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Tiger

February 15, 2024

"Tigress" redirects here. For other uses, see Tiger (disambiguation) and Tigress (disambiguation).

The tiger (Panthera tigris) is the largest living cat species and a member of the genus Panthera. It is most recognisable for its black stripes on orange fur with a white underside. An apex predator, it primarily preys on ungulates, such as deer and wild boar. It is territorial and generally a solitary but social predator, requiring large contiguous areas of habitat to support its requirements for prey and rearing of its offspring. Tiger cubs stay with their mother for about two years and then become independent, leaving their mother's home range to establish their own.

Tiger
Temporal range: Early Pleistocene – Present
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A Bengal tigress in Kanha Tiger Reserve, India
CITES Appendix I (CITES)[1]
Scientific classification
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Mammalia
Order: Carnivora
Suborder: Feliformia
Family: Felidae
Subfamily: Pantherinae
Genus: Panthera
Species:
P. tigris
Binomial name
Panthera tigris
(Linnaeus, 1758)[2]
Subspecies
Tiger distribution as of 2022
Synonyms[3]

The tiger was first scientifically described in 1758. It once ranged widely from the Eastern Anatolia Region in the west to the Amur River basin in the east, and in the south from the foothills of the Himalayas to Bali in the Sunda Islands. Since the early 20th century, tiger populations have lost at least 93% of their historic range and have been extirpated from Western and Central Asia, the islands of Java and Bali, and in large areas of Southeast and South Asia and China. What remains of the range where tigers still roam free is fragmented, stretching in spots from Siberian temperate forests to subtropical and tropical forests on the Indian subcontinent, Indochina and a single Indonesian island, Sumatra.

The tiger is listed as Endangered on the IUCN Red List. As of 2023, the global wild tiger population is estimated to number 5,574 individuals, with most populations living in small isolated pockets.[4] India hosts the largest tiger population. Major reasons for population decline are habitat destruction, habitat fragmentation and poaching. Tigers are also victims of human–wildlife conflict, due to encroachment in countries with a high human population density.

The tiger is among the most recognisable and popular of the world's charismatic megafauna. It featured prominently in the ancient mythology and folklore of cultures throughout its historic range and continues to be depicted in modern films and literature, appearing on many flags, coats of arms and as mascots for sporting teams. The tiger is the national animal of India, Bangladesh, Malaysia and South Korea.

Etymology

The Middle English tigre and Old English tigras derive from Old French tigre, from Latin tigris. This was a borrowing of Classical Greek τίγρις 'tigris', a foreign borrowing of unknown origin meaning 'tiger' and the river Tigris.[5] The generic name Panthera is derived from the Latin word panthera and the Ancient Greek word πάνθηρ pánthēr.[6]

Taxonomy

In 1758, Carl Linnaeus described the tiger in his work Systema Naturae and gave it the scientific name Felis tigris.[2] In 1929, the British taxonomist Reginald Innes Pocock subordinated the species under the genus Panthera using the scientific name Panthera tigris.[7][8]

Subspecies

Following Linnaeus's first descriptions of the species, several tiger zoological specimens were described and proposed as subspecies.[9] The validity of several tiger subspecies was questioned in 1999. Most putative subspecies described in the 19th and 20th centuries were distinguished on the basis of fur length and colouration, striping patterns and body size, hence characteristics that vary widely within populations. Morphologically, tigers from different regions vary little, and gene flow between populations in those regions is considered to have been possible during the Pleistocene. Therefore, it was proposed to recognize only two tiger subspecies as valid, namely P. t. tigris in mainland Asia, and P. t. sondaica in the Greater Sunda Islands. Mainland tigers are described as being larger in size with generally lighter fur and fewer stripes, while island tigers are smaller due to insular dwarfism, with darker coats and more numerous stripes.[10] The stripes of island tigers may break up into spotted patterns.[11]

This two-subspecies proposal was reaffirmed in 2015 by a comprehensive analysis of morphological, ecological and molecular traits of all putative tiger subspecies using a combined approach. The authors proposed recognition of only two subspecies, namely P. t. tigris comprising the Bengal, Malayan, Indochinese, South Chinese, Siberian and Caspian tiger populations of continental Asia, and P. t. sondaica comprising the Javan, Bali and Sumatran tiger populations of the Sunda Islands. The continental nominate subspecies P. t. tigris constitutes two clades: a northern clade composed of the Siberian and Caspian tiger populations, and a southern clade composed of all other mainland populations. The authors noted that this two-subspecies reclassification will impact tiger conservation management.[12] It would make captive breeding programs and future re-wilding of zoo-born tigers easier, as one tiger population could then be used to reinforce another. However, there is the risk that the loss of subspecies uniqueness could lead to less protection efforts for specific populations.[13]

In 2017, the Cat Classification Task Force of the IUCN Cat Specialist Group revised felid taxonomy in accordance with the two-subspecies proposal of the comprehensive 2015 study, and recognized the tiger populations in continental Asia as P. t. tigris, and those in the Sunda Islands as P. t. sondaica.[14] This two-subspecies view is still disputed by researchers, since the currently recognized six living subspecies can be distinguished genetically.[13] Results of a 2018 whole-genome sequencing of 32 samples support six monophyletic tiger clades corresponding with the six living subspecies and indicate they descended from a common ancestor around 110,000 years ago.[15] Studies in 2021 and 2023 also affirmed the genetic distinctiveness and separation of these tigers.[16][17]

The following tables are based on the classification of the species Panthera tigris provided in Mammal Species of the World,[9] and also reflect the classification used by the Cat Classification Task Force in 2017:[14]

Panthera tigris tigris (Linnaeus, 1758)[2]
Populations Description Image
Bengal tiger This tiger inhabits the Indian subcontinent.[18] Linnaeus's scientific description of the tiger was based on descriptions by earlier naturalists such as Conrad Gessner and Ulisse Aldrovandi.[2] Bengal tiger skins in the collection of the Natural History Museum, London were described as bright orange-red with shorter fur and more spaced out stripes than northern-living tigers like the Siberian tiger.[8]  
†Caspian tiger formerly P. t. virgata (Illiger, 1815)[19] This population lived in west-central Asia, reach as far west as Turkey.[18] Illiger's description was not based on a particular specimen, but he only assumed that tigers in the Caspian area differ from those elsewhere.[19] It was later described having a bright rusty-red coat with thin and closely spaced brownish stripes,[20] and a broad occipital bone.[10] According to genetic analysis, it was closely related to the Siberian tiger.[21] It went extinct in the 1970s.[22]  
Siberian tiger formerly P. t. altaica (Temminck, 1844)[23] The cat is found in the Russian Far East, Northeast China and possibly North Korea.[18] Temminck's description was based on an unspecified number of tiger skins with long hairs and dense coats that were traded between Korea and Japan. He assumed they originated in the Altai Mountains.[23] The Siberian tiger was later described as having pale coats with few dark brown stripes.[20] The lighter colouration may be to due to longer exposure to sunlight during the summer. A Siberian tiger's coat becomes darker after molting.[10] The skull is described as shorter and broader then southern-living tigers.[24]  
South China tiger formerly P. t. amoyensis (Hilzheimer, 1905)[25] This tiger historically lived in south-central China.[18] Hilzheimer's description was based on five tiger skulls purchased in Hankou, China. These skulls had shorter carnassials and molars than tigers from India with, a smaller cranium, orbits set closer together and larger postorbital processes. Skins of this tiger were described as being yellowish in colour with rhombus-like stripes.[25] It was noted to have a unique mtDNA haplotype.[14] This tiger may be extinct in wild as there has not been a confirmed sighting since the 1970s.[1]  
Indochinese tiger formerly P. t. corbetti Mazák, 1968[26] The tiger is found on the Indochinese Peninsula.[18] Mazák's description was based on 25 specimens in museum collections that were smaller than tigers from India and had smaller skulls.[26] It was also said to have a darker coat than the Bengal tiger more stripes; the stripes being narrower and having less "double stripes".[27]  
Malayan tiger formerly P. t. jacksoni Luo et al., 2004[28] It was proposed as a distinct subspecies on the basis of mtDNA and micro-satellite sequences that differ from the Indochinese tiger.[28] In pelage colour or skull size, it does not differ significantly from Indochinese tigers.[27] There is no clear geographical barrier between tiger populations in northern Malaysia and southern Thailand.[1]  
Panthera tigris sondaica (Temminck, 1844)[14]
Populations Description Image
†Javan tiger formerly P. t. sondaica (Temminck, 1944)[23] Temminck based his description on an unspecified number of tiger skins with short and smooth hair.[23] Tigers from Java were small compared to tigers of the Asian mainland. The skull was relatively elongated and, compared to the Sumatran tiger, the stripes were longer, thinner and slightly greater in number.[27] The Javan tiger went extinct by the 1980s.[22]  
†Bali tiger formerly P. t. balica (Schwarz, 1912)[29] Schwarz based his description on a skin and a skull of an adult female tiger from Bali. He argued that its fur colour is brighter and its skull smaller than of tigers from Java.[29][30] A typical feature of Bali tiger skulls is the narrow occipital plane, which is similar to Javan tigers.[31] The tiger went extinct in the 1940s.[22]  
Sumatran tiger formerly P. t. sumatrae Pocock, 1929[32] Pocock described a dark skin of a tiger from Sumatra as the type specimen.[32] It has broader and smaller nasal region than other island tigers[24][27] with many thick stripes.[27] This tiger has particularly long hairs around the face.[18]  

Evolution

 
Two cladograms proposed for Panthera. The upper cladogram is based on two studies published in 2006 and 2009,[33][34] the lower one is based on studies published in 2010 and 2011.[35][36]

The tiger's closest living relatives were previously thought to be the Panthera species lion, leopard and jaguar. Results of genetic analysis indicate that about 2.88 million years ago, the tiger and the snow leopard lineages diverged from the other Panthera species, and that both may be more closely related to each other than to the lion, leopard and jaguar.[33][37]

The fossil species Panthera palaeosinensis of early Pleistocene northern China was described as a possible tiger ancestor when it was discovered in 1924, but modern cladistics place it as basal to modern Panthera.[38][36] Panthera zdanskyi, which lived around the same time and place, was suggested to be a sister taxon of the modern tiger when it was examined in 2014.[36] However, as of 2023, at least two recent studies considered P. zdanskyi likely to be a synonym of P. palaeosinensis, noting that its proposed differences from that species fell within the range of individual variation.[39][40] The earliest appearance of the modern tiger species in the fossil record are jaw fragments from Lantion in China that are dated to the early Pleistocene.[36] Middle to late Pleistocene tiger fossils were found throughout China, Sumatra and Java. Prehistoric subspecies include Panthera tigris trinilensis and P. t. soloensis of Java and Sumatra, and P. t. acutidens of China; late Pleistocene and early Holocene fossils of tigers were also found in Borneo and Palawan, Philippines.[41]

Results of a phylogeographic study indicate that all living tigers had a common ancestor 108,000 to 72,000 years ago.[28] A 2022 paleogenomic study of a Pleistocene tiger basal to living tigers concluded that modern tiger populations spread across Asia no earlier than 94,000 years ago. There is evidence of interbreeding between the lineage of modern mainland tigers and these ancient tigers.[42] The potential tiger range during the late Pleistocene and Holocene was predicted applying ecological niche modelling based on more than 500 tiger locality records combined with bioclimatic data. The resulting model shows a contiguous tiger range at the Last Glacial Maximum, indicating gene flow between tiger populations in mainland Asia. The tiger populations on the Sunda Islands and mainland Asia were possibly separated during interglacial periods.[43]

The tiger's full genome sequence was published in 2013. It was found to have repeat compositions much as other cat genomes and "an appreciably conserved synteny".[44]

Hybrids

Further information: Felid hybrid, Panthera hybrid, Liger, and Tigon

Captive tigers were bred with lions to create hybrids called liger and tigon. The former born to a female tiger and male lion and the latter the result of a male tiger and female lion. They share physical and behavioural qualities of both parent species.[45] Because the lion sire passes on a growth-promoting gene, but the corresponding growth-inhibiting gene from the female tiger is absent, ligers grow far larger than either parent species. By contrast, the male tiger does not pass on a growth-promoting gene and the lioness passes on a growth inhibiting gene, hence tigons are around the same size as either species.[46] Breeding hybrids is now discouraged due to the emphasis on conservation.[45]

Characteristics

 
Siberian tiger in Aalborg Zoo, Denmark
 
Bengal tiger skeleton on display at the Museum of Osteology

The tiger has a typical felid morphology. It has a muscular body with strong forelimbs, a large head and a tail that is about half the length of the rest of its body. There are five digits on the front feet and four on the back, all of which have retractable claws which are compact and curved. The ears are rounded, while the eyes have a round pupil.[11] The tiger's skull is large and robust, with a constricted front region, proportionally small, elliptical orbits, long nasal bones, and a lengthened cranium with a large sagittal crest.[20][11] It is similar to a lion's skull; with the structure of the lower jaw and length of the nasals being the most reliable indicators for species identification.[20] The tiger has fairly robust teeth and its somewhat curved canines are the longest in the cat family at 6.4–7.6 cm (2.5–3.0 in).[11][47] It has an average bite force at the canine tips of 1234.3 Newton.[48]

Size

The tiger is considered to be the largest living felid species.[11] However, there is some debate over averages compared to the lion. Since tiger populations vary greatly in size, the "average" size for a tiger may be less than a lion, while the biggest tigers are bigger than their lion counterparts.[41] The Siberian and Bengal tigers, along with the extinct Caspian are considered to be the largest of the species while the island tigers are the smallest.[11] The Sumatran tiger is the smallest living tiger while the extinct Bali tiger was even smaller.[11][27] It has been hypothesised that body size of different tiger populations may be correlated with climate and be explained by thermoregulation and Bergmann's rule.[11][10] Male tigers are larger than females.[11]

Average Female tigers Male tigers
Total length Bengal: 240–265 cm (94–104 in); Siberian: 240–275 cm (94–108 in); Sumatran: 215–230 cm (85–91 in)[11] Bengal: 270–310 cm (110–120 in); Siberian: 270–330 cm (110–130 in); Sumatran: 220–255 cm (87–100 in)[11]
Weight Bengal: 100–160 kg (220–350 lb); Siberian: 100–167 kg (220–368 lb); Sumatran:75–115 kg (165–254 lb)[11] Bengal: 180–258 kg (397–569 lb); Siberian: 180–306 kg (397–675 lb); Sumatran: 100–140 kg (220–310 lb)[11]

Coat

 
Tiger coat

Tiger fur tends to be short, except in the northern-living Siberian tiger. It has a mane-like heavy growth of fur around the neck and jaws and long whiskers, especially in males.[11] Its colouration is generally orange, but can vary from light yellow to dark red.[11][41][49] White fur covers the ventral surface, along with parts of the face.[11][20] It also has a prominent white spot on the back of their ears which are surrounded by black.[11] The tiger is marked with distinctive black or dark brown stripes; the patterns of which are unique in each individual.[11][50] The stripes are mostly vertical, but those on the limbs and forehead are horizonal. They are more concentrated towards the posterior and those on the trunk may or may not reach under the belly. The tips of stripes are generally sharp and some have gaps within them. Tail stripes are thick bands and a black tip marks the end.[20]

Stripes are likely advantageous for camouflage in vegetation with vertical patterns of light and shade, such as trees and long grass.[50] This is supported by a 1987 Fourier analysis study which concluded that the spatial frequencies of tiger stripes line up with their environment.[51] The tiger is one of only a few striped cat species; it is not known why spotted patterns and rosettes are the more common camouflage pattern among felids.[52] The orange colour may also aid in concealment as the tiger's prey are dichromats, and thus may perceive the cat as green and blended in with the vegetation.[53] The white dots on the ear may play a role in communication.[11]

Colour variations

 
Pseudo-melanistic white tiger

Three colour variants – white, golden and nearly stripeless snow white are now virtually non-existent in the wild due to the reduction of wild tiger populations, but continue in captive populations. The white tiger has a white background colour with sepia-brown stripes. The golden tiger is pale golden with reddish-brown stripes. The snow white tiger is a morph with extremely faint stripes and a pale reddish-brown ringed tail. White and golden morphs are the result of an autosomal recessive trait with a white locus and a wideband locus respectively. The snow white variation is a caused by polygenes with both the white and wideband loci.[54] The breeding of white tigers is controversial, as they have no use for conservation. Only 0.001% of wild tigers have the genes for this colour morph, and the overrepresentation of white tigers in captivity is the result of inbreeding. Hence their continued breeding will risk both inbreeding depression and loss of genetic variability in captive tigers.[55]

Pseudo-melanistic tigers with thick, merged stripes have been recorded in Simlipal National Park and three Indian zoos; population genetic analysis of Indian tiger samples revealed that this phenotype is caused by a mutation of a transmembrane aminopeptidase gene. Around 37% of the Simlipal tiger population has this feature, which has been linked to genetic isolation.[56]

Distribution and habitat

 
Historical distribution of the tiger[21]

The tiger historically ranged from eastern Pakistan to Indochina, and from southeastern Siberia to Sumatra, Java and Bali. The Caspian tiger lived from eastern Turkey and the South Caucasus to northern Afghanistan and western China. The Tibetan Plateau and the Alborz acted as barriers to the species distribution.[11] As of 2022, it inhabits less than 7% of its historical distribution, and has a scattered range that includes the Indian subcontinent, the Indochinese Peninsula, Sumatra and the Russian Far East/Northeast China.[50][1][57]

The tiger mainly lives in forest habitats and is highly adaptable.[58] In the Amur-Ussuri region, it inhabits Korean pine and temperate broadleaf and mixed forests, where riparian forests provide food and water, and serve as dispersal corridors for both tiger and ungulates.[59] On the Indian subcontinent, it inhabits mainly tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests, moist evergreen forests, tropical dry forests, alluvial plains and the swamp forests of the Sundarbans.[60] In the Eastern Himalayas, tigers were documented in temperate forest up to an elevation of 4,200 m (13,800 ft) in Bhutan and of 3,630 m (11,910 ft) in the Mishmi Hills.[61][62] In Thailand, it lives in deciduous and evergreen forests.[63] In Sumatra, tiger populations range from lowland peat swamp forests to rugged montane forests.[64] Records in Central Asia indicate that it occurred foremost in Tugay riverine forests while in the Caucasus, it inhabited hilly and lowland forests.[20]

Behaviour and ecology

 
Tiger bathing in water

The tiger is a long-ranging species, and individuals disperse over distances of up to 650 km (400 mi) to reach tiger populations in other areas.[65] When not subject to human disturbance, the cat is mainly diurnal.[66] As with other felid species, tigers groom themselves, maintaining their coats by licking them and spreading oil from their sebaceous glands.[67] It will take to water, particularly on hot days. It is a powerful swimmer and easily transverses across rivers as wide as 8 km (5.0 mi).[50] Adults only occasionally climbs trees, but have been recorded climbing 10 m (33 ft) up a smooth pipal tree.[11] In general, tigers are less capable tree climbers than many other cats due to their size, but cubs under 16 months old may routinely do so.[68]

Social spacing

Adult tigers lead largely solitary lives. They establish and maintain territories but have much wider home ranges within which they roam. Resident adults of either sex generally confine their movements to their home ranges, within which they satisfy their needs and those of their growing cubs. Individuals sharing the same area are aware of each other's movements and activities.[69] The size of the home range mainly depends on prey abundance, geographic area and sex of the individual.[50][11] Two females in the Sundarbans had home ranges of 10.6 and 14.1 km2 (4.1 and 5.4 sq mi).[70] In Panna Tiger Reserve, the home ranges of five reintroduced females varied from 53–67 km2 (20–26 sq mi) in winter to 55–60 km2 (21–23 sq mi) in summer and to 46–94 km2 (18–36 sq mi) during monsoon; three males had 84–147 km2 (32–57 sq mi) large home ranges in winter, 82–98 km2 (32–38 sq mi) in summer and 81–118 km2 (31–46 sq mi) during monsoon seasons.[71] In Huai Kha Khaeng Wildlife Sanctuary, seven resident females had home ranges of 44.1–122.3 km2 (17.0–47.2 sq mi) and four resident males of 174.8–417.5 km2 (67.5–161.2 sq mi).[72] Four male problem tigers in Sumatra were translocated to national parks and needed 6–17 weeks to establish new home ranges of 37.5–188.1 km2 (14.5–72.6 sq mi).[73] Ten solitary females in Sikhote-Alin Biosphere Reserve had home ranges of 413.5 ± 77.6 km2 (159.7 ± 30.0 sq mi); when they had cubs of up to 4 months of age, their home ranges declined to 177.3 ± 53.5 km2 (68.5 ± 20.7 sq mi) and steadily grew to 403.3 ± 105.1 km2 (155.7 ± 40.6 sq mi) until the cubs were 13–18 months old.[74]

 
Tiger marking territory

Young tigresses establish their first territories close to their mother's. Males, however, migrate further than their female counterparts and set out at a younger age to mark out their own area.[75] Four radio-collared females in Chitwan National Park dispersed between 0 and 43.2 km (0.0 and 26.8 mi), and 10 males between 9.5 and 65.7 km (5.9 and 40.8 mi).[76] A young male may have to live as a transient in another male's territory until he is older and strong enough to challenge the resident male. Young males thus have a annual mortality rate of up to 35%. By contrast, young female tigers die at a rate of only around 5%.[75] Tigers mark their territories by spraying urine on vegetation and rocks, clawing or scent rubbing trees, and marking trails with feces, anal gland secretions and ground scrapings.[50][77][78][79] Scent markings also allow an individual to pick up information on another's identity. A tigress in oestrus will signal her availability by scent marking more frequently and increasing her vocalisations. Unclaimed territories, particularly those that belonged to a decreased individual, can be taken over in days or weeks.[50]

Male tigers are generally less tolerant of other males within their territories than females are of other females. Territory disputes are usually solved by intimidation rather than outright violence. Once dominance has been established, a male may tolerate a subordinate within his range, as long as they do not live in too close quarters. The most serious disputes tend to occur between two males competing for a female in oestrus.[80] Though tigers mostly live alone, relationships between individuals can be complex. Tigers are particularly social at kills, and a male tiger will share a carcass with the females and cubs within this territory and unlike male lions, will allow them feed on the kill before the he is finished with it. Though the female and male act amicably, females are more tense towards each other at a kill.[81][82]

Communication

 
Tiger baring teeth as a sign of aggression
Captive tiger roaring

During friendly encounters and bonding, tigers rub against each others' bodies.[83] Facial expressions include the "defense threat", which involves a wrinkled face, bared teeth, pulled-back ears, and widened pupils.[83][11] Both males and females show a flehmen response, a characteristic grimace, when sniffing urine markings. Males also use the flehman to detect the markings made by tigresses in oestrus.[11] Tigers also use their tail to signal their mood. To show cordiality, the tail sticks up and sways slowly, while an apprehensive tiger lowers its tail or wags it side-to-side. When calm, the tail hangs low.[84]

Tigers roar to signal their presence to other individuals over long distances. This vocalisation is forced through an open mouth as it closes and can be heard 3 km (1.9 mi) away. They may roar three or four times in a row, and other tigers may respond in kind. Tigers also roar during mating, and a mother will roar to call her cubs to her. When tense, tigers will moan, a sound similar to a roar but softer and made when the mouth is at least partially closed. Moaning can be heard 400 m (1,300 ft) away.[11][85] Aggressive encounters involve growling, snarling and hissing.[86] During an attack, an explosive "coughing roar" or "coughing snarl" is emitted through an open mouth and exposed teeth.[11][86][87] Chuffing—soft, low-frequency snorting similar to purring in smaller cats—is heard in more friendly situations.[88] Mother tigers communicate with their cubs by grunting, while cubs call back with miaows.[89]

Hunting and diet

 
Tiger attacking a sambar in Ranthambore Tiger Reserve

The tiger is a carnivore and an apex predator. It feeds mainly on ungulates, with a particular preference for sambar deer, Manchurian wapiti, barasingha and wild boar. Tigers will kill larger prey like gaur,[90] but opportunistically eat much smaller prey, such as monkeys, peafowl and other ground-based birds, porcupines and fish.[11][50] Tiger attacks on adult Asian elephants and Indian rhinoceros have also been reported.[91][92][93] More often, tigers take the more vulnerable small calves.[94] When in close proximity to humans, tigers sometimes prey on domestic livestock and dogs.[11] Although almost exclusively carnivorous, tigers occasionally consume vegetation, fruit and minerals for dietary fibre.[95]

Tigers learn to hunt from their mothers, which is important but not necessary for their success.[96] The cats normally hunt alone but families may hunt together when cubs are old enough.[97] A tiger may travel up to 19.3 km (12.0 mi) per day in search of prey, using vision and hearing to find a target.[98] It may also station itself at a watering hole and wait for prey to come by, particularly during hot summer days.[99][100] It is an ambush predator and when approaching potential prey, the tiger crouches, with head lowered, and hides in foliage. The tiger switches between creeping forward and staying still. Tigers have been recorded dozing off while in still mode, and can stay in the same spot for as long as a day waiting for prey. When it is close enough, the cat launches an attack.[101] It can sprint 56 km/h (35 mph) in a short distance, and leap 10 m (33 ft).[102][103]

 
Two tigers working together to kill an Indian boar in Kanha Tiger Reserve

The tiger attacks from behind or at the sides and tries to knock the target off balance. It latches onto prey with its forelimbs, twisting and turning during the struggle. The tiger generally applies a bite to the throat until its target dies of strangulation.[11][104][105] Holding onto the throat puts the cat out of reach of the horns, antlers, tusks and hooves.[104][106] Tigers are adaptable killers and may use other methods, including ripping the throat or breaking the neck. Large prey make be disabled by a bite to the back of the hock, severing the tendon. Swipes from the large paws are capable of stunning or breaking to skull of a water buffalo.[107] Small prey are killed with a bite to the back of the neck or skull.[108][58] Estimates of the success rate for hunting tigers ranges from a low 5% to a high of 50%.[58]

With the prey dead, the tiger moves it to a private, usually vegetated spot before eating. The cat typically drags it no further than 183 m (600 ft) but have been recorded moving 549 m (1,801 ft). The tiger has the strength to carry the carcass of a fully grown buffalo for some distance, a feat three men struggle with. The cat may rest for a while before eating. While eating, a tiger can consume as much as 50 kg (110 lb) of meat in one sitting. It may feed on a carcass for days, leaving very little for scavengers.[109]

Enemies and competitors

 
An 1807 illustration of dholes attacking a tiger

Tigers may kill and even prey on other predators they coexist with.[110] In much of their range, tigers share habitat with leopards and dholes. They typically dominate both of them, though large packs of dholes can drive away a tiger,[111] or even kill it.[112] Tigers appear to inhabit the deep parts of a forest while these smaller predators are pushed closer to the fringes.[113] The three predators coexist by hunting different prey.[114] In one study, tigers were found to have killed prey that weighed an average of 91.5 kg (202 lb), in contrast to 37.6 kg (83 lb) for the leopard and 43.4 kg (96 lb) for the dhole.[115] Leopards can live successfully in tiger habitat when there is abundant food and vegetation cover, and there is no evidence of competitive exclusion common to the African savanna, where the leopard lives beside the lion.[114] Nevertheless, leopards avoid areas were tigers roam and are less common where tigers are numerous.[110][116]

Tigers tend to be wary of sloth bears, with their sharp claws, quickness and ability to stand on two legs. Tiger do sometimes prey on sloth bears by ambushing them when they are feeding at termite mounds.[117] Siberian tigers may attack, kill and prey on Ussuri brown and Ussuri black bears.[20] In turn, some studies show that brown bears frequently track down tigers to usurp their kills, with occasional fatal outcomes for the tiger.[118][119][120]

Reproduction and life cycle

"Tiger cub" redirects here. For other uses, see Tiger Cub.
 
Tiger family in Kanha Tiger Reserve

The tiger mates all year round, but most cubs are born between March and June, with another peak in September.[121] A tigress is in oestrus for three to six days, inbetween three to nine week intervals.[11] A resident male mates with all the females within his territory, who signal their receptiveness by roaring and marking.[122][123] Younger, transient males are also attracted, leading to a fight in which the more dominant male drives the usurper off.[121][122] During courtship, the male is cautious with the female as he waits for her to show signs she is ready to mate. She signals to him by positioning herself in lordosis with their tail to the side. Copulation is generally 20 to 25 seconds long, with the male biting the female by the scruff of her neck. After it is finished, the male quickly pulls away as the female may turn and slap him.[122] Tiger pairs may stay together for up to four days and mate multiple times.[124] Gestation ranges from 93 to 114 days, with an average of 103 to 105 days.[121]

A tigress gives birth in a secluded location, be it in dense vegetation, in a cave or under a rocky shelter.[125] Litters consist of as many seven cubs, but two or three are more typical.[121][125] Newborn cubs weigh 785–1,610 g (27.7–56.8 oz), and are blind and altricial.[125] The mother licks and cleans her cubs, suckles them and viscously defends them from any potential threat.[121] She will only leave them alone to hunt, and even then does not travel far.[126] When a mother suspects an area is no longer safe, she moves her cubs to a new spot, transporting them one by one by grabbing them by the scruff of the neck with her mouth. The mortality rate for tiger cubs can reach 50% during these early months, causes of death include predators like dholes, leopards and pythons.[127] Young are able to see in a week, can leave the denning site in two months and around the same time they start eating meat.[121][128]

 
Mother tiger with cub

After around two months, the cubs are able to follow their mother. They still hide in vegetation when she goes hunting, and she will guide them to the kill. Cubs bond though play fighting and practice stalking. A hierarchy develops in the litter, with the biggest cub, often a male, being the most dominant and the first to eat its fill at a kill.[129] Around the age of six months, cubs are fully weaned and have more freedom to explore their environment. Between eight and ten months, they accompany their mother on hunts.[127] A cub can make a kill as early as 11 months, and reach independence around 18 to 24 months of age, males becoming independent earlier than females.[130] Radio-collared tigers in Chitwan started dispersing from their natal areas earliest at the age of 19 months.[76] Young females are sexual mature at three to four years, whereas males are at four to five years. Tigers may live up to 26 years.[11]

Tiger fathers play no role in raising the young, but he may encounter and interact with them. Resident males appear to visit the female-cub families within his territory. They have when observed swimming with females and their cubs and even sharing kills with them.[131][132]. One male was recorded looking after cubs whose mother had died.[133] By defending his territory, the male is also protecting the females and cubs from harassment by other males.[134] When a new male takes over a territory, cubs under a year old are at risk of being killed, as the male would want to sire his own young with the females. Older female cubs are tolerated but males may be treated as potential competitors.[135]

Conservation

Main article: Tiger conservation
Further information: 21st Century Tiger
Global wild tiger population
Country Year Estimate
  India 2023 3682–3925[136][137]
  Russia 2020 480–540[138]
  Indonesia 2016 400–600[139]
  Bangladesh 2014 300–500[1]
  Nepal 2022 355[140]
  Thailand 2023 189[141]
  Bhutan 2023 131[142]
  Malaysia 2022 <150[143]
  China 2018 55[144]
  Myanmar 2018 22[145]
Total 5,764–6,467

In the 1990s, a new approach to tiger conservation was developed: Tiger Conservation Units (TCUs), which are blocks of habitat that have the potential to host tiger populations in 15 habitat types within five bioregions. Altogether 143 TCUs were identified and prioritized based on size and integrity of habitat, poaching pressure and population status. They range in size from 33 to 155,829 km2 (13 to 60,166 sq mi).[60]

In 2016, an estimate of a global wild tiger population of approximately 3,890 individuals was presented during the Third Asia Ministerial Conference on Tiger Conservation.[146][147] The WWF subsequently declared that the world's count of wild tigers had risen for the first time in a century.[148]

Major threats to the tiger include habitat destruction, habitat fragmentation and poaching for fur and body parts, which have simultaneously greatly reduced tiger populations in the wild.[1] In India, only 11% of the historical tiger habitat remains due to habitat fragmentation.[149] Demand for tiger parts for use in traditional Chinese medicine has also been cited as a major threat to tiger populations.[150][151][152] Some estimates suggest that there are fewer than 2,500 mature breeding individuals, with no subpopulation containing more than 250 mature breeding individuals.[1]

India is home to the world's largest population of wild tigers.[146] A 2014 census estimated a population of 2,226, a 30% increase since 2011.[153] On International Tiger Day 2019, the 'Tiger Estimation Report 2018' was released by Prime Minister Narendra Modi. The report estimates a population of 2967 tigers in India with 25% increase since 2014. Modi said "India is one of the safest habitats for tigers as it has achieved the target of doubling the tiger population from 1411 in 2011 to 2967 in 2019".[154] As of 2022, India accounts for 75 percent of global tiger population.[155] The Tiger Census of 2023 reports tiger population in India at 3167.[156]

In 1973, India's Project Tiger, started by Indira Gandhi, established numerous tiger reserves. The project was credited with tripling the number of wild Bengal tigers from some 1,200 in 1973 to over 3,500 in the 1990s, but a 2007 census showed that numbers had dropped back to about 1,400 tigers because of poaching.[157][158][159] Following the report, the Indian government pledged $153 million to the initiative, set up measures to combat poaching, promised funds to relocate up to 200,000 villagers in order to reduce human-tiger interactions,[160] and set up eight new tiger reserves in India.[161] India also reintroduced tigers to the Sariska Tiger Reserve[162] and by 2009 it was claimed that poaching had been effectively countered at Ranthambore National Park.[163]

In the 1940s, the Siberian tiger was on the brink of extinction with only about 40 animals remaining in the wild in Russia. As a result, anti-poaching controls were put in place by the Soviet Union and a network of protected zones (zapovedniks) were instituted, leading to a rise in the population to several hundred. Poaching again became a problem in the 1990s, when the economy of Russia collapsed. The major obstacle in preserving the species is the enormous territory individual tigers require, up to 450 km (280 mi) needed by a single female and more for a single male.[164] Current conservation efforts are led by local governments and NGO's in concert with international organisations, such as the World Wide Fund for Nature and the Wildlife Conservation Society.[165] The competitive exclusion of wolves by tigers has been used by Russian conservationists to convince hunters to tolerate the big cats. Tigers have less impact on ungulate populations than do wolves, and are effective in controlling the latter's numbers.[166] In 2005, there were thought to be about 360 animals in Russia, though these exhibited little genetic diversity.[167] However, in a decade later, the Siberian tiger census was estimated from 480 to 540 individuals.[168]

In China, tigers became the target of large-scale 'anti-pest' campaigns in the early 1950s, where suitable habitats were fragmented following deforestation and resettlement of people to rural areas, who hunted tigers and prey species. Though tiger hunting was prohibited in 1977, the population continued to decline and is considered extinct in southern China since 2001.[169][170] Having earlier rejected the Western-led environmentalist movement, China changed its stance in the 1980s and became a party to the CITES treaty. By 1993 it had banned the trade in tiger parts, and this diminished the use of tiger bones in traditional Chinese medicine.[171] The Tibetan people's trade in tiger skins has also been a threat to tigers. The pelts were used in clothing, tiger-skin chuba being worn as fashion. In 2006 the 14th Dalai Lama was persuaded to take up the issue. Since then there has been a change of attitude, with some Tibetans publicly burning their chubas.[172]

In 1994, the Indonesian Sumatran Tiger Conservation Strategy addressed the potential crisis that tigers faced in Sumatra. The Sumatran Tiger Project (STP) was initiated in June 1995 in and around the Way Kambas National Park to ensure the long-term viability of wild Sumatran tigers and to accumulate data on tiger life-history characteristics vital for the management of wild populations.[173] By August 1999, the teams of the STP had evaluated 52 sites of potential tiger habitat in Lampung Province, of which only 15 these were intact enough to contain tigers.[174] In the framework of the STP a community-based conservation program was initiated to document the tiger-human dimension in the park to enable conservation authorities to resolve tiger-human conflicts based on a comprehensive database rather than anecdotes and opinions.[175]

The Wildlife Conservation Society and Panthera Corporation formed the collaboration Tigers Forever, with field sites including the world's largest tiger reserve, the 21,756 km2 (8,400 sq mi) Hukaung Valley in Myanmar. Other reserves were in the Western Ghats in India, Thailand, Laos, Cambodia, the Russian Far East covering in total about 260,000 km2 (100,000 sq mi).[176]

Tigers have been studied in the wild using a variety of techniques. Tiger population have been estimated using plaster casts of their pugmarks, although this method was criticized as being inaccurate.[177] More recent techniques include the use of camera traps and studies of DNA from tiger scat, while radio-collaring has been used to track tigers in the wild.[178] Tiger spray has been found to be just as good, or better, as a source of DNA than scat.[179]

Relationship with humans

Tiger hunting

Main article: Tiger hunting
 
Tiger hunting on elephant-back in India, 1808

The tiger has been one of the most sought after game animals of Asia. Tiger hunting took place on a large scale in the early 19th and 20th centuries, being a recognised and admired sport by the British in colonial India, the maharajas and aristocratic class of the erstwhile princely states of pre-independence India. A single maharaja or English hunter could claim to kill over a hundred tigers in their hunting career.[180] Over 80,000 tigers were slaughtered in just 50 years spanning from 1875 to 1925 in British-ruled India.[181] Tiger hunting was done by some hunters on foot; others sat up on machans with a goat or buffalo tied out as bait; yet others on elephant-back.[182] King George V on his visit to Colonial India in 1911 killed 39 tigers in a matter of 10 days[183] One of these is on display at the Royal Albert Memorial Museum.[184]

Historically, tigers have been hunted at a large scale so their famous striped skins could be collected. The trade in tiger skins peaked in the 1960s, just before international conservation efforts took effect. By 1977, a tiger skin in an English market was considered to be worth US$4,250.[180]

Body part use

 
A hunting party poses with a killed Javan tiger, 1941

Tiger parts are commonly used as amulets in South and Southeast Asia. In the Philippines, the fossils in Palawan were found besides stone tools. This, besides the evidence for cuts on the bones, and the use of fire, suggests that early humans had accumulated the bones.[185] and the condition of the tiger subfossils, dated to approximately 12,000 to 9,000 years ago, differed from other fossils in the assemblage, dated to the Upper Paleolithic. The tiger subfossils showed longitudinal fracture of the cortical bone due to weathering, which suggests that they had post-mortem been exposed to light and air. Tiger canines were found in Ambangan sites dating to the 10th to 12th centuries in Butuan, Mindanao.[186][187]

Many people in China and other parts of Asia have a belief that various tiger parts have medicinal properties, including as pain killers and aphrodisiacs.[188] There is no scientific evidence to support these beliefs. The use of tiger parts in pharmaceutical drugs in China is already banned, and the government has made some offences in connection with tiger poaching punishable by death.[which?] Furthermore, all trade in tiger parts is illegal under the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora and a domestic trade ban has been in place in China since 1993.[189]

However, the trading of tiger parts in Asia has become a major black market industry and governmental and conservation attempts to stop it have been ineffective to date.[180] Almost all black marketers engaged in the trade are based in China and have either been shipped and sold within their own country or into Taiwan, South Korea or Japan.[180] The Chinese subspecies was almost completely decimated by killing for commerce due to both the parts and skin trades in the 1950s through the 1970s.[180] Contributing to the illegal trade, there are a number of tiger farms in the country specialising in breeding them for profit. It is estimated that between 5,000 and 10,000 captive-bred, semi-tame animals live in these farms today.[190][191][192] However, many tigers for traditional medicine black market are wild ones shot or snared by poachers and may be caught anywhere in the tiger's remaining range (from Siberia to India to the Malay Peninsula to Sumatra). In the Asian black market, a tiger penis can be worth the equivalent of around $300 U.S. dollars. In the years of 1990 through 1992, 27 million products with tiger derivatives were found.[180] In July 2014 at an international convention on endangered species in Geneva, Switzerland, a Chinese representative admitted for the first time his government was aware trading in tiger skins was occurring in China.[193]

Man-eating tigers

Main article: Tiger attack

Wild tigers that have had no prior contact with humans actively avoid interactions with them. However, tigers cause more human deaths through direct attack than any other wild mammal.[180] Attacks are occasionally provoked, as tigers lash out after being injured while they themselves are hunted. Attacks can be provoked accidentally, as when a human surprises a tiger or inadvertently comes between a mother and her young,[194] or as in a case in rural India when a postman startled a tiger, used to seeing him on foot, by riding a bicycle.[195] Occasionally tigers come to view people as prey. Such attacks are most common in areas where population growth, logging, and farming have put pressure on tiger habitats and reduced their wild prey. Most man-eating tigers are old, missing teeth, and unable to capture their preferred prey.[50] For example, the Champawat Tiger, a tigress found in Nepal and then India, had two broken canines. She was responsible for an estimated 430 human deaths, the most attacks known to be perpetrated by a single wild animal, by the time she was shot in 1907 by Jim Corbett.[196] According to Corbett, tiger attacks on humans are normally in daytime, when people are working outdoors and are not keeping watch.[197] Early writings tend to describe man-eating tigers as cowardly because of their ambush tactics.[198]

Man-eaters have been a particular problem in recent decades in India and Bangladesh, especially in Kumaon, Garhwal and the Sundarbans mangrove swamps of Bengal, where some healthy tigers have hunted humans. Because of rapid habitat loss attributed to climate change, tiger attacks have increased in the Sundarbans.[199] The Sundarbans area had 129 human deaths from tigers from 1969 to 1971. In the 10 years prior to that period, about 100 attacks per year in the Sundarbans, with a high of around 430 in some years of the 1960s.[180] Unusually, in some years in the Sundarbans, more humans are killed by tigers than vice versa.[180] In 1972, India's production of honey and beeswax dropped by 50% when at least 29 people who gathered these materials were devoured.[180] In 1986 in the Sundarbans, since tigers almost always attack from the rear, masks with human faces were worn on the back of the head, on the theory that tigers usually do not attack if seen by their prey. This decreased the number of attacks only temporarily. All other means to prevent attacks, such as providing more prey or using electrified human dummies, did not work as well.[200]

In captivity

 
Publicity photo of animal trainer Gunther Gebel-Williams with several of his trained tigers, c. 1969

In Ancient Roman times, tigers were kept in menageries and amphitheatres to be exhibited, trained and paraded, and were often provoked to fight gladiators and other exotic beasts.[201][202] Since the 17th century, tigers were sought after to be kept at European castles as symbols of their owners' power. Tigers became zoo and circus exhibits in the 18th century: a tiger could cost up to 4,000 francs in France.[203]

In 2007, over 4,000 captive tigers lived in China, of which 3,000 were held by about 20 larger facilities, with the rest held by some 200 smaller facilities.[204] In 2011, 468 facilities in the USA kept 2,884 tigers.[205] Nineteen US states banned private ownership of tigers, a license is required in 15 states, and 16 states have no regulation.[206] Many captive tigers are actually the result of crosses between Siberian and Bengal tigers.[207]

Cultural depictions

Tigers and their superlative qualities have been a source of fascination for humans since ancient times, and they are routinely visible as important cultural and media motifs. They are also considered one of the charismatic megafauna, and are used as the face of conservation campaigns worldwide. In a 2004 online poll conducted by cable television channel Animal Planet, involving more than 50,000 viewers from 73 countries, the tiger was voted the world's favourite animal with 21% of the vote, narrowly beating the dog.[208]

Mythology and legend

Further information: Tiger in Chinese culture and Tiger in Korean culture
See also: Tiger worship
 
Tiger-shaped jie (badge of authority) with gold inlays, from the tomb of Zhao Mo

In Chinese mythology and culture, the tiger is one of the 12 animals of the Chinese zodiac. In Chinese art, the tiger is depicted as an earth symbol and equal rival of the Chinese dragon – the two representing matter and spirit respectively. The Southern Chinese martial art Hung Ga is based on the movements of the tiger and the crane. In Imperial China, a tiger was the personification of war and often represented the highest army General Officer,[209] while the emperor and empress were represented by a dragon and phoenix, respectively. The White Tiger (Chinese: 白虎; pinyin: Bái Hǔ) is one of the Four Symbols of the Chinese constellations. It is sometimes called the White Tiger of the West (Chinese: 西方白虎), and it represents the west and the autumn season.[209]

The tiger's tail appears in stories from countries including China and Korea, it being generally inadvisable to grasp a tiger by the tail.[210][211] In Korean mythology and culture, the tiger is regarded as a guardian that drives away evil spirits and a sacred creature that brings good luck – the symbol of courage and absolute power. For the people who live in and around the forests of Korea, the tiger considered the symbol of the Mountain Spirit or King of mountain animals.[citation needed]

In Buddhism, the tiger is one of the Three Senseless Creatures, symbolising anger, with the monkey representing greed and the deer lovesickness.[209] The Tungusic peoples considered the Siberian tiger a near-deity and often referred to it as "Grandfather" or "Old man". The Udege and Nanai called it "Amba". The Manchu people considered the Siberian tiger as "Hu Lin", the king.[212] In Hinduism, the god Shiva wears and sits on tiger skin.[213] The ten-armed warrior goddess Durga rides the tigress (or lioness) Damon into battle. In southern India the god Ayyappan was associated with a tiger.[214] Dingu-Aneni is the god in North-East India is also associated with tiger.[215] The weretiger replaces the werewolf in shapeshifting folklore in Asia;[216] in India they were evil sorcerers, while in Indonesia and Malaysia they were somewhat more benign.[217] In Taiwanese folk beliefs, Aunt Tiger portrays the story of a tiger, which turns into an old woman, abducts children at night and devours them to satisfy her appetite.[218] In the Greco-Roman world, the tiger was depicted being ridden by the god Dionysus.[219]

Literature and media

See also: Bengal tiger § Literature
 
Blake's original printing of The Tyger, 1794

In the Hindu epic Mahabharata, the tiger is fiercer and more ruthless than the lion.[220] William Blake's poem "The Tyger" portrays the tiger as a menacing and fearful animal, and the tiger Shere Khan in Rudyard Kipling's 1894 The Jungle Book is the mortal enemy of the human protagonist.[221] Yann Martel's novel Life of Pi features the title character surviving shipwreck for months on a small boat with a large Bengal tiger while avoiding being eaten. The story was adapted in Ang Lee's feature film of the same name in 2012.[222]

Friendly tiger characters include Tigger in A. A. Milne's Winnie-the-Pooh and Hobbes of the comic strip Calvin and Hobbes, both represented as stuffed animals come to life.[223] Tony the Tiger is a famous mascot for Kellogg's breakfast cereal Frosted Flakes.[224]

Heraldry and emblems

See also: Tigers (sports teams)

The tiger is one of the animals displayed on the Pashupati seal of the Indus Valley civilisation. The tiger was the emblem of the Chola Dynasty and was depicted on coins, seals and banners.[225] The seals of several Chola copper coins show the tiger, the Pandyan emblem fish and the Chera emblem bow, indicating that the Cholas had achieved political supremacy over the latter two dynasties. Gold coins found in Kavilayadavalli in the Nellore district of Andhra Pradesh have motifs of the tiger, bow and some indistinct marks.[226] The tiger symbol of Chola Empire was later adopted by the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam and the tiger became a symbol of the unrecognised state of Tamil Eelam and Tamil independence movement.[227] The Bengal tiger is the national animal of India and Bangladesh.[228] The Malaysian tiger is the national animal of Malaysia.[229] The Siberian tiger is the national animal of South Korea.[citation needed] The Tiger is featured on the logo of the Delhi Capitals Indian Premier League team.[citation needed]

In European heraldry, the tyger, a depiction of a tiger as imagined by European artists, is among the creatures used in charges and supporters. This creature has several notable differences from real tigers, lacking stripes and having a leonine tufted tail and a head terminating in large, pointed jaws. A more realistic tiger entered the heraldic armory through the British Empire's expansion into Asia, and is referred to as the Bengal tiger to distinguish it from its older counterpart. The Bengal tiger is not a common creature in heraldry, but is used as a supporter in the arms of Bombay and emblazoned on the shield of the University of Madras.[230]

See also

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Bibliography

  • MacDonald, David, ed. (2001). The Encyclopedia of Mammals (2nd ed.). Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-7607-1969-5.
  • Mills, Stephen (2004). Tiger. Firefly Books. ISBN 1-55297-949-0.
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  • Tilson, Ronald; Nyhus, Phillip J., eds. (2010). Tigers of the World: The Science, Politics and Conservation of Panthera tigris (Second ed.). Academic Press. ISBN 978-0-08-094751-8.

External links

  •   Media related to Panthera tigris (category) at Wikimedia Commons
  •   Data related to Panthera tigris at Wikispecies
  •   Quotations related to Tigers at Wikiquote
  •   Tigers travel guide from Wikivoyage
  • "Tiger Panthera tigris". IUCN/SSC Cat Specialist Group.

February 15, 2024
tiger, tigress, redirects, here, other, uses, disambiguation, tigress, disambiguation, tiger, panthera, tigris, largest, living, species, member, genus, panthera, most, recognisable, black, stripes, orange, with, white, underside, apex, predator, primarily, pr. Tigress redirects here For other uses see Tiger disambiguation and Tigress disambiguation The tiger Panthera tigris is the largest living cat species and a member of the genus Panthera It is most recognisable for its black stripes on orange fur with a white underside An apex predator it primarily preys on ungulates such as deer and wild boar It is territorial and generally a solitary but social predator requiring large contiguous areas of habitat to support its requirements for prey and rearing of its offspring Tiger cubs stay with their mother for about two years and then become independent leaving their mother s home range to establish their own TigerTemporal range Early Pleistocene Present PreꞒ Ꞓ O S D C P T J K Pg N A Bengal tigress in Kanha Tiger Reserve IndiaConservation statusEndangered IUCN 3 1 1 CITES Appendix I CITES 1 Scientific classificationDomain EukaryotaKingdom AnimaliaPhylum ChordataClass MammaliaOrder CarnivoraSuborder FeliformiaFamily FelidaeSubfamily PantherinaeGenus PantheraSpecies P tigrisBinomial namePanthera tigris Linnaeus 1758 2 SubspeciesP t tigris P t sondaica P t acutidens P t soloensis P t trinilensisTiger distribution as of 2022Synonyms 3 Felis tigris Linnaeus 1758Tigris striatus Severtzov 1858Tigris regalis Gray 1867The tiger was first scientifically described in 1758 It once ranged widely from the Eastern Anatolia Region in the west to the Amur River basin in the east and in the south from the foothills of the Himalayas to Bali in the Sunda Islands Since the early 20th century tiger populations have lost at least 93 of their historic range and have been extirpated from Western and Central Asia the islands of Java and Bali and in large areas of Southeast and South Asia and China What remains of the range where tigers still roam free is fragmented stretching in spots from Siberian temperate forests to subtropical and tropical forests on the Indian subcontinent Indochina and a single Indonesian island Sumatra The tiger is listed as Endangered on the IUCN Red List As of 2023 the global wild tiger population is estimated to number 5 574 individuals with most populations living in small isolated pockets 4 India hosts the largest tiger population Major reasons for population decline are habitat destruction habitat fragmentation and poaching Tigers are also victims of human wildlife conflict due to encroachment in countries with a high human population density The tiger is among the most recognisable and popular of the world s charismatic megafauna It featured prominently in the ancient mythology and folklore of cultures throughout its historic range and continues to be depicted in modern films and literature appearing on many flags coats of arms and as mascots for sporting teams The tiger is the national animal of India Bangladesh Malaysia and South Korea Contents 1 Etymology 2 Taxonomy 2 1 Subspecies 2 2 Evolution 2 3 Hybrids 3 Characteristics 3 1 Size 3 2 Coat 3 2 1 Colour variations 4 Distribution and habitat 5 Behaviour and ecology 5 1 Social spacing 5 2 Communication 5 3 Hunting and diet 5 4 Enemies and competitors 5 5 Reproduction and life cycle 6 Conservation 7 Relationship with humans 7 1 Tiger hunting 7 2 Body part use 7 3 Man eating tigers 7 4 In captivity 8 Cultural depictions 8 1 Mythology and legend 8 2 Literature and media 8 3 Heraldry and emblems 9 See also 10 References 10 1 Bibliography 11 External linksEtymologyThe Middle English tigre and Old English tigras derive from Old French tigre from Latin tigris This was a borrowing of Classical Greek tigris tigris a foreign borrowing of unknown origin meaning tiger and the river Tigris 5 The generic name Panthera is derived from the Latin word panthera and the Ancient Greek word pan8hr panther 6 TaxonomyIn 1758 Carl Linnaeus described the tiger in his work Systema Naturae and gave it the scientific name Felis tigris 2 In 1929 the British taxonomist Reginald Innes Pocock subordinated the species under the genus Panthera using the scientific name Panthera tigris 7 8 Subspecies Following Linnaeus s first descriptions of the species several tiger zoological specimens were described and proposed as subspecies 9 The validity of several tiger subspecies was questioned in 1999 Most putative subspecies described in the 19th and 20th centuries were distinguished on the basis of fur length and colouration striping patterns and body size hence characteristics that vary widely within populations Morphologically tigers from different regions vary little and gene flow between populations in those regions is considered to have been possible during the Pleistocene Therefore it was proposed to recognize only two tiger subspecies as valid namely P t tigris in mainland Asia and P t sondaica in the Greater Sunda Islands Mainland tigers are described as being larger in size with generally lighter fur and fewer stripes while island tigers are smaller due to insular dwarfism with darker coats and more numerous stripes 10 The stripes of island tigers may break up into spotted patterns 11 This two subspecies proposal was reaffirmed in 2015 by a comprehensive analysis of morphological ecological and molecular traits of all putative tiger subspecies using a combined approach The authors proposed recognition of only two subspecies namely P t tigris comprising the Bengal Malayan Indochinese South Chinese Siberian and Caspian tiger populations of continental Asia and P t sondaica comprising the Javan Bali and Sumatran tiger populations of the Sunda Islands The continental nominate subspecies P t tigris constitutes two clades a northern clade composed of the Siberian and Caspian tiger populations and a southern clade composed of all other mainland populations The authors noted that this two subspecies reclassification will impact tiger conservation management 12 It would make captive breeding programs and future re wilding of zoo born tigers easier as one tiger population could then be used to reinforce another However there is the risk that the loss of subspecies uniqueness could lead to less protection efforts for specific populations 13 In 2017 the Cat Classification Task Force of the IUCN Cat Specialist Group revised felid taxonomy in accordance with the two subspecies proposal of the comprehensive 2015 study and recognized the tiger populations in continental Asia as P t tigris and those in the Sunda Islands as P t sondaica 14 This two subspecies view is still disputed by researchers since the currently recognized six living subspecies can be distinguished genetically 13 Results of a 2018 whole genome sequencing of 32 samples support six monophyletic tiger clades corresponding with the six living subspecies and indicate they descended from a common ancestor around 110 000 years ago 15 Studies in 2021 and 2023 also affirmed the genetic distinctiveness and separation of these tigers 16 17 The following tables are based on the classification of the species Panthera tigris provided in Mammal Species of the World 9 and also reflect the classification used by the Cat Classification Task Force in 2017 14 Panthera tigris tigris Linnaeus 1758 2 Populations Description ImageBengal tiger This tiger inhabits the Indian subcontinent 18 Linnaeus s scientific description of the tiger was based on descriptions by earlier naturalists such as Conrad Gessner and Ulisse Aldrovandi 2 Bengal tiger skins in the collection of the Natural History Museum London were described as bright orange red with shorter fur and more spaced out stripes than northern living tigers like the Siberian tiger 8 nbsp Caspian tiger formerly P t virgata Illiger 1815 19 This population lived in west central Asia reach as far west as Turkey 18 Illiger s description was not based on a particular specimen but he only assumed that tigers in the Caspian area differ from those elsewhere 19 It was later described having a bright rusty red coat with thin and closely spaced brownish stripes 20 and a broad occipital bone 10 According to genetic analysis it was closely related to the Siberian tiger 21 It went extinct in the 1970s 22 nbsp Siberian tiger formerly P t altaica Temminck 1844 23 The cat is found in the Russian Far East Northeast China and possibly North Korea 18 Temminck s description was based on an unspecified number of tiger skins with long hairs and dense coats that were traded between Korea and Japan He assumed they originated in the Altai Mountains 23 The Siberian tiger was later described as having pale coats with few dark brown stripes 20 The lighter colouration may be to due to longer exposure to sunlight during the summer A Siberian tiger s coat becomes darker after molting 10 The skull is described as shorter and broader then southern living tigers 24 nbsp South China tiger formerly P t amoyensis Hilzheimer 1905 25 This tiger historically lived in south central China 18 Hilzheimer s description was based on five tiger skulls purchased in Hankou China These skulls had shorter carnassials and molars than tigers from India with a smaller cranium orbits set closer together and larger postorbital processes Skins of this tiger were described as being yellowish in colour with rhombus like stripes 25 It was noted to have a unique mtDNA haplotype 14 This tiger may be extinct in wild as there has not been a confirmed sighting since the 1970s 1 nbsp Indochinese tiger formerly P t corbetti Mazak 1968 26 The tiger is found on the Indochinese Peninsula 18 Mazak s description was based on 25 specimens in museum collections that were smaller than tigers from India and had smaller skulls 26 It was also said to have a darker coat than the Bengal tiger more stripes the stripes being narrower and having less double stripes 27 nbsp Malayan tiger formerly P t jacksoni Luo et al 2004 28 It was proposed as a distinct subspecies on the basis of mtDNA and micro satellite sequences that differ from the Indochinese tiger 28 In pelage colour or skull size it does not differ significantly from Indochinese tigers 27 There is no clear geographical barrier between tiger populations in northern Malaysia and southern Thailand 1 nbsp Panthera tigris sondaica Temminck 1844 14 Populations Description Image Javan tiger formerly P t sondaica Temminck 1944 23 Temminck based his description on an unspecified number of tiger skins with short and smooth hair 23 Tigers from Java were small compared to tigers of the Asian mainland The skull was relatively elongated and compared to the Sumatran tiger the stripes were longer thinner and slightly greater in number 27 The Javan tiger went extinct by the 1980s 22 nbsp Bali tiger formerly P t balica Schwarz 1912 29 Schwarz based his description on a skin and a skull of an adult female tiger from Bali He argued that its fur colour is brighter and its skull smaller than of tigers from Java 29 30 A typical feature of Bali tiger skulls is the narrow occipital plane which is similar to Javan tigers 31 The tiger went extinct in the 1940s 22 nbsp Sumatran tiger formerly P t sumatrae Pocock 1929 32 Pocock described a dark skin of a tiger from Sumatra as the type specimen 32 It has broader and smaller nasal region than other island tigers 24 27 with many thick stripes 27 This tiger has particularly long hairs around the face 18 nbsp Evolution nbsp Two cladograms proposed for Panthera The upper cladogram is based on two studies published in 2006 and 2009 33 34 the lower one is based on studies published in 2010 and 2011 35 36 The tiger s closest living relatives were previously thought to be the Panthera species lion leopard and jaguar Results of genetic analysis indicate that about 2 88 million years ago the tiger and the snow leopard lineages diverged from the other Panthera species and that both may be more closely related to each other than to the lion leopard and jaguar 33 37 The fossil species Panthera palaeosinensis of early Pleistocene northern China was described as a possible tiger ancestor when it was discovered in 1924 but modern cladistics place it as basal to modern Panthera 38 36 Panthera zdanskyi which lived around the same time and place was suggested to be a sister taxon of the modern tiger when it was examined in 2014 36 However as of 2023 at least two recent studies considered P zdanskyi likely to be a synonym of P palaeosinensis noting that its proposed differences from that species fell within the range of individual variation 39 40 The earliest appearance of the modern tiger species in the fossil record are jaw fragments from Lantion in China that are dated to the early Pleistocene 36 Middle to late Pleistocene tiger fossils were found throughout China Sumatra and Java Prehistoric subspecies include Panthera tigris trinilensis and P t soloensis of Java and Sumatra and P t acutidens of China late Pleistocene and early Holocene fossils of tigers were also found in Borneo and Palawan Philippines 41 Results of a phylogeographic study indicate that all living tigers had a common ancestor 108 000 to 72 000 years ago 28 A 2022 paleogenomic study of a Pleistocene tiger basal to living tigers concluded that modern tiger populations spread across Asia no earlier than 94 000 years ago There is evidence of interbreeding between the lineage of modern mainland tigers and these ancient tigers 42 The potential tiger range during the late Pleistocene and Holocene was predicted applying ecological niche modelling based on more than 500 tiger locality records combined with bioclimatic data The resulting model shows a contiguous tiger range at the Last Glacial Maximum indicating gene flow between tiger populations in mainland Asia The tiger populations on the Sunda Islands and mainland Asia were possibly separated during interglacial periods 43 The tiger s full genome sequence was published in 2013 It was found to have repeat compositions much as other cat genomes and an appreciably conserved synteny 44 Hybrids Further information Felid hybrid Panthera hybrid Liger and Tigon Captive tigers were bred with lions to create hybrids called liger and tigon The former born to a female tiger and male lion and the latter the result of a male tiger and female lion They share physical and behavioural qualities of both parent species 45 Because the lion sire passes on a growth promoting gene but the corresponding growth inhibiting gene from the female tiger is absent ligers grow far larger than either parent species By contrast the male tiger does not pass on a growth promoting gene and the lioness passes on a growth inhibiting gene hence tigons are around the same size as either species 46 Breeding hybrids is now discouraged due to the emphasis on conservation 45 Characteristics nbsp Siberian tiger in Aalborg Zoo Denmark nbsp Bengal tiger skeleton on display at the Museum of Osteology The tiger has a typical felid morphology It has a muscular body with strong forelimbs a large head and a tail that is about half the length of the rest of its body There are five digits on the front feet and four on the back all of which have retractable claws which are compact and curved The ears are rounded while the eyes have a round pupil 11 The tiger s skull is large and robust with a constricted front region proportionally small elliptical orbits long nasal bones and a lengthened cranium with a large sagittal crest 20 11 It is similar to a lion s skull with the structure of the lower jaw and length of the nasals being the most reliable indicators for species identification 20 The tiger has fairly robust teeth and its somewhat curved canines are the longest in the cat family at 6 4 7 6 cm 2 5 3 0 in 11 47 It has an average bite force at the canine tips of 1234 3 Newton 48 Size The tiger is considered to be the largest living felid species 11 However there is some debate over averages compared to the lion Since tiger populations vary greatly in size the average size for a tiger may be less than a lion while the biggest tigers are bigger than their lion counterparts 41 The Siberian and Bengal tigers along with the extinct Caspian are considered to be the largest of the species while the island tigers are the smallest 11 The Sumatran tiger is the smallest living tiger while the extinct Bali tiger was even smaller 11 27 It has been hypothesised that body size of different tiger populations may be correlated with climate and be explained by thermoregulation and Bergmann s rule 11 10 Male tigers are larger than females 11 Average Female tigers Male tigersTotal length Bengal 240 265 cm 94 104 in Siberian 240 275 cm 94 108 in Sumatran 215 230 cm 85 91 in 11 Bengal 270 310 cm 110 120 in Siberian 270 330 cm 110 130 in Sumatran 220 255 cm 87 100 in 11 Weight Bengal 100 160 kg 220 350 lb Siberian 100 167 kg 220 368 lb Sumatran 75 115 kg 165 254 lb 11 Bengal 180 258 kg 397 569 lb Siberian 180 306 kg 397 675 lb Sumatran 100 140 kg 220 310 lb 11 Coat nbsp Tiger coatTiger fur tends to be short except in the northern living Siberian tiger It has a mane like heavy growth of fur around the neck and jaws and long whiskers especially in males 11 Its colouration is generally orange but can vary from light yellow to dark red 11 41 49 White fur covers the ventral surface along with parts of the face 11 20 It also has a prominent white spot on the back of their ears which are surrounded by black 11 The tiger is marked with distinctive black or dark brown stripes the patterns of which are unique in each individual 11 50 The stripes are mostly vertical but those on the limbs and forehead are horizonal They are more concentrated towards the posterior and those on the trunk may or may not reach under the belly The tips of stripes are generally sharp and some have gaps within them Tail stripes are thick bands and a black tip marks the end 20 Stripes are likely advantageous for camouflage in vegetation with vertical patterns of light and shade such as trees and long grass 50 This is supported by a 1987 Fourier analysis study which concluded that the spatial frequencies of tiger stripes line up with their environment 51 The tiger is one of only a few striped cat species it is not known why spotted patterns and rosettes are the more common camouflage pattern among felids 52 The orange colour may also aid in concealment as the tiger s prey are dichromats and thus may perceive the cat as green and blended in with the vegetation 53 The white dots on the ear may play a role in communication 11 Colour variations nbsp Pseudo melanistic white tigerThree colour variants white golden and nearly stripeless snow white are now virtually non existent in the wild due to the reduction of wild tiger populations but continue in captive populations The white tiger has a white background colour with sepia brown stripes The golden tiger is pale golden with reddish brown stripes The snow white tiger is a morph with extremely faint stripes and a pale reddish brown ringed tail White and golden morphs are the result of an autosomal recessive trait with a white locus and a wideband locus respectively The snow white variation is a caused by polygenes with both the white and wideband loci 54 The breeding of white tigers is controversial as they have no use for conservation Only 0 001 of wild tigers have the genes for this colour morph and the overrepresentation of white tigers in captivity is the result of inbreeding Hence their continued breeding will risk both inbreeding depression and loss of genetic variability in captive tigers 55 Pseudo melanistic tigers with thick merged stripes have been recorded in Simlipal National Park and three Indian zoos population genetic analysis of Indian tiger samples revealed that this phenotype is caused by a mutation of a transmembrane aminopeptidase gene Around 37 of the Simlipal tiger population has this feature which has been linked to genetic isolation 56 Distribution and habitat nbsp Historical distribution of the tiger 21 The tiger historically ranged from eastern Pakistan to Indochina and from southeastern Siberia to Sumatra Java and Bali The Caspian tiger lived from eastern Turkey and the South Caucasus to northern Afghanistan and western China The Tibetan Plateau and the Alborz acted as barriers to the species distribution 11 As of 2022 it inhabits less than 7 of its historical distribution and has a scattered range that includes the Indian subcontinent the Indochinese Peninsula Sumatra and the Russian Far East Northeast China 50 1 57 The tiger mainly lives in forest habitats and is highly adaptable 58 In the Amur Ussuri region it inhabits Korean pine and temperate broadleaf and mixed forests where riparian forests provide food and water and serve as dispersal corridors for both tiger and ungulates 59 On the Indian subcontinent it inhabits mainly tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests moist evergreen forests tropical dry forests alluvial plains and the swamp forests of the Sundarbans 60 In the Eastern Himalayas tigers were documented in temperate forest up to an elevation of 4 200 m 13 800 ft in Bhutan and of 3 630 m 11 910 ft in the Mishmi Hills 61 62 In Thailand it lives in deciduous and evergreen forests 63 In Sumatra tiger populations range from lowland peat swamp forests to rugged montane forests 64 Records in Central Asia indicate that it occurred foremost in Tugay riverine forests while in the Caucasus it inhabited hilly and lowland forests 20 Behaviour and ecology nbsp Tiger bathing in waterThe tiger is a long ranging species and individuals disperse over distances of up to 650 km 400 mi to reach tiger populations in other areas 65 When not subject to human disturbance the cat is mainly diurnal 66 As with other felid species tigers groom themselves maintaining their coats by licking them and spreading oil from their sebaceous glands 67 It will take to water particularly on hot days It is a powerful swimmer and easily transverses across rivers as wide as 8 km 5 0 mi 50 Adults only occasionally climbs trees but have been recorded climbing 10 m 33 ft up a smooth pipal tree 11 In general tigers are less capable tree climbers than many other cats due to their size but cubs under 16 months old may routinely do so 68 Social spacing Adult tigers lead largely solitary lives They establish and maintain territories but have much wider home ranges within which they roam Resident adults of either sex generally confine their movements to their home ranges within which they satisfy their needs and those of their growing cubs Individuals sharing the same area are aware of each other s movements and activities 69 The size of the home range mainly depends on prey abundance geographic area and sex of the individual 50 11 Two females in the Sundarbans had home ranges of 10 6 and 14 1 km2 4 1 and 5 4 sq mi 70 In Panna Tiger Reserve the home ranges of five reintroduced females varied from 53 67 km2 20 26 sq mi in winter to 55 60 km2 21 23 sq mi in summer and to 46 94 km2 18 36 sq mi during monsoon three males had 84 147 km2 32 57 sq mi large home ranges in winter 82 98 km2 32 38 sq mi in summer and 81 118 km2 31 46 sq mi during monsoon seasons 71 In Huai Kha Khaeng Wildlife Sanctuary seven resident females had home ranges of 44 1 122 3 km2 17 0 47 2 sq mi and four resident males of 174 8 417 5 km2 67 5 161 2 sq mi 72 Four male problem tigers in Sumatra were translocated to national parks and needed 6 17 weeks to establish new home ranges of 37 5 188 1 km2 14 5 72 6 sq mi 73 Ten solitary females in Sikhote Alin Biosphere Reserve had home ranges of 413 5 77 6 km2 159 7 30 0 sq mi when they had cubs of up to 4 months of age their home ranges declined to 177 3 53 5 km2 68 5 20 7 sq mi and steadily grew to 403 3 105 1 km2 155 7 40 6 sq mi until the cubs were 13 18 months old 74 nbsp Tiger marking territoryYoung tigresses establish their first territories close to their mother s Males however migrate further than their female counterparts and set out at a younger age to mark out their own area 75 Four radio collared females in Chitwan National Park dispersed between 0 and 43 2 km 0 0 and 26 8 mi and 10 males between 9 5 and 65 7 km 5 9 and 40 8 mi 76 A young male may have to live as a transient in another male s territory until he is older and strong enough to challenge the resident male Young males thus have a annual mortality rate of up to 35 By contrast young female tigers die at a rate of only around 5 75 Tigers mark their territories by spraying urine on vegetation and rocks clawing or scent rubbing trees and marking trails with feces anal gland secretions and ground scrapings 50 77 78 79 Scent markings also allow an individual to pick up information on another s identity A tigress in oestrus will signal her availability by scent marking more frequently and increasing her vocalisations Unclaimed territories particularly those that belonged to a decreased individual can be taken over in days or weeks 50 Male tigers are generally less tolerant of other males within their territories than females are of other females Territory disputes are usually solved by intimidation rather than outright violence Once dominance has been established a male may tolerate a subordinate within his range as long as they do not live in too close quarters The most serious disputes tend to occur between two males competing for a female in oestrus 80 Though tigers mostly live alone relationships between individuals can be complex Tigers are particularly social at kills and a male tiger will share a carcass with the females and cubs within this territory and unlike male lions will allow them feed on the kill before the he is finished with it Though the female and male act amicably females are more tense towards each other at a kill 81 82 Communication nbsp Tiger baring teeth as a sign of aggression source source source source source source source Captive tiger roaring During friendly encounters and bonding tigers rub against each others bodies 83 Facial expressions include the defense threat which involves a wrinkled face bared teeth pulled back ears and widened pupils 83 11 Both males and females show a flehmen response a characteristic grimace when sniffing urine markings Males also use the flehman to detect the markings made by tigresses in oestrus 11 Tigers also use their tail to signal their mood To show cordiality the tail sticks up and sways slowly while an apprehensive tiger lowers its tail or wags it side to side When calm the tail hangs low 84 Tigers roar to signal their presence to other individuals over long distances This vocalisation is forced through an open mouth as it closes and can be heard 3 km 1 9 mi away They may roar three or four times in a row and other tigers may respond in kind Tigers also roar during mating and a mother will roar to call her cubs to her When tense tigers will moan a sound similar to a roar but softer and made when the mouth is at least partially closed Moaning can be heard 400 m 1 300 ft away 11 85 Aggressive encounters involve growling snarling and hissing 86 During an attack an explosive coughing roar or coughing snarl is emitted through an open mouth and exposed teeth 11 86 87 Chuffing soft low frequency snorting similar to purring in smaller cats is heard in more friendly situations 88 Mother tigers communicate with their cubs by grunting while cubs call back with miaows 89 Hunting and diet nbsp Tiger attacking a sambar in Ranthambore Tiger ReserveThe tiger is a carnivore and an apex predator It feeds mainly on ungulates with a particular preference for sambar deer Manchurian wapiti barasingha and wild boar Tigers will kill larger prey like gaur 90 but opportunistically eat much smaller prey such as monkeys peafowl and other ground based birds porcupines and fish 11 50 Tiger attacks on adult Asian elephants and Indian rhinoceros have also been reported 91 92 93 More often tigers take the more vulnerable small calves 94 When in close proximity to humans tigers sometimes prey on domestic livestock and dogs 11 Although almost exclusively carnivorous tigers occasionally consume vegetation fruit and minerals for dietary fibre 95 Tigers learn to hunt from their mothers which is important but not necessary for their success 96 The cats normally hunt alone but families may hunt together when cubs are old enough 97 A tiger may travel up to 19 3 km 12 0 mi per day in search of prey using vision and hearing to find a target 98 It may also station itself at a watering hole and wait for prey to come by particularly during hot summer days 99 100 It is an ambush predator and when approaching potential prey the tiger crouches with head lowered and hides in foliage The tiger switches between creeping forward and staying still Tigers have been recorded dozing off while in still mode and can stay in the same spot for as long as a day waiting for prey When it is close enough the cat launches an attack 101 It can sprint 56 km h 35 mph in a short distance and leap 10 m 33 ft 102 103 nbsp Two tigers working together to kill an Indian boar in Kanha Tiger ReserveThe tiger attacks from behind or at the sides and tries to knock the target off balance It latches onto prey with its forelimbs twisting and turning during the struggle The tiger generally applies a bite to the throat until its target dies of strangulation 11 104 105 Holding onto the throat puts the cat out of reach of the horns antlers tusks and hooves 104 106 Tigers are adaptable killers and may use other methods including ripping the throat or breaking the neck Large prey make be disabled by a bite to the back of the hock severing the tendon Swipes from the large paws are capable of stunning or breaking to skull of a water buffalo 107 Small prey are killed with a bite to the back of the neck or skull 108 58 Estimates of the success rate for hunting tigers ranges from a low 5 to a high of 50 58 With the prey dead the tiger moves it to a private usually vegetated spot before eating The cat typically drags it no further than 183 m 600 ft but have been recorded moving 549 m 1 801 ft The tiger has the strength to carry the carcass of a fully grown buffalo for some distance a feat three men struggle with The cat may rest for a while before eating While eating a tiger can consume as much as 50 kg 110 lb of meat in one sitting It may feed on a carcass for days leaving very little for scavengers 109 Enemies and competitors nbsp An 1807 illustration of dholes attacking a tigerTigers may kill and even prey on other predators they coexist with 110 In much of their range tigers share habitat with leopards and dholes They typically dominate both of them though large packs of dholes can drive away a tiger 111 or even kill it 112 Tigers appear to inhabit the deep parts of a forest while these smaller predators are pushed closer to the fringes 113 The three predators coexist by hunting different prey 114 In one study tigers were found to have killed prey that weighed an average of 91 5 kg 202 lb in contrast to 37 6 kg 83 lb for the leopard and 43 4 kg 96 lb for the dhole 115 Leopards can live successfully in tiger habitat when there is abundant food and vegetation cover and there is no evidence of competitive exclusion common to the African savanna where the leopard lives beside the lion 114 Nevertheless leopards avoid areas were tigers roam and are less common where tigers are numerous 110 116 Tigers tend to be wary of sloth bears with their sharp claws quickness and ability to stand on two legs Tiger do sometimes prey on sloth bears by ambushing them when they are feeding at termite mounds 117 Siberian tigers may attack kill and prey on Ussuri brown and Ussuri black bears 20 In turn some studies show that brown bears frequently track down tigers to usurp their kills with occasional fatal outcomes for the tiger 118 119 120 Reproduction and life cycle Tiger cub redirects here For other uses see Tiger Cub nbsp Tiger family in Kanha Tiger ReserveThe tiger mates all year round but most cubs are born between March and June with another peak in September 121 A tigress is in oestrus for three to six days inbetween three to nine week intervals 11 A resident male mates with all the females within his territory who signal their receptiveness by roaring and marking 122 123 Younger transient males are also attracted leading to a fight in which the more dominant male drives the usurper off 121 122 During courtship the male is cautious with the female as he waits for her to show signs she is ready to mate She signals to him by positioning herself in lordosis with their tail to the side Copulation is generally 20 to 25 seconds long with the male biting the female by the scruff of her neck After it is finished the male quickly pulls away as the female may turn and slap him 122 Tiger pairs may stay together for up to four days and mate multiple times 124 Gestation ranges from 93 to 114 days with an average of 103 to 105 days 121 A tigress gives birth in a secluded location be it in dense vegetation in a cave or under a rocky shelter 125 Litters consist of as many seven cubs but two or three are more typical 121 125 Newborn cubs weigh 785 1 610 g 27 7 56 8 oz and are blind and altricial 125 The mother licks and cleans her cubs suckles them and viscously defends them from any potential threat 121 She will only leave them alone to hunt and even then does not travel far 126 When a mother suspects an area is no longer safe she moves her cubs to a new spot transporting them one by one by grabbing them by the scruff of the neck with her mouth The mortality rate for tiger cubs can reach 50 during these early months causes of death include predators like dholes leopards and pythons 127 Young are able to see in a week can leave the denning site in two months and around the same time they start eating meat 121 128 nbsp Mother tiger with cubAfter around two months the cubs are able to follow their mother They still hide in vegetation when she goes hunting and she will guide them to the kill Cubs bond though play fighting and practice stalking A hierarchy develops in the litter with the biggest cub often a male being the most dominant and the first to eat its fill at a kill 129 Around the age of six months cubs are fully weaned and have more freedom to explore their environment Between eight and ten months they accompany their mother on hunts 127 A cub can make a kill as early as 11 months and reach independence around 18 to 24 months of age males becoming independent earlier than females 130 Radio collared tigers in Chitwan started dispersing from their natal areas earliest at the age of 19 months 76 Young females are sexual mature at three to four years whereas males are at four to five years Tigers may live up to 26 years 11 Tiger fathers play no role in raising the young but he may encounter and interact with them Resident males appear to visit the female cub families within his territory They have when observed swimming with females and their cubs and even sharing kills with them 131 132 One male was recorded looking after cubs whose mother had died 133 By defending his territory the male is also protecting the females and cubs from harassment by other males 134 When a new male takes over a territory cubs under a year old are at risk of being killed as the male would want to sire his own young with the females Older female cubs are tolerated but males may be treated as potential competitors 135 ConservationMain article Tiger conservation Further information 21st Century Tiger Global wild tiger population Country Year Estimate nbsp India 2023 3682 3925 136 137 nbsp Russia 2020 480 540 138 nbsp Indonesia 2016 400 600 139 nbsp Bangladesh 2014 300 500 1 nbsp Nepal 2022 355 140 nbsp Thailand 2023 189 141 nbsp Bhutan 2023 131 142 nbsp Malaysia 2022 lt 150 143 nbsp China 2018 55 144 nbsp Myanmar 2018 22 145 Total 5 764 6 467In the 1990s a new approach to tiger conservation was developed Tiger Conservation Units TCUs which are blocks of habitat that have the potential to host tiger populations in 15 habitat types within five bioregions Altogether 143 TCUs were identified and prioritized based on size and integrity of habitat poaching pressure and population status They range in size from 33 to 155 829 km2 13 to 60 166 sq mi 60 In 2016 an estimate of a global wild tiger population of approximately 3 890 individuals was presented during the Third Asia Ministerial Conference on Tiger Conservation 146 147 The WWF subsequently declared that the world s count of wild tigers had risen for the first time in a century 148 Major threats to the tiger include habitat destruction habitat fragmentation and poaching for fur and body parts which have simultaneously greatly reduced tiger populations in the wild 1 In India only 11 of the historical tiger habitat remains due to habitat fragmentation 149 Demand for tiger parts for use in traditional Chinese medicine has also been cited as a major threat to tiger populations 150 151 152 Some estimates suggest that there are fewer than 2 500 mature breeding individuals with no subpopulation containing more than 250 mature breeding individuals 1 India is home to the world s largest population of wild tigers 146 A 2014 census estimated a population of 2 226 a 30 increase since 2011 153 On International Tiger Day 2019 the Tiger Estimation Report 2018 was released by Prime Minister Narendra Modi The report estimates a population of 2967 tigers in India with 25 increase since 2014 Modi said India is one of the safest habitats for tigers as it has achieved the target of doubling the tiger population from 1411 in 2011 to 2967 in 2019 154 As of 2022 India accounts for 75 percent of global tiger population 155 The Tiger Census of 2023 reports tiger population in India at 3167 156 In 1973 India s Project Tiger started by Indira Gandhi established numerous tiger reserves The project was credited with tripling the number of wild Bengal tigers from some 1 200 in 1973 to over 3 500 in the 1990s but a 2007 census showed that numbers had dropped back to about 1 400 tigers because of poaching 157 158 159 Following the report the Indian government pledged 153 million to the initiative set up measures to combat poaching promised funds to relocate up to 200 000 villagers in order to reduce human tiger interactions 160 and set up eight new tiger reserves in India 161 India also reintroduced tigers to the Sariska Tiger Reserve 162 and by 2009 it was claimed that poaching had been effectively countered at Ranthambore National Park 163 In the 1940s the Siberian tiger was on the brink of extinction with only about 40 animals remaining in the wild in Russia As a result anti poaching controls were put in place by the Soviet Union and a network of protected zones zapovedniks were instituted leading to a rise in the population to several hundred Poaching again became a problem in the 1990s when the economy of Russia collapsed The major obstacle in preserving the species is the enormous territory individual tigers require up to 450 km 280 mi needed by a single female and more for a single male 164 Current conservation efforts are led by local governments and NGO s in concert with international organisations such as the World Wide Fund for Nature and the Wildlife Conservation Society 165 The competitive exclusion of wolves by tigers has been used by Russian conservationists to convince hunters to tolerate the big cats Tigers have less impact on ungulate populations than do wolves and are effective in controlling the latter s numbers 166 In 2005 there were thought to be about 360 animals in Russia though these exhibited little genetic diversity 167 However in a decade later the Siberian tiger census was estimated from 480 to 540 individuals 168 In China tigers became the target of large scale anti pest campaigns in the early 1950s where suitable habitats were fragmented following deforestation and resettlement of people to rural areas who hunted tigers and prey species Though tiger hunting was prohibited in 1977 the population continued to decline and is considered extinct in southern China since 2001 169 170 Having earlier rejected the Western led environmentalist movement China changed its stance in the 1980s and became a party to the CITES treaty By 1993 it had banned the trade in tiger parts and this diminished the use of tiger bones in traditional Chinese medicine 171 The Tibetan people s trade in tiger skins has also been a threat to tigers The pelts were used in clothing tiger skin chuba being worn as fashion In 2006 the 14th Dalai Lama was persuaded to take up the issue Since then there has been a change of attitude with some Tibetans publicly burning their chubas 172 In 1994 the Indonesian Sumatran Tiger Conservation Strategy addressed the potential crisis that tigers faced in Sumatra The Sumatran Tiger Project STP was initiated in June 1995 in and around the Way Kambas National Park to ensure the long term viability of wild Sumatran tigers and to accumulate data on tiger life history characteristics vital for the management of wild populations 173 By August 1999 the teams of the STP had evaluated 52 sites of potential tiger habitat in Lampung Province of which only 15 these were intact enough to contain tigers 174 In the framework of the STP a community based conservation program was initiated to document the tiger human dimension in the park to enable conservation authorities to resolve tiger human conflicts based on a comprehensive database rather than anecdotes and opinions 175 The Wildlife Conservation Society and Panthera Corporation formed the collaboration Tigers Forever with field sites including the world s largest tiger reserve the 21 756 km2 8 400 sq mi Hukaung Valley in Myanmar Other reserves were in the Western Ghats in India Thailand Laos Cambodia the Russian Far East covering in total about 260 000 km2 100 000 sq mi 176 Tigers have been studied in the wild using a variety of techniques Tiger population have been estimated using plaster casts of their pugmarks although this method was criticized as being inaccurate 177 More recent techniques include the use of camera traps and studies of DNA from tiger scat while radio collaring has been used to track tigers in the wild 178 Tiger spray has been found to be just as good or better as a source of DNA than scat 179 Relationship with humansTiger hunting Main article Tiger hunting nbsp Tiger hunting on elephant back in India 1808The tiger has been one of the most sought after game animals of Asia Tiger hunting took place on a large scale in the early 19th and 20th centuries being a recognised and admired sport by the British in colonial India the maharajas and aristocratic class of the erstwhile princely states of pre independence India A single maharaja or English hunter could claim to kill over a hundred tigers in their hunting career 180 Over 80 000 tigers were slaughtered in just 50 years spanning from 1875 to 1925 in British ruled India 181 Tiger hunting was done by some hunters on foot others sat up on machans with a goat or buffalo tied out as bait yet others on elephant back 182 King George V on his visit to Colonial India in 1911 killed 39 tigers in a matter of 10 days 183 One of these is on display at the Royal Albert Memorial Museum 184 Historically tigers have been hunted at a large scale so their famous striped skins could be collected The trade in tiger skins peaked in the 1960s just before international conservation efforts took effect By 1977 a tiger skin in an English market was considered to be worth US 4 250 180 Body part use nbsp A hunting party poses with a killed Javan tiger 1941Tiger parts are commonly used as amulets in South and Southeast Asia In the Philippines the fossils in Palawan were found besides stone tools This besides the evidence for cuts on the bones and the use of fire suggests that early humans had accumulated the bones 185 and the condition of the tiger subfossils dated to approximately 12 000 to 9 000 years ago differed from other fossils in the assemblage dated to the Upper Paleolithic The tiger subfossils showed longitudinal fracture of the cortical bone due to weathering which suggests that they had post mortem been exposed to light and air Tiger canines were found in Ambangan sites dating to the 10th to 12th centuries in Butuan Mindanao 186 187 Many people in China and other parts of Asia have a belief that various tiger parts have medicinal properties including as pain killers and aphrodisiacs 188 There is no scientific evidence to support these beliefs The use of tiger parts in pharmaceutical drugs in China is already banned and the government has made some offences in connection with tiger poaching punishable by death which Furthermore all trade in tiger parts is illegal under the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora and a domestic trade ban has been in place in China since 1993 189 However the trading of tiger parts in Asia has become a major black market industry and governmental and conservation attempts to stop it have been ineffective to date 180 Almost all black marketers engaged in the trade are based in China and have either been shipped and sold within their own country or into Taiwan South Korea or Japan 180 The Chinese subspecies was almost completely decimated by killing for commerce due to both the parts and skin trades in the 1950s through the 1970s 180 Contributing to the illegal trade there are a number of tiger farms in the country specialising in breeding them for profit It is estimated that between 5 000 and 10 000 captive bred semi tame animals live in these farms today 190 191 192 However many tigers for traditional medicine black market are wild ones shot or snared by poachers and may be caught anywhere in the tiger s remaining range from Siberia to India to the Malay Peninsula to Sumatra In the Asian black market a tiger penis can be worth the equivalent of around 300 U S dollars In the years of 1990 through 1992 27 million products with tiger derivatives were found 180 In July 2014 at an international convention on endangered species in Geneva Switzerland a Chinese representative admitted for the first time his government was aware trading in tiger skins was occurring in China 193 Man eating tigers Main article Tiger attack Wild tigers that have had no prior contact with humans actively avoid interactions with them However tigers cause more human deaths through direct attack than any other wild mammal 180 Attacks are occasionally provoked as tigers lash out after being injured while they themselves are hunted Attacks can be provoked accidentally as when a human surprises a tiger or inadvertently comes between a mother and her young 194 or as in a case in rural India when a postman startled a tiger used to seeing him on foot by riding a bicycle 195 Occasionally tigers come to view people as prey Such attacks are most common in areas where population growth logging and farming have put pressure on tiger habitats and reduced their wild prey Most man eating tigers are old missing teeth and unable to capture their preferred prey 50 For example the Champawat Tiger a tigress found in Nepal and then India had two broken canines She was responsible for an estimated 430 human deaths the most attacks known to be perpetrated by a single wild animal by the time she was shot in 1907 by Jim Corbett 196 According to Corbett tiger attacks on humans are normally in daytime when people are working outdoors and are not keeping watch 197 Early writings tend to describe man eating tigers as cowardly because of their ambush tactics 198 Man eaters have been a particular problem in recent decades in India and Bangladesh especially in Kumaon Garhwal and the Sundarbans mangrove swamps of Bengal where some healthy tigers have hunted humans Because of rapid habitat loss attributed to climate change tiger attacks have increased in the Sundarbans 199 The Sundarbans area had 129 human deaths from tigers from 1969 to 1971 In the 10 years prior to that period about 100 attacks per year in the Sundarbans with a high of around 430 in some years of the 1960s 180 Unusually in some years in the Sundarbans more humans are killed by tigers than vice versa 180 In 1972 India s production of honey and beeswax dropped by 50 when at least 29 people who gathered these materials were devoured 180 In 1986 in the Sundarbans since tigers almost always attack from the rear masks with human faces were worn on the back of the head on the theory that tigers usually do not attack if seen by their prey This decreased the number of attacks only temporarily All other means to prevent attacks such as providing more prey or using electrified human dummies did not work as well 200 In captivity nbsp Publicity photo of animal trainer Gunther Gebel Williams with several of his trained tigers c 1969In Ancient Roman times tigers were kept in menageries and amphitheatres to be exhibited trained and paraded and were often provoked to fight gladiators and other exotic beasts 201 202 Since the 17th century tigers were sought after to be kept at European castles as symbols of their owners power Tigers became zoo and circus exhibits in the 18th century a tiger could cost up to 4 000 francs in France 203 In 2007 over 4 000 captive tigers lived in China of which 3 000 were held by about 20 larger facilities with the rest held by some 200 smaller facilities 204 In 2011 468 facilities in the USA kept 2 884 tigers 205 Nineteen US states banned private ownership of tigers a license is required in 15 states and 16 states have no regulation 206 Many captive tigers are actually the result of crosses between Siberian and Bengal tigers 207 Cultural depictionsTigers and their superlative qualities have been a source of fascination for humans since ancient times and they are routinely visible as important cultural and media motifs They are also considered one of the charismatic megafauna and are used as the face of conservation campaigns worldwide In a 2004 online poll conducted by cable television channel Animal Planet involving more than 50 000 viewers from 73 countries the tiger was voted the world s favourite animal with 21 of the vote narrowly beating the dog 208 Mythology and legend Further information Tiger in Chinese culture and Tiger in Korean culture See also Tiger worship nbsp Tiger shaped jie badge of authority with gold inlays from the tomb of Zhao MoIn Chinese mythology and culture the tiger is one of the 12 animals of the Chinese zodiac In Chinese art the tiger is depicted as an earth symbol and equal rival of the Chinese dragon the two representing matter and spirit respectively The Southern Chinese martial art Hung Ga is based on the movements of the tiger and the crane In Imperial China a tiger was the personification of war and often represented the highest army General Officer 209 while the emperor and empress were represented by a dragon and phoenix respectively The White Tiger Chinese 白虎 pinyin Bai Hǔ is one of the Four Symbols of the Chinese constellations It is sometimes called the White Tiger of the West Chinese 西方白虎 and it represents the west and the autumn season 209 The tiger s tail appears in stories from countries including China and Korea it being generally inadvisable to grasp a tiger by the tail 210 211 In Korean mythology and culture the tiger is regarded as a guardian that drives away evil spirits and a sacred creature that brings good luck the symbol of courage and absolute power For the people who live in and around the forests of Korea the tiger considered the symbol of the Mountain Spirit or King of mountain animals citation needed In Buddhism the tiger is one of the Three Senseless Creatures symbolising anger with the monkey representing greed and the deer lovesickness 209 The Tungusic peoples considered the Siberian tiger a near deity and often referred to it as Grandfather or Old man The Udege and Nanai called it Amba The Manchu people considered the Siberian tiger as Hu Lin the king 212 In Hinduism the god Shiva wears and sits on tiger skin 213 The ten armed warrior goddess Durga rides the tigress or lioness Damon into battle In southern India the god Ayyappan was associated with a tiger 214 Dingu Aneni is the god in North East India is also associated with tiger 215 The weretiger replaces the werewolf in shapeshifting folklore in Asia 216 in India they were evil sorcerers while in Indonesia and Malaysia they were somewhat more benign 217 In Taiwanese folk beliefs Aunt Tiger portrays the story of a tiger which turns into an old woman abducts children at night and devours them to satisfy her appetite 218 In the Greco Roman world the tiger was depicted being ridden by the god Dionysus 219 Literature and media See also Bengal tiger Literature nbsp Blake s original printing of The Tyger 1794In the Hindu epic Mahabharata the tiger is fiercer and more ruthless than the lion 220 William Blake s poem The Tyger portrays the tiger as a menacing and fearful animal and the tiger Shere Khan in Rudyard Kipling s 1894 The Jungle Book is the mortal enemy of the human protagonist 221 Yann Martel s novel Life of Pi features the title character surviving shipwreck for months on a small boat with a large Bengal tiger while avoiding being eaten The story was adapted in Ang Lee s feature film of the same name in 2012 222 Friendly tiger characters include Tigger in A A Milne s Winnie the Pooh and Hobbes of the comic strip Calvin and Hobbes both represented as stuffed animals come to life 223 Tony the Tiger is a famous mascot for Kellogg s breakfast cereal Frosted Flakes 224 Heraldry and emblems See also Tigers sports teams The tiger is one of the animals displayed on the Pashupati seal of the Indus Valley civilisation The tiger was the emblem of the Chola Dynasty and was depicted on coins seals and banners 225 The seals of several Chola copper coins show the tiger the Pandyan emblem fish and the Chera emblem bow indicating that the Cholas had achieved political supremacy over the latter two dynasties Gold coins found in Kavilayadavalli in the Nellore district of Andhra Pradesh have motifs of the tiger bow and some indistinct marks 226 The tiger symbol of Chola Empire was later adopted by the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam and the tiger became a symbol of the unrecognised state of Tamil Eelam and Tamil independence movement 227 The Bengal tiger is the national animal of India and Bangladesh 228 The Malaysian tiger is the national animal of Malaysia 229 The Siberian tiger is the national animal of South Korea citation needed The Tiger is featured on the logo of the Delhi Capitals Indian Premier League team citation needed In European heraldry the tyger a depiction of a tiger as imagined by European artists is among the creatures used in charges and supporters This creature has several notable differences from real tigers lacking stripes and having a leonine tufted tail and a head terminating in large pointed jaws A more realistic tiger entered the heraldic armory through the British Empire s expansion into Asia and is referred to as the Bengal tiger to distinguish it from its older counterpart The Bengal tiger is not a common creature in heraldry but is used as a supporter in the arms of Bombay and emblazoned on the shield of the University of Madras 230 See alsoSiegfried amp Roy two famous tamers of tigers List of largest cats Tiger King a 2020 crime documentary series on the exotic pet tradeReferences a b c d e f g h Goodrich J Wibisono H Miquelle D Lynam A J Sanderson E Chapman S Gray T N E Chanchani P amp Harihar A 2022 Panthera tigris IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2022 e T15955A214862019 doi 10 2305 IUCN UK 2022 1 RLTS T15955A214862019 en Retrieved 31 August 2022 a b c d Linnaeus C 1758 Felis tigris Caroli Linnaei Systema naturae per regna tria naturae secundum classes ordines genera species cum characteribus differentiis synonymis locis in Latin Vol Tomus I decima reformata ed Holmiae Laurentius Salvius p 41 Ellerman J R Morrison Scott T C S 1951 Panthera tigris Linnaeus 1758 Checklist of Palaearctic and Indian mammals 1758 to 1946 London British Museum p 318 Brigida Danielle 11 September 2023 New Tiger Population Estimate World Wildlife Fund Retrieved 23 September 2023 Liddell H G amp Scott R 1940 tigris A Greek English Lexicon Revised and augmented ed Oxford Clarendon Press Liddell H G amp Scott R 1940 pan8hr A Greek English Lexicon Revised and augmented ed Oxford Clarendon Press Pocock R I 1929 Tigers Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society 33 3 505 541 a b Pocock R I 1939 Panthera tigris The Fauna of British India Including Ceylon and Burma Mammalia Volume 1 London T Taylor and Francis Ltd pp 197 210 a b Wozencraft W C 2005 Species Panthera tigris In Wilson D E Reeder D M eds Mammal Species of the World A Taxonomic and Geographic Reference 3rd ed Johns Hopkins University Press p 546 ISBN 978 0 8018 8221 0 OCLC 62265494 a b c d Kitchener A Tiger distribution phenotypic variation and conservation issues in Seidensticker Christie amp Jackson 1999 pp 19 39 a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad ae Mazak V 1981 Panthera tigris Mammalian Species 152 1 8 doi 10 2307 3504004 JSTOR 3504004 Wilting A Courtiol A Christiansen P Niedballa J Scharf A K Orlando L Balkenhol N Hofer H Kramer Schadt S Fickel J amp Kitchener A C 2015 Planning tiger recovery Understanding intraspecific variation for effective conservation Science Advances 11 5 e1400175 Bibcode 2015SciA 1E0175W doi 10 1126 sciadv 1400175 PMC 4640610 PMID 26601191 a b Kupferschmidt K 2015 Controversial study claims there are only two types of tiger Science doi 10 1126 science aac6905 a b c d Kitchener A C Breitenmoser Wursten C Eizirik E Gentry A Werdelin L Wilting A Yamaguchi N Abramov A V Christiansen P Driscoll C Duckworth J W Johnson W Luo S J Meijaard E O Donoghue P Sanderson J Seymour K Bruford M Groves C Hoffmann M Nowell K Timmons Z amp Tobe S 2017 A revised taxonomy of the Felidae The final report of the Cat Classification Task Force of the IUCN Cat Specialist Group PDF Cat News Special Issue 11 66 68 Liu Y C Sun X Driscoll C Miquelle D G Xu X Martelli P Uphyrkina O Smith J L D O Brien S J amp Luo S J 2018 Genome wide evolutionary analysis of natural history and adaptation in the world s tigers Current Biology 28 23 3840 3849 doi 10 1016 j cub 2018 09 019 PMID 30482605 Armstrong E E Khan A Taylor R W Gouy A Greenbaum G Thiery A Kang J T Redondo S A Prost S Barsh G Kaelin C Phalke S Chugani A Gilbert M Miquelle D Zachariah A Borthakur U Reddy A Louis E Ryder O A Jhala Y V Petrov D Excoffier L Hadly E Ramakrishnan U 2021 Recent evolutionary history of tigers highlights contrasting roles of genetic drift and selection Molecular Biology and Evolution 38 6 2366 2379 doi 10 1093 molbev msab032 PMC 8136513 PMID 33592092 Wang C Wu D D Yuan 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Smithsonian Institution and the National Science Foundation pp 95 202 a b Driscoll C A Yamaguchi N Bar Gal G K Roca A L Luo S MacDonald D W amp O Brien S J 2009 Mitochondrial Phylogeography Illuminates the Origin of the Extinct Caspian Tiger and Its Relationship to the Amur Tiger PLOS ONE 4 1 e4125 Bibcode 2009PLoSO 4 4125D doi 10 1371 journal pone 0004125 PMC 2624500 PMID 19142238 a b c Seidensticker J Christie S Jackson P Preface in Seidensticker Christie amp Jackson 1999 pp xv xx a b c d Temminck C J 1844 Apercu general et specifique sur les Mammiferes qui habitent le Japon et les Iles qui en dependent In Siebold P F v Temminck C J Schlegel H eds Fauna Japonica sive Descriptio animalium quae in itinere per Japoniam jussu et auspiciis superiorum qui summum in India Batava imperium tenent suscepto annis 1825 1830 collegit notis observationibus et adumbrationibus illustravit Ph Fr de Siebold Leiden Lugduni Batavorum a b Mazak J H 2010 Craniometric variation in the tiger Panthera tigris Implications for patterns of diversity taxonomy and conservation Mammalian Biology 75 1 45 68 doi 10 1016 j mambio 2008 06 003 a b Hilzheimer M 1905 Uber einige Tigerschadel aus der Strassburger zoologischen Sammlung Zoologischer Anzeiger 28 594 599 a b Mazak V 1968 Nouvelle sous espece de tigre provenant de l Asie du sud est Mammalia 32 1 104 112 doi 10 1515 mamm 1968 32 1 104 S2CID 84054536 a b c d e f Mazak J H amp Groves C P 2006 A taxonomic revision of the tigers Panthera tigris of Southeast Asia PDF Mammalian Biology 71 5 268 287 doi 10 1016 j mambio 2006 02 007 a b c Luo S J Kim J H Johnson W E van der Walt J Martenson J Yuhki N Miquelle D G Uphyrkina O Goodrich J M Quigley H B Tilson R Brady G Martelli P Subramaniam V McDougal C Hean S Huang S Q Pan W Karanth U K Sunquist M Smith J L D amp O Brien S J 2004 Phylogeography and genetic ancestry of tigers Panthera tigris PLOS Biology 2 12 e442 doi 10 1371 journal pbio 0020442 PMC 534810 PMID 15583716 a b Schwarz E 1912 Notes on Malay tigers with description of a new form from Bali Annals and Magazine of Natural History Series 8 Volume 10 57 324 326 doi 10 1080 00222931208693243 Mazak V 2004 Der Tiger in German Westarp Wissenschaften Hohenwarsleben ISBN 978 3 89432 759 0 Mazak V Groves C P Van Bree P 1978 Skin and Skull of the Bali Tiger and a list of preserved specimens of Panthera tigris balica Schwarz 1912 Zeitschrift fur Saugetierkunde 43 2 108 113 a b Pocock R I 1929 Tigers Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society 33 505 541 a b Johnson W E Eizirik E Pecon Slattery J Murphy W J Antunes A Teeling E O Brien S J 2006 The Late Miocene radiation of modern Felidae A genetic assessment Science 311 5757 73 77 Bibcode 2006Sci 311 73J doi 10 1126 science 1122277 PMID 16400146 S2CID 41672825 Werdelin L Yamaguchi N Johnson W E amp O Brien S J 2010 Phylogeny and evolution of cats Felidae In Macdonald D W amp Loveridge A J eds Biology and Conservation of Wild Felids Oxford UK Oxford University Press pp 59 82 ISBN 978 0 19 923445 5 Archived from the original on 25 September 2018 Retrieved 21 October 2018 Davis B W Li G amp Murphy W J 2010 Supermatrix and species tree methods resolve phylogenetic relationships within the big cats Panthera Carnivora Felidae PDF Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 56 1 64 76 doi 10 1016 j ympev 2010 01 036 PMID 20138224 dead link a b c d Mazak J H Christiansen P Kitchener A C 2011 Oldest Known Pantherine Skull and Evolution of the Tiger PLOS ONE 6 10 e25483 Bibcode 2011PLoSO 625483M doi 10 1371 journal pone 0025483 PMC 3189913 PMID 22016768 Davis B W Li G Murphy W J 2010 Supermatrix and species tree methods resolve phylogenetic relationships within the big cats Panthera Carnivora Felidae Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 56 1 64 76 doi 10 1016 j ympev 2010 01 036 PMID 20138224 Tseng Z J Wang X Slater G J Takeuchi G T Li Q Liu J Xie G 2014 Himalayan fossils of the oldest known pantherine establish ancient origin of big cats Proceedings of the Royal Society B 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China recognized through palaeogenomics Proceedings of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences 289 1979 doi 10 1098 rspb 2022 0617 PMC 9326283 PMID 35892215 Cooper D M Dugmore A J Gittings B M Scharf A K Wilting A Kitchener A C 2016 Predicted Pleistocene Holocene rangeshifts of the tiger Panthera tigris Diversity and Distributions 22 11 1 13 Bibcode 2016DivDi 22 1199C doi 10 1111 ddi 12484 Cho Y S Hu L Hou H Lee H Xu J Kwon S Oh S Kim H M Jho S Kim S Shin Y A Kim B C Kim H Kim C U Luo S J Johnson W E Koepfli K P Schmidt Kuntzel A Turner J A Marker L Harper C Miller S M Jacobs W Bertola L D Kim T H Lee S Zhou Q Jung H J Xu X amp Gadhvi P 2013 The tiger genome and comparative analysis with lion and snow leopard genomes Nature Communications 4 2433 Bibcode 2013NatCo 4 2433C doi 10 1038 ncomms3433 hdl 2263 32583 PMC 3778509 PMID 24045858 a b Actman Jani 24 February 2017 Cat Experts Ligers and Other Designer Hybrids Pointless and Unethical National Geographic com Archived from the original 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Talas L Baddeley R J Cuthill I C amp Scott Samuel N E 2019 Optimizing colour for camouflage and visibility using deep learning the effects of the environment and the observer s visual system Journal of the Royal Society Interface 16 154 20190183 doi 10 1098 rsif 2019 0183 PMC 6544896 PMID 31138092 Xu X Dong G X Schmidt Kuntzel A Zhang X L Zhuang Y Fang R Sun X Hu X S Zhang T Y Yang H D Zhang D L Marker L Jiang Z F Li R amp Luo S J 2017 The genetics of tiger pelage color variations PDF Cell Research 27 7 954 957 doi 10 1038 cr 2017 32 PMC 5518981 PMID 28281538 Xavier N 2010 A new conservation policy needed for reintroduction of Bengal tiger white PDF Current Science 99 7 894 895 Sagar V Kaelin C B Natesh M Reddy P A Mohapatra R K Chhattani H Thatte P Vaidyanathan S Biswas S Bhatt S amp Paul S 2021 High frequency of an otherwise rare phenotype in a small and isolated tiger population Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 118 39 e2025273118 Bibcode 2021PNAS 11825273S doi 10 1073 pnas 2025273118 PMC 8488692 PMID 34518374 Sanderson E Forrest J Loucks C Ginsberg J Dinerstein E Seidensticker J Leimgruber P Songer M Heydlauff A O Brien T Bryja G Klenzendorf S Wikramanayake E 2006 Setting Priorities for the Conservation and Recovery of Wild Tigers 2005 2015 The Technical Assessment PDF New York Washington DC WCS WWF Smithsonian and NFWF STF Archived from the original PDF on 18 January 2012 Retrieved 7 August 2019 a b c Sunquist M What is a Tiger Ecology and Behaviour in Tiloson amp Nyhus 2010 pp 19 34harvnb error no target CITEREFTilosonNyhus2010 help Miquelle D G Smirnov E N Merrill T W Myslenkov A E Quigley H Hornocker M G Schleyer B Hierarchical spatial analysis of Amur tiger relationships to habitat and prey in Seidensticker Christie amp Jackson 1999 pp 71 99 a b Wikramanayake E D Dinerstein E Robinson J G Karanth K U Rabinowitz A Olson D Mathew T Hedao P Connor M Hemley G Bolze D Where can tigers live in the future A framework for identifying high priority areas for the conservation of tigers in the wild in Seidensticker Christie amp Jackson 1999 pp 254 272 Jigme K amp Tharchen L 2012 Camera trap records of tigers at high altitudes in Bhutan Cat News 56 14 15 Adhikarimayum A S amp Gopi G V 2018 First photographic record of tiger presence at higher elevations of the Mishmi Hills in the Eastern Himalayan Biodiversity Hotspot Arunachal Pradesh India Journal of Threatened Taxa 10 13 12833 12836 doi 10 11609 jott 4381 10 13 12833 12836 Simcharoen S Pattanavibool A Karanth K U Nichols J D amp Kumar N S 2007 How many tigers Panthera tigris are there in Huai Kha Khaeng Wildlife Sanctuary Thailand An estimate using photographic capture recapture sampling Oryx 41 4 447 453 doi 10 1017 S0030605307414107 Wibisono H T Linkie M Guillera Arroita G Smith J A Sunarto Pusarini W Asriadi Baroto P Brickle N Dinata Y Gemita E Gunaryadi D Haidir I A Herwansyah 2011 Population Status of a Cryptic Top Predator An Island Wide Assessment of Tigers in Sumatran 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M 2008 Tigers in the Snow reprint ed Paw Prints ISBN 9781435296152 Sivkishen 2014 Kingdom of Shiva New Delhi Diamond Pocket Books Pvt Ltd p 301 Balambal V 1997 19 Religion Identity Human Values Indian Context Bioethics in India Proceedings of the International Bioethics Workshop in Madras Biomanagement of Biogeoresources 16 19 January 1997 Eubios Ethics Institute Retrieved 8 October 2007 Nanditha K 2010 Sacred Animals of India Penguin Books India ISBN 978 8184751826 Retrieved 5 August 2022 Summers M 1933 The Werewolf in Lore and Legend 2012 ed Mineola Dover Publications p 21 ISBN 978 0 517 18093 8 Newman P 2012 Tracking the Weretiger Supernatural Man Eaters of India China and Southeast Asia McFarland pp 96 102 ISBN 978 0 7864 7218 5 Hulick J 2009 Review of Auntie Tiger Bulletin of the Center for Children s Books 62 6 267 doi 10 1353 bcc 0 0662 S2CID 144937417 Dunbabin K M D 1999 Mosaics of the Greek and Roman World Cambridge Cambridge University Press pp 32 44 ISBN 978 0 521 00230 1 Krishna Dwaipayana Vyasa SECTION LXVIII The Mahabharata Translated by Ganguli K M Retrieved 15 June 2016 via Internet Sacred Text Archive Green S 2006 Tiger Reaktion Books pp 72 73 125 27 ISBN 978 1861892768 Castelli J C 2012 The Making of Life of Pi A Film a Journey London Harper Collins ISBN 978 0062114136 Kuznets L R 1994 When Toys Come Alive Narratives of Animation Metamorphosis and Development Yale University Press p 54 ISBN 978 0300056457 Gifford C 2005 Advertising amp Marketing Developing the Marketplace Heinemann Raintree Library pp 34 35 ISBN 978 1403476517 Hermann Kulke K Kesavapany Vijay Sakhuja 2009 Nagapattinam to Suvarnadwipa Reflections on the Chola Naval Expeditions to Southeast Asia Institute of Southeast Asian Studies p 84 Singh U 2008 A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India From the Stone Age to the 12th Century Delhi Chennai Pearson Education ISBN 9788131711200 Somasundaram D 2013 Scarred Communities Psychosocial Impact of Man made and Natural Disasters on Sri Lankan Society New Delhi Sage Publications India ISBN 9789353881054 National Animal Government of India Official website Archived from the original on 11 May 2012 DiPiazza F 13 February 2024 Malaysia in Pictures Twenty First Century Books ISBN 978 0 8225 2674 2 Fox Davies A 1909 A Complete Guide to Heraldry London T C and E C Jack pp 191 192 Bibliography MacDonald David ed 2001 The Encyclopedia of Mammals 2nd ed Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0 7607 1969 5 Mills Stephen 2004 Tiger Firefly Books ISBN 1 55297 949 0 Schaller George B 1967 The Deer and the Tiger A Study of Wildlife in India University of Chicago Press ISBN 0 226 73631 8 Seidensticker John Christie Sarah Jackson Peter eds 1999 Riding the Tiger Tiger Conservation in Human Dominated Landscapes Cambridge University Press ISBN 978 0521648356 Thapar Valmik 2004 Tiger The Ultimate Guide CDS Books ISBN 1 59315 024 5 Tilson Ronald Nyhus Phillip J eds 2010 Tigers of the World The Science Politics and Conservation ofPanthera tigris Second ed Academic Press ISBN 978 0 08 094751 8 External links nbsp Media related to Panthera tigris category at Wikimedia Commons nbsp Data related to Panthera tigris at Wikispecies nbsp Quotations related to Tigers at Wikiquote nbsp Tigers travel guide from Wikivoyage Tiger Panthera tigris IUCN SSC Cat Specialist Group Portals nbsp Cats nbsp Mammals nbsp Animals nbsp Biology nbsp Asia Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Tiger amp oldid 1207730440, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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