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Shia Islam

January 17, 2024

"Shia" and "Shias" redirect here. For other uses, see Shia (disambiguation).

Shia Islam (/ˈʃiːə/) is the second-largest branch of Islam. It holds that the Islamic prophet Muhammad designated ʿAlī ibn Abī Ṭālib as his successor (khalīfa) and the Imam (spiritual and political leader) after him, most notably at the event of Ghadir Khumm, but was prevented from succeeding Muhammad as the leader of the Muslims as a result of the choice made by some of Muhammad's other companions (ṣaḥāba) at Saqifah. This view primarily contrasts with that of Sunnī Islam, whose adherents believe that Muhammad did not appoint a successor before his death and consider Abū Bakr, who was appointed caliph by a group of senior Muslims at Saqifah, to be the first rightful (rāshidūn) caliph after Muhammad. Adherents of Shia Islam are called Shia Muslims.

Shia Islam is based on a hadith report concerning Muhammad's pronouncement at Ghadir Khumm. Shia Muslims believe that ʿAlī ibn Abī Ṭālib, Muhammad's cousin and son-in-law, should have been the designated successor to Muhammad as Islam's spiritual and political leader. This belief later developed into the concept of Imamah, the idea that certain descendants of Muhammad, the Ahl al-Bayt, are rightful rulers or Imams, whom Shia Muslims believe possess special spiritual and political authority over the Muslim community. Later events such as Husayn ibn Ali's martyrdom in the Battle of Karbala further influenced the development of Shia Islam, contributing to the formation of a distinct religious sect with its own rituals and shared collective memory.[1]

Shia Islam is the second largest branch of Islam, followed by 10–15% of all Muslims. Although there are many Shia subsects, Twelver Shīʿīsm is by far the largest and most influential, comprising about 85% of all Shia Muslims. Others include the Isma'ilis, Zaydis and Alevis. Shia Muslims form a majority of the population in several countries across the Muslim world, such as Iran, Iraq, Azerbaijan, and Bahrain. Significant Shi’ite communities are also found in Lebanon, Kuwait, Turkey, Yemen, and the Indian sub-continent. Iran, an Islamic republic led by Ayatollahs, is the only country where laws and governance are predominantly rooted in Shia Islam.[2]

Terminology

The word Shia derives from the Arabic term Shīʿat ʿAlī, meaning "partisans of Ali", "followers of Ali" or "faction of Ali".[3][4] Shīʿī (/ˈʃiːi/) denotes both the singular noun and the adjective form, while Shīʿiyyūn refers to the plural noun.[5] Shia or Shīʿa (/ˈʃiːə/), Shiism/Shīʿism (/ˈʃiːɪz(ə)m/), and Shiite/Shīʿite (/ˈʃiːaɪt/) are the forms used in English and other European languages for adherents, mosques, traditions, and things associated with the Shia branch of Islam.[6][7]

The term Shia was first used during Muhammad's lifetime.[8] At present, the word refers to the Muslims who believe that the leadership of the Muslim community after Muhammad belongs to ʿAlī ibn Abī Ṭālib, Muhammad's cousin and son-in-law, and his successors.[9] Nawbakhti states that the term Shia refers to a group of Muslims who at the time of Muhammad and after him regarded ʿAlī as the Imam and caliph.[9][10] Al-Shahrastani expresses that the term Shia refers to those who believe that ʿAlī is designated as the heir, Imam, and caliph by Muhammad[9][11] and that ʿAlī's authority is maintained through his descendants.[9][12] For the adherents of Shia Islam, this conviction is implicit in the Quran and the history of Islam. Shia Muslim scholars emphasize that the notion of authority is linked to the family of the Abrahamic prophets as the Quranic verses 3:33 and 3:34 show: "Indeed, Allah chose Adam, Noah, the family of Abraham, and the family of ’Imrân above all people. They are descendants of one another. And Allah is All-Hearing, All-Knowing."[13]

Beliefs

Main article: Shia Islamic beliefs and practices

Shia Islam encompasses various denominations and subgroups,[3] all bound by the belief that the leader of the Islamic ummah should hail from ahl al-Bayt, the family of the prophet Muhammad.[14] It embodies a completely independent system of religious interpretation and political authority in the Muslim world.[15][16]

Alī: Muhammad's Rightful Successor

Main articles: Shia view of Ali and Succession to Muhammad
Further information: Ali in the Quran
 
Ḍarīẖ over ʿAlī's qabr (grave), Sanctuary of Imām ʿAlī, Najaf (present-day Iraq)

Shia Muslims believe that just as a prophet is appointed by God alone, only God has the prerogative to appoint the successor to his prophet. They believe God chose ʿAlī ibn Abī Ṭālib to be Muhammad's successor, infallible, the first caliph (khalīfa, head of state) of Islam. Shia Muslims believe that Muhammad designated Ali as his successor by God's command (Eid Al Ghadir).[17][18] ʿAlī was Muhammad's first-cousin and closest living male relative as well as his son-in-law, having married Muhammad's daughter, Fāṭimah.[19][20]

Profession of faith (Shahada)

 
Kalema at Qibla of the Mosque of Ibn Tulun in Cairo, Egypt, displaying the phrase Ali-un-Waliullah (علي ولي الله: "ʿAlī is the Wali (custodian) of God")

The Shia version of the Shahada, the Islamic profession of faith, differs from that of the Sunnīs.[21] The Sunnī version of the Shahada states "There is no god except God, Muhammad is the messenger of God", but to this declaration of faith Shia Muslims append the phrase Ali-un-Waliullah (علي ولي الله: "ʿAlī is the Wali (custodian) of God"). The basis for the Shia belief in ʿAlī ibn Abī Ṭālib as the Wali of God is derived from the Quranic verse 5:55.

This additional phrase to the declaration of faith embodies the Shia emphasis on the inheritance of authority through Muhammad's family and lineage. The three clauses of the Shia version of the Shahada thus address the fundamental Islamic beliefs of Tawḥīd (unity and oneness of God), Nubuwwah (the prophethood of Muhammad), and Imamah (the Imamate, leadership of the faith).[22]

Infallibility (Ismah)

Main article: Ismah

Ismah is the concept of infallibility or "divinely bestowed freedom from error and sin" in Islam.[23] Muslims believe that Muhammad, along with other prophets and messengers in Islam, possessed ismah. Twelver and Ismāʿīlī Shia Muslims also attribute the quality to Imams as well as to Fāṭimah, daughter of Muhammad, in contrast to the Zaydī Shias, who do not attribute ismah to the Imams.[24] Though initially beginning as a political movement, infallibility and sinlessness of the Imams later evolved as a distinct belief of (non-Zaydī) Shīʿīsm.[25]

According to Shia Muslim theologians, infallibility is considered a rational, necessary precondition for spiritual and religious guidance. They argue that since God has commanded absolute obedience from these figures, they must only order that which is right. The state of infallibility is based on the Shia interpretation of the verse of purification.[26][27] Thus, they are the most pure ones, the only immaculate ones preserved from, and immune to, all uncleanness.[28] It does not mean that supernatural powers prevent them from committing a sin, but due to the fact that they have absolute belief in God, they refrain from doing anything that is a sin.[23]

They also have a complete knowledge of God's will. They are in possession of all knowledge brought by the angels to the prophets (nabī) and the messengers (rāsūl). Their knowledge encompasses the totality of all times. Thus, they are believed to act without fault in religious matters.[29] Shia Muslims regard ʿAlī ibn Abī Ṭālib as the successor of Muhammad not only ruling over the entire Muslim community in justice, but also interpreting the Islamic faith, practices, and its esoteric meaning. ʿAlī is regarded as a "perfect man" (al-insan al-kamil) similar to Muhammad, according to the Shia viewpoint.[30]

Occultation (Ghaybah)

Main articles: Occultation (Islam) and Reappearance of Hujjat Allah al-Mahdi
Further information: Major Occultation, Minor Occultation, and The Fourteen Infallibles
 
Jamkaran Mosque in Qom, Iran, is a popular pilgrimage site for Shia Muslims. Local belief holds that the 12th Shīʿīte Imam—the promised Mahdi according to Twelvers—once appeared and offered prayers at Jamkaran.

The Occultation is an eschatological belief held in various denominations of Shia Islam concerning a messianic figure, the hidden and last Imam known as "the Mahdi", that one day shall return on Earth and fill the world with justice. According to the doctrine of Twelver Shīʿīsm, the main goal of Imam Mahdi will be to establish an Islamic state and to apply Islamic laws that were revealed to Muhammad. The Quran does not contain verses on the Imamate, which is the basic doctrine of Shia Islam.[31] Some Shia subsects, such as the Zaydī Shias and Nizārī Ismāʿīlīs, do not believe in the idea of the Occultation. The groups which do believe in it differ as to which lineage of the Imamate is valid, and therefore which individual has gone into Occultation. They believe there are many signs that will indicate the time of his return.

Twelver Shia Muslims believe that the prophesied Mahdi and twelfth Imam, Hujjat Allah al-Mahdi, is already on Earth in Occultation, and will return at the end of time. Ṭayyibi Ismāʿīlīs and Fatimid/Bohra/Dawoodi Bohra believe the same but for their 21st Ṭayyib, At-Tayyib Abi l-Qasim, and also believe that a Da'i al-Mutlaq ("Unrestricted Missionary") maintains contact with him. Sunnī Muslims believe that the future Mahdi has not yet arrived on Earth.[32]

Hadith tradition

Shia Muslims believe that the status of ʿAlī is supported by numerous hadith, including the Hadith of the pond of Khumm, Hadith of the two weighty things, Hadith of the pen and paper, Hadith of the invitation of the close families, and Hadith of the Twelve Successors. In particular, the Hadith of the Cloak is often quoted to illustrate Muhammad's feeling towards ʿAlī and his family by both Sunnī and Shia scholars. Shia Muslims prefer to study and read the hadith attributed to the Ahl al-Bayt and close associates, and most have their own separate hadith canon.[33][34]

Holy Relics (Tabarruk)

It is believed that the armaments and sacred items of all of the prophets, including Muhammad, were handed down in succession to the Imams of the Ahl al-Bayt. Jaʿfar al-Ṣādiq, the 6th Shīʿīte Imam, in Kitab al-Kafi mentions that "with me are the arms of the Messenger of Allah. It is not disputable."[35]

Further, he claims that with him is the sword of the Messenger of God, his coat of arms, his Lamam (pennon) and his helmet. In addition, he mentions that with him is the flag of the Messenger of God, the victorious. With him is the Staff of Moses, the ring of Solomon, son of David, and the tray on which Moses used to offer his offerings. With him is the name that whenever the Messenger of God would place it between the Muslims and pagans no arrow from the pagans would reach the Muslims. With him is the similar object that angels brought.[35]

Al-Ṣādiq also narrated that the passing down of armaments is synonymous to receiving the Imamat (leadership), similar to how the Ark of Covenant in the house of the Israelites signaled prophethood.[35] Imam Ali al-Ridha narrates that wherever the armaments among us would go, knowledge would also follow and the armaments would never depart from those with knowledge (Imamat).[35]

Other doctrines

Doctrine about necessity of acquiring knowledge

According to Muhammad Rida al-Muzaffar, God gives humans the faculty of reason and argument. Also, God orders humans to spend time thinking carefully on creation while he refers to all creations as his signs of power and glory. These signs encompass all of the universe. Furthermore, there is a similarity between humans as the little world and the universe as the large world. God does not accept the faith of those who follow him without thinking and only with imitation, but also God blames them for such actions. In other words, humans have to think about the universe with reason and intellect, a faculty bestowed on us by God. Since there is more insistence on the faculty of intellect among Shia Muslims, even evaluating the claims of someone who claims prophecy is on the basis of intellect.[36][37]

Practices

 
Shia Muslims gathered in prayer at the Shrine of Imam Ḥusayn in Karbala, Iraq

Shia religious practices, such as prayers, differ only slightly from the Sunnīs. While all Muslims pray five times daily, Shia Muslims have the option of combining Dhuhr with Asr and Maghrib with Isha', as there are three distinct times mentioned in the Quran. The Sunnīs tend to combine only under certain circumstances.

Holidays

Main article: Shia days of remembrance

Shia Muslims celebrate the following annual holidays:

  • Eid ul-Fitr, which marks the end of fasting during the month of Ramadan
  • Eid al-Adha, which marks the end of the Hajj or pilgrimage to Mecca
  • Eid al-Ghadeer, which is the anniversary of the Ghadir Khum, the occasion when Muhammad announced Ali's Imamate before a multitude of Muslims.[38] Eid al-Ghadeer is held on the 18th of Dhu al-Hijjah.
  • The Mourning of Muharram and the Day of Ashura for Shia Muslims commemorate the martyrdom of Ḥusayn ibn ʿAlī, brother of Ḥasan and grandson of Muhammad, who was killed by Yazid ibn Muawiyah in Karbala (central Iraq). Ashura is a day of deep mourning which occurs on the 10th of Muharram.
  • Arba'een commemorates the suffering of the women and children of Ḥusayn ibn ʿAlī's household. After Ḥusayn was killed, they were marched over the desert, from Karbala (central Iraq) to Shaam (Damascus, Syria). Many children (some of whom were direct descendants of Muhammad) died of thirst and exposure along the route. Arbaein occurs on the 20th of Safar, 40 days after Ashura.
  • Mawlid, Muhammad's birth date. Unlike Sunnī Muslims, who celebrate the 12th of Rabi' al-awwal as Muhammad's day of birth or death (because they assert that his birth and death both occur in this week), Shia Muslims celebrate Muhammad's birthday on the 17th of the month, which coincides with the birth date of Jaʿfar al-Ṣādiq, the 6th Shīʿīte Imam.[39]
  • Fāṭimah's birthday on 20th of Jumada al-Thani. This day is also considered as the "'women and mothers' day"[40]
  • ʿAlī's birthday on 13th of Rajab.
  • Mid-Sha'ban is the birth date of the 12th and final Twelver imam, Muhammad al-Mahdi. It is celebrated by Shia Muslims on the 15th of Sha'aban.
  • Laylat al-Qadr, anniversary of the night of the revelation of the Quran.
  • Eid al-Mubahila celebrates a meeting between the Ahl al-Bayt (household of Muhammad) and a Christian deputation from Najran. Al-Mubahila is held on the 24th of Dhu al-Hijjah.

Holy sites

Main article: Holiest sites in Shia Islam

After the four holy cities of Islam (Mecca, Medina, Jerusalem, and Damascus), the cities of Najaf, Karbala, and Qom are the most revered by Shia Muslims.[41][42] The Sanctuary of Imām ʿAlī in Najaf, the Shrine of Imam Ḥusayn in Karbala, and the Shrine of Fāṭimah al-Maʿṣūmah in Qom are very essential for Shia Muslims. Other venerated pilgrimage sites include the Imam Reza shrine in Mashhad, the Kadhimiya Mosque in Kadhimiya, Al-Askari Mosque in Samarra, the Sahla Mosque, the Great Mosque of Kufa, the Jamkaran Mosque in Qom, and the Tomb of Daniel in Susa.

Most of the Shia sacred places and heritage sites in Saudi Arabia have been destroyed by the Al Saud-Wahhabi armies of the Ikhwan, the most notable being the tombs of the Imams located in the Al-Baqi' cemetery in 1925.[43] In 2006, a bomb destroyed the shrine of Al-Askari Mosque.[44] (See: Anti-Shi'ism).

Purity

Shia orthodoxy, particularly in Twelver Shi'ism, has considered non-Muslims as agents of impurity (Najāsat). This categorization sometimes extends to kitābῑ, individuals belonging to the People of the Book, with Jews explicitly labeled as impure by certain Shia religious scholars.[45][46][47] Armenians in Iran, who have historically played a crucial role in the Iranian economy, received relatively more lenient treatment.[46]

Shi'ite theologians and mujtahids (jurists), such as Muḥammad Bāqir al-Majlisῑ, held that Jews' impurity extended to the point where they were advised to stay at home on rainy or snowy days to prevent contaminating their Shia neighbors. Ayatollah Khomeini, Supreme Leader of Iran from 1979 to 1989, asserted that every part of an unbeliever's body, including hair, nails, and bodily secretions, is impure. However, the current leader of Iran, ʿAlī Khameneʾī, stated in a fatwa that Jews and other Peoples of the Book are not inherently impure, and touching the moisture on their hands does not convey impurity.[45][48][47]

History

Main article: History of Shia Islam

The original Shia identity referred to the followers of Imam ʿAlī,[49] and Shia theology was formulated after the hijra (8th century CE).[50] The first Shia governments and societies were established by the end of the 9th century CE. The 10th century CE has been referred to by the scholar of Islamic studies Louis Massignon as "the Shiite Ismaili century in the history of Islam".[51]

Origins

Main articles: Origin of Shia Islam, Ali ibn Abi Taleb, and First Fitna
 
The investiture of ʿAlī ibn Abī Ṭālib at Ghadir Khumm (MS Arab 161, fol. 162r, 1308–1309 CE, Ilkhanid manuscript illustration)

The Shia, originally known as the "partisans" of ʿAlī ibn Abī Ṭālib, Muhammad's cousin and Fatima's husband, first emerged as a distinct movement during the First Fitna from 656 to 661 CE. Shia doctrine holds that ʿAlī was meant to lead the community after Muhammad's death in 632. Historians dispute over the origins of Shia Islam, with many Western scholars positing that Shīʿīsm began as a political faction rather than a truly religious movement.[52][53] Other scholars disagree, considering this concept of religious-political separation to be an anachronistic application of a Western concept.[54]

Shia Muslims believe that Muhammad designated ʿAlī ibn Abī Ṭālib as his heir during a speech at Ghadir Khumm.[14] The point of contention between different Muslim sects arises when Muhammad, whilst giving his speech, gave the proclamation "Anyone who has me as his mawla, has ʿAlī as his mawla".[9][55][56][57] Some versions add the additional sentence "O God, befriend the friend of ʿAlī and be the enemy of his enemy".[58] Sunnis maintain that Muhammad emphasized the deserving friendship and respect for ʿAlī. In contrast, Shia Muslims assert that the statement unequivocally designates ʿAlī as Muhammad's appointed successor.[9][59][60][61] Shia sources also record further details of the event, such as stating that those present congratulated ʿAlī and acclaimed him as Amir al-Mu'minin ("commander of the believers").[58]

When Muhammad died in 632 CE, ʿAlī ibn Abī Ṭālib and Muhammad's closest relatives made the funeral arrangements. While they were preparing his body, Abū Bakr, ʿUmar ibn al-Khaṭṭāb, and Abu Ubaidah ibn al Jarrah met with the leaders of Medina and elected Abū Bakr as the first rāshidūn caliph. Abū Bakr served from 632 to 634, and was followed by Umar (634–644) and ʿUthmān (644–656).[14]

 
Great Mosque of Kufa, site of ʿAlī's assassination (661 CE)[19][20]

With the murder of ʿUthmān in 657 CE, the Muslims of Medina invited ʿAlī to become the fourth caliph as the last source,[19] and he established his capital in Kufa, a city in present-day Iraq.[3] ʿAlī's rule over the early Islamic empire, between 656 CE to 661 CE, was often contested.[14] Tensions eventually led to the First Fitna, the first major civil war between Muslims within the empire, which began as a series of revolts fought against ʿAlī. While the rebels had previously affirmed the legitimacy of ʿAlī's khilafāʾ (caliphate), they later turned against ʿAlī and fought him.[19] Tensions escalated into the Battle of the Camel in 656, where Ali's forces emerged victorious against Aisha, Talhah, and al-Zubayr. However, the Battle of Siffin in 657 turned the tide against ʿAlī, who lost due to arbitration issues with Muawiyah, the governor of Damascus.[14] ʿAlī withdrew to Kufa, overcoming the Kharijis, a faction that had transformed from supporters to bitter rivals, at Nahrawan in 658. In 661, ʿAlī was assassinated by a Khariji assassin in Kufa while in the act of prostration during prayer (sujud). Subsequently, Muawiyah asserted his claim to the caliphate.[62][20]

Hasan, Husayn and Karbala

Main articles: Hasan ibn Ali, Husayn ibn Ali, and Battle of Karbala

Upon the death of ʿAlī, his elder son Ḥasan became leader of the Muslims of Kufa. After a series of skirmishes between the Kufa Muslims and the army of Muawiyah, Ḥasan ibn Ali agreed to cede the caliphate to Muawiyah and maintain peace among Muslims upon certain conditions: The enforced public cursing of ʿAlī, e.g. during prayers, should be abandoned; Muawiyah should not use tax money for his own private needs; There should be peace, and followers of Ḥasan should be given security and their rights; Muawiyah will never adopt the title of Amir al-Mu'minin ("commander of the believers"); Muawiyah will not nominate any successor.[63][64] Ḥasan then retired to Medina, where in 670 CE he was poisoned by his wife Ja'da bint al-Ash'ath, after being secretly contacted by Muawiyah who wished to pass the caliphate to his own son Yazid and saw Ḥasan as an obstacle.[65]

 
Battle of Karbala, painting by the Isfahan-based Persian artist Abbas Al-Mousavi, Brooklyn Museum (between 1868 and 1933)

Ḥusayn ibn ʿAlī, ʿAlī's younger son and brother to Ḥasan, initially resisted calls to lead the Muslims against Muawiyah and reclaim the caliphate. In 680 CE, Muawiyah died and passed the caliphate to his son Yazid, and breaking the treaty with Ḥasan ibn ʿAlī. Yazid asked Husayn to swear allegiance (bay'ah) to him. ʿAlī's faction, having expected the caliphate to return to ʿAlī's line upon Muawiyah's death, saw this as a betrayal of the peace treaty and so Ḥusayn rejected this request for allegiance. There was a groundswell of support in Kufa for Ḥusayn to return there and take his position as caliph and Imam, so Ḥusayn collected his family and followers in Medina and set off for Kufa.[14]

 
 
Left: the Shrine of Imam Ḥusayn; right: the Mosque of Imam Ḥusayn premises during Arba'een

En route to Kufa, Husayn was blocked by an army of Yazid's men, which included people from Kufa, near Karbala (modern Iraq); rather than surrendering, Husayn and his followers chose to fight. In the Battle of Karbala, Ḥusayn and approximately 72 of his family members and followers were killed, and Husayn's head was delivered to Yazid in Damascus. The Shi'a community regard Ḥusayn ibn ʿAlī as a martyr (shahid), and count him as an Imam from the Ahl al-Bayt. The Battle of Karbala and martyrdom of Ḥusayn ibn ʿAlī is often cited as the definitive separation between the Shia and Sunnī sects of Islam. Ḥusayn is the last Imam following ʿAlī mutually recognized by all branches of Shia Islam.[66] The martyrdom of Husayn and his followers is commemorated on the Day of Ashura, occurring on the tenth day of Muharram, the first month of the Islamic calendar.[14]

Imamate of the Ahl al-Bayt

Main article: Imamate in Shia doctrine
 
Zulfiqar with and without the shield. The Fatimid depiction of ʿAlī's sword is carved on the gates of Old Cairo, namely Bab al-Nasr (shown below). Two swords were captured from the temple of the pre-Islamic Arabian deity Manāt during the Raid of Sa'd ibn Zaid al-Ashhali. Muhammad gave them to ʿAlī, saying that one of them was "Zulfiqar", which became famously known as the sword of ʿAlī and a later symbol of Shīʿīsm.[67]
 
Depiction of ʿAlī's sword and shield carved on the Bab al-Nasr gate wall in Cairo, Egypt

Later, most denominations of Shia Islam, including Twelvers and Ismāʿīlīs, became Imamis.[9][68][69] Imami Shīʿītes believe that Imams are the spiritual and political successors to Muhammad.[70] Imams are human individuals who not only rule over the Muslim community with justice, but also are able to keep and interpret the divine law and its esoteric meaning. The words and deeds of Muhammad and the Imams are a guide and model for the community to follow; as a result, they must be free from error and sin, and must be chosen by divine decree (nass) through Muhammad.[71][72] According to this view peculiar to Shia Islam, there is always an Imam of the Age, who is the divinely appointed authority on all matters of faith and law in the Muslim community. ʿAlī was the first Imam of this line, the rightful successor to Muhammad, followed by male descendants of Muhammad through his daughter Fatimah.[70][73]

This difference between following either the Ahl al-Bayt (Muhammad's family and descendants) or pledging allegiance to Abū Bakr has shaped the Shia–Sunnī divide on the interpretation of some Quranic verses, hadith literature (accounts of the sayings and living habits attributed to the Islamic prophet Muhammad during his lifetime), and other areas of Islamic belief throughout the history of Islam. For instance, the hadith collections venerated by Shia Muslims are centered on narrations by members of the Ahl al-Bayt and their supporters, while some hadith transmitted by narrators not belonging to or supporting the Ahl al-Bayt are not included. Those of Abu Hurairah, for example, Ibn Asakir in his Taʿrikh Kabir, and Muttaqi in his Kanzuʿl-Umma report that ʿUmar ibn al-Khaṭṭāb lashed him, rebuked him, and forbade him to narrate ḥadīth from Muhammad. ʿUmar is reported to have said: "Because you narrate hadith in large numbers from the Holy Prophet, you are fit only for attributing lies to him. (That is, one expects a wicked man like you to utter only lies about the Holy Prophet.) So you must stop narrating hadith from the Prophet; otherwise, I will send you to the land of Dus." (An Arab clan in Yemen, to which Abu Hurairah belonged). According to Sunnī Muslims, ʿAlī was the fourth successor to Abū Bakr, while Shia Muslims maintain that ʿAlī was the first divinely sanctioned "Imam", or successor of Muhammad. The seminal event in Shia history is the martyrdom at the Battle of Karbala of ʿAlī's son, Ḥusayn ibn ʿAlī, and 71 of his followers in 680 CE, who led a non-allegiance movement against the defiant caliph.

 
Sanctuary of Imam Reza in Mashhad, Iran, is a complex which contains the mausoleum of Imam Reza, the 8th Imam of Twelver Shias.

It is believed in Twelver and Ismāʿīlī branches of Shia Islam that divine wisdom (ʿaql) was the source of the souls of the prophets and Imams, which bestowed upon them esoteric knowledge (ḥikmah), and that their sufferings were a means of divine grace to their devotees.[74][75] Although the Imam was not the recipient of a divine revelation (waḥy), he had a close relationship with God, through which God guides him, and the Imam, in turn, guides the people. Imamate, or belief in the divine guide, is a fundamental belief in the Twelver and Ismāʿīlī branches of Shia Islam, and is based on the concept that God would not leave humanity without access to divine guidance.[76]

Imam Mahdi, last Imam of the Shia

Main articles: Mahdi, Muhammad al-Mahdi, Occultation (Islam), and Reappearance of Hujjat Allah al-Mahdi
Further information: History of Shia Islam and Imamate in Shia doctrine
 
Ghazan and his brother Öljaitü both were tolerant of sectarian differences within the boundaries of Islam, in contrast to the traditions of Genghis Khan.

In Shia Islam, Imam Mahdi is regarded as the prophesied eschatological redeemer of Islam who will rule for seven, nine, or nineteen years (according to differing interpretations) before the Day of Judgment and will rid the world of evil. According to Islamic tradition, the Mahdi's tenure will coincide with the Second Coming of Jesus (ʿĪsā), who is to assist the Mahdi against the Masih ad-Dajjal (literally, the "false Messiah" or Antichrist). Jesus, who is considered the Masih ("Messiah") in Islam, will descend at the point of a white arcade east of Damascus, dressed in yellow robes with his head anointed. He will then join the Mahdi in his war against the Dajjal, where it is believed the Mahdi will slay the Dajjal and unite humankind.

Dynasties

Main article: List of Shia dynasties

In the century following the Battle of Karbala (680 CE), as various Shia-affiliated groups diffused in the emerging Islamic world, several nations arose based on a Shia leadership or population.

  • Idrisids (788–985 CE): a Zaydi dynasty in what is now Morocco
  • Qarmatians (899–1077 CE): an Ismaili Iranian dynasty. Their headquarters were in East Arabia and Bahrain. It was founded by Abu Sa'id al-Jannabi.
  • Buyids (934–1055 CE): a Twelver Iranian dynasty. at its peak consisted of large portions of modern Iraq and Iran.
  • Uqaylids (990–1096 CE): a Shia Arab dynasty with several lines that ruled in various parts of Al-Jazira, northern Syria and Iraq.
  • Ilkhanate (1256–1335): a Persianate Mongol khanate established in Persia in the 13th century, considered a part of the Mongol Empire. The Ilkhanate was based, originally, on Genghis Khan's campaigns in the Khwarezmid Empire in 1219–1224, and founded by Genghis's grandson, Hulagu, in territories which today comprise most of Iran, Iraq, Afghanistan, Turkmenistan, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Georgia, Turkey, and Pakistan. The Ilkhanate initially embraced many religions, but was particularly sympathetic to Buddhism and Christianity. Later Ilkhanate rulers, beginning with Ghazan in 1295, embraced Islam his brother Öljaitü promoted Shia Islam.[77]
  • Bahmanids (1347–1527): a Shia Muslim state of the Deccan in southern India and one of the great medieval Indian kingdoms.[78] Bahmanid Sultanate was the first independent Islamic Kingdom in South India.[79]
 
The Fatimid Caliphate at its peak

Fatimid Caliphate

 
Al Hakim Mosque, Islamic Cairo

Safavid Empire

Main articles: Safavid dynasty and Safavid conversion of Iran to Shia Islam
 
One of the first actions performed by Shāh Ismā'īl I of the Safavid dynasty was the proclamation of the Twelver denomination of Shia Islam as the official religion of his newly founded Persian Empire, causing sectarian tensions in the Middle East when he destroyed the tombs of the Abbasid caliphs, the Sunnī Imam Abū Ḥanīfa al-Nuʿmān, and the Ṣūfī Muslim ascetic ʿAbdul Qādir Gīlānī in 1508.[84] In 1533 the Ottoman Turks, upon their conquest of Iraq, rebuilt various important Sunnī shrines.[84][85]

A major turning point in the history of Shia Islam was the dominion of the Safavid dynasty (1501–1736) in Persia. This caused a number of changes in the Muslim world:

  • The ending of the relative mutual tolerance between Sunnīs and Shias that existed from the time of the Mongol conquests onwards and the resurgence of antagonism between the two groups.
  • Initial dependence of Shīʿīte clerics on the state followed by the emergence of an independent body of ulama capable of taking a political stand different from official policies.[86]
  • The growth in importance of Persian centers of Islamic education and religious learning, which resulted in the change of Twelver Shīʿīsm from being a predominantly Arab phenomenon to become predominantly Persian.[87]
  • The growth of the Akhbari school of thought, which taught that only the Quran, ḥadīth literature, and sunnah (accounts of the sayings and living habits attributed to the Islamic prophet Muhammad during his lifetime) are to be bases for verdicts, rejecting the use of reasoning.

With the fall of the Safavids, the state in Persia—including the state system of courts with government-appointed judges (qāḍī)—became much weaker. This gave the sharīʿa courts of mujtahid an opportunity to fill the legal vacuum and enabled the ulama to assert their judicial authority. The Usuli school of thought also increased in strength at this time.[88]

Demographics

Main article: Islam by country
 
Islam by country     Sunnī     Shia   Ibadi
 
Map of the Muslim world's schools of jurisprudence[89]

Shia Islam is the second largest branch of Islam.[90] It is estimated that either 10–20%[91] or 10–13%[92][93][94] of the global Muslim population are Shias. They may number up to 200 million as of 2009.[93] As of 1985, Shia Muslims are estimated to be 21% of the Muslim population in South Asia, although the total number is difficult to estimate.[95]

Shia Muslims form a majority of the population in various regions of the Muslim world, including Azerbaijan, Bahrain, Iran, and Iraq,[96][97] as well as a plurality in Lebanon. Shia Muslims constitute 36.3% of the entire population (and 38.6% of the Muslim population) of the Middle East.[98]

Estimates have placed the proportion of Shia Muslims in Lebanon between 27% and 45% of the population,[96][99] 30–35% of the citizen population in Kuwait (no figures exist for the non-citizen population),[100][101] over 20% in Turkey,[93][102] 5–20% of the population in Pakistan,[103][93] and 10–19% of Afghanistan's population.[104][105]

Saudi Arabia hosts a number of distinct Shia communities, including the Twelver Baharna in the Eastern Province and Nakhawila of Medina, and the Ismāʿīlī Sulaymani and Zaydī Shias of Najran. Estimations put the number of Shīʿīte citizens at roughly 15% of the local population.[106] Approximately 40% of the population of Yemen are Shia Muslims.[107][108]

Significant Shia communities also exist in the coastal regions of West Sumatra and Aceh in Indonesia (see Tabuik).[109] The Shia presence is negligible elsewhere in Southeast Asia, where Muslims are predominantly Shāfiʿī Sunnīs.

A significant Shia minority is present in Nigeria, made up of modern-era converts to a Shīʿīte movement centered around Kano and Sokoto states.[93][94][110] Several African countries like Kenya,[111] South Africa,[112] Somalia,[113] etc. hold small minority populations of various Shia subsects, primarily descendants of immigrants from South Asia during the colonial period, such as the Khoja.[114]

Significant populations worldwide

Figures indicated in the first three columns below are based on the October 2009 demographic study by the Pew Research Center report, Mapping the Global Muslim Population.[93][94]

Nations with over 100,000 Shia[93][94]
Country Article Shia population in 2009 (Pew)[93][94] Percent of population that is Shia in 2009 (Pew)[93][94] Percent of global Shia population in 2009 (Pew)[93][94] Population estimate ranges and notes
  Iran Islam in Iran 66,000,000–69,500,000 90–95 37–40
  Pakistan Shia Islam in the Indian subcontinent 25,272,000 15 15 A 2010 estimate was that Shia made up about 10–15% of Pakistan's population.[115]
  Iraq Shi'a Islam in Iraq 19,000,000–24,000,000 55–65 10–11
  India Shia Islam in the Indian subcontinent 12,300,000–18,500,000 1.3–2 9–14
  Yemen Shia Islam in Yemen 7,000,000–8,000,000 35–40 ~5 Majority following Zaydi Shia sect.
  Turkey Shi'a Islam in Turkey 6,000,000–9,000,000 ~10–15 ~3–4 Majority following Alevi Shia sect.
  Azerbaijan Islam in Azerbaijan 4,575,000–5,590,000 45–55 2–3 Azerbaijan is majority Shia.[116][117][118] A 2012 work noted that in Azerbaijan, among believers of all faiths, 10% identified as Sunni, 30% identified as Shia, and the remainder of followers of Islam simply identified as Muslim.[118]
 Afghanistan Shi'a Islam in Afghanistan 3,000,000 15 ~2 A reliable census has not been taken in Afghanistan in decades, but about 20% of Afghan population is Shia, mostly among ethnic Tajik and Hazara minorities.[119]
  Syria Islam in Syria 2,400,000 13 ~2 Majority following Alawites Shia sect.
  Lebanon Shi'a Islam in Lebanon 2,100,000 31.2 <1 In 2020, the CIA World Factbook stated that Shia Muslims constitute 31.2% of Lebanon's population.[120]
  Saudi Arabia Shi'a Islam in Saudi Arabia 2,000,000 ~6
  Nigeria Shi'a Islam in Nigeria <2,000,000 <1 <1 Estimates range from as low as 2% of Nigeria's Muslim population to as high as 17% of Nigeria's Muslim population.[a] Some, but not all, Nigerian Shia are affiliated with the banned Islamic Movement in Nigeria, an Iranian-inspired Shia organization led by Ibrahim Zakzaky.[121]
  Tanzania Islam in Tanzania ~1,500,000 ~2.5 <1
  Kuwait Shi'a Islam in Kuwait 500,000–700,000 20–25 <1 Among Kuwait's estimated 1.4 million citizens, about 30% are Shia (including Ismaili and Ahmadi, whom the Kuwaiti government count as Shia). Among Kuwait's large expatriate community of 3.3 million noncitizens, about 64% are Muslim, and among expatriate Muslims, about 5% are Shia.[123]
  Bahrain Islam in Bahrain 400,000–500,000 65–70 <1
  Tajikistan Shi'a Islam in Tajikistan ~400,000 ~4 <1 Shi'a Muslims in Tajikistan are predominantly Nizari Ismaili
  Germany Islam in Germany ~400,000 ~0.5 <1
  United Arab Emirates Islam in the United Arab Emirates ~300,000 ~3 <1
  United States Islam in the United States
Shia Islam in the Americas 		~225,000 ~0.07 <1 Shi'a form a majority amongst Arab Muslims in many American cities, e.g. Lebanese Shi'a forming the majority in Detroit.[124]
  United Kingdom Islam in the United Kingdom ~125,000 ~0.2 <1
  Qatar Islam in Qatar ~100,000 ~3.5 <1
  Oman Islam in Oman ~100,000 ~2 <1 As of 2015, about 5% of Omanis are Shia (compared to about 50% Ibadi and 45% Sunni).[125]

Major denominations or branches

Main article: Islamic schools and branches § Shīʿa Islam
Further information: List of extinct Shia sects and Schools of Islamic theology § Shia schools of theology

The Shia community throughout its history split over the issue of the Imamate. The largest branch are the Twelvers, followed by the Zaydīs and the Ismāʿīlīs. Each subsect of Shīʿīsm follows its own line of Imamate. All mainstream Twelver and Ismāʿīlī Shia Muslims follow the same school of thought, the Jaʽfari jurisprudence, named after Jaʿfar al-Ṣādiq, the 6th Shīʿīte Imam. Shīʿīte clergymen and jurists usually carry the title of mujtahid (i.e., someone authorized to issue legal opinions in Shia Islam).

Twelver

Main article: Twelver

Twelver Shīʿīsm or Ithnāʿashariyyah is the largest branch of Shia Islam,[126][90][127][128][129][130] and the terms Shia Muslim and Shia often refer to the Twelvers by default. The designation Twelver is derived from the doctrine of believing in twelve divinely ordained leaders, known as "the Twelve Imams". Twelver Shia are otherwise known as Imami or Jaʿfari; the latter term derives from Jaʿfar al-Ṣādiq, the 6th Shīʿīte Imam, who elaborated the Twelver jurisprudence.[131] Twelver Shia constitute the majority of the population in Iran (90%),[132] Azerbaijan (85%),[3][133] Bahrain (70%), Iraq (65%), and Lebanon (65% of Muslims).[134][135]

Doctrine

Twelver doctrine is based on five principles.[136] These five principles known as Usul ad-Din are as follow:[137]

  1. Monotheism: God is one and unique;
  2. Justice: the concept of moral rightness based on ethics, fairness, and equity, along with the punishment of the breach of these ethics;
  3. Prophethood: the institution by which God sends emissaries, or prophets, to guide humankind;
  4. Leadership: a divine institution which succeeded the institution of Prophethood. Its appointees (Imams) are divinely appointed;
  5. Resurrection and Last Judgment: God's final assessment of humanity.

Books

Besides the Quran, which is the sacred text common to all Muslims, Twelver Shias derive scriptural and authoritative guidance from collections of sayings and traditions (hadith) attributed to Muhammad and the Twelve Imams. Below is a list of some of the most prominent of these books:

The Twelve Imams

Main articles: Imamate in Twelver doctrine, Sunni reports about there being 12 successors to the Prophet, and Hadith of the Twelve Successors
Further information: Occultation (Islam), Reappearance of Hujjat Allah al-Mahdi, and The Fourteen Infallibles

According to the theology of Twelvers, the successor of Muhammad is an infallible human individual who not only rules over the Muslim community with justice but also is able to keep and interpret the divine law (sharīʿa) and its esoteric meaning. The words and deeds of Muhammad and the Twelve Imams are a guide and model for the Muslim community to follow; as a result, they must be free from error and sin, and Imams must be chosen by divine decree (nass) through Muhammad.[71][72] The twelfth and final Imam is Hujjat Allah al-Mahdi, who is believed by Twelvers to be currently alive and hidden in Occultation.[76]

Jurisprudence

Main article: Ja'fari jurisprudence
Further information: Shia clergy

The Twelver jurisprudence is called Jaʽfari jurisprudence. In this school of Islamic jurisprudence, the sunnah is considered to be comprehensive of the oral traditions of Muhammad and their implementation and interpretation by the Twelve Imams. There are three schools of Jaʿfari jurisprudence: Usuli, Akhbari, and Shaykhi; the Usuli school is by far the largest of the three. Twelver groups that do not follow the Jaʿfari jurisprudence include Alevis, Bektashi, and Qizilbash.

The five pillars of Islam to the Jaʿfari jurisprudence are known as Usul ad-Din:

  1. Tawḥīd: unity and oneness of God;
  2. Nubuwwah: prophethood of Muhammad;
  3. Muʿad: resurrection and final judgment;
  4. ʿAdl: justice of God;
  5. Imamah: the rightful place of the Shīʿīte Imams.

In Jaʿfari jurisprudence, there are eight secondary pillars, known as Furu ad-Din, which are as follows:[137]

  1. Salat (prayer);
  2. Sawm (fasting);
  3. Hajj (pilgrimage) to Mecca;
  4. Zakāt (alms giving to the poor);
  5. Jihād (struggle) for the righteous cause;
  6. Directing others towards good;
  7. Directing others away from evil;
  8. Khums (20% tax on savings yearly, after deduction of commercial expenses).

According to Twelvers, defining and interpretation of Islamic jurisprudence (fiqh) is the responsibility of Muhammad and the Twelve Imams. Since the 12th Imam is currently in Occultation, it is the duty of Shīʿīte clerics to refer to the Islamic literature, such as the Quran and hadith, and identify legal decisions within the confines of Islamic law to provide means to deal with current issues from an Islamic perspective. In other words, clergymen in Twelver Shīʿīsm are believed to be the guardians of fiqh, which is believed to have been defined by Muhammad and his twelve successors. This process is known as ijtihad and the clerics are known as marjaʿ, meaning "reference"; the labels Allamah and Ayatollah are in use for Twelver clerics.

Islamists

Islamist Shīʿīsm (Persian: تشیع اخوانی) is a new denomination within Twelver Shīʿīsm greatly inspired by the political ideology of the Muslim Brotherhood and mysticism of Ibn Arabi. It sees Islam as a political system and differs from the other mainstream Usuli and Akhbari groups in favoring the idea of the establishment of an Islamic state in Occultation under the rule of the 12th Imam.[140][141] Hadi Khosroshahi was the first person to identify himself as ikhwani (Islamist) Shia Muslim.[142] Because of the concept of the hidden Imam, Muhammad al-Mahdi, Shia Islam is inherently secular in the age of Occultation, therefore Islamist Shia Muslims had to borrow ideas from Sunnī Islamists and adjust them in accordance with the doctrine of Shīʿīsm.[143] Its foundations were laid during the Persian Constitutional Revolution at the start of 20th century in Qajar Iran (1905–1911), when Fazlullah Nouri supported the Persian king Ahmad Shah Qajar against the will of Muhammad Kazim Khurasani, the Usuli marjaʿ of the time.[144]

Ismāʿīlī (Sevener)

Main article: Isma'ilism

Ismāʿīlīs, otherwise known as Sevener, derive their name from their acceptance of Ismāʿīl ibn Jaʿfar as the divinely appointed spiritual successor (Imam) to Jaʿfar al-Ṣādiq, the 6th Shīʿīte Imam, wherein they differ from the Twelvers, who recognize Mūsā al-Kāẓim, younger brother of Ismāʿīl, as the true Imam.

After the death or Occultation of Muhammad ibn Imam Ismāʿīl in the 8th century CE, the teachings of Ismāʿīlīsm further transformed into the belief system as it is known today, with an explicit concentration on the deeper, esoteric meaning (bāṭin) of the Islamic faith. With the eventual development of Twelver Shīʿīsm into the more literalistic (zahīr) oriented Akhbari and later Usuli schools of thought, Shīʿīsm further developed in two separate directions: the metaphorical Ismāʿīlī group focusing on the mystical path and nature of God and the divine manifestation in the personage of the "Imam of the Time" as the "Face of God", with the more literalistic Twelver group focusing on divine law (sharī'ah) and the deeds and sayings (sunnah) attributed to Muhammad and his successors (the Ahl al-Bayt), who as A'immah were guides and a light (nūr) to God.[145]

 
Shāh Karim al-Husayni, known as the Aga Khan IV, is the 49th and current Imam of Nizārī Ismāʿīlīs.

Though there are several subsects amongst the Ismāʿīlīs, the term in today's vernacular generally refers to the Shia Imami Ismāʿīlī Nizārī community, often referred to as the Ismāʿīlīs by default, who are followers of the Aga Khan and the largest group within Ismāʿīlīsm. Another Shia Imami Ismāʿīlī community are the Dawudi Bohras, led by a Da'i al-Mutlaq ("Unrestricted Missionary") as representative of a hidden Imam. While there are many other branches with extremely differing exterior practices, much of the spiritual theology has remained the same since the days of the faith's early Imams. In recent centuries, Ismāʿīlīs have largely been an Indo-Iranian community,[146] but they can also be found in India, Pakistan, Syria, Palestine, Saudi Arabia,[147] Yemen, Jordan, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, Afghanistan, East and South Africa, and in recent years several Ismāʿīlīs have emigrated to China,[148] Western Europe (primarily in the United Kingdom), Australia, New Zealand, and North America.[149]

Ismāʿīlī Imams

Main article: List of Ismaili imams

In the Nizārī Ismāʿīlī interpretation of Shia Islam, the Imam is the guide and the intercessor between humans and God, and the individual through whom God is recognized. He is also responsible for the esoteric interpretation of the Quran (taʾwīl). He is the possessor of divine knowledge and therefore the "Prime Teacher". According to the "Epistle of the Right Path", a Persian Ismāʿīlī prose text from the post-Mongol period of Ismāʿīlī history, by an anonymous author, there has been a chain of Imams since the beginning of time, and there will continue to be an Imam present on the Earth until the end of time. The worlds would not exist in perfection without this uninterrupted chain of Imams. The proof (hujja) and gate (bāb) of the Imam are always aware of his presence and are witness to this uninterrupted chain.[150]

After the death of Ismāʿīl ibn Jaʿfar, many Ismāʿīlīs believed that one day the eschatological figure of Imam Mahdi, whom they believed to be Muhammad ibn Imam Ismāʿīl, would return and establish an age of justice. One group included the violent Qarmatians, who had a stronghold in Bahrain. In contrast, some Ismāʿīlīs believed the Imamate did continue, and that the Imams were in Occultation and still communicated and taught their followers through a network of Da'i ("Missionaries").

In 909 CE, Abdullah al-Mahdi Billah, a claimant to the Ismāʿīlī Imamate, established the Fatimid Caliphate. During this period, three lineages of Imams were formed. The first branch, known today as the Druze, began with Al-Ḥākim bi-Amr Allāh.[151] Born in 985 CE, he ascended as ruler at the age of eleven. When in 1021 CE his mule returned without him, soaked in blood, a religious group that was forming in his lifetime broke off from mainstream Ismāʿīlīsm and did not acknowledge his successor.[151] Later to be known as the Druze, they believe Al-Ḥākim to be God incarnate[152] and the prophesied Mahdi on Earth, who would one day return and bring justice to the world.[153] The Druze faith further split from Ismāʿīlīsm as it developed into a distinct monotheistic Abrahamic religion and ethno-religious group with its own unique doctrines,[151] and finally separated from both Ismāʿīlīsm and Islam altogether.[151] Thus, the Druze do not identify themselves as Muslims,[151] and are not considered as such by Muslims either.[151][154][155][156][157]

The second split occurred between Nizārī and Musta‘lī Ismāʿīlīs following the death of Ma'ad al-Mustansir Billah in 1094 CE. His rule was the longest of any caliph in any Islamic empire. Upon his passing away, his sons, Nizār (the older) and Al-Musta‘lī (the younger), fought for political and spiritual control of the dynasty. Nizār was defeated and jailed, but according to the Nizārī tradition his son escaped to Alamut, where the Iranian Ismāʿīlī had accepted his claim.[158] From here on, the Nizārī Ismāʿīlī community has continued with a present, living Imam.

The Musta‘lī Ismāʿīlīs split between the Ṭayyibi and the Ḥāfiẓi; Ṭayyibi Ismāʿīlīs, also known as "Bohras", are further divided between Dawudi Bohras, Sulaymani Bohras, and Alavi Bohras. The former denomination claims that At-Tayyib Abi l-Qasim, son of Al-Amir bi-Ahkami l-Lah, and the Imams following him went into a period of anonymity (Dawr-e-Satr) and appointed a Da'i al-Mutlaq ("Unrestricted Missionary") to guide the community, in a similar manner as the Ismāʿīlīs had lived after the death of Muhammad ibn Imam Ismāʿīl. The latter denomination claims that the ruling Fatimid caliph was the Imam, and they died out with the fall of the Fatimid Empire.

Pillars

Ismāʿīlīs have categorized their practices which are known as seven pillars:

Contemporary leadership

The Nizārīs place importance on a scholarly institution because of the existence of a present Imam. The Imam of the Age defines the jurisprudence, and his guidance may differ with Imams previous to him because of different times and circumstances. For Nizārī Ismāʿīlīs, the current Imam is Karim al-Husayni Aga Khan IV. The Nizārī line of Imams has continued to this day as an uninterrupted chain.

Divine leadership has continued in the Bohra branch through the institution of the "Missionary" (Da'i). According to the Bohra tradition, before the last Imam, At-Tayyib Abi l-Qasim, went into seclusion, his father, the 20th Al-Amir bi-Ahkami l-Lah, had instructed Al-Hurra Al-Malika the Malika (Queen consort) in Yemen to appoint a vicegerent after the seclusion—the Da'i al-Mutlaq ("Unrestricted Missionary"), who as the Imam's vicegerent has full authority to govern the community in all matters both spiritual and temporal while the lineage of Musta‘lī-Ṭayyibi Imams remains in seclusion (Dawr-e-Satr). The three branches of Musta‘lī Ismāʿīlīs (Dawudi Bohras, Sulaymani Bohras, and Alavi Bohras) differ on who the current "Unrestricted Missionary" is.

Zaydī (Fiver)

Main article: Zaydism
 
Gold dinar of al-Ḥādī ila'l-Ḥaqq Yaḥyā, the first Zaydī Imam of Yemen, minted in 910–911 CE
 
The Zaydī State of Yemen under the rule of Imam Al-Mutawakkil Ismāʿīl bin al-Qāsim (1644–1676)

Zaydism, otherwise known as Zaydiyya or as Zaydī Shīʿism, is a branch of Shia Islam named after Zayd ibn ʿAlī. Followers of the Zaydī school of jurisprudence are called Zaydīs or occasionally Fivers. However, there is also a group called Zaydī Wāsiṭīs who are Twelvers (see below). Zaydīs constitute roughly 42–47% of the population of Yemen.[159][160]

Doctrine

The Zaydīs, Twelvers, and Ismāʿīlīs all recognize the same first four Imams; however, the Zaydīs consider Zayd ibn ʿAlī as the 5th Imam. After the time of Zayd ibn ʿAlī, the Zaydīs believed that any descendant (Sayyid) of Ḥasan ibn ʿAlī or Ḥusayn ibn ʿAlī could become the next Imam, after fulfilling certain conditions.[161] Other well-known Zaydī Imams in history were Yahya ibn Zayd, Muhammad al-Nafs al-Zakiyya, and Ibrahim ibn Abdullah.

The Zaydī doctrine of Imamah does not presuppose the infallibility of the Imam, nor the belief that the Imams are supposed to receive divine guidance. Moreover, Zaydīs do not believe that the Imamate must pass from father to son but believe it can be held by any Sayyid descended from either Ḥasan ibn ʿAlī or Ḥusayn ibn ʿAlī (as was the case after the death of the former). Historically, Zaydīs held that Zayd ibn ʿAlī was the rightful successor of the 4th Imam since he led a rebellion against the Umayyads in protest of their tyranny and corruption. Muhammad al-Baqir did not engage in political action, and the followers of Zayd ibn ʿAlī maintained that a true Imam must fight against corrupt rulers.

Jurisprudence

In matters of Islamic jurisprudence, Zaydīs follow the teachings of Zayd ibn ʿAlī, which are documented in his book Majmu'l Fiqh (in Arabic: مجموع الفِقه). Al-Ḥādī ila'l-Ḥaqq Yaḥyā, the first Zaydī Imam and founder of the Zaydī State in Yemen, is regarded as the codifier of Zaydī jurisprudence, and as such most Zaydī Shias today are known as Hadawis.

Timeline

The Idrisids (Arabic: الأدارسة) were Arab[162] Zaydī Shias[163][164][165][166][167][168] whose dynasty, named after its first sultan, Idris I, ruled in the western Maghreb from 788 to 985 CE. Another Zaydī State was established in the region of Gilan, Deylaman, and Tabaristan (northern Iran) in 864 CE by the Alavids;[169] it lasted until the death of its leader at the hand of the Samanids in 928 CE. Roughly forty years later, the Zaydī State was revived in Gilan and survived under Hasanid leaders until 1126 CE. Afterwards, from the 12th to 13th centuries, the Zaydī Shias of Deylaman, Gilan, and Tabaristan then acknowledged the Zaydī Imams of Yemen or rival Zaydī Imams within Iran.[170]

The Buyids were initially Zaydī Shias,[171] as were the Banu Ukhaidhir rulers of al-Yamama in the 9th and 10th centuries.[172] The leader of the Zaydī community took the title of caliph; thus, the ruler of Yemen was known by this title. Al-Hadi Yahya bin al-Hussain bin al-Qasim ar-Rassi, a descendant of Ḥasan ibn ʿAlī, founded the Zaydī Imamate at Sa'dah in 893–897 CE, and the Rassid dynasty continued to rule over Yemen until the middle of the 20th century, when the republican revolution of 1962 deposed the last Zaydī Imam. (See: Arab Cold War). The founding Zaydī branch in Yemen was the Jarudiyya; however, with increasing interaction with the Ḥanafī and Shāfiʿī schools of Sunnī jurisprudence, there was a shift from the Jarudiyya group to the Sulaimaniyya, Tabiriyya, Butriyya, and Salihiyya.[173] Zaydī Shias form the second dominant religious group in Yemen. Currently, they constitute about 40–45% of the population in Yemen; Jaʿfaris and Ismāʿīlīs constitute the 2–5%.[174] In Saudi Arabia, it is estimated that there are over 1 million Zaydī Shias, primarily based in the western provinces.

Currently, the most prominent Zaydī political movement is the Houthi movement in Yemen,[175] known by the name of Shabab al-Mu'mineen ("Believing Youth") or Ansar Allah ("Partisans of God").[176] In 2014–2015, Houthis took over the Yemeni government in Sana'a, which led to the fall of the Saudi Arabian-backed government of Abd Rabbuh Mansur Hadi.[175][176][177] Houthis and their allies gained control of a significant part of Yemen's territory, and resisted the Saudi Arabian-led intervention in Yemen seeking to restore Hadi in power.[175][176] (See: Iran–Saudi Arabia proxy conflict). Both the Houthis and the Saudi Arabian-led coalition were being attacked by the Sunnī Islamist militant group and Salafi-jihadist terrorist organization ISIL/ISIS/IS/Daesh.[178][179][180][181][182][183]

Persecution of Shia Muslims

Main articles: Anti-Shiism and Shia–Sunni relations
Further information: Sectarian violence among Muslims
 
Shrine of Imam ʿAlī in Najaf, Iraq

The history of Shia–Sunnī relations has often involved religious discrimination, persecution, and violence, dating back to the earliest development of the two competing sects. At various times throughout the history of Islam, Shia groups and minorities have faced persecution perpetrated by Sunnī Muslims.[184][185][186][187]

Militarily established and holding control over the Umayyad government, many Sunnī rulers perceived the Shias as a threat—both to their political and religious authority.[188] The Sunnī rulers under the Umayyad dynasty sought to marginalize the Shia minority, and later the Abbasids turned on their Shia allies and imprisoned, persecuted, and killed them. The persecution of Shia Muslims throughout history by their Sunnī co-religionists has often been characterized by brutal and genocidal acts. Comprising only about 10–15% of the global Muslim population,[90] Shia Muslims remain a marginalized community to this day in many Sunnī-dominant Arab countries, without the rights to practice their religion and freely organize.[189]

In 1514, the Ottoman sultan Selim I (1512–1520) ordered the massacre of 40,000 Alevis and Bektashi (Anatolian Shia Muslims).[190] According to Jalal Al-e-Ahmad, "Sultan Selim I carried things so far that he announced that the killing of one Shia had as much otherworldly reward as killing 70 Christians."[191] In 1802, the Al Saud-Wahhabi armies of the Ikhwan from the First Saudi State (1727–1818) attacked and sacked the city of Karbala, the Shia shrine in Najaf (eastern region of Iraq) that commemorates the martyrdom and death of Ḥusayn ibn ʿAlī.[192]

During the rule of Saddam Hussein's Ba'athist Iraq, Shia political activists were arrested, tortured, expelled or killed, as part of a crackdown launched after an assassination attempt against Iraq's Deputy Prime Minister Tariq Aziz in 1980.[193][194] In March 2011, the Malaysian government declared Shia Islam a "deviant" sect and banned Shia Muslims from promoting their faith to other Muslims, but left them free to practice it themselves privately.[195][196]

The most recent campaign of anti-Shia oppression was the Islamic State organization's persecution of Shias in its territories in Northern Iraq,[180][197][181][198] which occurred alongside the persecution of various religious groups and the genocide of Yazidis by the same organization during the Second Iraq War.[180][181][182][183]

See also

References

Notes

  1. ^ A 2019 Council on Foreign Relations article states: "Nobody really knows the size of the Shia population in Nigeria. Credible estimates that its numbers range between 2 and 3 percent of Nigeria's population, which would amount to roughly four million."[121] A 2019 BBC News article said that "Estimates of [Nigerian Shia] numbers vary wildly, ranging from less than 5% to 17% of Nigeria's Muslim population of about 100 million."[122]

Citations

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  6. ^ Shiʻa is an alternative spelling of Shia, and Shiʻite of Shiite. In subsequent sections, the spellings Shia and Shiite are adopted for consistency, except where the alternative spelling is in the title of a reference.
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Sources

Further reading

 
Wikisource has the text of the 1905 New International Encyclopedia article "Shiites".
 
Wikisource has the text of the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article "Shi'ites".
 
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Shia Islam.
  • Dabashi, Hamid (2011). Shiʻism: A Religion of Protest. Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-06428-7.
  • Halm, Heinz (2004). Shiʻism. Edinburgh University Press. ISBN 978-0-7486-1888-0.
  • Halm, Heinz (2007). The Shiʻites: A Short History. Markus Wiener Pub. ISBN 978-1-55876-437-8.
  • Lalani, Arzina R. (2000). Early Shiʻi Thought: The Teachings of Imam Muhammad Al-Baqir. I.B.Tauris. ISBN 978-1-86064-434-4.
  • Marcinkowski, Christoph (2010). Shiʻite Identities: Community and Culture in Changing Social Contexts. Lit Verlag. ISBN 978-3-643-80049-7.
  • Momen, Moojan (1985). An Introduction to Shiʻi Islam: The History and Doctrines of Twelver Shiʻism. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-03499-8.
  • Shirazi, Sultanu'l-Wa'izin (2013). Peshawar Nights, A Transcript of a Dialogue between Shia and Sunni scholars. Ansariyan Publications. ISBN 978-964-438-320-5.
  • Nasr, Seyyed Hossein; Hamid Dabashi (1989). Expectation of the Millennium: Shiʻism in History. SUNY Press. ISBN 978-0-88706-843-0.
  • Rogerson, Barnaby (2007). The Heirs of Muhammad: Islam's First Century and the Origins of the Sunni Shia split. Overlook Press. ISBN 978-1-58567-896-9.
  • Wollaston, Arthur N. (2005). The Sunnis and Shias. Kessinger Publishing. ISBN 978-1-4254-7916-9.
  • Moosa, Matti (1988). Extremist Shiites: The Ghulat Sects. Syracuse University Press. ISBN 978-0-8156-2411-0.
  • Shi'a Minorities in the Contemporary World: Migration, Transnationalism and Multilocality. United Kingdom, Edinburgh University Press, 2020.
  • Khalaji, Mehdi (27 November 2009). "The Dilemmas of Pan-Islamic Unity". Current Trends in Islamist Ideology. 9: 64–79.
  • Bohdan, Siarhei (Summer 2020). ""They Were Going Together with the Ikhwan": The Influence of Muslim Brotherhood Thinkers on Shi'i Islamists during the Cold War". The Middle East Journal. 74 (2): 243–262. doi:10.3751/74.2.14. ISSN 1940-3461. S2CID 225510058.

External links

  • . shiism.wcfia.harvard.edu. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Project on Shi'ism and Global Affairs at the Weatherhead Center for International Affairs (Harvard University). 2022. Archived from the original on 4 June 2022. Retrieved 4 March 2022.
  • Daftary, Farhad; Nanji, Azim (2018) [2006]. . www.iis.ac.uk. London: Institute of Ismaili Studies at the Aga Khan Centre. Archived from the original on 31 March 2022. Retrieved 4 March 2022.
  • Muharrami, Ghulam-Husayn (2003). "History of Shi'ism: From the Advent of Islam up to the End of Minor Occultation". Al-Islam.org. Translated by Limba, Mansoor L. Ahlul Bayt Digital Islamic Library Project. Retrieved 4 March 2022.
  • Ayatullāh Jaʿfar Subḥānī. "Shia Islam: History and Doctrines". United Kingdom: Shafaqna (International Shia News Agency). Retrieved 18 April 2023.

January 17, 2024
shia, islam, shia, shias, redirect, here, other, uses, shia, disambiguation, second, largest, branch, islam, holds, that, islamic, prophet, muhammad, designated, ʿalī, abī, Ṭālib, successor, khalīfa, imam, spiritual, political, leader, after, most, notably, ev. Shia and Shias redirect here For other uses see Shia disambiguation Shia Islam ˈ ʃ iː e is the second largest branch of Islam It holds that the Islamic prophet Muhammad designated ʿAli ibn Abi Ṭalib as his successor khalifa and the Imam spiritual and political leader after him most notably at the event of Ghadir Khumm but was prevented from succeeding Muhammad as the leader of the Muslims as a result of the choice made by some of Muhammad s other companions ṣaḥaba at Saqifah This view primarily contrasts with that of Sunni Islam whose adherents believe that Muhammad did not appoint a successor before his death and consider Abu Bakr who was appointed caliph by a group of senior Muslims at Saqifah to be the first rightful rashidun caliph after Muhammad Adherents of Shia Islam are called Shia Muslims Shia Islam is based on a hadith report concerning Muhammad s pronouncement at Ghadir Khumm Shia Muslims believe that ʿAli ibn Abi Ṭalib Muhammad s cousin and son in law should have been the designated successor to Muhammad as Islam s spiritual and political leader This belief later developed into the concept of Imamah the idea that certain descendants of Muhammad the Ahl al Bayt are rightful rulers or Imams whom Shia Muslims believe possess special spiritual and political authority over the Muslim community Later events such as Husayn ibn Ali s martyrdom in the Battle of Karbala further influenced the development of Shia Islam contributing to the formation of a distinct religious sect with its own rituals and shared collective memory 1 Shia Islam is the second largest branch of Islam followed by 10 15 of all Muslims Although there are many Shia subsects Twelver Shiʿism is by far the largest and most influential comprising about 85 of all Shia Muslims Others include the Isma ilis Zaydis and Alevis Shia Muslims form a majority of the population in several countries across the Muslim world such as Iran Iraq Azerbaijan and Bahrain Significant Shi ite communities are also found in Lebanon Kuwait Turkey Yemen and the Indian sub continent Iran an Islamic republic led by Ayatollahs is the only country where laws and governance are predominantly rooted in Shia Islam 2 Contents 1 Terminology 2 Beliefs 2 1 Ali Muhammad s Rightful Successor 2 2 Profession of faith Shahada 2 3 Infallibility Ismah 2 4 Occultation Ghaybah 2 4 1 Hadith tradition 2 5 Holy Relics Tabarruk 2 6 Other doctrines 2 6 1 Doctrine about necessity of acquiring knowledge 3 Practices 3 1 Holidays 3 2 Holy sites 3 3 Purity 4 History 4 1 Origins 4 2 Hasan Husayn and Karbala 4 3 Imamate of the Ahl al Bayt 4 4 Imam Mahdi last Imam of the Shia 4 5 Dynasties 4 5 1 Fatimid Caliphate 4 5 2 Safavid Empire 5 Demographics 5 1 Significant populations worldwide 6 Major denominations or branches 6 1 Twelver 6 1 1 Doctrine 6 1 2 Books 6 1 3 The Twelve Imams 6 1 4 Jurisprudence 6 1 5 Islamists 6 2 Ismaʿili Sevener 6 2 1 Ismaʿili Imams 6 2 2 Pillars 6 2 3 Contemporary leadership 6 3 Zaydi Fiver 6 3 1 Doctrine 6 3 2 Jurisprudence 6 3 3 Timeline 7 Persecution of Shia Muslims 8 See also 9 References 9 1 Notes 9 2 Citations 9 3 Sources 10 Further reading 11 External linksTerminologyThe word Shia derives from the Arabic term Shiʿat ʿAli meaning partisans of Ali followers of Ali or faction of Ali 3 4 Shiʿi ˈ ʃ iː i denotes both the singular noun and the adjective form while Shiʿiyyun refers to the plural noun 5 Shia or Shiʿa ˈ ʃ iː e Shiism Shiʿism ˈ ʃ iː ɪ z e m and Shiite Shiʿite ˈ ʃ iː aɪ t are the forms used in English and other European languages for adherents mosques traditions and things associated with the Shia branch of Islam 6 7 The term Shia was first used during Muhammad s lifetime 8 At present the word refers to the Muslims who believe that the leadership of the Muslim community after Muhammad belongs to ʿAli ibn Abi Ṭalib Muhammad s cousin and son in law and his successors 9 Nawbakhti states that the term Shia refers to a group of Muslims who at the time of Muhammad and after him regarded ʿAli as the Imam and caliph 9 10 Al Shahrastani expresses that the term Shia refers to those who believe that ʿAli is designated as the heir Imam and caliph by Muhammad 9 11 and that ʿAli s authority is maintained through his descendants 9 12 For the adherents of Shia Islam this conviction is implicit in the Quran and the history of Islam Shia Muslim scholars emphasize that the notion of authority is linked to the family of the Abrahamic prophets as the Quranic verses 3 33 and 3 34 show Indeed Allah chose Adam Noah the family of Abraham and the family of Imran above all people They are descendants of one another And Allah is All Hearing All Knowing 13 BeliefsMain article Shia Islamic beliefs and practices This section may require cleanup to meet Wikipedia s quality standards The specific problem is cluttered inconsistent and confusing Please help improve this section if you can October 2022 Learn how and when to remove this template message Shia Islam encompasses various denominations and subgroups 3 all bound by the belief that the leader of the Islamic ummah should hail from ahl al Bayt the family of the prophet Muhammad 14 It embodies a completely independent system of religious interpretation and political authority in the Muslim world 15 16 Ali Muhammad s Rightful Successor Main articles Shia view of Ali and Succession to Muhammad Further information Ali in the Quran nbsp Ḍariẖ over ʿAli s qabr grave Sanctuary of Imam ʿAli Najaf present day Iraq Shia Muslims believe that just as a prophet is appointed by God alone only God has the prerogative to appoint the successor to his prophet They believe God chose ʿAli ibn Abi Ṭalib to be Muhammad s successor infallible the first caliph khalifa head of state of Islam Shia Muslims believe that Muhammad designated Ali as his successor by God s command Eid Al Ghadir 17 18 ʿAli was Muhammad s first cousin and closest living male relative as well as his son in law having married Muhammad s daughter Faṭimah 19 20 Profession of faith Shahada nbsp Kalema at Qibla of the Mosque of Ibn Tulun in Cairo Egypt displaying the phrase Ali un Waliullah علي ولي الله ʿAli is the Wali custodian of God The Shia version of the Shahada the Islamic profession of faith differs from that of the Sunnis 21 The Sunni version of the Shahada states There is no god except God Muhammad is the messenger of God but to this declaration of faith Shia Muslims append the phrase Ali un Waliullah علي ولي الله ʿAli is the Wali custodian of God The basis for the Shia belief in ʿAli ibn Abi Ṭalib as the Wali of God is derived from the Quranic verse 5 55 This additional phrase to the declaration of faith embodies the Shia emphasis on the inheritance of authority through Muhammad s family and lineage The three clauses of the Shia version of the Shahada thus address the fundamental Islamic beliefs of Tawḥid unity and oneness of God Nubuwwah the prophethood of Muhammad and Imamah the Imamate leadership of the faith 22 Infallibility Ismah Main article Ismah Ismah is the concept of infallibility or divinely bestowed freedom from error and sin in Islam 23 Muslims believe that Muhammad along with other prophets and messengers in Islam possessed ismah Twelver and Ismaʿili Shia Muslims also attribute the quality to Imams as well as to Faṭimah daughter of Muhammad in contrast to the Zaydi Shias who do not attribute ismah to the Imams 24 Though initially beginning as a political movement infallibility and sinlessness of the Imams later evolved as a distinct belief of non Zaydi Shiʿism 25 According to Shia Muslim theologians infallibility is considered a rational necessary precondition for spiritual and religious guidance They argue that since God has commanded absolute obedience from these figures they must only order that which is right The state of infallibility is based on the Shia interpretation of the verse of purification 26 27 Thus they are the most pure ones the only immaculate ones preserved from and immune to all uncleanness 28 It does not mean that supernatural powers prevent them from committing a sin but due to the fact that they have absolute belief in God they refrain from doing anything that is a sin 23 They also have a complete knowledge of God s will They are in possession of all knowledge brought by the angels to the prophets nabi and the messengers rasul Their knowledge encompasses the totality of all times Thus they are believed to act without fault in religious matters 29 Shia Muslims regard ʿAli ibn Abi Ṭalib as the successor of Muhammad not only ruling over the entire Muslim community in justice but also interpreting the Islamic faith practices and its esoteric meaning ʿAli is regarded as a perfect man al insan al kamil similar to Muhammad according to the Shia viewpoint 30 Occultation Ghaybah Main articles Occultation Islam and Reappearance of Hujjat Allah al Mahdi Further information Major Occultation Minor Occultation and The Fourteen Infallibles nbsp Jamkaran Mosque in Qom Iran is a popular pilgrimage site for Shia Muslims Local belief holds that the 12th Shiʿite Imam the promised Mahdi according to Twelvers once appeared and offered prayers at Jamkaran The Occultation is an eschatological belief held in various denominations of Shia Islam concerning a messianic figure the hidden and last Imam known as the Mahdi that one day shall return on Earth and fill the world with justice According to the doctrine of Twelver Shiʿism the main goal of Imam Mahdi will be to establish an Islamic state and to apply Islamic laws that were revealed to Muhammad The Quran does not contain verses on the Imamate which is the basic doctrine of Shia Islam 31 Some Shia subsects such as the Zaydi Shias and Nizari Ismaʿilis do not believe in the idea of the Occultation The groups which do believe in it differ as to which lineage of the Imamate is valid and therefore which individual has gone into Occultation They believe there are many signs that will indicate the time of his return Twelver Shia Muslims believe that the prophesied Mahdi and twelfth Imam Hujjat Allah al Mahdi is already on Earth in Occultation and will return at the end of time Ṭayyibi Ismaʿilis and Fatimid Bohra Dawoodi Bohra believe the same but for their 21st Ṭayyib At Tayyib Abi l Qasim and also believe that a Da i al Mutlaq Unrestricted Missionary maintains contact with him Sunni Muslims believe that the future Mahdi has not yet arrived on Earth 32 Hadith tradition Shia Muslims believe that the status of ʿAli is supported by numerous hadith including the Hadith of the pond of Khumm Hadith of the two weighty things Hadith of the pen and paper Hadith of the invitation of the close families and Hadith of the Twelve Successors In particular the Hadith of the Cloak is often quoted to illustrate Muhammad s feeling towards ʿAli and his family by both Sunni and Shia scholars Shia Muslims prefer to study and read the hadith attributed to the Ahl al Bayt and close associates and most have their own separate hadith canon 33 34 Holy Relics Tabarruk It is believed that the armaments and sacred items of all of the prophets including Muhammad were handed down in succession to the Imams of the Ahl al Bayt Jaʿfar al Ṣadiq the 6th Shiʿite Imam in Kitab al Kafi mentions that with me are the arms of the Messenger of Allah It is not disputable 35 Further he claims that with him is the sword of the Messenger of God his coat of arms his Lamam pennon and his helmet In addition he mentions that with him is the flag of the Messenger of God the victorious With him is the Staff of Moses the ring of Solomon son of David and the tray on which Moses used to offer his offerings With him is the name that whenever the Messenger of God would place it between the Muslims and pagans no arrow from the pagans would reach the Muslims With him is the similar object that angels brought 35 Al Ṣadiq also narrated that the passing down of armaments is synonymous to receiving the Imamat leadership similar to how the Ark of Covenant in the house of the Israelites signaled prophethood 35 Imam Ali al Ridha narrates that wherever the armaments among us would go knowledge would also follow and the armaments would never depart from those with knowledge Imamat 35 Other doctrines Doctrine about necessity of acquiring knowledge According to Muhammad Rida al Muzaffar God gives humans the faculty of reason and argument Also God orders humans to spend time thinking carefully on creation while he refers to all creations as his signs of power and glory These signs encompass all of the universe Furthermore there is a similarity between humans as the little world and the universe as the large world God does not accept the faith of those who follow him without thinking and only with imitation but also God blames them for such actions In other words humans have to think about the universe with reason and intellect a faculty bestowed on us by God Since there is more insistence on the faculty of intellect among Shia Muslims even evaluating the claims of someone who claims prophecy is on the basis of intellect 36 37 Practices nbsp Shia Muslims gathered in prayer at the Shrine of Imam Ḥusayn in Karbala IraqShia religious practices such as prayers differ only slightly from the Sunnis While all Muslims pray five times daily Shia Muslims have the option of combining Dhuhr with Asr and Maghrib with Isha as there are three distinct times mentioned in the Quran The Sunnis tend to combine only under certain circumstances Holidays Main article Shia days of remembrance Shia Muslims celebrate the following annual holidays Eid ul Fitr which marks the end of fasting during the month of Ramadan Eid al Adha which marks the end of the Hajj or pilgrimage to Mecca Eid al Ghadeer which is the anniversary of the Ghadir Khum the occasion when Muhammad announced Ali s Imamate before a multitude of Muslims 38 Eid al Ghadeer is held on the 18th of Dhu al Hijjah The Mourning of Muharram and the Day of Ashura for Shia Muslims commemorate the martyrdom of Ḥusayn ibn ʿAli brother of Ḥasan and grandson of Muhammad who was killed by Yazid ibn Muawiyah in Karbala central Iraq Ashura is a day of deep mourning which occurs on the 10th of Muharram Arba een commemorates the suffering of the women and children of Ḥusayn ibn ʿAli s household After Ḥusayn was killed they were marched over the desert from Karbala central Iraq to Shaam Damascus Syria Many children some of whom were direct descendants of Muhammad died of thirst and exposure along the route Arbaein occurs on the 20th of Safar 40 days after Ashura Mawlid Muhammad s birth date Unlike Sunni Muslims who celebrate the 12th of Rabi al awwal as Muhammad s day of birth or death because they assert that his birth and death both occur in this week Shia Muslims celebrate Muhammad s birthday on the 17th of the month which coincides with the birth date of Jaʿfar al Ṣadiq the 6th Shiʿite Imam 39 Faṭimah s birthday on 20th of Jumada al Thani This day is also considered as the women and mothers day 40 ʿAli s birthday on 13th of Rajab Mid Sha ban is the birth date of the 12th and final Twelver imam Muhammad al Mahdi It is celebrated by Shia Muslims on the 15th of Sha aban Laylat al Qadr anniversary of the night of the revelation of the Quran Eid al Mubahila celebrates a meeting between the Ahl al Bayt household of Muhammad and a Christian deputation from Najran Al Mubahila is held on the 24th of Dhu al Hijjah Holy sites Main article Holiest sites in Shia Islam After the four holy cities of Islam Mecca Medina Jerusalem and Damascus the cities of Najaf Karbala and Qom are the most revered by Shia Muslims 41 42 The Sanctuary of Imam ʿAli in Najaf the Shrine of Imam Ḥusayn in Karbala and the Shrine of Faṭimah al Maʿṣumah in Qom are very essential for Shia Muslims Other venerated pilgrimage sites include the Imam Reza shrine in Mashhad the Kadhimiya Mosque in Kadhimiya Al Askari Mosque in Samarra the Sahla Mosque the Great Mosque of Kufa the Jamkaran Mosque in Qom and the Tomb of Daniel in Susa Most of the Shia sacred places and heritage sites in Saudi Arabia have been destroyed by the Al Saud Wahhabi armies of the Ikhwan the most notable being the tombs of the Imams located in the Al Baqi cemetery in 1925 43 In 2006 a bomb destroyed the shrine of Al Askari Mosque 44 See Anti Shi ism Purity Shia orthodoxy particularly in Twelver Shi ism has considered non Muslims as agents of impurity Najasat This categorization sometimes extends to kitabῑ individuals belonging to the People of the Book with Jews explicitly labeled as impure by certain Shia religious scholars 45 46 47 Armenians in Iran who have historically played a crucial role in the Iranian economy received relatively more lenient treatment 46 Shi ite theologians and mujtahids jurists such as Muḥammad Baqir al Majlisῑ held that Jews impurity extended to the point where they were advised to stay at home on rainy or snowy days to prevent contaminating their Shia neighbors Ayatollah Khomeini Supreme Leader of Iran from 1979 to 1989 asserted that every part of an unbeliever s body including hair nails and bodily secretions is impure However the current leader of Iran ʿAli Khameneʾi stated in a fatwa that Jews and other Peoples of the Book are not inherently impure and touching the moisture on their hands does not convey impurity 45 48 47 HistoryMain article History of Shia IslamThe original Shia identity referred to the followers of Imam ʿAli 49 and Shia theology was formulated after the hijra 8th century CE 50 The first Shia governments and societies were established by the end of the 9th century CE The 10th century CE has been referred to by the scholar of Islamic studies Louis Massignon as the Shiite Ismaili century in the history of Islam 51 Origins Main articles Origin of Shia Islam Ali ibn Abi Taleb and First Fitna nbsp The investiture of ʿAli ibn Abi Ṭalib at Ghadir Khumm MS Arab 161 fol 162r 1308 1309 CE Ilkhanid manuscript illustration The Shia originally known as the partisans of ʿAli ibn Abi Ṭalib Muhammad s cousin and Fatima s husband first emerged as a distinct movement during the First Fitna from 656 to 661 CE Shia doctrine holds that ʿAli was meant to lead the community after Muhammad s death in 632 Historians dispute over the origins of Shia Islam with many Western scholars positing that Shiʿism began as a political faction rather than a truly religious movement 52 53 Other scholars disagree considering this concept of religious political separation to be an anachronistic application of a Western concept 54 Shia Muslims believe that Muhammad designated ʿAli ibn Abi Ṭalib as his heir during a speech at Ghadir Khumm 14 The point of contention between different Muslim sects arises when Muhammad whilst giving his speech gave the proclamation Anyone who has me as his mawla has ʿAli as his mawla 9 55 56 57 Some versions add the additional sentence O God befriend the friend of ʿAli and be the enemy of his enemy 58 Sunnis maintain that Muhammad emphasized the deserving friendship and respect for ʿAli In contrast Shia Muslims assert that the statement unequivocally designates ʿAli as Muhammad s appointed successor 9 59 60 61 Shia sources also record further details of the event such as stating that those present congratulated ʿAli and acclaimed him as Amir al Mu minin commander of the believers 58 When Muhammad died in 632 CE ʿAli ibn Abi Ṭalib and Muhammad s closest relatives made the funeral arrangements While they were preparing his body Abu Bakr ʿUmar ibn al Khaṭṭab and Abu Ubaidah ibn al Jarrah met with the leaders of Medina and elected Abu Bakr as the first rashidun caliph Abu Bakr served from 632 to 634 and was followed by Umar 634 644 and ʿUthman 644 656 14 nbsp Great Mosque of Kufa site of ʿAli s assassination 661 CE 19 20 With the murder of ʿUthman in 657 CE the Muslims of Medina invited ʿAli to become the fourth caliph as the last source 19 and he established his capital in Kufa a city in present day Iraq 3 ʿAli s rule over the early Islamic empire between 656 CE to 661 CE was often contested 14 Tensions eventually led to the First Fitna the first major civil war between Muslims within the empire which began as a series of revolts fought against ʿAli While the rebels had previously affirmed the legitimacy of ʿAli s khilafaʾ caliphate they later turned against ʿAli and fought him 19 Tensions escalated into the Battle of the Camel in 656 where Ali s forces emerged victorious against Aisha Talhah and al Zubayr However the Battle of Siffin in 657 turned the tide against ʿAli who lost due to arbitration issues with Muawiyah the governor of Damascus 14 ʿAli withdrew to Kufa overcoming the Kharijis a faction that had transformed from supporters to bitter rivals at Nahrawan in 658 In 661 ʿAli was assassinated by a Khariji assassin in Kufa while in the act of prostration during prayer sujud Subsequently Muawiyah asserted his claim to the caliphate 62 20 Hasan Husayn and Karbala Main articles Hasan ibn Ali Husayn ibn Ali and Battle of KarbalaUpon the death of ʿAli his elder son Ḥasan became leader of the Muslims of Kufa After a series of skirmishes between the Kufa Muslims and the army of Muawiyah Ḥasan ibn Ali agreed to cede the caliphate to Muawiyah and maintain peace among Muslims upon certain conditions The enforced public cursing of ʿAli e g during prayers should be abandoned Muawiyah should not use tax money for his own private needs There should be peace and followers of Ḥasan should be given security and their rights Muawiyah will never adopt the title of Amir al Mu minin commander of the believers Muawiyah will not nominate any successor 63 64 Ḥasan then retired to Medina where in 670 CE he was poisoned by his wife Ja da bint al Ash ath after being secretly contacted by Muawiyah who wished to pass the caliphate to his own son Yazid and saw Ḥasan as an obstacle 65 nbsp Battle of Karbala painting by the Isfahan based Persian artist Abbas Al Mousavi Brooklyn Museum between 1868 and 1933 Ḥusayn ibn ʿAli ʿAli s younger son and brother to Ḥasan initially resisted calls to lead the Muslims against Muawiyah and reclaim the caliphate In 680 CE Muawiyah died and passed the caliphate to his son Yazid and breaking the treaty with Ḥasan ibn ʿAli Yazid asked Husayn to swear allegiance bay ah to him ʿAli s faction having expected the caliphate to return to ʿAli s line upon Muawiyah s death saw this as a betrayal of the peace treaty and so Ḥusayn rejected this request for allegiance There was a groundswell of support in Kufa for Ḥusayn to return there and take his position as caliph and Imam so Ḥusayn collected his family and followers in Medina and set off for Kufa 14 nbsp nbsp Left the Shrine of Imam Ḥusayn right the Mosque of Imam Ḥusayn premises during Arba een En route to Kufa Husayn was blocked by an army of Yazid s men which included people from Kufa near Karbala modern Iraq rather than surrendering Husayn and his followers chose to fight In the Battle of Karbala Ḥusayn and approximately 72 of his family members and followers were killed and Husayn s head was delivered to Yazid in Damascus The Shi a community regard Ḥusayn ibn ʿAli as a martyr shahid and count him as an Imam from the Ahl al Bayt The Battle of Karbala and martyrdom of Ḥusayn ibn ʿAli is often cited as the definitive separation between the Shia and Sunni sects of Islam Ḥusayn is the last Imam following ʿAli mutually recognized by all branches of Shia Islam 66 The martyrdom of Husayn and his followers is commemorated on the Day of Ashura occurring on the tenth day of Muharram the first month of the Islamic calendar 14 Imamate of the Ahl al Bayt Main article Imamate in Shia doctrine nbsp Zulfiqar with and without the shield The Fatimid depiction of ʿAli s sword is carved on the gates of Old Cairo namely Bab al Nasr shown below Two swords were captured from the temple of the pre Islamic Arabian deity Manat during the Raid of Sa d ibn Zaid al Ashhali Muhammad gave them to ʿAli saying that one of them was Zulfiqar which became famously known as the sword of ʿAli and a later symbol of Shiʿism 67 nbsp Depiction of ʿAli s sword and shield carved on the Bab al Nasr gate wall in Cairo EgyptLater most denominations of Shia Islam including Twelvers and Ismaʿilis became Imamis 9 68 69 Imami Shiʿites believe that Imams are the spiritual and political successors to Muhammad 70 Imams are human individuals who not only rule over the Muslim community with justice but also are able to keep and interpret the divine law and its esoteric meaning The words and deeds of Muhammad and the Imams are a guide and model for the community to follow as a result they must be free from error and sin and must be chosen by divine decree nass through Muhammad 71 72 According to this view peculiar to Shia Islam there is always an Imam of the Age who is the divinely appointed authority on all matters of faith and law in the Muslim community ʿAli was the first Imam of this line the rightful successor to Muhammad followed by male descendants of Muhammad through his daughter Fatimah 70 73 This difference between following either the Ahl al Bayt Muhammad s family and descendants or pledging allegiance to Abu Bakr has shaped the Shia Sunni divide on the interpretation of some Quranic verses hadith literature accounts of the sayings and living habits attributed to the Islamic prophet Muhammad during his lifetime and other areas of Islamic belief throughout the history of Islam For instance the hadith collections venerated by Shia Muslims are centered on narrations by members of the Ahl al Bayt and their supporters while some hadith transmitted by narrators not belonging to or supporting the Ahl al Bayt are not included Those of Abu Hurairah for example Ibn Asakir in his Taʿrikh Kabir and Muttaqi in his Kanzuʿl Umma report that ʿUmar ibn al Khaṭṭab lashed him rebuked him and forbade him to narrate ḥadith from Muhammad ʿUmar is reported to have said Because you narrate hadith in large numbers from the Holy Prophet you are fit only for attributing lies to him That is one expects a wicked man like you to utter only lies about the Holy Prophet So you must stop narrating hadith from the Prophet otherwise I will send you to the land of Dus An Arab clan in Yemen to which Abu Hurairah belonged According to Sunni Muslims ʿAli was the fourth successor to Abu Bakr while Shia Muslims maintain that ʿAli was the first divinely sanctioned Imam or successor of Muhammad The seminal event in Shia history is the martyrdom at the Battle of Karbala of ʿAli s son Ḥusayn ibn ʿAli and 71 of his followers in 680 CE who led a non allegiance movement against the defiant caliph nbsp Sanctuary of Imam Reza in Mashhad Iran is a complex which contains the mausoleum of Imam Reza the 8th Imam of Twelver Shias It is believed in Twelver and Ismaʿili branches of Shia Islam that divine wisdom ʿaql was the source of the souls of the prophets and Imams which bestowed upon them esoteric knowledge ḥikmah and that their sufferings were a means of divine grace to their devotees 74 75 Although the Imam was not the recipient of a divine revelation waḥy he had a close relationship with God through which God guides him and the Imam in turn guides the people Imamate or belief in the divine guide is a fundamental belief in the Twelver and Ismaʿili branches of Shia Islam and is based on the concept that God would not leave humanity without access to divine guidance 76 Imam Mahdi last Imam of the Shia Main articles Mahdi Muhammad al Mahdi Occultation Islam and Reappearance of Hujjat Allah al Mahdi Further information History of Shia Islam and Imamate in Shia doctrine nbsp Ghazan and his brother Oljaitu both were tolerant of sectarian differences within the boundaries of Islam in contrast to the traditions of Genghis Khan In Shia Islam Imam Mahdi is regarded as the prophesied eschatological redeemer of Islam who will rule for seven nine or nineteen years according to differing interpretations before the Day of Judgment and will rid the world of evil According to Islamic tradition the Mahdi s tenure will coincide with the Second Coming of Jesus ʿisa who is to assist the Mahdi against the Masih ad Dajjal literally the false Messiah or Antichrist Jesus who is considered the Masih Messiah in Islam will descend at the point of a white arcade east of Damascus dressed in yellow robes with his head anointed He will then join the Mahdi in his war against the Dajjal where it is believed the Mahdi will slay the Dajjal and unite humankind Dynasties Main article List of Shia dynasties In the century following the Battle of Karbala 680 CE as various Shia affiliated groups diffused in the emerging Islamic world several nations arose based on a Shia leadership or population Idrisids 788 985 CE a Zaydi dynasty in what is now Morocco Qarmatians 899 1077 CE an Ismaili Iranian dynasty Their headquarters were in East Arabia and Bahrain It was founded by Abu Sa id al Jannabi Buyids 934 1055 CE a Twelver Iranian dynasty at its peak consisted of large portions of modern Iraq and Iran Uqaylids 990 1096 CE a Shia Arab dynasty with several lines that ruled in various parts of Al Jazira northern Syria and Iraq Ilkhanate 1256 1335 a Persianate Mongol khanate established in Persia in the 13th century considered a part of the Mongol Empire The Ilkhanate was based originally on Genghis Khan s campaigns in the Khwarezmid Empire in 1219 1224 and founded by Genghis s grandson Hulagu in territories which today comprise most of Iran Iraq Afghanistan Turkmenistan Armenia Azerbaijan Georgia Turkey and Pakistan The Ilkhanate initially embraced many religions but was particularly sympathetic to Buddhism and Christianity Later Ilkhanate rulers beginning with Ghazan in 1295 embraced Islam his brother Oljaitu promoted Shia Islam 77 Bahmanids 1347 1527 a Shia Muslim state of the Deccan in southern India and one of the great medieval Indian kingdoms 78 Bahmanid Sultanate was the first independent Islamic Kingdom in South India 79 nbsp The Fatimid Caliphate at its peakFatimid Caliphate nbsp Al Hakim Mosque Islamic CairoFatimids 909 1171 CE Controlled much of North Africa the Levant parts of Arabia and Mecca and Medina The group takes its name from Fatima Muhammad s daughter from whom they claim descent In 909 CE the Shi i military leader Abu Abdallah al Shiʻi overthrew the Sunni ruler in Northern Africa which began the Fatimid regime 80 Jawhar general Arabic جوهر fl 966 d 992 was a Fatimid general Under the command of Caliph Al Mu izz he led the conquest of North Africa and then of Egypt 81 founded the city of Cairo 82 and the great al Azhar Mosque A Greek slave by origin he was freed by Al Mu izz 83 Safavid Empire Main articles Safavid dynasty and Safavid conversion of Iran to Shia Islam nbsp One of the first actions performed by Shah Isma il I of the Safavid dynasty was the proclamation of the Twelver denomination of Shia Islam as the official religion of his newly founded Persian Empire causing sectarian tensions in the Middle East when he destroyed the tombs of the Abbasid caliphs the Sunni Imam Abu Ḥanifa al Nuʿman and the Ṣufi Muslim ascetic ʿAbdul Qadir Gilani in 1508 84 In 1533 the Ottoman Turks upon their conquest of Iraq rebuilt various important Sunni shrines 84 85 A major turning point in the history of Shia Islam was the dominion of the Safavid dynasty 1501 1736 in Persia This caused a number of changes in the Muslim world The ending of the relative mutual tolerance between Sunnis and Shias that existed from the time of the Mongol conquests onwards and the resurgence of antagonism between the two groups Initial dependence of Shiʿite clerics on the state followed by the emergence of an independent body of ulama capable of taking a political stand different from official policies 86 The growth in importance of Persian centers of Islamic education and religious learning which resulted in the change of Twelver Shiʿism from being a predominantly Arab phenomenon to become predominantly Persian 87 The growth of the Akhbari school of thought which taught that only the Quran ḥadith literature and sunnah accounts of the sayings and living habits attributed to the Islamic prophet Muhammad during his lifetime are to be bases for verdicts rejecting the use of reasoning With the fall of the Safavids the state in Persia including the state system of courts with government appointed judges qaḍi became much weaker This gave the shariʿa courts of mujtahid an opportunity to fill the legal vacuum and enabled the ulama to assert their judicial authority The Usuli school of thought also increased in strength at this time 88 nbsp The declaration of Twelver Shiʿism as the state religion of Safavid Persia nbsp Battle of Chaldiran in 1514 was a major sectarian crisis between Muslims in the Middle East nbsp Monument commemorating the Battle of Chaldiran where more than 7 000 Muslims of the Shia and Sunni sects killed each otherDemographicsMain article Islam by country nbsp Islam by country Sunni Shia Ibadi nbsp Map of the Muslim world s schools of jurisprudence 89 Shia Islam is the second largest branch of Islam 90 It is estimated that either 10 20 91 or 10 13 92 93 94 of the global Muslim population are Shias They may number up to 200 million as of 2009 93 As of 1985 Shia Muslims are estimated to be 21 of the Muslim population in South Asia although the total number is difficult to estimate 95 Shia Muslims form a majority of the population in various regions of the Muslim world including Azerbaijan Bahrain Iran and Iraq 96 97 as well as a plurality in Lebanon Shia Muslims constitute 36 3 of the entire population and 38 6 of the Muslim population of the Middle East 98 Estimates have placed the proportion of Shia Muslims in Lebanon between 27 and 45 of the population 96 99 30 35 of the citizen population in Kuwait no figures exist for the non citizen population 100 101 over 20 in Turkey 93 102 5 20 of the population in Pakistan 103 93 and 10 19 of Afghanistan s population 104 105 Saudi Arabia hosts a number of distinct Shia communities including the Twelver Baharna in the Eastern Province and Nakhawila of Medina and the Ismaʿili Sulaymani and Zaydi Shias of Najran Estimations put the number of Shiʿite citizens at roughly 15 of the local population 106 Approximately 40 of the population of Yemen are Shia Muslims 107 108 Significant Shia communities also exist in the coastal regions of West Sumatra and Aceh in Indonesia see Tabuik 109 The Shia presence is negligible elsewhere in Southeast Asia where Muslims are predominantly Shafiʿi Sunnis A significant Shia minority is present in Nigeria made up of modern era converts to a Shiʿite movement centered around Kano and Sokoto states 93 94 110 Several African countries like Kenya 111 South Africa 112 Somalia 113 etc hold small minority populations of various Shia subsects primarily descendants of immigrants from South Asia during the colonial period such as the Khoja 114 Significant populations worldwide Figures indicated in the first three columns below are based on the October 2009 demographic study by the Pew Research Center report Mapping the Global Muslim Population 93 94 Nations with over 100 000 Shia 93 94 Country Article Shia population in 2009 Pew 93 94 Percent of population that is Shia in 2009 Pew 93 94 Percent of global Shia population in 2009 Pew 93 94 Population estimate ranges and notes nbsp Iran Islam in Iran 66 000 000 69 500 000 90 95 37 40 nbsp Pakistan Shia Islam in the Indian subcontinent 25 272 000 15 15 A 2010 estimate was that Shia made up about 10 15 of Pakistan s population 115 nbsp Iraq Shi a Islam in Iraq 19 000 000 24 000 000 55 65 10 11 nbsp India Shia Islam in the Indian subcontinent 12 300 000 18 500 000 1 3 2 9 14 nbsp Yemen Shia Islam in Yemen 7 000 000 8 000 000 35 40 5 Majority following Zaydi Shia sect nbsp Turkey Shi a Islam in Turkey 6 000 000 9 000 000 10 15 3 4 Majority following Alevi Shia sect nbsp Azerbaijan Islam in Azerbaijan 4 575 000 5 590 000 45 55 2 3 Azerbaijan is majority Shia 116 117 118 A 2012 work noted that in Azerbaijan among believers of all faiths 10 identified as Sunni 30 identified as Shia and the remainder of followers of Islam simply identified as Muslim 118 nbsp Afghanistan Shi a Islam in Afghanistan 3 000 000 15 2 A reliable census has not been taken in Afghanistan in decades but about 20 of Afghan population is Shia mostly among ethnic Tajik and Hazara minorities 119 nbsp Syria Islam in Syria 2 400 000 13 2 Majority following Alawites Shia sect nbsp Lebanon Shi a Islam in Lebanon 2 100 000 31 2 lt 1 In 2020 the CIA World Factbook stated that Shia Muslims constitute 31 2 of Lebanon s population 120 nbsp Saudi Arabia Shi a Islam in Saudi Arabia 2 000 000 6 nbsp Nigeria Shi a Islam in Nigeria lt 2 000 000 lt 1 lt 1 Estimates range from as low as 2 of Nigeria s Muslim population to as high as 17 of Nigeria s Muslim population a Some but not all Nigerian Shia are affiliated with the banned Islamic Movement in Nigeria an Iranian inspired Shia organization led by Ibrahim Zakzaky 121 nbsp Tanzania Islam in Tanzania 1 500 000 2 5 lt 1 nbsp Kuwait Shi a Islam in Kuwait 500 000 700 000 20 25 lt 1 Among Kuwait s estimated 1 4 million citizens about 30 are Shia including Ismaili and Ahmadi whom the Kuwaiti government count as Shia Among Kuwait s large expatriate community of 3 3 million noncitizens about 64 are Muslim and among expatriate Muslims about 5 are Shia 123 nbsp Bahrain Islam in Bahrain 400 000 500 000 65 70 lt 1 nbsp Tajikistan Shi a Islam in Tajikistan 400 000 4 lt 1 Shi a Muslims in Tajikistan are predominantly Nizari Ismaili nbsp Germany Islam in Germany 400 000 0 5 lt 1 nbsp United Arab Emirates Islam in the United Arab Emirates 300 000 3 lt 1 nbsp United States Islam in the United StatesShia Islam in the Americas 225 000 0 07 lt 1 Shi a form a majority amongst Arab Muslims in many American cities e g Lebanese Shi a forming the majority in Detroit 124 nbsp United Kingdom Islam in the United Kingdom 125 000 0 2 lt 1 nbsp Qatar Islam in Qatar 100 000 3 5 lt 1 nbsp Oman Islam in Oman 100 000 2 lt 1 As of 2015 about 5 of Omanis are Shia compared to about 50 Ibadi and 45 Sunni 125 Major denominations or branchesMain article Islamic schools and branches Shiʿa Islam Further information List of extinct Shia sects and Schools of Islamic theology Shia schools of theology The Shia community throughout its history split over the issue of the Imamate The largest branch are the Twelvers followed by the Zaydis and the Ismaʿilis Each subsect of Shiʿism follows its own line of Imamate All mainstream Twelver and Ismaʿili Shia Muslims follow the same school of thought the Jaʽfari jurisprudence named after Jaʿfar al Ṣadiq the 6th Shiʿite Imam Shiʿite clergymen and jurists usually carry the title of mujtahid i e someone authorized to issue legal opinions in Shia Islam Twelver Main article Twelver Twelver Shiʿism or Ithnaʿashariyyah is the largest branch of Shia Islam 126 90 127 128 129 130 and the terms Shia Muslim and Shia often refer to the Twelvers by default The designation Twelver is derived from the doctrine of believing in twelve divinely ordained leaders known as the Twelve Imams Twelver Shia are otherwise known as Imami or Jaʿfari the latter term derives from Jaʿfar al Ṣadiq the 6th Shiʿite Imam who elaborated the Twelver jurisprudence 131 Twelver Shia constitute the majority of the population in Iran 90 132 Azerbaijan 85 3 133 Bahrain 70 Iraq 65 and Lebanon 65 of Muslims 134 135 Doctrine Twelver doctrine is based on five principles 136 These five principles known as Usul ad Din are as follow 137 Monotheism God is one and unique Justice the concept of moral rightness based on ethics fairness and equity along with the punishment of the breach of these ethics Prophethood the institution by which God sends emissaries or prophets to guide humankind Leadership a divine institution which succeeded the institution of Prophethood Its appointees Imams are divinely appointed Resurrection and Last Judgment God s final assessment of humanity Books Besides the Quran which is the sacred text common to all Muslims Twelver Shias derive scriptural and authoritative guidance from collections of sayings and traditions hadith attributed to Muhammad and the Twelve Imams Below is a list of some of the most prominent of these books Nahj al Balagha by Ash Sharif Ar Radhi 138 the most famous collection of sermons letters amp narration attributed to Ali the first Imam regarded by Shias Kitab al Kafi by Muhammad ibn Ya qub al Kulayni 139 Wasa il al Shiʻah by al Hurr al AmiliThe Twelve Imams Main articles Imamate in Twelver doctrine Sunni reports about there being 12 successors to the Prophet and Hadith of the Twelve Successors Further information Occultation Islam Reappearance of Hujjat Allah al Mahdi and The Fourteen Infallibles According to the theology of Twelvers the successor of Muhammad is an infallible human individual who not only rules over the Muslim community with justice but also is able to keep and interpret the divine law shariʿa and its esoteric meaning The words and deeds of Muhammad and the Twelve Imams are a guide and model for the Muslim community to follow as a result they must be free from error and sin and Imams must be chosen by divine decree nass through Muhammad 71 72 The twelfth and final Imam is Hujjat Allah al Mahdi who is believed by Twelvers to be currently alive and hidden in Occultation 76 Jurisprudence Main article Ja fari jurisprudence Further information Shia clergy The Twelver jurisprudence is called Jaʽfari jurisprudence In this school of Islamic jurisprudence the sunnah is considered to be comprehensive of the oral traditions of Muhammad and their implementation and interpretation by the Twelve Imams There are three schools of Jaʿfari jurisprudence Usuli Akhbari and Shaykhi the Usuli school is by far the largest of the three Twelver groups that do not follow the Jaʿfari jurisprudence include Alevis Bektashi and Qizilbash The five pillars of Islam to the Jaʿfari jurisprudence are known as Usul ad Din Tawḥid unity and oneness of God Nubuwwah prophethood of Muhammad Muʿad resurrection and final judgment ʿAdl justice of God Imamah the rightful place of the Shiʿite Imams In Jaʿfari jurisprudence there are eight secondary pillars known as Furu ad Din which are as follows 137 Salat prayer Sawm fasting Hajj pilgrimage to Mecca Zakat alms giving to the poor Jihad struggle for the righteous cause Directing others towards good Directing others away from evil Khums 20 tax on savings yearly after deduction of commercial expenses According to Twelvers defining and interpretation of Islamic jurisprudence fiqh is the responsibility of Muhammad and the Twelve Imams Since the 12th Imam is currently in Occultation it is the duty of Shiʿite clerics to refer to the Islamic literature such as the Quran and hadith and identify legal decisions within the confines of Islamic law to provide means to deal with current issues from an Islamic perspective In other words clergymen in Twelver Shiʿism are believed to be the guardians of fiqh which is believed to have been defined by Muhammad and his twelve successors This process is known as ijtihad and the clerics are known as marjaʿ meaning reference the labels Allamah and Ayatollah are in use for Twelver clerics Islamists Islamist Shiʿism Persian تشیع اخوانی is a new denomination within Twelver Shiʿism greatly inspired by the political ideology of the Muslim Brotherhood and mysticism of Ibn Arabi It sees Islam as a political system and differs from the other mainstream Usuli and Akhbari groups in favoring the idea of the establishment of an Islamic state in Occultation under the rule of the 12th Imam 140 141 Hadi Khosroshahi was the first person to identify himself as ikhwani Islamist Shia Muslim 142 Because of the concept of the hidden Imam Muhammad al Mahdi Shia Islam is inherently secular in the age of Occultation therefore Islamist Shia Muslims had to borrow ideas from Sunni Islamists and adjust them in accordance with the doctrine of Shiʿism 143 Its foundations were laid during the Persian Constitutional Revolution at the start of 20th century in Qajar Iran 1905 1911 when Fazlullah Nouri supported the Persian king Ahmad Shah Qajar against the will of Muhammad Kazim Khurasani the Usuli marjaʿ of the time 144 Ismaʿili Sevener Main article Isma ilism Ismaʿilis otherwise known as Sevener derive their name from their acceptance of Ismaʿil ibn Jaʿfar as the divinely appointed spiritual successor Imam to Jaʿfar al Ṣadiq the 6th Shiʿite Imam wherein they differ from the Twelvers who recognize Musa al Kaẓim younger brother of Ismaʿil as the true Imam After the death or Occultation of Muhammad ibn Imam Ismaʿil in the 8th century CE the teachings of Ismaʿilism further transformed into the belief system as it is known today with an explicit concentration on the deeper esoteric meaning baṭin of the Islamic faith With the eventual development of Twelver Shiʿism into the more literalistic zahir oriented Akhbari and later Usuli schools of thought Shiʿism further developed in two separate directions the metaphorical Ismaʿili group focusing on the mystical path and nature of God and the divine manifestation in the personage of the Imam of the Time as the Face of God with the more literalistic Twelver group focusing on divine law shari ah and the deeds and sayings sunnah attributed to Muhammad and his successors the Ahl al Bayt who as A immah were guides and a light nur to God 145 nbsp Shah Karim al Husayni known as the Aga Khan IV is the 49th and current Imam of Nizari Ismaʿilis Though there are several subsects amongst the Ismaʿilis the term in today s vernacular generally refers to the Shia Imami Ismaʿili Nizari community often referred to as the Ismaʿilis by default who are followers of the Aga Khan and the largest group within Ismaʿilism Another Shia Imami Ismaʿili community are the Dawudi Bohras led by a Da i al Mutlaq Unrestricted Missionary as representative of a hidden Imam While there are many other branches with extremely differing exterior practices much of the spiritual theology has remained the same since the days of the faith s early Imams In recent centuries Ismaʿilis have largely been an Indo Iranian community 146 but they can also be found in India Pakistan Syria Palestine Saudi Arabia 147 Yemen Jordan Uzbekistan Tajikistan Afghanistan East and South Africa and in recent years several Ismaʿilis have emigrated to China 148 Western Europe primarily in the United Kingdom Australia New Zealand and North America 149 Ismaʿili Imams Main article List of Ismaili imams In the Nizari Ismaʿili interpretation of Shia Islam the Imam is the guide and the intercessor between humans and God and the individual through whom God is recognized He is also responsible for the esoteric interpretation of the Quran taʾwil He is the possessor of divine knowledge and therefore the Prime Teacher According to the Epistle of the Right Path a Persian Ismaʿili prose text from the post Mongol period of Ismaʿili history by an anonymous author there has been a chain of Imams since the beginning of time and there will continue to be an Imam present on the Earth until the end of time The worlds would not exist in perfection without this uninterrupted chain of Imams The proof hujja and gate bab of the Imam are always aware of his presence and are witness to this uninterrupted chain 150 After the death of Ismaʿil ibn Jaʿfar many Ismaʿilis believed that one day the eschatological figure of Imam Mahdi whom they believed to be Muhammad ibn Imam Ismaʿil would return and establish an age of justice One group included the violent Qarmatians who had a stronghold in Bahrain In contrast some Ismaʿilis believed the Imamate did continue and that the Imams were in Occultation and still communicated and taught their followers through a network of Da i Missionaries In 909 CE Abdullah al Mahdi Billah a claimant to the Ismaʿili Imamate established the Fatimid Caliphate During this period three lineages of Imams were formed The first branch known today as the Druze began with Al Ḥakim bi Amr Allah 151 Born in 985 CE he ascended as ruler at the age of eleven When in 1021 CE his mule returned without him soaked in blood a religious group that was forming in his lifetime broke off from mainstream Ismaʿilism and did not acknowledge his successor 151 Later to be known as the Druze they believe Al Ḥakim to be God incarnate 152 and the prophesied Mahdi on Earth who would one day return and bring justice to the world 153 The Druze faith further split from Ismaʿilism as it developed into a distinct monotheistic Abrahamic religion and ethno religious group with its own unique doctrines 151 and finally separated from both Ismaʿilism and Islam altogether 151 Thus the Druze do not identify themselves as Muslims 151 and are not considered as such by Muslims either 151 154 155 156 157 The second split occurred between Nizari and Musta li Ismaʿilis following the death of Ma ad al Mustansir Billah in 1094 CE His rule was the longest of any caliph in any Islamic empire Upon his passing away his sons Nizar the older and Al Musta li the younger fought for political and spiritual control of the dynasty Nizar was defeated and jailed but according to the Nizari tradition his son escaped to Alamut where the Iranian Ismaʿili had accepted his claim 158 From here on the Nizari Ismaʿili community has continued with a present living Imam The Musta li Ismaʿilis split between the Ṭayyibi and the Ḥafiẓi Ṭayyibi Ismaʿilis also known as Bohras are further divided between Dawudi Bohras Sulaymani Bohras and Alavi Bohras The former denomination claims that At Tayyib Abi l Qasim son of Al Amir bi Ahkami l Lah and the Imams following him went into a period of anonymity Dawr e Satr and appointed a Da i al Mutlaq Unrestricted Missionary to guide the community in a similar manner as the Ismaʿilis had lived after the death of Muhammad ibn Imam Ismaʿil The latter denomination claims that the ruling Fatimid caliph was the Imam and they died out with the fall of the Fatimid Empire Pillars Ismaʿilis have categorized their practices which are known as seven pillars Walayah Guardianship Taharah Purity Salat Prayer Zakat Charity Sawm Fasting Hajj Pilgrimage Jihad Struggle Contemporary leadership The Nizaris place importance on a scholarly institution because of the existence of a present Imam The Imam of the Age defines the jurisprudence and his guidance may differ with Imams previous to him because of different times and circumstances For Nizari Ismaʿilis the current Imam is Karim al Husayni Aga Khan IV The Nizari line of Imams has continued to this day as an uninterrupted chain Divine leadership has continued in the Bohra branch through the institution of the Missionary Da i According to the Bohra tradition before the last Imam At Tayyib Abi l Qasim went into seclusion his father the 20th Al Amir bi Ahkami l Lah had instructed Al Hurra Al Malika the Malika Queen consort in Yemen to appoint a vicegerent after the seclusion the Da i al Mutlaq Unrestricted Missionary who as the Imam s vicegerent has full authority to govern the community in all matters both spiritual and temporal while the lineage of Musta li Ṭayyibi Imams remains in seclusion Dawr e Satr The three branches of Musta li Ismaʿilis Dawudi Bohras Sulaymani Bohras and Alavi Bohras differ on who the current Unrestricted Missionary is Zaydi Fiver Main article Zaydism nbsp Gold dinar of al Ḥadi ila l Ḥaqq Yaḥya the first Zaydi Imam of Yemen minted in 910 911 CE nbsp The Zaydi State of Yemen under the rule of Imam Al Mutawakkil Ismaʿil bin al Qasim 1644 1676 Zaydism otherwise known as Zaydiyya or as Zaydi Shiʿism is a branch of Shia Islam named after Zayd ibn ʿAli Followers of the Zaydi school of jurisprudence are called Zaydis or occasionally Fivers However there is also a group called Zaydi Wasiṭis who are Twelvers see below Zaydis constitute roughly 42 47 of the population of Yemen 159 160 Doctrine The Zaydis Twelvers and Ismaʿilis all recognize the same first four Imams however the Zaydis consider Zayd ibn ʿAli as the 5th Imam After the time of Zayd ibn ʿAli the Zaydis believed that any descendant Sayyid of Ḥasan ibn ʿAli or Ḥusayn ibn ʿAli could become the next Imam after fulfilling certain conditions 161 Other well known Zaydi Imams in history were Yahya ibn Zayd Muhammad al Nafs al Zakiyya and Ibrahim ibn Abdullah The Zaydi doctrine of Imamah does not presuppose the infallibility of the Imam nor the belief that the Imams are supposed to receive divine guidance Moreover Zaydis do not believe that the Imamate must pass from father to son but believe it can be held by any Sayyid descended from either Ḥasan ibn ʿAli or Ḥusayn ibn ʿAli as was the case after the death of the former Historically Zaydis held that Zayd ibn ʿAli was the rightful successor of the 4th Imam since he led a rebellion against the Umayyads in protest of their tyranny and corruption Muhammad al Baqir did not engage in political action and the followers of Zayd ibn ʿAli maintained that a true Imam must fight against corrupt rulers Jurisprudence In matters of Islamic jurisprudence Zaydis follow the teachings of Zayd ibn ʿAli which are documented in his book Majmu l Fiqh in Arabic مجموع الف قه Al Ḥadi ila l Ḥaqq Yaḥya the first Zaydi Imam and founder of the Zaydi State in Yemen is regarded as the codifier of Zaydi jurisprudence and as such most Zaydi Shias today are known as Hadawis Timeline The Idrisids Arabic الأدارسة were Arab 162 Zaydi Shias 163 164 165 166 167 168 whose dynasty named after its first sultan Idris I ruled in the western Maghreb from 788 to 985 CE Another Zaydi State was established in the region of Gilan Deylaman and Tabaristan northern Iran in 864 CE by the Alavids 169 it lasted until the death of its leader at the hand of the Samanids in 928 CE Roughly forty years later the Zaydi State was revived in Gilan and survived under Hasanid leaders until 1126 CE Afterwards from the 12th to 13th centuries the Zaydi Shias of Deylaman Gilan and Tabaristan then acknowledged the Zaydi Imams of Yemen or rival Zaydi Imams within Iran 170 The Buyids were initially Zaydi Shias 171 as were the Banu Ukhaidhir rulers of al Yamama in the 9th and 10th centuries 172 The leader of the Zaydi community took the title of caliph thus the ruler of Yemen was known by this title Al Hadi Yahya bin al Hussain bin al Qasim ar Rassi a descendant of Ḥasan ibn ʿAli founded the Zaydi Imamate at Sa dah in 893 897 CE and the Rassid dynasty continued to rule over Yemen until the middle of the 20th century when the republican revolution of 1962 deposed the last Zaydi Imam See Arab Cold War The founding Zaydi branch in Yemen was the Jarudiyya however with increasing interaction with the Ḥanafi and Shafiʿi schools of Sunni jurisprudence there was a shift from the Jarudiyya group to the Sulaimaniyya Tabiriyya Butriyya and Salihiyya 173 Zaydi Shias form the second dominant religious group in Yemen Currently they constitute about 40 45 of the population in Yemen Jaʿfaris and Ismaʿilis constitute the 2 5 174 In Saudi Arabia it is estimated that there are over 1 million Zaydi Shias primarily based in the western provinces Currently the most prominent Zaydi political movement is the Houthi movement in Yemen 175 known by the name of Shabab al Mu mineen Believing Youth or Ansar Allah Partisans of God 176 In 2014 2015 Houthis took over the Yemeni government in Sana a which led to the fall of the Saudi Arabian backed government of Abd Rabbuh Mansur Hadi 175 176 177 Houthis and their allies gained control of a significant part of Yemen s territory and resisted the Saudi Arabian led intervention in Yemen seeking to restore Hadi in power 175 176 See Iran Saudi Arabia proxy conflict Both the Houthis and the Saudi Arabian led coalition were being attacked by the Sunni Islamist militant group and Salafi jihadist terrorist organization ISIL ISIS IS Daesh 178 179 180 181 182 183 Persecution of Shia MuslimsMain articles Anti Shiism and Shia Sunni relations Further information Sectarian violence among Muslims nbsp Shrine of Imam ʿAli in Najaf IraqThe history of Shia Sunni relations has often involved religious discrimination persecution and violence dating back to the earliest development of the two competing sects At various times throughout the history of Islam Shia groups and minorities have faced persecution perpetrated by Sunni Muslims 184 185 186 187 Militarily established and holding control over the Umayyad government many Sunni rulers perceived the Shias as a threat both to their political and religious authority 188 The Sunni rulers under the Umayyad dynasty sought to marginalize the Shia minority and later the Abbasids turned on their Shia allies and imprisoned persecuted and killed them The persecution of Shia Muslims throughout history by their Sunni co religionists has often been characterized by brutal and genocidal acts Comprising only about 10 15 of the global Muslim population 90 Shia Muslims remain a marginalized community to this day in many Sunni dominant Arab countries without the rights to practice their religion and freely organize 189 In 1514 the Ottoman sultan Selim I 1512 1520 ordered the massacre of 40 000 Alevis and Bektashi Anatolian Shia Muslims 190 According to Jalal Al e Ahmad Sultan Selim I carried things so far that he announced that the killing of one Shia had as much otherworldly reward as killing 70 Christians 191 In 1802 the Al Saud Wahhabi armies of the Ikhwan from the First Saudi State 1727 1818 attacked and sacked the city of Karbala the Shia shrine in Najaf eastern region of Iraq that commemorates the martyrdom and death of Ḥusayn ibn ʿAli 192 During the rule of Saddam Hussein s Ba athist Iraq Shia political activists were arrested tortured expelled or killed as part of a crackdown launched after an assassination attempt against Iraq s Deputy Prime Minister Tariq Aziz in 1980 193 194 In March 2011 the Malaysian government declared Shia Islam a deviant sect and banned Shia Muslims from promoting their faith to other Muslims but left them free to practice it themselves privately 195 196 The most recent campaign of anti Shia oppression was the Islamic State organization s persecution of Shias in its territories in Northern Iraq 180 197 181 198 which occurred alongside the persecution of various religious groups and the genocide of Yazidis by the same organization during the Second Iraq War 180 181 182 183 See also nbsp Shia Islam portal nbsp Islam portal nbsp Religion portalAlawites Anti Shi ism Criticism of Twelver Shia Islam History of Shia Islam Imamate in Shia doctrine Imamate and guardianship of Ali ibn Abi Talib Imamate in Ismaili doctrine Imamate in Nizari doctrine Imamate in Twelver doctrine Intellectual proofs in Shia jurisprudence List of Shia books List of Shia Islamic dynasties List of Shia Muslim scholars of Islam List of Shia Muslims Shia clergy Shia crescent Shia genocide Shia Islam in the Indian subcontinent Shia nations Shia Rights Watch Shia view of Ali Shia view of the QuranReferencesNotes A 2019 Council on Foreign Relations article states Nobody really knows the size of the Shia population in Nigeria Credible estimates that its numbers range between 2 and 3 percent of Nigeria s population which would amount to roughly four million 121 A 2019 BBC News article said that Estimates of Nigerian Shia numbers vary wildly ranging from less than 5 to 17 of Nigeria s Muslim population of about 100 million 122 Citations Armajani Jon 2020 Shia Islam and Politics Iran Iraq and Lebanon Lanham Md Lexington Books p 11 ISBN 978 1 7936 2136 8 Armajani Jon 2020 Introduction Shia Islam and Politics Iran Iraq and Lebanon Lanham Md Lexington Books pp 1 3 ISBN 978 1 7936 2136 8 a b c d The New Encyclopaedia Britannica 15th ed Encyclopaedia Britannica Inc 1998 ISBN 0 85229 663 0 Vol 10 p 738 Duncan S Ferguson 2010 Exploring the Spirituality of the World Religions The Quest for Personal Spiritual and Social Transformation Bloomsbury Academic p 192 ISBN 978 1 4411 4645 8 Wehr Hans Dictionary of Modern Written Arabic 4th ed p 598 Shiʻa is an alternative spelling of Shia and Shiʻite of Shiite In subsequent sections the spellings Shia and Shiite are adopted for consistency except where the alternative spelling is in the title of a reference Difference Between The Meaning Of Shia And Shiite However the term Shiite is being used less and is considered less proper than simply using the term Shia English forums 2 February 2007 Archived from the original on 31 July 2019 Retrieved 31 July 2019 Tabataba i 1977 p 34harvnb error no target CITEREFTabataba i1977 help a b c d e f g Foody Kathleen September 2015 Jain Andrea R ed Interiorizing Islam Religious Experience and State Oversight in the Islamic Republic of Iran Journal of the American Academy of Religion Oxford Oxford University Press on behalf of the American Academy of Religion 83 3 599 623 doi 10 1093 jaarel lfv029 eISSN 1477 4585 ISSN 0002 7189 JSTOR 24488178 LCCN sc76000837 OCLC 1479270 For Shiʿi Muslims Muhammad not only designated ʿAli as his friend but appointed him as his successor as the lord or master of the new Muslim community ʿAli and his descendants would become known as the Imams divinely guided leaders of the Shiʿi communities sinless and granted special insight into the Qurʾanic text The theology of the Imams that developed over the next several centuries made little distinction between the authority of the Imams to politically lead the Muslim community and their spiritual prowess quite to the contrary their right to political leadership was grounded in their special spiritual insight While in theory the only just ruler of the Muslim community was the Imam the Imams were politically marginal after the first generation In practice Shiʿi Muslims negotiated varied approaches to both interpretative authority over Islamic texts and governance of the community both during the lifetimes of the Imams themselves and even more so following the disappearance of the twelfth and final Imam in the ninth century Sobhani amp Shah Kazemi 2001 p 97 Sobhani amp Shah Kazemi 2001 p 98 Vaezi Ahmad 2004 Shia political thought London Islamic Centre of England p 56 ISBN 978 1 904934 01 1 OCLC 59136662 Cornell 2007 p 218 a b c d e f g Martin Richard C 2003 Shiʿa Encyclopedia of Islam and the Muslim World New York Macmillan reference USA pp 621 624 ISBN 978 0 02 865603 8 Druze and Islam americandruze com Archived from the original on 14 May 2011 Retrieved 12 August 2010 Ijtihad in Islam AlQazwini org Archived from the original on 2 January 2005 Retrieved 12 August 2010 Momen 1985 p 15 Ehsan Yarshater ed Shiʻite Doctrine Iranicaonline org Archived from the original on 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ISBN 978 0 275 98732 9 Encyclopaedia Iranica Online Columbia University Center for Iranian Studies Retrieved 11 September 2019 Martin Richard C 2004 Encyclopaedia of Islam and the Muslim World Vol 1 Encyclopedia of Islam and the Muslim World A L MacMillan ISBN 978 0 02 865604 5 Corbin Henry 1993 1964 History of Islamic Philosophy Translated by Liadain Sherrard and Philip Sherrard London Kegan Paul International in association with Islamic Publications for The Institute of Ismaili Studies ISBN 978 0 7103 0416 2 Dakake Maria Massi 2008 The Charismatic Community Shiʻite Identity in Early Islam Suny Press ISBN 978 0 7914 7033 6 Holt P M Lewis Bernard 1977a Cambridge History of Islam Vol 1 Cambridge University Press ISBN 978 0 521 29136 1 Lapidus Ira 2002 A History of Islamic Societies 2nd ed Cambridge University Press ISBN 978 0 521 77933 3 Sachedina Abdulaziz Abdulhussein 1988 The Just Ruler al sultan Al ʻadil in Shiʻite Islam The Comprehensive Authority of the Jurist in Imamite Jurisprudence Oxford University Press US ISBN 978 0 19 511915 2 Sobhani Ja afar Shah Kazemi Reza 2001 Doctrines of Shiʻi Islam A Compendium of Imami Beliefs and Practices Online Ausg ed London I B Tauris u a ISBN 978 1 86064 780 2 Tabatabaei Sayyid Mohammad Hosayn 1979 Shiʻite Islam Translated by Seyyed Hossein Nasr State University of New York Press ISBN 978 0 87395 272 9 Ṭabataba i Allamah Sayyid Muḥammad Husayn 1977 Shiʻite Islam Albany State University of New York Press ISBN 978 0 87395 390 0 Vaezi Ahmad 2004 Shia political thought London Islamic Centre of England ISBN 978 1 904934 01 1 OCLC 59136662 Further readingChelkowski Peter J 2010 Eternal Performance Taziyah and Other Shiite Rituals University of Chicago Press ISBN 978 1 906497 51 4 Corbin Henry 1993 History of Islamic Philosophy translated by Liadain Sherrard and Philip Sherrard Kegan Paul International in association with Islamic Publications for The Institute of Ismaili Studies ISBN 978 0 7103 0416 2 nbsp Wikisource has the text of the 1905 New International Encyclopedia article Shiites nbsp Wikisource has the text of the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica article Shi ites nbsp Wikimedia Commons has media related to Shia Islam Dabashi Hamid 2011 Shiʻism A Religion of Protest Harvard University Press ISBN 978 0 674 06428 7 Halm Heinz 2004 Shiʻism Edinburgh University Press ISBN 978 0 7486 1888 0 Halm Heinz 2007 The Shiʻites A Short History Markus Wiener Pub ISBN 978 1 55876 437 8 Lalani Arzina R 2000 Early Shiʻi Thought The Teachings of Imam Muhammad Al Baqir I B Tauris ISBN 978 1 86064 434 4 Marcinkowski Christoph 2010 Shiʻite Identities Community and Culture in Changing Social Contexts Lit Verlag ISBN 978 3 643 80049 7 Momen Moojan 1985 An Introduction to Shiʻi Islam The History and Doctrines of Twelver Shiʻism Yale University Press ISBN 978 0 300 03499 8 Shirazi Sultanu l Wa izin 2013 Peshawar Nights A Transcript of a Dialogue between Shia and Sunni scholars Ansariyan Publications ISBN 978 964 438 320 5 Nasr Seyyed Hossein Hamid Dabashi 1989 Expectation of the Millennium Shiʻism in History SUNY Press ISBN 978 0 88706 843 0 Rogerson Barnaby 2007 The Heirs of Muhammad Islam s First Century and the Origins of the Sunni Shia split Overlook Press ISBN 978 1 58567 896 9 Wollaston Arthur N 2005 The Sunnis and Shias Kessinger Publishing ISBN 978 1 4254 7916 9 Moosa Matti 1988 Extremist Shiites The Ghulat Sects Syracuse University Press ISBN 978 0 8156 2411 0 Shi a Minorities in the Contemporary World Migration Transnationalism and Multilocality United Kingdom Edinburgh University Press 2020 Khalaji Mehdi 27 November 2009 The Dilemmas of Pan Islamic Unity Current Trends in Islamist Ideology 9 64 79 Bohdan Siarhei Summer 2020 They Were Going Together with the Ikhwan The Influence of Muslim Brotherhood Thinkers on Shi i Islamists during the Cold War The Middle East Journal 74 2 243 262 doi 10 3751 74 2 14 ISSN 1940 3461 S2CID 225510058 External links Shi a History and Identity shiism wcfia harvard edu Cambridge Massachusetts Project on Shi ism and Global Affairs at the Weatherhead Center for International Affairs Harvard University 2022 Archived from the original on 4 June 2022 Retrieved 4 March 2022 Daftary Farhad Nanji Azim 2018 2006 What is Shi a Islam www iis ac uk London Institute of Ismaili Studies at the Aga Khan Centre Archived from the original on 31 March 2022 Retrieved 4 March 2022 Muharrami Ghulam Husayn 2003 History of Shi ism From the Advent of Islam up to the End of Minor Occultation Al Islam org Translated by Limba Mansoor L Ahlul Bayt Digital Islamic Library Project Retrieved 4 March 2022 Ayatullah Jaʿfar Subḥani Shia Islam History and Doctrines United Kingdom Shafaqna International Shia News Agency Retrieved 18 April 2023 Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Shia Islam amp oldid 1196304041, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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