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Aviation biofuel

October 17, 2023

An aviation biofuel or bio-jet fuel[1] or bio-aviation fuel (BAF)[2] is a biofuel used to power aircraft and is said to be a sustainable aviation fuel (SAF). The International Air Transport Association (IATA) considers it a key element to reducing the carbon footprint within the environmental impact of aviation.[3] Aviation biofuel could help decarbonize medium- and long-haul air travel generating most emissions, and could extend the life of older aircraft types by lowering their carbon footprint.

Refueling an Airbus A320 with biofuel in 2011

Biofuels are biomass-derived fuels from plants or waste; depending on which type of biomass is used, they could lower CO2 emissions by 20–98% compared to conventional jet fuel.[4] The first test flight using blended biofuel was in 2008, and in 2011 blended fuels with 50% biofuels were allowed in commercial flights. In 2019, the IATA was aiming for a 2% penetration by 2025.

Aviation biofuel can be produced from plant sources such as Jatropha, algae, tallows, waste oils, palm oil, Babassu, and Camelina (bio-SPK); from solid biomass using pyrolysis processed with a Fischer–Tropsch process (FT-SPK); with an alcohol-to-jet (ATJ) process from waste fermentation; or from synthetic biology through a solar reactor. Small piston engines can be modified to burn ethanol.

Sustainable biofuels do not compete with food crops, prime agricultural land, natural forest or fresh water. They are an alternative to electrofuels.[5] Sustainable aviation fuel is certified as being sustainable by a third-party organisation.

Environmental impact Edit

Further information: Environmental impact of aviation and Biofuel § Greenhouse gas emissions

Plants absorb carbon dioxide as they grow, meaning plant-based biofuels emit only the same amount of greenhouse gases as previously absorbed. Biofuel production, processing and transport however emit greenhouse gases, reducing the emissions savings.[2] Biofuels with most emission savings are those derived from photosynthetic algae (98% savings, technology not yet mature) and from non-food crops and forest residues (91–95% savings).[2]

Jatropha oil, a non-food oil used as a biofuel, should lower CO2 emissions by 50–80% compared to Jet-A1.[6] Jatropha, used for biodiesel, can thrive on marginal land where most plants would produce low crop yields.[7][8] A life cycle assessment by the Yale School of Forestry on jatropha, one source of potential biofuels, estimated that using it could reduce greenhouse gas emissions by up to 85% if former agro-pastoral land is used, or increase emissions by up to 60% if natural woodland is converted to use.[9]

Palm oil cultivation is constrained by scarce land resources and its expansion to forestland causes deforestation and biodiversity loss, and direct and indirect emissions due to land-use change.[2] Neste Corporation's renewable products include a refining residue of food-grade palm oil, the oily waste skimmed from the palm oil mill's wastewater. Other Neste sources are UCO (used cooking oil) from deep fryers and animal fats.[10] Neste's sustainable aviation fuel is used by Lufthansa;[11] Air France and KLM announced 2030 SAF targets[12] and announced multi-year purchase contracts totalling over 2.4 million tonnes of SAF from Neste, TotalEnergies and DG Fuels.[13]

NASA has determined that 50% aviation biofuel mixture can cut particulate emissions caused by air traffic by 50–70%.[14] Biofuels do not contain sulfur compounds and thus do not emit sulfur dioxide.[citation needed]

Timeline Edit

See also: Aviation biofuel demonstrations

The first flight using blended biofuel took place in 2008.[15] Virgin Atlantic flew the first flight by a commercial airline to be powered partly by biofuel, while commercial biofuel flights were likely to use feedstocks such as algae.[16] By then, airlines representing more than 15% of the industry formed the Sustainable Aviation Fuel Users Group, with support from NGOs such as Natural Resources Defense Council and The Roundtable For Sustainable Biofuels. They pledged to develop sustainable biofuels for aviation.[17] That year, Boeing was co-chair of the Algal Biomass Organization, joined by air carriers and biofuel technology developer UOP LLC (Honeywell).[18]

In 2009, the IATA committed to achieve carbon-neutral growth by 2020, and to halve carbon emissions by 2050.[19]

In 2010, Boeing targeted of 1% of global aviation fuels by 2015.[20]

 
US Marine Corps AV-8B Harrier II test flight using a 50–50 biofuel blend in 2011

By June 2011, the revised Specification for Aviation Turbine Fuel Containing Synthesized Hydrocarbons (ASTM D7566) allowed commercial airlines to blend up to 50% biofuels with conventional jet fuel.[21] The safety and performance of jet fuel used in passenger flights is certified by ASTM International.[22] Biofuels were approved for commercial use after a multi-year technical review from aircraft makers, engine manufacturers and oil companies.[23] Since then, some airlines have experimented with using biofuels on commercial flights.[24] As of July 2020, there have been published seven annexes to D7566, including as much types of biofuels: Fischer-Tropsch Synthetic Paraffinic Kerosene (FT-SPK, 2009), Hydroprocessed Esters and Fatty Acids Synthetic Paraffinic Kerosene (HEFA-SPK, 2011), Hydroprocessed Fermented Sugars to Synthetic Isoparaffins (HFS-SIP, 2014), Fischer-Tropsch Synthetic Paraffinic Kerosene with Aromatics (FT-SPK/A, 2015), Alcohol to Jet Synthetic Paraffinic Kerosene (ATJ-SPK, 2016), Catalytic Hydrothermolysis Synthesized Kerosene (CH-SK, or CHJ; 2020).[25]

In December 2011, the FAA awarded US$7.7 million to eight companies to develop drop-in sustainable fuels, especially from alcohols, sugars, biomass, and organic matter such as pyrolysis oils, within its CAAFI and CLEEN programs.[26]

From 2014, Solena planned to turn annually 500,000 tonnes of waste from the City of London that would normally go to landfill into biofuel to be used in the British Airways fleet,[27] but filed for bankruptcy in 2015.[28]

By 2015, cultivation of fatty acid methyl esters and alkenones from the algae, Isochrysis, was under research as a possible jet biofuel feedstock.[29]

By 2016, Thomas Brueck of Munich TU was forecasting that algaculture could provide 3–5% of jetfuel needs by 2050.[30]

In Fall 2016, to achieve its emissions reductions goals, the ICAO planned multiple measures including the development and deployment of sustainable aviation fuels.[31]

Dozens of companies received hundreds of millions in venture capital from 2005 to 2012 to extract fuel oil from algae, some promising competitively priced fuel by 2012 and a production of 1 billion US gal (3.8 million m3) by 2012-2014.[32] By 2017, nor were achieved and most companies had disappeared or changed their business plans to focus on cosmetics supplements, nutraceuticals, pet food additives, animal feed, pigments and speciality oils.[32]

In 2019, 0.1% of fuel was SAF:[33] the International Air Transport Association (IATA) supports the adoption of Sustainable Aviation fuel, aiming in 2019 for a 2% penetration by 2025: 7 million m3 (1.8 billion US gal).[34] By then, more than 150,000 flights have used biofuels and five airports have regular biofuel distribution: Bergen, Brisbane, Los Angeles, Oslo and Stockholm, with others offering occasional supply.[15]

 
In 2019, United Airlines purchased up to 10 million US gallons (38,000 m3) of SAF from World Energy over two years.[35]

That year, Virgin Australia had fueled more than 700 flights and flown more than one million kilometers, domestic and international, using Gevo's alcohol-to-jet fuel.[36] Gevo is committed to going after the entire gallon of sustainable aviation fuel, potentially leading to a negative carbon footprint. Virgin Atlantic was working to regularly use fuel derived from the waste gases of steel mills, with LanzaTech.[37]British Airways wanted to convert household waste into jet fuel with Velocys.[37]United Airlines committed to 900 million US gal (3,400,000 m3) of sustainable aviation fuel for 10 years from Fulcrum BioEnergy (to be compared to its 4.1 billion US gal (16,000,000 m3) fuel consumption in 2018), after its $30 million investment in 2015, and will develop up to five biofuel factories near its hubs.[37]

From 2020, Qantas will start using a 50/50 blend of SG Preston's biofuel on its Los Angeles-Australia flights, also providing fuel derived from non-food plant oils to JetBlue Airways during 10 years.[37] At its sites in Singapore, Rotterdam and Porvoo, Finland's Neste is expecting to improve its renewable fuel production capacity from 2.7 to 3.0 million t (6.0 to 6.6 billion lb) a year by 2020, and is increasing its Singapore capacity by 1.3 million t (2.9 billion lb) to reach 4.5 million t (9.9 billion lb) in 2022 by investing €1.4 billion ($1.6 billion).[37]

By 2020, International Airlines Group had invested $400 million to convert waste into sustainable aviation fuel with Velocys.[38]

In early 2021, Boeing's CEO Dave Calhoun said drop-in sustainable aviation fuels are "the only answer between now and 2050" to reduce carbon emissions.[39]

Production Edit

Jet fuel is a mixture of various hydrocarbons. The range of their sizes (molecular weights or carbon numbers) is restricted by the requirements for the product, for example, freezing point or smoke point. Jet fuels are sometimes classified as kerosene or naphtha-type. Kerosene-type fuels include Jet A, Jet A-1, JP-5 and JP-8. Naphtha-type jet fuels, sometimes referred to as "wide-cut" jet fuel, include Jet B and JP-4.

"Drop-in" biofuels are biofuels that are completely interchangeable with conventional fuels. Deriving "drop-in" jet fuel from bio-based sources is ASTM approved via two routes. ASTM has also found it safe to blend in 50% SPK into regular jet fuels.[40][22] Only tests have been done so far with blending in synthetic paraffinic kerosene (SPK) in considerably higher concentrations.[41]

HEFA-SPK
Hydroprocessed Esters and Fatty Acids Synthetic Paraffinic Kerosine (HEFA-SPK) is a specific type of hydrotreated vegetable oil fuel.[2] As of 2020 this was the only mature technology.[15][2] HEFA-SPK fuel is considered to be a leading alternative replacement for conventional jet fuel by the CAA.[42] HEFA-SPK was approved by Altair Engineering for use in 2011.[43] HEFA-SPK is produced by the deoxygenation and hydroprocessing of the feedstock fatty acids of algae, jatropha, and camelina.[44]
Bio-SPK
This fuel uses oil that is extracted from plant sources such as jatropha, algae, tallows, waste oils, babassu, and Camelina to produce synthetic paraffinic kerosene (bio-SPK) by cracking and hydroprocessing. Using algae to make jet fuel remains an emerging technology. Companies working on algae jet fuel include Solazyme, Honeywell UOP, Solena, Sapphire Energy, Imperium Renewables, and Aquaflow Bionomic Corporation. Universities working on algae jet fuel are Arizona State University and Cranfield University. Major investors for algae based SPK research are Boeing, Honeywell/UOP, Air New Zealand, Continental Airlines, Japan Airlines, and General Electric.[citation needed]
FT-SPK
Another route involves processing solid biomass using pyrolysis to produce oil or gasification to produce a syngas that is processed into FT SPK (Fischer–Tropsch Synthetic Paraffinic Kerosene).[citation needed]
ATJ-SPK
Alcohol-to-jet (ATJ) pathway takes alcohols such as ethanol or butanol and de-oxygenates and processes them into jet fuels.[45] Companies such as LanzaTech have created ATJ-SPK from CO2 in flue gases.[46] The ethanol is produced from CO in the flue gases using microbes such as Clostridium autoethanogenum. In 2016 LanzaTech demonstrated its technology at Pilot scale in NZ –using Industrial waste gases from the steel industry as a feedstock for its microbial fermentation.[47][48][49] Gevo developed technology to retrofit existing ethanol plants to produce isobutanol.[50] Alcohol-to-Jet Synthetic Paraffinic Kerosene (ATJ-SPK) is a proven pathway to deliver a bio-based, low-carbon option to travelers.[citation needed]
Future production routes
Systems that use synthetic biology to create hydro-carbons are under development.
  • The SUN-to-LIQUID project is examining Fischer-Tropsch hydro-carbon fuels (solar kerosine) through the use of a solar reactor.[51][52][53]
  • Alder Fuels raw material is waste from forestry and agriculture. This is mainly structural polymers cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin. They are processed via pyrolysis. The result is condensed into greencrude, a hydrocarbon-rich liquid, which is turned into fuel in refineries.[54]
Piston engines
Small piston engines can be modified to burn ethanol.[55] Swift Fuel, a biofuel alternative to avgas, was approved as a test fuel by ASTM International in December 2009.[56][57]
Technical challenges
Nitrile-based rubber materials expand in the presence of aromatic compounds found in conventional petroleum fuel. Pure biofuels that aren't mixed with petroleum and don't contain paraffin-based additives may cause rubber seals and hoses to shrink.[58] Synthetic rubber substitutes that are not adversely affected by biofuels, such as Viton, for seals and hoses are available.[59] The United States Air Force found harmful bacteria and fungi in their biofueled aircraft, and use pasteurization to disinfect them.[60]

Economics Edit

The International Energy Agency forecast SAF production should grow from 18 to 75 billion litres between 2025 and 2040, representing a share of aviation fuel getting from 5% to 19%.[15] By 2019, fossil jet fuel production cost was $0.3-0.6 per L given a $50–100 crude oil barrel, while aviation biofuel production cost was $0.7-1.6, needing a $110–260 crude oil barrel to break-even.[15]

As of 2020 aviation biofuel is more expensive than fossil jet kerosene,[1] considering aviation taxation and subsidies at that time.[61]

Sustainable aviation fuels Edit

 
In 2016, Oslo Airport became the first international airport to offer sustainable aviation fuel as part of the fuel mix.

Sustainable biofuels do not use food crops, prime agricultural land or fresh water. Sustainable aviation fuel (SAF) is certified by a third-party such as the Roundtable For Sustainable Biofuels.[62]

Sustainable fuels can be created with renewable energy without biomaterial. Carbon can be sourced from CO
2 to make kerosene, etc. Hydrogen can be combusted or used in a fuel cell, although storage and transport remain challenging.

As of 2022, some 450,000 flights had used sustainable fuels as part of the fuel mix, although such fuels were ~3x more expensive than the traditional fossil kerosene.[63]

Certification Edit

A sustainable aviation fuel (SAF) sustainability certification verifies that the product has satisfied criteria focused on environmental, social and economic "triple-bottom-line" considerations. Under many emission regulation schemes, such as the European Union Emissions Trading Scheme (EUTS), a certified SAF product may be exempted from carbon compliance liability costs.[64] This marginally improves SAF's economic competitiveness over fossil-based fuel. However, commercialisation and regulatory hurdles remain to achieve price parity and to enable widespread uptake.[65]

The first reputable body to launch a sustainable biofuel certification system was the European-based Roundtable on Sustainable Biomaterials (RSB) NGO.[66] Leading airlines and other signatories to the Sustainable Aviation Fuel Users Group (SAFUG) pledged to support RSB as the preferred certification provider.[67][68]

Criteria Edit

EU RED II Recast (2018)
Greenhouse gas emissions from sustainable fuels must be lower than those from the fuels they replace: at least 50% for production built prior to 5 October 2015, 60% after that date and 65% after 2021. Raw materials cannot be sourced from land with high biodiversity or high carbon stocks (i.e. primary and protected forests, biodiversity-rich grasslands, wetlands and peatlands). Other sustainability issues are set out in the Governance Regulation and may be covered on a voluntary basis.
ICAO 'CORSIA'
GHG Reduction - Criterion 1: lifecycle reductions of at least 10% compared to fossil fuel. Carbon Stock - Criterion 1: not produced from biomass obtained from land whose uses changed after 1 January 2008 from primeval forests, wetlands or peatlands, as all these lands have high carbon stocks. Criterion 2: For land use changes after 1 January 2008, (using IPCC land categories), if emissions from direct land use change (DLUC) exceed the default value of the induced land use change (ILUC), the value of the DLUC replaces the default (ILUC) value.

Global impact Edit

As emissions trading schemes and other carbon compliance regimes emerge, certain biofuels are likely to be exempted ("zero rated") by governments from carbon compliance due to their closed-loop nature, if they can prove their wider sustainability credentials. For example, in the EUTS, SAFUG's proposal was accepted[69] that only fuels certified as sustainable by the RSB or similar body would be zero rated.[70] SAFUG was formed by a group of interested airlines in 2008 under the auspices of Boeing Commercial Airplanes. Member airlines represent more than 15% of the industry, and signed a pledge to work towards SAF.[71][72]

In addition to SAF certification, the integrity of aviation biofuel producers and their product can be assessed by means such as Richard Branson's Carbon War Room,[73] or the Renewable Jet Fuels initiative.[74] The latter works with companies such as LanzaTech, SG Biofuels, AltAir, Solazyme, and Sapphire.[75][verification needed]

Along with her co-authors, Candelaria Bergero of the University of California's Earth System Science Department stated that "main challenges to scaling up such sustainable fuel production include technology costs and process efficiencies", and widespread production would undermine food security and land use.[76]

Certified processes Edit

Abbreviation Conversion Process Possible Feedstocks Blending Ratio Commercialization Proposals / Projects
HEFA-SPK Synthesized paraffinic kerosene produced from hydroprocessed esters and fatty acids Bio-Oils, Animal Fat, Recycled Oils 50% World Energy, Universal Oil Products, Neste, Dynamic Fuels, EERC
FT-SPK Fischer-Tropsch hydroprocessed synthesized paraffinic kerosene Coal, Natural Gas, Biomass 50% Fulcrum Bioenergy, Red Rock Biofuels, SG Preston, Kaidi Finland, Sasol, Shell Oil Company, Syntroleum
SIP-HFS Synthesized kerosene isoparaffins produced from hydroprocessed fermented sugars Biomass-derived sugar 10% Amyris (company), Total S.A.
SPK/A Synthesized kerosene with aromatics derived by alkylation of light aromatics from non-petroleum sources Coal, Natural Gas, Biomass 50% Sasol
ATJ-SPK Alcohol-to-jet synthetic paraffinic kerosene Biomass-derived ethanol or isobutanol 50% Gevo, Cobalt, Universal Oil Products, Lanzatech, Swedish Biofuels, Byogy

See also Edit

References Edit

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Further reading Edit

  • Adam Klauber (Rocky Mountain Institute); Isaac Toussie (Rocky Mountain Institute); Steve Csonka (Commercial Aviation Alternative Fuels Initiative); Barbara Bramble (National Wildlife Federation) (Oct 23, 2017). "Opinion: Biofuels Sustainable, Essential To Aviation's Future". Aviation Week & Space Technology.
  • "Sustainable Aviation Fuel" (PDF). Gevo. December 2019. Alcohol-to-Jet Synthetic Paraffinic Kerosene Is a Proven Pathway to Deliver a Bio-Based, Low-Carbon Option to Travelers
  • McKinsey & Company (Nov 2020). Clean Skies for Tomorrow (PDF) (Report). World Economic Forum. Sustainable Aviation Fuels as a Pathway to Net-Zero Aviation

External links Edit

  • "Sustainable Sky Institute". non-profit think tank/do tank focussed on [...] the market transformation of the world's air transport system towards a [...] sustainable long-term future
  • "Aviation industry reducing its environmental footprint". Aviation: Benefits Beyond Borders. Air Transport Action Group.
  • . Archived from the original on 2015-04-02. Retrieved 2015-03-27. Nordic association working to promote and develop a more sustainable aviation industry, with a specific focus on alternative sustainable fuels
  • "Roundtable on Sustainable Biofuels". The RSB is supporting the development of a sustainable bioeconomy
  • "International Journal of Sustainable Aviation". Inderscience Publishers.
  • "Biofuels for aviation". European Commission. 5 September 2023.
  • Geoff Hunt (22 April 2021). "Why industry needs global standards for sustainable fuel use". Flightglobal.

October 17, 2023
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An aviation biofuel or bio jet fuel 1 or bio aviation fuel BAF 2 is a biofuel used to power aircraft and is said to be a sustainable aviation fuel SAF The International Air Transport Association IATA considers it a key element to reducing the carbon footprint within the environmental impact of aviation 3 Aviation biofuel could help decarbonize medium and long haul air travel generating most emissions and could extend the life of older aircraft types by lowering their carbon footprint Refueling an Airbus A320 with biofuel in 2011Biofuels are biomass derived fuels from plants or waste depending on which type of biomass is used they could lower CO2 emissions by 20 98 compared to conventional jet fuel 4 The first test flight using blended biofuel was in 2008 and in 2011 blended fuels with 50 biofuels were allowed in commercial flights In 2019 the IATA was aiming for a 2 penetration by 2025 Aviation biofuel can be produced from plant sources such as Jatropha algae tallows waste oils palm oil Babassu and Camelina bio SPK from solid biomass using pyrolysis processed with a Fischer Tropsch process FT SPK with an alcohol to jet ATJ process from waste fermentation or from synthetic biology through a solar reactor Small piston engines can be modified to burn ethanol Sustainable biofuels do not compete with food crops prime agricultural land natural forest or fresh water They are an alternative to electrofuels 5 Sustainable aviation fuel is certified as being sustainable by a third party organisation Contents 1 Environmental impact 2 Timeline 3 Production 4 Economics 5 Sustainable aviation fuels 5 1 Certification 5 1 1 Criteria 5 2 Global impact 5 3 Certified processes 6 See also 7 References 8 Further reading 9 External linksEnvironmental impact EditFurther information Environmental impact of aviation and Biofuel Greenhouse gas emissions Plants absorb carbon dioxide as they grow meaning plant based biofuels emit only the same amount of greenhouse gases as previously absorbed Biofuel production processing and transport however emit greenhouse gases reducing the emissions savings 2 Biofuels with most emission savings are those derived from photosynthetic algae 98 savings technology not yet mature and from non food crops and forest residues 91 95 savings 2 Jatropha oil a non food oil used as a biofuel should lower CO2 emissions by 50 80 compared to Jet A1 6 Jatropha used for biodiesel can thrive on marginal land where most plants would produce low crop yields 7 8 A life cycle assessment by the Yale School of Forestry on jatropha one source of potential biofuels estimated that using it could reduce greenhouse gas emissions by up to 85 if former agro pastoral land is used or increase emissions by up to 60 if natural woodland is converted to use 9 Palm oil cultivation is constrained by scarce land resources and its expansion to forestland causes deforestation and biodiversity loss and direct and indirect emissions due to land use change 2 Neste Corporation s renewable products include a refining residue of food grade palm oil the oily waste skimmed from the palm oil mill s wastewater Other Neste sources are UCO used cooking oil from deep fryers and animal fats 10 Neste s sustainable aviation fuel is used by Lufthansa 11 Air France and KLM announced 2030 SAF targets 12 and announced multi year purchase contracts totalling over 2 4 million tonnes of SAF from Neste TotalEnergies and DG Fuels 13 NASA has determined that 50 aviation biofuel mixture can cut particulate emissions caused by air traffic by 50 70 14 Biofuels do not contain sulfur compounds and thus do not emit sulfur dioxide citation needed Timeline EditSee also Aviation biofuel demonstrations The first flight using blended biofuel took place in 2008 15 Virgin Atlantic flew the first flight by a commercial airline to be powered partly by biofuel while commercial biofuel flights were likely to use feedstocks such as algae 16 By then airlines representing more than 15 of the industry formed the Sustainable Aviation Fuel Users Group with support from NGOs such as Natural Resources Defense Council and The Roundtable For Sustainable Biofuels They pledged to develop sustainable biofuels for aviation 17 That year Boeing was co chair of the Algal Biomass Organization joined by air carriers and biofuel technology developer UOP LLC Honeywell 18 In 2009 the IATA committed to achieve carbon neutral growth by 2020 and to halve carbon emissions by 2050 19 In 2010 Boeing targeted of 1 of global aviation fuels by 2015 20 nbsp US Marine Corps AV 8B Harrier II test flight using a 50 50 biofuel blend in 2011By June 2011 the revised Specification for Aviation Turbine Fuel Containing Synthesized Hydrocarbons ASTM D7566 allowed commercial airlines to blend up to 50 biofuels with conventional jet fuel 21 The safety and performance of jet fuel used in passenger flights is certified by ASTM International 22 Biofuels were approved for commercial use after a multi year technical review from aircraft makers engine manufacturers and oil companies 23 Since then some airlines have experimented with using biofuels on commercial flights 24 As of July 2020 there have been published seven annexes to D7566 including as much types of biofuels Fischer Tropsch Synthetic Paraffinic Kerosene FT SPK 2009 Hydroprocessed Esters and Fatty Acids Synthetic Paraffinic Kerosene HEFA SPK 2011 Hydroprocessed Fermented Sugars to Synthetic Isoparaffins HFS SIP 2014 Fischer Tropsch Synthetic Paraffinic Kerosene with Aromatics FT SPK A 2015 Alcohol to Jet Synthetic Paraffinic Kerosene ATJ SPK 2016 Catalytic Hydrothermolysis Synthesized Kerosene CH SK or CHJ 2020 25 In December 2011 the FAA awarded US 7 7 million to eight companies to develop drop in sustainable fuels especially from alcohols sugars biomass and organic matter such as pyrolysis oils within its CAAFI and CLEEN programs 26 From 2014 Solena planned to turn annually 500 000 tonnes of waste from the City of London that would normally go to landfill into biofuel to be used in the British Airways fleet 27 but filed for bankruptcy in 2015 28 By 2015 cultivation of fatty acid methyl esters and alkenones from the algae Isochrysis was under research as a possible jet biofuel feedstock 29 By 2016 Thomas Brueck of Munich TU was forecasting that algaculture could provide 3 5 of jetfuel needs by 2050 30 In Fall 2016 to achieve its emissions reductions goals the ICAO planned multiple measures including the development and deployment of sustainable aviation fuels 31 Dozens of companies received hundreds of millions in venture capital from 2005 to 2012 to extract fuel oil from algae some promising competitively priced fuel by 2012 and a production of 1 billion US gal 3 8 million m3 by 2012 2014 32 By 2017 nor were achieved and most companies had disappeared or changed their business plans to focus on cosmetics supplements nutraceuticals pet food additives animal feed pigments and speciality oils 32 In 2019 0 1 of fuel was SAF 33 the International Air Transport Association IATA supports the adoption of Sustainable Aviation fuel aiming in 2019 for a 2 penetration by 2025 7 million m3 1 8 billion US gal 34 By then more than 150 000 flights have used biofuels and five airports have regular biofuel distribution Bergen Brisbane Los Angeles Oslo and Stockholm with others offering occasional supply 15 nbsp In 2019 United Airlines purchased up to 10 million US gallons 38 000 m3 of SAF from World Energy over two years 35 That year Virgin Australia had fueled more than 700 flights and flown more than one million kilometers domestic and international using Gevo s alcohol to jet fuel 36 Gevo is committed to going after the entire gallon of sustainable aviation fuel potentially leading to a negative carbon footprint Virgin Atlantic was working to regularly use fuel derived from the waste gases of steel mills with LanzaTech 37 British Airways wanted to convert household waste into jet fuel with Velocys 37 United Airlines committed to 900 million US gal 3 400 000 m3 of sustainable aviation fuel for 10 years from Fulcrum BioEnergy to be compared to its 4 1 billion US gal 16 000 000 m3 fuel consumption in 2018 after its 30 million investment in 2015 and will develop up to five biofuel factories near its hubs 37 From 2020 Qantas will start using a 50 50 blend of SG Preston s biofuel on its Los Angeles Australia flights also providing fuel derived from non food plant oils to JetBlue Airways during 10 years 37 At its sites in Singapore Rotterdam and Porvoo Finland s Neste is expecting to improve its renewable fuel production capacity from 2 7 to 3 0 million t 6 0 to 6 6 billion lb a year by 2020 and is increasing its Singapore capacity by 1 3 million t 2 9 billion lb to reach 4 5 million t 9 9 billion lb in 2022 by investing 1 4 billion 1 6 billion 37 By 2020 International Airlines Group had invested 400 million to convert waste into sustainable aviation fuel with Velocys 38 In early 2021 Boeing s CEO Dave Calhoun said drop in sustainable aviation fuels are the only answer between now and 2050 to reduce carbon emissions 39 Production EditJet fuel is a mixture of various hydrocarbons The range of their sizes molecular weights or carbon numbers is restricted by the requirements for the product for example freezing point or smoke point Jet fuels are sometimes classified as kerosene or naphtha type Kerosene type fuels include Jet A Jet A 1 JP 5 and JP 8 Naphtha type jet fuels sometimes referred to as wide cut jet fuel include Jet B and JP 4 Drop in biofuels are biofuels that are completely interchangeable with conventional fuels Deriving drop in jet fuel from bio based sources is ASTM approved via two routes ASTM has also found it safe to blend in 50 SPK into regular jet fuels 40 22 Only tests have been done so far with blending in synthetic paraffinic kerosene SPK in considerably higher concentrations 41 HEFA SPK Hydroprocessed Esters and Fatty Acids Synthetic Paraffinic Kerosine HEFA SPK is a specific type of hydrotreated vegetable oil fuel 2 As of 2020 update this was the only mature technology 15 2 HEFA SPK fuel is considered to be a leading alternative replacement for conventional jet fuel by the CAA 42 HEFA SPK was approved by Altair Engineering for use in 2011 43 HEFA SPK is produced by the deoxygenation and hydroprocessing of the feedstock fatty acids of algae jatropha and camelina 44 Bio SPK This fuel uses oil that is extracted from plant sources such as jatropha algae tallows waste oils babassu and Camelina to produce synthetic paraffinic kerosene bio SPK by cracking and hydroprocessing Using algae to make jet fuel remains an emerging technology Companies working on algae jet fuel include Solazyme Honeywell UOP Solena Sapphire Energy Imperium Renewables and Aquaflow Bionomic Corporation Universities working on algae jet fuel are Arizona State University and Cranfield University Major investors for algae based SPK research are Boeing Honeywell UOP Air New Zealand Continental Airlines Japan Airlines and General Electric citation needed FT SPK Another route involves processing solid biomass using pyrolysis to produce oil or gasification to produce a syngas that is processed into FT SPK Fischer Tropsch Synthetic Paraffinic Kerosene citation needed ATJ SPK Alcohol to jet ATJ pathway takes alcohols such as ethanol or butanol and de oxygenates and processes them into jet fuels 45 Companies such as LanzaTech have created ATJ SPK from CO2 in flue gases 46 The ethanol is produced from CO in the flue gases using microbes such as Clostridium autoethanogenum In 2016 LanzaTech demonstrated its technology at Pilot scale in NZ using Industrial waste gases from the steel industry as a feedstock for its microbial fermentation 47 48 49 Gevo developed technology to retrofit existing ethanol plants to produce isobutanol 50 Alcohol to Jet Synthetic Paraffinic Kerosene ATJ SPK is a proven pathway to deliver a bio based low carbon option to travelers citation needed Future production routes Systems that use synthetic biology to create hydro carbons are under development The SUN to LIQUID project is examining Fischer Tropsch hydro carbon fuels solar kerosine through the use of a solar reactor 51 52 53 Alder Fuels raw material is waste from forestry and agriculture This is mainly structural polymers cellulose hemicellulose and lignin They are processed via pyrolysis The result is condensed into greencrude a hydrocarbon rich liquid which is turned into fuel in refineries 54 Piston engines Small piston engines can be modified to burn ethanol 55 Swift Fuel a biofuel alternative to avgas was approved as a test fuel by ASTM International in December 2009 56 57 Technical challenges Nitrile based rubber materials expand in the presence of aromatic compounds found in conventional petroleum fuel Pure biofuels that aren t mixed with petroleum and don t contain paraffin based additives may cause rubber seals and hoses to shrink 58 Synthetic rubber substitutes that are not adversely affected by biofuels such as Viton for seals and hoses are available 59 The United States Air Force found harmful bacteria and fungi in their biofueled aircraft and use pasteurization to disinfect them 60 Economics EditThe International Energy Agency forecast SAF production should grow from 18 to 75 billion litres between 2025 and 2040 representing a share of aviation fuel getting from 5 to 19 15 By 2019 fossil jet fuel production cost was 0 3 0 6 per L given a 50 100 crude oil barrel while aviation biofuel production cost was 0 7 1 6 needing a 110 260 crude oil barrel to break even 15 As of 2020 update aviation biofuel is more expensive than fossil jet kerosene 1 considering aviation taxation and subsidies at that time 61 Sustainable aviation fuels Edit nbsp In 2016 Oslo Airport became the first international airport to offer sustainable aviation fuel as part of the fuel mix Sustainable biofuels do not use food crops prime agricultural land or fresh water Sustainable aviation fuel SAF is certified by a third party such as the Roundtable For Sustainable Biofuels 62 Sustainable fuels can be created with renewable energy without biomaterial Carbon can be sourced from CO2 to make kerosene etc Hydrogen can be combusted or used in a fuel cell although storage and transport remain challenging As of 2022 some 450 000 flights had used sustainable fuels as part of the fuel mix although such fuels were 3x more expensive than the traditional fossil kerosene 63 Certification Edit A sustainable aviation fuel SAF sustainability certification verifies that the product has satisfied criteria focused on environmental social and economic triple bottom line considerations Under many emission regulation schemes such as the European Union Emissions Trading Scheme EUTS a certified SAF product may be exempted from carbon compliance liability costs 64 This marginally improves SAF s economic competitiveness over fossil based fuel However commercialisation and regulatory hurdles remain to achieve price parity and to enable widespread uptake 65 The first reputable body to launch a sustainable biofuel certification system was the European based Roundtable on Sustainable Biomaterials RSB NGO 66 Leading airlines and other signatories to the Sustainable Aviation Fuel Users Group SAFUG pledged to support RSB as the preferred certification provider 67 68 Criteria Edit This article includes a list of references related reading or external links but its sources remain unclear because it lacks inline citations Please help to improve this article by introducing more precise citations February 2023 Learn how and when to remove this template message EU RED II Recast 2018 Greenhouse gas emissions from sustainable fuels must be lower than those from the fuels they replace at least 50 for production built prior to 5 October 2015 60 after that date and 65 after 2021 Raw materials cannot be sourced from land with high biodiversity or high carbon stocks i e primary and protected forests biodiversity rich grasslands wetlands and peatlands Other sustainability issues are set out in the Governance Regulation and may be covered on a voluntary basis ICAO CORSIA GHG Reduction Criterion 1 lifecycle reductions of at least 10 compared to fossil fuel Carbon Stock Criterion 1 not produced from biomass obtained from land whose uses changed after 1 January 2008 from primeval forests wetlands or peatlands as all these lands have high carbon stocks Criterion 2 For land use changes after 1 January 2008 using IPCC land categories if emissions from direct land use change DLUC exceed the default value of the induced land use change ILUC the value of the DLUC replaces the default ILUC value Global impact Edit As emissions trading schemes and other carbon compliance regimes emerge certain biofuels are likely to be exempted zero rated by governments from carbon compliance due to their closed loop nature if they can prove their wider sustainability credentials For example in the EUTS SAFUG s proposal was accepted 69 that only fuels certified as sustainable by the RSB or similar body would be zero rated 70 SAFUG was formed by a group of interested airlines in 2008 under the auspices of Boeing Commercial Airplanes Member airlines represent more than 15 of the industry and signed a pledge to work towards SAF 71 72 In addition to SAF certification the integrity of aviation biofuel producers and their product can be assessed by means such as Richard Branson s Carbon War Room 73 or the Renewable Jet Fuels initiative 74 The latter works with companies such as LanzaTech SG Biofuels AltAir Solazyme and Sapphire 75 verification needed Along with her co authors Candelaria Bergero of the University of California s Earth System Science Department stated that main challenges to scaling up such sustainable fuel production include technology costs and process efficiencies and widespread production would undermine food security and land use 76 Certified processes Edit Abbreviation Conversion Process Possible Feedstocks Blending Ratio Commercialization Proposals ProjectsHEFA SPK Synthesized paraffinic kerosene produced from hydroprocessed esters and fatty acids Bio Oils Animal Fat Recycled Oils 50 World Energy Universal Oil Products Neste Dynamic Fuels EERCFT SPK Fischer Tropsch hydroprocessed synthesized paraffinic kerosene Coal Natural Gas Biomass 50 Fulcrum Bioenergy Red Rock Biofuels SG Preston Kaidi Finland Sasol Shell Oil Company SyntroleumSIP HFS Synthesized kerosene isoparaffins produced from hydroprocessed fermented sugars Biomass derived sugar 10 Amyris company Total S A SPK A Synthesized kerosene with aromatics derived by alkylation of light aromatics from non petroleum sources Coal Natural Gas Biomass 50 SasolATJ SPK Alcohol to jet synthetic paraffinic kerosene Biomass derived ethanol or isobutanol 50 Gevo Cobalt Universal Oil Products Lanzatech Swedish Biofuels ByogySee also EditBiodiesel Fossil fuel phase out List of emerging technologies Vegetable oil fuelReferences Edit a b Sustainable aviation fuel market demand drives new product launches Investable Universe 2020 12 04 Retrieved 2022 12 12 Note Investable Universe gt About a b c d e f Doliente Stephen S et al 10 July 2020 Bio aviation Fuel A Comprehensive Review and Analysis of the Supply Chain Components Frontiers in Energy Research 8 doi 10 3389 fenrg 2020 00110 Developing Sustainable Aviation Fuel SAF IATA Bauen Ausilio Howes Jo Bertuccioli Luca Chudziak Claire August 2009 Review of the potential for biofuels in aviation CiteSeerX 10 1 1 170 8750 Mark Pilling 2021 03 25 How sustainable fuel will help power aviation s green revolution Flight Global A Greener Future Aircraft Illustrated March 2009 Ron Oxburgh 28 February 2008 Through biofuels we can reap the fruits of our labours The Guardian Patrick Barta 24 March 2008 As Biofuels Catch On Next Task Is to Deal With Environmental Economic Impact Wall Street Journal Bailis R E Baka J E 2010 Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Land Use Change from Jatropha Curcas Based Jet Fuel in Brazil Environmental Science amp Technology 44 22 8684 91 Bibcode 2010EnST 44 8684B doi 10 1021 es1019178 PMID 20977266 Waste and residues as raw materials Neste Corporation website 15 May 2020 Neste and Lufthansa collaborate and aim for a more sustainable aviation Press release Neste Corporation website October 2 2019 KLM Group s CO2 emission reduction targets for 2030 approved by SBTi Press release KLM website 16 December 2022 Retrieved 2023 01 02 TotalEnergies and Air France KLM agree sustainable jet fuel deal Reuters 5 December 2022 Retrieved 2023 01 02 NASA confirms biofuels reduce jet emissions Flying magazine March 23 2017 Note Firefox does not trust the weblink 2022 12 22 a b c d e Pharoah Le Feuvre 18 March 2019 Are aviation biofuels ready for take off International Energy Agency First biofuel flight touches down BBC News 24 February 2008 Our Commitment to Sustainable Options PDF Sustainable Aviation Fuel Users Group First Airlines and UOP Join Algal Biomass Organization Green Car Congress 19 June 2008 Carbon Neutral Growth By 2020 Press release IATA 8 June 2009 Archived from the original on 2021 04 14 Retrieved 2020 12 06 Airlines May Get 1 of Fuel From Biofuels By 2015 Boeing Says Bloomberg 22 July 2010 50 Percent Biofuels Now Allowed in Jet Fuel Renewable Energy World 1 July 2011 a b Aviation Fuel Standard Takes Flight ASTM September October 2011 D7566 Revision Adds Bioderived Components Airlines Win Approval to Use Biofuels for Commercial Flights Bloomberg 1 July 2011 Bettina Wassener 9 Oct 2011 Airlines Weigh the Advantages of Biofuels NY Times ASTM approves 7th annex to D7566 sustainable jet fuel specification HC HEFA Green Car Congress May 14 2020 Retrieved August 8 2021 Meg Cichon 2 December 2011 FAA Awards 7 7 Million for Advancement of Aviation Biofuels Renewable Energy World British Airways to buy jet fuel from city waste Reuters 16 Feb 2010 AirportWatch Solena the company meant to be producing jet fuel from London waste for BA goes bankrupt www airportwatch org uk Retrieved 2021 08 30 Chris Reddy Greg O Neil 28 January 2015 Jet Fuel from Algae Scientists probe fuel potential in common ocean plant Oceanus magazine Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution From green slime to jet fuel algae offers airlines a cleaner future Reuters 15 June 2016 Sustainable Aviation Fuels Guide PDF ICAO Dec 2018 a b Wessof Eric 19 April 2017 Hard Lessons From the Great Algae Biofuel Bubble Greentech Media 2021 03 25T14 13 00 00 00 How sustainable fuel will help power aviation s green revolution Flight Global Retrieved 2021 03 28 Sustainable Aviation Fuels Fact sheet PDF IATA May 2019 Expanding our commitment to powering more flights with biofuel Press release United Airlines May 22 2019 Virgin Australia s sustainable aviation fuel flies one million kilometres Press release Virgin Australia 17 June 2019 a b c d e Kerry Reals Apr 26 2019 Biofuel Market Is Nearing A Tipping Point Aviation Week amp Space Technology BA begins offsetting domestic flight emissions Flightglobal 3 January 2020 Guy Norris February 4 2021 Boeing Moves Forward With Airbus A321XLR Competitor Plan Aviation Week Standard Specification for Aviation Turbine Fuel Containing Synthesized Hydrocarbons www astm org Snijders T A Melkert J A December 22 2011 Evaluation of safety performance and emissions of synthetic fuel blends in a Cessna Citation II Conference Proceeedings of the 3AF AIAA Aircraft Noise and Emissions Reduction Symposium 25 27 October 2011 Marseille France via repository tudelft nl Starck Laurie Pidol Ludivine Jeuland Nicolas Chapus Thierry Bogers Paul Bauldreay Joanna January 2016 Production of Hydroprocessed Esters and Fatty Acids HEFA Optimisation of Process Yield PDF Oil amp Gas Science and Technology Revue d IFP Energies nouvelles 71 1 10 doi 10 2516 ogst 2014007 S2CID 45086444 Retrieved 3 November 2022 Biofuel Factsheet Aviation Biofuels PDF European Technology Innovation Platform Bioenergy 2017 Archived PDF from the original on 29 June 2022 Retrieved 3 November 2022 Producing sustainable aviation fuel ATJ SPK Alcohol to Jet Synthetic Paraffinic Kerosene Advanced BioFuels USA Jet Fuel Derived from Ethanol Now Eligible for Commercial Flights Archived from the original on 2022 01 25 Retrieved 2020 12 22 Voegele E November 2009 Waste to ethanol projects move forward Ethanol Producer Magazine Interview LanzaTech CEO Jennifer Holmgren www triplepundit com Nagaraju Shilpa Davies Naomi Kathleen Walker David Jeffrey Fraser Kopke Michael Simpson Sean Dennis October 18 2016 Genome editing of Clostridium autoethanogenum using CRISPR Cas9 Biotechnology for Biofuels 9 1 219 doi 10 1186 s13068 016 0638 3 PMC 5069954 PMID 27777621 Archived copy PDF Archived from the original PDF on 2021 06 23 Retrieved 2021 11 23 a href Template Cite web html title Template Cite web cite web a CS1 maint archived copy as title link SOLAR JET project terminated and succeeded by SUN TO LIQUID project solar jet aero Press corner European Commission European Commission SUN to LIQUID project SUN to LIQUID project www sun to liquid eu Ways to make aviation fuel green The Economist August 17 2022 ISSN 0013 0613 Retrieved 2023 02 23 AGE 85 Aviation Grade Ethanol South Dakota State University 2006 Archived from the original on 2008 05 15 Indiana Airline Fuel Developer Moves Ahead With Testing Press release Purdue Research Park December 14 2009 Grady Mary December 15 2009 Efforts Move Forward To Produce Alternative Aviation Fuels Technical Report Near Term Feasibility of Alternative Jet Fuels PDF Sponsored by the FAA Authored by MIT staff Published by RAND Corporation Retrieved August 22 2012 Biodiesel FAQ PDF University of Kentucky College of Agriculture Food and Environment 2006 Retrieved August 22 2012 AFRL discovering what s bugging military aircraft U S Air Force 11 September 2016 Sustainable Aviation Fuel Review of Technical Pathways PDF United States Department of Energy Sep 2020 Kerry Reals Oct 10 2017 Glacial Pace Of Advancements In Biofuel Threatens Emissions Targets Aviation Week amp Space Technology Ways to make aviation fuel green The Economist 2022 08 17 ISSN 0013 0613 Sustainability schemes for biofuels European Commission Energy Renewable energy Biofuels Retrieved 1 April 2012 Sustainable Aviation Fuel Qantas Retrieved 2013 10 24 RSB Roundtable on Sustainable Biomaterials Roundtable on Sustainable Biomaterials PDF Rsb epfl ch 2013 10 17 Archived from the original PDF on 2011 12 22 Retrieved 2013 10 24 Our Commitment to Sustainable Options Archived from the original on April 25 2012 Retrieved March 29 2012 Sustainable Aviation Fuel Users Group SAFUG Safug org Retrieved 2013 10 24 Revision of the EU Energy Tax Directive technical press briefing PDF Ec europa eu Retrieved 2013 10 24 Sustainable Aviation Fuel Users Group European Section PDF Safug org Retrieved 2013 10 24 Environment and Biofuels Boeing Commercial Airplanes Boeing com Retrieved 2013 10 24 SAFUG Pledge Boeing Commercial Airplanes Safug org Retrieved 2015 07 10 Renewable Jet Fuels Carbon War Room Archived from the original on 2013 10 30 Retrieved 2013 10 24 Welcome Renewable Jet Fuels Archived from the original on 2013 10 29 Retrieved 2013 10 24 Sustainable Sky Institute Sustainable Sky Institute Retrieved 2016 04 26 Bergero Candelaria et al 30 January 2023 Pathways to net zero emissions from aviation Nature Sustainability 6 4 404 414 doi 10 1038 s41893 022 01046 9 S2CID 256449498 Further reading EditAdam Klauber Rocky Mountain Institute Isaac Toussie Rocky Mountain Institute Steve Csonka Commercial Aviation Alternative Fuels Initiative Barbara Bramble National Wildlife Federation Oct 23 2017 Opinion Biofuels Sustainable Essential To Aviation s Future Aviation Week amp Space Technology Sustainable Aviation Fuel PDF Gevo December 2019 Alcohol to Jet Synthetic Paraffinic Kerosene Is a Proven Pathway to Deliver a Bio Based Low Carbon Option to Travelers McKinsey amp Company Nov 2020 Clean Skies for Tomorrow PDF Report World Economic Forum Sustainable Aviation Fuels as a Pathway to Net Zero AviationExternal links Edit Sustainable Sky Institute non profit think tank do tank focussed on the market transformation of the world s air transport system towards a sustainable long term future Aviation industry reducing its environmental footprint Aviation Benefits Beyond Borders Air Transport Action Group Nordic Initiative for Sustainable Aviation Archived from the original on 2015 04 02 Retrieved 2015 03 27 Nordic association working to promote and develop a more sustainable aviation industry with a specific focus on alternative sustainable fuels Roundtable on Sustainable Biofuels The RSB is supporting the development of a sustainable bioeconomy International Journal of Sustainable Aviation Inderscience Publishers Biofuels for aviation European Commission 5 September 2023 Geoff Hunt 22 April 2021 Why industry needs global standards for sustainable fuel use Flightglobal Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Aviation biofuel amp oldid 1176021742 Sustainable aviation fuels, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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