breed in the contiguous Western United States all of Europe but for Northern Scandinavia North Africa and all of Asia but for Northern Russia are non migratory and tend to remain within striking distance of their breeding territories throughout the year 15 In Scotland among all recovered banded golden eagles 36 out of 1000 the rest mostly died or disappeared the average distance between ringing and recovery was 44 km 27 mi averaging 63 km 39 mi in juveniles and 36 km 22 mi in older birds 4 In the dry Southwestern United States golden eagles tend to move to higher elevations once the breeding season is complete 53 In North Africa populations breeding at lower latitudes like Morocco are mostly sedentary although some occasionally disperse after breeding to areas outside of the normal breeding range 84 Territoriality nbsp Two golden eagles in an aerial conflict over their home ranges the upper bird clearly a juvenile Territoriality is believed to be the primary cause of interactions and confrontations between non paired golden eagles Golden eagles maintain some of the largest known home ranges or territories of any bird species but there is much variation of home range size across the range possibly dictated by food abundance and habitat preference Home ranges in most of the range can vary from 20 to 200 km2 7 7 to 77 2 sq mi 85 In San Diego County in California the home ranges varied from 49 to 137 km2 19 to 53 sq mi with an average of 93 km2 36 sq mi 86 However some home ranges have been much smaller such as in southwestern Idaho where possibly due to an abundance of jackrabbits home ranges as small as 4 85 km2 1 87 sq mi are maintained 64 The smallest known home ranges on record for golden eagles are in the Bale Mountains of Ethiopia where they range from 1 5 to 9 km2 0 58 to 3 47 sq mi 87 46 of undulating displays in Montana occurred shortly after the juvenile eagles left their parents range suggesting that some residents defend and maintain territories year round 88 Elsewhere it is stated that home ranges are less strictly maintained during winter but hunting grounds are basically exclusive 4 In Israel and Scotland aggressive encounters peaked from winter until just before egg laying and were less common during the nesting season 4 89 Threat displays include undulating flight and aggressive direct flapping flight with exaggerated downstrokes 49 Most displays by mature golden eagles 67 for males and 76 for females occur rather than around the nest at the edge of their home ranges 76 In Western Norway most recorded undulating flight displays occur during the pre laying period in late winter early spring 77 Display flights seem to be triggered by the presence of other golden eagles 4 The use of display flights has a clear benefit in that it lessens the need for physical confrontations which can be fatal 76 Usually non breeding birds are treated aggressively by the golden eagle maintaining their home range normally being chased to the apparent limit of the range but with no actual physical contact 4 The territorial flight of the adult golden eagle is sometimes preceded or followed by intense bouts of undulating displays The invader often responds by rolling over and presenting talons to the aggressor Rarely the two eagles will lock talons and tumble through the air sometimes fall several revolutions and in some cases even tumble to the ground before releasing their grip 77 90 In some parts of the Alps the golden eagle population has reached the saturation point in appropriate habitat and apparently violent confrontations are more common than in other parts of the range 91 Golden eagles may express their aggression via body language while perched typically the adult female when confronted by an intruding eagle the head and body are upright feathers on head and neck are erect the wings may be slightly spread and beak open often accompanied by intense gaze They then often engage in a similar posture with wings spread wide and oriented toward the threat sometimes rocking back on tail and even flopping over onto the back with talons extended upward as defense Such behavior may be accompanied by wing slap against the threatening intruder 49 When approached by an intruder the defending eagle turns away partially spreads tail lowers head and remains still adults on the nest may lower head and freeze when approached by a person or a helicopter 49 Females in Israel displayed more than males and mostly against interspecific intruders males apparently displayed primarily as part of courtship 89 Five of 7 aggressive encounters at carcasses during winter in Norway were won by females in 15 of 21 conflicts the younger bird dominated an older conspecific 92 However obvious juvenile eagles apparent to the adult eagles due to the amount of white on their wings and tail are sometimes allowed to penetrate deeply into a pair s home range and all parties commonly ignore each other 93 94 In North Dakota it was verified that parent eagles were not aggressive towards their own young after the nesting period and some juveniles stayed on their parents territory until their 2nd spring and then left by their own accord 95 ReproductionMain article Reproduction and life cycle of the golden eagle nbsp Eyrie in hollow at left center in the Valley of the Siagne de la Pare Alpes Maritimes France nbsp Aquila chrysaetos MHNTGolden eagles usually mate for life A breeding pair is formed in a courtship display This courtship includes undulating displays by both in the pair with the male bird picking up a piece of rock or a small stick and dropping it only to enter into a steep dive and catch it in mid air repeating the maneuver 3 or more times The female takes a clump of earth and drops and catches it in the same fashion 4 27 Golden eagles typically build several eyries within their territory preferring cliffs and use them alternately for several years Their nesting areas are characterized by the extreme regularity of the nest spacing 96 Mating and egg laying timing for golden eagle is variable depending on the locality Copulation normally lasts 10 20 seconds Mating seems to occur around 40 46 days before the initial egg laying 4 The golden eagle chick may be heard from within the egg 15 hours before it begins hatching After the first chip is broken off of the egg there is no activity for around 27 hours Hatching activity accelerates and the shell is broken apart in 35 hours The chick is completely free in 37 hours 49 In the first 10 days chicks mainly lie down on the nest substrate 49 They are capable of preening on their second day but their parents keep them warm until around 20 days 4 They grow considerably weighing around 500 g 1 1 lb 97 They also start sitting up more 49 Around 20 days of age the chicks generally start standing which becomes the main position over the course of the next 40 days 49 The whitish down continues until around 25 days of age at which point it is gradually replaced by dark contour feathers that eclipse the down and the birds attain a general piebald appearance 4 After hatching 80 of food items and 90 of food biomass is captured and brought to the nest by the adult male Fledging occurs at 66 to 75 days of age in Idaho and 70 to 81 days in Scotland The first attempted flight departure after fledging can be abrupt with the young jumping off and using a series of short stiff wing beats to glide downward or being blown out of nest while wing flapping 18 to 20 days after first fledging the young eagles will take their first circling flight but they cannot gain height as efficiently as their parents until approximately 60 days after fledging In Cumbria young golden eagles were first seen hunting large prey 59 days after fledging 75 to 85 days after fledging the young were largely independent of parents Generally breeding success seems to be greatest where prey is available in abundance 4 LongevityGolden eagles are fairly long living birds in natural conditions if they survive their first few years The survival rate of raptorial birds tends to increase with larger body size with a 30 50 annual loss of population rate in small falcons accipiters a 15 25 loss of population rate in medium sized hawks e g Buteos or kites and a 5 or less rate of loss in eagles and vultures The oldest known wild golden eagle was a bird banded in Sweden which was recovered 32 years later 4 The longest lived known wild golden eagle in North America was 31 years and 8 months 98 The longest lived known captive golden eagle a specimen in Europe survived to 46 years of age 99 The estimated adult annual survival rate on the Isle of Skye in Scotland is around 97 5 100 When this extrapolated into an estimated lifespan this results in 39 and half years as the average for adult golden eagles in this area which is probably far too high an estimate 4 Survival rates are usually much lower in juvenile eagles than in adult eagles In the western Rocky Mountains 50 of golden eagles banded in the nest died by the time they were 2 1 2 years and an estimated 75 died by the time they were 5 years old 101 Near a wind turbine facility in west central California estimated survival rates based on conventional telemetry of 257 individuals were 84 for first year eagles 79 for 1 to 3 year olds and adult floaters and 91 for breeders with no difference in survival rates between sexes 67 Survival rates may be lower for migrating populations of golden eagles 102 A 19 34 survival rate was estimated for juvenile eagles from Denali National Park in their first 11 months 102 The average life expectancy of golden eagles in Germany is 13 years extrapolated from a reported mere 92 5 survival rate 103 Natural mortality Natural sources of mortality are largely reported in anecdotes On rare occasions golden eagles have been killed by competing predators or by hunting mammalian carnivores including the aforementioned wolverine snow leopard cougar brown bear and white tailed eagle attacks Most competitive attacks resulting in death probably occur at the talons of other golden eagles Nestlings and fledglings are more likely to be killed by another predator than free flying juveniles and adults It has been suspected that golden eagle nests may be predated more frequently by other predators especially birds which are often the only other large animals that can access a golden eagle nest without the assistance of man made climbing equipment in areas where golden eagles are regularly disturbed at the nest by humans Jeff Watson believed that common raven occasionally eats golden eagle eggs but only in situations where the parent eagles have abandoned their nesting attempt 4 However there are no confirmed accounts of predation by other bird species on golden eagle nests 4 Occasionally golden eagles may be killed by their prey in self defense There is an account of a golden eagle dying from the quills of a North American porcupine Erethizon dorsatum it had attempted to hunt 104 On the Isle of Rum in Scotland there are a few cases of red deer trampling golden eagles to death probably the result of a doe having intercepted a bird that was trying to kill a fawn 105 Although usually well out matched by the predator occasionally other large birds can put up a formidable fight against a golden eagle An attempted capture of a great blue heron by a golden eagle resulted in the death of both birds from wounds sustained in the ensuing fight 106 There is at least one case in Scotland of a golden eagle dying after being oiled by a northern fulmar a bird whose primary defense against predators is to disgorge an oily secretion which may inhibit the predator s ability to fly 107 Of natural sources of death starvation is probably under reported 11 of 16 dead juvenile eagles which had hatched in Denali National Park had died of starvation 102 Of 36 deaths of golden eagles in Idaho 55 were possibly attributable to natural causes specifically 8 26 from unknown trauma 3 10 from disease and 6 19 from unknown causes 108 Of 266 golden eagle deaths in Spain only 6 were from unknown causes that could not be directly attributed to human activities 109 Avian cholera caused by bacteria Pasteurella multocida infects eagles that eat waterfowl that have died from the disease The protozoan Trichomonas sp caused the deaths of four fledglings in a study of wild golden eagles in Idaho 110 Several further diseases that contribute to golden eagle deaths have been examined in Japan 111 A captive eagle died from two malignant tumors one in the liver and one in the kidney 112 Killing permitsIn December 2016 the US Fish and Wildlife Service proposed allowing wind turbine electric generation companies to kill golden eagles without penalty so long as companies take steps to minimize the losses If issued the permits would last 30 years six times the current 5 year permits 113 114 In human cultureMain article Golden eagles in human culture nbsp 1870s illustration of burkut falconers in KazakhstanHuman beings have been fascinated by the golden eagle as early as the beginning of recorded history Most early recorded cultures regarded the golden eagle with reverence In pre Hispanic Mesoamerica the eagle was a major Mexica Aztec symbol the tribal and sun god Huitzilopochtli had told his people that when they saw the sun i e Huitzilopochtli in the form of an eagle perched on a cactus whose fruit was red and shaped like a human heart there they should build their city Tenochtitlan The scene shown on a well known sculpture in early manuscripts and on the present day Mexican flag surely had astronomical and geomantic as well as mythological meaning 115 It was only after the Industrial Revolution when sport hunting became widespread and commercial stock farming became internationally common that humans started to widely regard golden eagles as a threat to their livelihoods This period also brought about the firearm and industrialized poisons which made it easy for humans to kill the evasive and powerful birds In 2017 the French Army trained golden eagles to catch drones 116 The golden eagle is officially Utah s state bird of prey Status and conservationMain article Status and conservation of the golden eagle nbsp In flight in Czech RepublicAt one time the golden eagle lived in a great majority of temperate Europe North Asia North America North Africa and Japan Although widespread and quite secure in some areas in many parts of the range golden eagles have experienced sharp population declines and have even been extirpated from some areas The number of golden eagles from around the range is estimated to be between 170 000 and 250 000 while the estimates of breeding pairs are from 60 000 to 100 000 4 117 It has the largest known range of any member of its family with a range estimated at 140 million square kilometers If its taxonomic order is considered it is the second most wide ranging species after only the osprey Pandion haliaetus 2 118 Few other eagle species are as numerous though some species like the tawny eagle wedge tailed eagle and bald eagle have total estimated populations of a similar size to the golden eagle s despite their more restricted distributions 5 15 The world s most populous eagle may be the African fish eagle Haliaeetus vocifer which has a stable total population estimated at 300 000 and is found solely in Africa 5 119 On a global scale the golden eagle is not considered threatened by the IUCN 2 References Aquila chrysaetos Linnaeus 1758 golden eagle PBDB Paleobiology Database a b c BirdLife International 2021 Aquila chrysaetos IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2021 e T22696060A202078899 doi 10 2305 IUCN UK 2021 3 RLTS T22696060A202078899 en Retrieved 14 January 2023 Appendices CITES cites org Retrieved 14 January 2022 a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad ae af ag ah ai aj ak al am an ao ap aq ar as at au Watson Jeff 2010 The Golden Eagle A amp C Black ISBN 978 1 4081 1420 9 a b c d e f g h i j k l m Brown Leslie Amadon Dean 1986 Eagles Hawks and Falcons of the World Wellfleet ISBN 978 1555214722 Linnaeus C 1758 Systema Naturae per regna tria naturae secundum classes ordines genera species cum characteribus differentiis synonymis locis Volume 1 in Latin Vol v 1 10th ed Holmiae Laurentii Salvii p 88 Falco cera lutea pedibus lanatis corpore fusco ferrugineo vario cauda nigra basi cinereo undulata A diurnal raptor with yellow cere feathered tarsometatarsus body dusky brown variegated with rusty tail black with ashy waved base Brisson Mathurin Jacques Martinet Francois Nicolas 1760 Ornithologie ou Methode contenant la division des oiseaux en ordres sections genres especes amp leurs varietes amp c Paris C J B Bauche pp 28 419 Jobling James A 2010 The Helm Dictionary of Scientific Bird Names London Christopher Helm pp 52 104 ISBN 978 1 4081 2501 4 a b c d Helbig A J Kocum A Seibold I Braun M J 2005 A multi gene phylogeny of aquiline eagles Aves Accipitriformes reveals extensive paraphyly at the genus level PDF Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 35 1 147 164 doi 10 1016 j ympev 2004 10 003 PMID 15737588 Archived from the original PDF on 13 August 2012 a b c Lerner H R Mindell D P November 2005 Phylogeny of eagles Old World vultures and other Accipitridae based on nuclear and mitochondrial DNA PDF Mol Phylogenet Evol 37 2 327 46 doi 10 1016 j ympev 2005 04 010 PMID 15925523 Archived PDF from the original on 9 October 2022 Lophaetus pomarinus The Peregrine Fund Retrieved 22 April 2013 Aquila morphnoides The Peregrine Fund Retrieved 22 April 2013 Aquila wahlbergi The Peregrine Fund Retrieved 23 April 2013 Aquila africana The Peregrine Fund Retrieved 23 April 2013 a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad ae Ferguson Lees James Christie David A 2001 Raptors of the World Houghton Mifflin Harcourt ISBN 0 618 12762 3 Wink M Sauer Gurth H 2004 Phylogenetic relationships in diurnal raptors based on nucleotide sequences of mitochondrial and nuclear marker genes In Chancellor R D Meyburg B U eds Raptors Worldwide Proceedings of the VI World Conference on Birds of Prey and Owls Budapest Hungary 18 23 May 2003 World Working Group on Birds of Prey MME BirdLife Hungary pp 483 495 ISBN 9638641819 a b c d e f Brown L 1976 Eagles of the World David and Charles ISBN 0360003184 Birds of Kazakhstan Golden Eagle Aquila chrysaetos chrysaetos birds kz Retrieved 23 April 2013 Golden Eagle in Armenia 2017 TSE NGO Armenian Bird Census Council Retrieved from abcc am org on 10 October 2017 Birds of Kazakhstan Golden Eagle Aquila chrysaetos homeyeri birds kz Retrieved 23 April 2013 a b c d e f g Wood Gerald 1983 The Guinness Book of Animal Facts and Feats Enfield Middlesex Guinness Superlatives ISBN 978 0 85112 235 9 Rasmussen PC Anderton JC 2005 Birds of South Asia The Ripley Guide Volume 2 Smithsonian Institution amp Lynx Edicions p 107 Birds of Kazakhstan Himalayan Golden Eagle Aquila chrysaetos daphanea birds kz Retrieved 23 April 2013 Himalayan Golden Eagle Foundation for Ecological Security Indian Biodiversity Archived from the original on 4 July 2013 Retrieved 23 April 2013 Information about Mexico Embassy of Mexico in South Africa 31 March 2016 The national seal is an image of the left profile of a Mexican eagle Symbols of Mexico Mexican Cultural Institute of Washington DC Retrieved 16 September 2018 Mexico s Coat of Arms depicts a golden eagle perched on a prickly pear cactus with a rattlesnake in its beak a b Bortolotti G R 1984 Age and sex size variation in Golden Eagles Journal of Field Ornithology 55 1 54 66 JSTOR 4512857 a b Cornell University Bna birds cornell edu Retrieved on 2012 08 22 Birds of Kazakhstan Golden Eagle Aquila chrysaetos kamtschatica birds kz Retrieved 23 April 2013 Simurgh is a mythical bird Some say the Persian word simurgh or its Middle Persian form sen murw also meant golden eagle see Simorg in Encyclopaedia Iranica Weesie P D M 1988 The Quaternary avifauna of Crete Greece Palaeovertebrata 18 1 1 94 Sanchez Marco A 2004 Avian zoogeographical patterns during the Quaternary in the Mediterranean region and paleoclimatic interpretation PDF Ardeola 51 1 91 132 Archived PDF from the original on 9 October 2022 Howard H 1947 An ancestral Golden Eagles a question in taxonomy Auk 64 2 287 291 doi 10 2307 4080550 JSTOR 4080550 Golden Eagle Life History All About Birds Cornell Lab of Ornithology 2009 Retrieved 26 December 2010 Peterson Roger Tory 1998 A Field Guide to Western Birds A Completely New Guide to Field Marks of All Species Found in North America West of the 100th Meridian and North of Mexico Houghton Mifflin Harcourt pp 180 ISBN 978 0 395 91174 7 National Geographic Field Guide To The Birds Of North America 4th ed 2002 ISBN 978 0 79226 877 2 a b Terres John K 1980 Golden Eagle The Audubon Society Encyclopedia of North American Birds New York Alfred A Knopf p 478 ISBN 0 517 03288 0 del Hoyo J Elliot A Sargatal J 1996 Handbook of the Birds of the World Vol 3 Barcelona Lynx Edicions ISBN 84 87334 20 2 Golden Eagle May Set Record Newwest Retrieved 26 June 2015 Sagip Eagle Archived 28 September 2013 at the Wayback Machine Gbgm umc org Retrieved on 2012 08 22 Birds of North America Online Birds of North America Online Bna birds cornell edu Retrieved 8 November 2012 Fowler J M Cope J B 1964 Notes on the Harpy Eagle in British Guiana Auk 81 3 257 273 doi 10 2307 4082683 JSTOR 4082683 Nye Peter Journey North Bald Eagles Journey North Retrieved 22 April 2013 Clark William S Wheeler Brian K 2001 A field guide to hawks of North America New York Houghton Mifflin Company p 241 ISBN 0 395 67067 5 a b c d Jollie Malcolm 1947 Plumage Changes in the Golden Eagle PDF Auk American Ornithologists Union 64 4 549 576 doi 10 2307 4080715 JSTOR 4080715 Archived PDF from the original on 9 October 2022 Retrieved 27 December 2010 Clark William S 1983 The field identification of North American eagles PDF North American Birds 37 5 822 826 Archived PDF from the original on 9 October 2022 Retrieved 27 December 2010 a b Liguori Jerry 2004 How to Age Golden Eagles PDF Birding 278 283 Archived from the original PDF on 6 March 2012 Retrieved 27 December 2010 a b Tjernberg M 1988 Age determination of Golden Eagles Aquila chrysaetos Var Fagelvarld 47 321 334 ISSN 0042 2649 Ellis D H Lish J W 2006 Thinking about feathers adaptations of golden eagle rectrices Journal of Raptor Research 40 1 1 28 doi 10 3356 0892 1016 2006 40 1 TAFAOG 2 0 CO 2 S2CID 86154133 a b c d e f g h Ellis D H 1979 Development of behaviour in the Golden Eagle Wildlife Monographs Vol 70 Wiley pp 3 94 JSTOR 3830587 a b Golden Eagle Fact Sheet San Diego Zoo Archived from the original on 12 October 2013 Retrieved 1 May 2013 ADW Aquila chrysaetos Information Animaldiversity ummz umich edu Retrieved on 2012 08 22 Darling F F 1934 Speed of a Golden Eagle s flight Nature 134 3383 325 6 Bibcode 1934Natur 134 325D doi 10 1038 134325c0 S2CID 4104511 a b Palmer R S 1988 Golden eagle Aquila chrysaetos Family Accipitridae concluded Buteos Golden Eagle Family Falconidae Crested Caracara Falcons Handbook of North American birds Vol 5 Yale University Press pp 180 231 ISBN 0300040601 Cornell University Bna birds cornell edu Retrieved on 2012 08 22 a b c d Sutton C Dunne P Sibley D 1989 Hawks in Flight The Flight Identification of North American Migrant Raptors Boston Houghton Mifflin Harcourt ISBN 0 3955 1022 8 Burles D W amp Frey R 1981 Raptor monitoring program 1980 report Kluane National Park YT Lang A Bishop M A Le Seuer A 2007 An annotated list of birds wintering in the Lhasa river watershed and Yamzho Yumco Tibet Autonomous Region China PDF Forktail 23 Archived PDF from the original on 9 October 2022 Inskipp C Inskipp T 1991 A guide to the birds of Nepal 2nd ed Smithsonian Institution Press ISBN 0713681098 Shirihai H Roselaar C S 1996 The Birds of Israel A Complete Avifauna and Bird Atlas of Israel Academic Press ISBN 0126402558 Ritchie R J Curatolo J A 1982 Notes on Golden Eagle productivity and nest site characteristics Porcupine River Alaska 1979 1982 PDF Raptor Research 16 4 123 7 Archived PDF from the original on 9 October 2022 Petersen M R Weir D N Dick M H 1991 Birds of the Kilbuck and Ahklun Mountain Region Alaska PDF North American Fauna 76 1 158 doi 10 3996 nafa 76 0001 hdl 2027 uc1 31822033875303 Marr N V Knight R L 1983 Food Habits of Golden Eagles in Eastern Washington Murrelet 64 3 73 77 doi 10 2307 3535265 JSTOR 3535265 Craig T H Craig E H 1984 Results of a helicopter survey of cliff nesting raptors in a deep canyon in southern Idaho PDF Journal of Raptor Research 18 1 20 25 Archived PDF from the original on 9 October 2022 a b Marzluff J M Knick S T Vekasy M S Schueck L S Zarriello T J 1997 Spatial use and habitat selection of Golden Eagles in southwestern Idaho PDF Auk 114 4 673 687 doi 10 2307 4089287 JSTOR 4089287 S2CID 55398508 Archived PDF from the original on 9 October 2022 Millsap B A 1981 Distributional status of Falconiformes in west central Arizona with notes on ecology reproductive success and management Technical Note Vol 355 U S Department of the Interior Bureau of Land Management Root T L 1988 Atlas of wintering North American birds an analysis of Christmas Bird Count data University of Chicago Press ISBN 0226725391 a b Hunt W G Jackman R E Brown T L Gilardi J G Driscoll D E amp Culp L 1995 A pilot Golden Eagle population study in the Altamont Pass Wind Resource Area California Predatory Bird Research Group University of California Santa Cruz Spofford W R 1971 The breeding status of the Golden Eagle in the Appalachians American Birds 25 3 7 Singer F J 1974 Status of the Osprey Bald Eagle and Golden Eagle in the Adirondacks New York Fish amp Game Commission Journal 21 18 31 a b Millsap B A Vana S L 1984 Distribution of wintering Golden Eagles in the eastern United States Wilson Bulletin 96 4 692 701 JSTOR 4162004 Wingfield G A 1991 Central plains buteos and Golden Eagle In Pendleton B G ed Proceedings of the Midwest raptor management symposium and workshop National Wildlife Federation pp 60 68 ISBN 0945051506 Dunstan T C Harper J H amp Phipps K B 1978 Habitat use and hunting strategies of Prairie Falcons Red tailed Hawks and Golden Eagles Fin Rep Western Illinois University Macomb Collopy M W Foraging Behavior and Success of Golden Eagles PDF Auk Archived PDF from the original on 9 October 2022 Retrieved 24 April 2013 a b Golden Eagle the Peregrine Fund Aquila chrysaetos Golden eagle Animal Diversity Web a b c Collopy M W Edwards T C Jr 1989 Territory size activity budget and role of undulating flight in nesting Golden Eagles PDF Journal of Field Ornithology 60 1 43 51 Archived PDF from the original on 9 October 2022 a b c Bergo G 1987 Territorial behaviour of Golden Eagles in western Norway PDF British Birds 80 8 361 376 Archived PDF from the original on 9 October 2022 Craig T H Craig E H 1984 A large concentration of roosting Golden Eagles in southwestern Idaho PDF Auk 101 3 610 3 doi 10 1093 auk 101 3 610 JSTOR 4086618 Archived PDF from the original on 9 October 2022 a b c d McIntyre C L Douglas D C Collopy M W 2008 Movements of golden eagles Aquila chrysaetos from interior Alaska during their first year of independence Auk 125 1 214 224 doi 10 1525 auk 2008 125 1 214 S2CID 55922914 Dementiev G P amp Gladkov N A 1966 Birds of the Soviet Union Vol 1 Israel Programme of Scientific Translations Jerusalem a b Sherrington P 1993 Golden Eagle migration the Front Ranges of the Alberta Rocky Mountains Birders Journal 2 195 204 Brodeur S Decarie R Bird D M Fuller M 1996 Complete migration cycle of Golden Eagles breeding in northern Quebec PDF Condor 98 2 293 9 doi 10 2307 1369147 JSTOR 1369147 Archived PDF from the original on 9 October 2022 Boeker E L Ray T D 1971 Golden Eagle population studies in the Southwest PDF Condor 73 4 463 7 doi 10 2307 1366668 JSTOR 1366668 Archived PDF from the original on 9 October 2022 Thevenot M Bergier P amp Beaubrun P 1985 Present distribution and status of raptors in Morocco In Newton I amp Chancellor R D eds Conservation studies on raptors ICBP Technical Publication Vol 5 International Council for Bird Preservation pp 83 101 ISBN 094688806X McGrady M J 1997 Golden Eagle BWP Update 1 99 114 Dixon J B 1937 The Golden Eagle in San Diego County California Condor 39 2 49 58 doi 10 2307 1363773 JSTOR 1363773 S2CID 88449730 Clouet M Barrau C Goar J L 1999 The Golden Eagle Aquila chrysaetos in the Bale Mountains Ethiopia PDF Journal of Raptor Research 33 2 102 9 Archived PDF from the original on 9 October 2022 Harmata A R 1982 What is the function of undulating flight display in Golden Eagles PDF Raptor Research 16 4 103 9 Archived PDF from the original on 9 October 2022 a b Bahat O 1989 Aspects in the ecology and biodynamics of the Golden Eagle Aquila chrysaetos homeyeri in the arid regions of Israel Master s Thesis Tel Aviv Univ Tel Aviv Israel Haller H 1982 Spatial organization and dynamics of a population of Golden Eagles Aquila chrysaetos in the central Alps Ornithol Beob 79 163 211 ISSN 0030 5707 OCLC 689312112 Haller H 1996 The Golden Eagle in the Grisons Long term studies on the population ecology ofAquila chrysaetosin the centre of the Alps Ornithol Beob Beiheft 9 1 167 Halley D J Gjershaug J O 1998 Inter and intra specific dominance relationships and feeding behaviour of golden eagles Aquila chrysaetos and Sea Eagles Haliaeetus albicilla at carcass Ibis 140 2 295 301 doi 10 1111 j 1474 919X 1998 tb04392 x Kochert M N 1972 Population status and chemical contamination in Golden Eagles in southwestern Idaho Masters in Science thesis University of Idaho Moscow Brown L H Watson A 1964 The Golden Eagle in relation to its food supply Ibis 106 1 78 100 doi 10 1111 j 1474 919X 1964 tb03682 x O Toole L T Kennedy P L Knight R L McEwen L C 1999 Postfledging behavior of Golden Eagles PDF Wilson Bulletin 111 4 472 7 Archived PDF from the original on 9 October 2022 Watson A Rothery P 1986 Regularity in spacing of Golden Eagle Aquila chrysaetos nests used within years in northeast Scotland Ibis 131 3 336 348 doi 10 1111 j 1474 919X 1989 tb02783 x Collopy M W 1984 Parental care and feeding ecology of Golden Eagle nestlings Auk 101 4 753 760 doi 10 2307 4086902 JSTOR 4086902 Bird Banding Laboratory www pwrc usgs gov Retrieved 25 June 2019 Gordon S 1955 The Golden Eagle king of birds 1st Am ed Citadel Press New York Perrins C M amp Birkhead T R 1983 Avian ecology New York Chapman amp Hall Harmata A R 2002 Encounters of Golden Eagles banded in the Rocky Mountain West Journal of Field Ornithology 73 27 32 doi 10 1648 0273 8570 73 1 23 S2CID 85824107 a b c McIntyre C L Collopy M W Lindberg M S 2006 Survival probability and mortality of migratory juvenile Golden Eagles from Interior Alaska Journal of Wildlife Management 70 3 717 722 doi 10 2193 0022 541x 2006 70 717 spamom 2 0 co 2 JSTOR 3803426 S2CID 86291969 Bezzel E Funfstuck H J 1994 Brut biologie und Populations dynamic des Steinadlers Aquila chrysaetos im Werdenfelser Land Oberbayern Acta Ornithologica 3 5 32 Lano A 1922 Golden Eagle Aquila chrysaetos and porcupine Auk 39 2 258 9 doi 10 2307 4073972 JSTOR 4073972 Love J A 1989 Eagles Whittet Books London Santy D 1964 A recollection of an encounter between a Golden Eagle and a Great Blue Heron Blue Jay 22 2 55 doi 10 29173 bluejay2691 Gordon S 1971 Oil and the eagle an unsolved riddle Country Life December 1639 Bortolotti G R 1984 Trap and poison mortality of Golden and Bald Eagles Journal of Wildlife Management 48 4 1173 9 doi 10 2307 3801778 JSTOR 3801778 Arroyo B Ferreiro E amp Garza V 1990 El Aquila RealAquila chrysaetosen Spana distribution reproduccion y conservacion ICONA Madrid Beecham I J Kochert M N 1975 Breeding biology of the golden eagle in southwestern Idaho PDF Wilson Bulletin 87 4 506 513 Archived PDF from the original on 9 October 2022 Ikedia Y Yamazaki T 1988 Diseases of Golden Eagles a review Aquila Chrysaetos 6 36 40 Mikaelian I R Patenaude Robert Girard Christiane Martineau Daniel 1998 Metastatic cholangiocellular carcinoma and renal adenocarcinoma in a golden eagle Aquila chrysaetos Avian Pathology 27 3 321 5 doi 10 1080 03079459808419345 PMID 18484007 Daly Matthew April 18 2013 New federal rule would permit thousands of eagle deaths Associated Press Retrieved March 14 2017 Khan Mariam May 4 2016 New Wind Energy Permits Would Raise Kill Limit of Bald Eagles But Still Boost Conservation Officials Say ABC News Retrieved March 14 2017 Benson Elizabeth P Eagles In David Carrasco ed The Oxford Encyclopedia of Mesoamerican Cultures Oxford University Press 2001 Nickalls Sammy 23 February 2017 France Is Destroying Drones by Using Real Live Eagles Esquire Retrieved 16 September 2021 Rich T D Beardmore C J Berlanga H Blancher P J Bradstreet M S W Butcher G S Demarest D W Dunn E H Hunter W C Inigo Elias E E Martell A M Panjabi A O Pashley D N Rosenberg K V Rustay C M Wendt J S Will T C 2004 Partners in flight North American landbird conservation plan Cornell Lab of Ornithology Ithaca NY Osprey Pandion haliaetus Data Zone BirdLife International 2020 Retrieved November 21 2020 African Fish Eagle Haliaeetus vocifer The Peregrine Fund Retrieved May 24 2013 Further readingCramp Stanley ed 1979 Handbook of the Birds of Europe the Middle East and North Africa the Birds of the Western Palearctic Vol 2 Hawks to Bustards Oxford Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0 19 857505 4 Lopez Lujan Leonardo The Offerings of the Templo Mayor of Tenochtitlan Translated by Bernard R Ortiz de Montellano and Thelma Ortiz de Montellano Niwot Colo 1994 In addition to descriptions of eagles as offerings there is discussion of the founding of the city of Tenochtitlan and its major templeExternal links nbsp Wikimedia Commons has media related to Aquila chrysaetos nbsp Wikispecies has information related to Aquila chrysaetos Kazakh hunter Fox Hunting with a Golden Eagle Human Planet Mountains preview BBC One Photos Hunting with Golden Eagles Golden eagle media Internet Bird Collection Ageing and sexing PDF 5 7 MB by Javier Blasco Zumeta amp Gerd Michael Heinze Website on the Golden Eagle maintained by Raptor Protection of Slovakia Aldersbestamning av kungsorn Ageing of Golden Eagles in Swedish and English Archived 10 May 2015 at the Wayback Machine Golden Eagle Records from the Midwinter Bald Eagle Survey Information for Wind Energy Management and Planning United States Geological Survey Aquila chrysaetos NCBI Taxonomy Browser 8962 Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Golden eagle amp oldid 1193272582, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

article

, read, download, free, free download, mp3, video, mp4, 3gp, jpg, jpeg, gif, png, picture, music, song, movie, book, game, games.