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Public administration

March 31, 2023

This article is about the discipline. For the journal, see Public Administration (journal). For the journal, see Public Policy and Administration.
See also: Public policy, Political science, and Nonprofit Management

Public administration (a form of governance) or public policy and administration (an academic discipline) is the implementation of public policy, administration of government establishment (public governance), management of non-profit establishment (nonprofit governance), and also a subfield of political science taught in public policy schools that studies this implementation and prepares civil servants, especially those in administrative positions for working in the public sector, voluntary sector,[1] some industries in the private sector dealing with government relations and regulatory affairs, and those working as think tank researchers. As a "field of inquiry with a diverse scope" whose fundamental goal is to "advance management and policies so that government can function."[2] Some of the various definitions which have been offered for the term are: "the management of public programs";[3] the "translation of politics into the reality that citizens see every day";[4] and "the study of government decision making, the analysis of the policies themselves, the various inputs that have produced them, and the inputs necessary to produce alternative policies."[5] The word public administration is the combination of two words—public and administration. In every sphere of social, economic and political life there is administration which means that for the proper functioning of the organization or institution it must be properly ruled or managed and from this concept emerges the idea of administration.

Public administration is both an academic discipline and a field of practice; the latter is depicted in this picture of United States federal public servants at a meeting.

In the United States in the 1880s, civil servants and academics like Woodrow Wilson worked to reform the civil service system and bring public administration into the realm of science[6]. However, "until the mid-twentieth century, when German sociologist Max Weber's theory of bureaucracy prevailed," he said, "there was no great interest in the theory of public administration. The field is multidisciplinary in character, and one of the various proposals for sub-fields of public administration sets out six pillars, including human resources, organizational theory, policy analysis, statistics, budgeting, and ethics.[6] Public administration is a segment of the larger field of administration. It is simply regarded as bureaucracy, heedless to the fact that bureaucracy as a particular organizational form is not only found in the government, but also in private and third sector organizations.(Dhameja,2003, p. 2). Public Administration is a discipline which is concerned with the organization and the formulation and implementation of public policies for the welfare of the people. It functions in a political setting in order to accomplish the goals and objectives, which are formulated by the political decision makers. The focus of public administration, thus, is on public bureaucracy. The subject got its major boost after the Minnowbrook conference held at Syracuse university in the year 1968, presided over by Dwight Waldo. It was this time when the concept of New Public Administration emerged.

Thus, public administration as a course of government action in relation to public policy as an outline of what government wants to do plays an important role in our society. It can be understood as the course of action or inaction by the government with regard to a particular issue or set of issues. It can be associated with formally approved policy goals and means, as well as the regulations and practices of agencies that implement the programs.The relationship between what the government (public administration) wants to accomplish and what actually occurs is carried by public policy. Therefore, the ultimate goal of all public policies is to achieve particular objectives that the government has in mind. The nation's citizens' welfare is a major consideration in the formulation and implementation of these programs. Because of this, the public's opinion, for one, exerts considerable pressure on the course of government (public administration) policies.

Definitions

 
Administrators tend to work with both paper documents and computer files: "There has been a significant shift from paper to electronic records during the past two decades. Although government institutions continue to print and maintain paper documents as 'official records,' the vast majority of records are now created and stored in electronic format."[7] (pictured here is Stephen C. Dunn, Deputy Comptroller for the US Navy)

Public administration refers to the management and implementation of public policies and programs by government agencies and officials at various levels of government, including national, state, and local levels. The primary goal of public administration is to ensure the efficient and effective delivery of public services to citizens and to promote the public good.

Public administration involves a range of activities, including budgeting, personnel management, policy analysis, program evaluation, and implementation of regulations and laws. Public administrators work in a variety of areas, including healthcare, education, transportation, housing, environmental protection, and social welfare.

The field of public administration is interdisciplinary, drawing on knowledge and methods from fields such as political science, economics, sociology, law, and management. Public administrators may work in government agencies, non-profit organizations, or in the private sector, and their roles may include policy analysts, program managers, budget analysts, and executive directors.

[8]

In 1947 Paul H. Appleby defined public administration as the "public leadership of public affairs directly responsible for executive action". In a democracy, it has to do with such leadership and executive action in terms that respect and contribute to the dignity, the worth, and the potentials of the citizen.[9] One year later, Gordon Clapp, then Chairman of the Tennessee Valley Authority defined public administration "as a public instrument whereby democratic society may be more completely realized." This implies that it must "relate itself to concepts of justice, liberty, and fuller economic opportunity for human beings" and is thus "concerned with "people, with ideas, and with things".[10] According to James D. Carroll & Alfred M. Zuck, the publication by "Woodrow Wilson of his essay, "The Study of Administration" in 1887 is generally regarded as the beginning of public administration as a specific field of study".[11]

Drawing on the democracy theme and discarding the link to the executive branch, Patricia M. Shields asserts that public administration "deals with the stewardship and implementation of the products of a living democracy".[12] The key term "product" refers to "those items that are constructed or produced" such as prisons, roads, laws, schools, and security. "As implementors, public managers engage these products." They participate in the doing and making of the "living" democracy. A living democracy is "an environment that is changing, organic", imperfect, inconsistent and teaming with values. "Stewardship is emphasized because public administration is concerned "with accountability and effective use of scarce resources and ultimately making the connection between the doing, the making and democratic values".[13]

More recently scholars claim that "public administration has no generally accepted definition", because the "scope of the subject is so great and so debatable that it is easier to explain than define".[14] Public administration is a field of study (i.e., a discipline) and an occupation. There is much disagreement about whether the study of public administration can properly be called a discipline, largely because of the debate over whether public administration is a sub-field of political science or a sub-field of administrative science", the latter an outgrowth of its roots in policy analysis and evaluation research.[14][15] Scholar Donald Kettl is among those who view public administration "as a sub-field within political science".[16] According to Lalor a society with a public authority that provides at least one public good can be said to have a public administration whereas the absence of either (or a fortiori both) a public authority or the provision of at least one public good implies the absence of a public administration. He argues that public administration is the public provision of public goods in which the demand function is satisfied more or less effectively by politics, whose primary tool is rhetoric, providing for public goods, and the supply function is satisfied more or less efficiently by public management, whose primary tools are speech acts, producing public goods. The moral purpose of public administration, implicit in its acceptance of its role, is the maximization of the opportunities of the public to satisfy its wants.[17]

The North American Industry Classification System definition of the Public Administration (NAICS 91) sector states that public administration "... comprises establishments primarily engaged in activities of a governmental nature, that is, the enactment and judicial interpretation of laws and their pursuant regulations, and the administration of programs based on them". This includes "Legislative activities, taxation, national defense, public order and safety, immigration services, foreign affairs and international assistance, and the administration of government programs are activities that are purely governmental in nature".[18]

From the academic perspective, the National Center for Education Statistics (NCES) in the United States defines the study of public administration as "A program that prepares individuals to serve as managers in the executive arm of local, state, and federal government and that focuses on the systematic study of executive organization and management. Includes instruction in the roles, development, and principles of public administration; the management of public policy; executive-legislative relations; public budgetary processes and financial management; administrative law; public personnel management; professional ethics; and research methods."[19]

History

India in the 600 BCE

Main article: Charvaka § Public_administration

Such neat and prosperous civilisations as Harappa and Mohenjo-daaro must have had a disciplined, benevolent and uncorrupt cadre of public servants. In support of this, there are many references to Brihaspati's works on laws and governance. An interesting extract from Aaine-Akbari [vol.III, tr. by H. S. Barrett, pp217–218] written by Abul Fazl, the famous historian of Akbar's court, mentions a symposium of philosophers of all faiths held in 1578 at Akbar's instance. This sounds credible in the context of Akbar's restless desire to find truth, reflected in his launching a new religion called Din-e-elaahi. The account under advisement is given by the well-known historian Vincent Smith, in his article titled "The Jain Teachers of Akbar". Some Charvaka thinkers are said to have participated in the symposium. Under the heading "Naastika" Abul Fazl has referred to the good work, judicious administration and welfare schemes that were emphasised by the Charvaka law-makers. Somadeva has also mentioned the Charvaka method of defeating the enemies of the nation. He has referred to thirteen enemies who remain disguised in the kingdom for their selfish interests. They may contain a few relatives of the king and subsidiary rulers, but they should not be spared. They should be rigorously punished like any other such opponent. Kautilya, as already mentioned, has given a detailed scheme to remove the enemies in the garb of friends. The Charvaka stalwart, Brihaspati, is so much more ancient than Kautilya and Somadeva. He appears to be contemporaneous with the Harappa and Mohenjo-daaro culture.

The central point of traditional religious ritual is to earn ready money for its perpetrators. All unproductive, barren rites designed for various moments in human life starting from several months prior to birth and extending over several years beyond death in the form of the annual sraddha, many of which are current even today, are but channels to feed the priests. They are unreal, imagined and wasteful. While they are unreal, imagined and wasteful; the feeding is real.

This cunning paradox was realised by the Charvaka for its real worth. They wanted financial causes to produce financial results. Imagined causes only produced imagined results not real ones.[20][21]

Antiquity to the 19th century

Dating back to Antiquity, Pharaohs, kings and emperors have required pages, treasurers, and tax collectors to administer the practical business of government. Prior to the 19th century, staffing of most public administrations was rife with nepotism, favouritism, and political patronage, which was often referred to as a "spoils system". Public administrators have long been the "eyes and ears" of rulers. In medieval times, the abilities to read and write, add and subtract were as dominated by the educated elite as public employment. Consequently, the need for expert civil servants whose ability to read and write formed the basis for developing expertise in such necessary activities as legal record-keeping, paying and feeding armies and levying taxes. As the European Imperialist age progressed and the militarily powers extended their hold over other continents and people, the need for a sophisticated public administration grew.

The field of management may well be said to have originated in ancient China,[22] including possibly the first highly centralized bureaucratic state, and the earliest (by the second century BC) example of an administration based on merit through testing.[23] Far in advance of the rest of the world until almost the end of the 18th century, Sinologist Herrlee G. Creel and other scholars find the influence of Chinese administration in Europe by the 12th century, for example, in Fredrick II's promulgations, characterized as the "birth certificate of modern bureaucracy".[24][25][26][27] Thomas Taylor Meadows, Britain's consul in Guangzhou, argued in his Desultory Notes on the Government and People of China (1847) that "the long duration of the Chinese empire is solely and altogether owing to the good government which consists in the advancement of men of talent and merit only," and that the British must reform their civil service by making the institution meritocratic.[28] Influenced by the ancient Chinese imperial examination, the Northcote–Trevelyan Report of 1854 recommended that recruitment should be on the basis of merit determined through competitive examination, candidates should have a solid general education to enable inter-departmental transfers, and promotion should be through achievement rather than "preferment, patronage, or purchase".[29][28] This led to implementation of Her Majesty's Civil Service as a systematic, meritocratic civil service bureaucracy.[30] Like the British, the development of French bureaucracy was influenced by the Chinese system. Voltaire claimed that the Chinese had "perfected moral science" and François Quesnay advocated an economic and political system modeled after that of the Chinese.[31] French civil service examinations adopted in the late 19th century were also heavily based on general cultural studies. These features have been likened to the earlier Chinese model.[32]

Though Chinese administration cannot be traced to any one individual, emphasizing a merit system figures of the Fa-Jia like 4th century BC reformer Shen Buhai (400–337 BC) may have had more influence than any other, and might be considered its founder, if not valuable as a rare pre-modern example of abstract theory of administration. Creel writes that, in Shen Buhai, there are the "seeds of the civil service examination", and that, if one wishes to exaggerate, it would "no doubt be possible to translate Shen Buhai's term Shu, or technique, as 'science'", and argue that he was the first political scientist, though Creel does "not care to go this far".[33]

The eighteenth-century noble, King Frederick William I of Prussia, created professorates in Cameralism in an effort to train a new class of public administrators. The universities of Frankfurt an der Oder and University of Halle were Prussian institutions emphasizing economic and social disciplines, with the goal of societal reform. Johann Heinrich Gottlob Justi was the most well-known professor of Cameralism. Thus, from a Western European perspective, Classic, Medieval, and Enlightenment-era scholars formed the foundation of the discipline that has come to be called public administration.

Lorenz von Stein, an 1855 German professor from Vienna, is considered the founder of the science of public administration in many parts of the world. In the time of Von Stein, public administration was considered a form of administrative law, but Von Stein believed this concept too restrictive. Von Stein taught that public administration relies on many preestablished disciplines such as sociology, political science, administrative law and public finance. He called public administration an integrating science, and stated that public administrators should be concerned with both theory and practice. He argued that public administration is a science because knowledge is generated and evaluated according to the scientific method.

Modern American public administration is an extension of democratic governance, justified by classic and liberal philosophers of the western world ranging from Aristotle to John Locke[34] to Thomas Jefferson.[35][36]

US History 1880s to 1940s

In the United States of America, Woodrow Wilson is considered the father of public administration. He first formally recognized public administration in an 1887 article entitled "The Study of Administration". The future president wrote that "it is the object of administrative study to discover, first, what government can properly and successfully do, and, secondly, how it can do these proper things with the utmost possible efficiency and at the least possible cost either of money or of energy".[37] Wilson was more influential to the science of public administration than Von Stein, primarily due to an article Wilson wrote in 1887 in which he advocated four concepts:

  • Separation of politics and administration
  • Comparative analysis of political and private organizations
  • Improving efficiency with business-like practices and attitudes toward daily operations
  • Improving the effectiveness of public service through management and by training civil servants, merit-based assessment

The separation of politics and administration has been the subject of lasting debate. The different perspectives regarding this dichotomy contribute to differentiating characteristics of the suggested generations of public administration.[original research?]

By the 1920s, scholars of public administration had responded to Wilson's solicitation and thus textbooks in this field were introduced. A few distinguished scholars of that period were, Luther Gulick, Lyndall Urwick, Henri Fayol, Frederick Taylor, and others. Frederick Taylor (1856–1915), another prominent scholar in the field of administration and management also published a book entitled The Principles of Scientific Management (1911). He believed that scientific analysis would lead to the discovery of the "one best way" to do things or carrying out an operation. This, according to him could help save cost and time. Taylor's technique was later introduced to private industrialists, and later into the various government organizations (Jeong, 2007).[38]

Taylor's approach is often referred to as Taylor's Principles or Taylorism. Taylor's scientific management consisted of main four principles (Frederick W. Taylor, 1911):

  • Replace rule-of-thumb work methods with methods based on a scientific study of the tasks.
  • Scientifically select, train, and develop each employee rather than passively leaving them to train themselves.
  • Provide "detailed instruction and supervision of each worker in the performance of that worker's discrete task" (Montgomery 1997: 250).
  • Divide work nearly equally between managers and workers, so that the managers apply scientific management principles to planning the work and the workers actually perform the tasks.

Taylor had very precise ideas about how to introduce his system (approach): "It is only through enforced standardization of methods, enforced adoption of the best implements and working conditions, and enforced cooperation that this faster work can be assured. And the duty of enforcing the adoption of standards and enforcing this cooperation rests with management alone."[39]

The American Society for Public Administration (ASPA) the leading professional group for public administration was founded in 1939. ASPA sponsors the journal Public Administration Review, which was founded in 1940.[40]

Retrieving the Lost Contribution of Women to the Founding of PA in the US

Contemporary scholars [41][42][43][44] are reclaiming a companion public administration origin story which includes the contributions of women. This has become known as the “alternative” or “Settlement” model of public administration.[41] During the 19th century upper-class women in the United States and Europe organized voluntary associations that worked to mitigate the excesses of urbanization and industrialization that plagued their towns and cities. Eventually, these voluntary associations became networks that were able to spearhead changes to policy and administration.[45][46] These women's civic clubs worked to make cities and work spaces safer (cleaner streets, water and sewage, workplace regulation) and more suited to the needs of their children (playgrounds, libraries, juvenile courts, child labor laws). These were administrative and policy spaces ignored by their fathers and husbands. The work of these clubs was amplified by newly organized non-profit organizations (Settlement Houses), usually situated in industrialized city slums filled with immigrants.[42][47][48][49]

The Settlement movement and its leaders such as Jane Addams, Julia Lathrop, and Florence Kelley were instrumental in crafting the alternative, feminine inspired, model of public administration.[50][51] This settlement model of public administration, had two interrelated components - municipal housekeeping and industrial citizenship.[47][52] Municipal housekeeping[53] called for cities to be run like a caring home. The city, should be conceived as an extension of the home where families could be safe and children cared for. Clean streets, clean water, playgrounds, educational curricular reform, and juvenile courts, are examples of reforms associated with this movement. Industrial citizenship[54] focused on the problems and risks of labor force participation in a laissez faire, newly industrialized economy. Reforms which mitigated workplace problems such as child labor, unsanitary workplaces, excessive work schedules, risks of industrial accidents, and old age poverty were the focus of these efforts. Organized settlement women's reform efforts led to workplace safety laws and inspections. Settlement reformers went on to serve as local, state and federal administrators. Jane Addams was a garbage inspector, Florence Kelley served as the chief factory inspector for the State of Illinois, Julia Lathrop was the first director of the Women's Bureau and Francis Perkins was Secretary of Labor during the F. Roosevelt Administration[55][56][57]

Reforms that emerged from the New Deal (e.g., income for the old, unemployment insurance, aid for dependent children and the disabled, child labor prohibitions and limits on hours worked etc.) were supported by leaders of the Settlement movement. Richard Stillman [58] credits Jane Addams, a key leader of the Settlement movement and a pioneer of public administration with “conceiving and spawning” the modern welfare state. The accomplishments of the Settlement movement and their conception of public administration was ignored in the early literature of public administration. The alternative model of Public Administration was invisible or buried for about 100 years until Camilla Stivers published Bureau Men and Settlement Women in 2000.[50]

Settlement workers explicitly fought for social justice as they campaigned for reform.[49] They sought policy changes that would improve the lives of immigrants, women, children, sick, old and impoverished people. Both municipal housekeeping and industrial citizenship applied a pragmatic, ethic of care informed by feminine experience to policy and administration.[59] While they saw the relevance of the traditional public administration values (efficiency, effectiveness, etc.) and practices[60][61] of their male reformist counterparts, they also emphasized social justice and social equity. Jane Addams, for example, was a founder of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored people (NAACP).[62]

US in the 1940s

 
Luther Gulick (1892–1993) was an expert on public administration.

The separation of politics and administration advocated by Wilson continues to play a significant role in public administration today. However, the dominance of this dichotomy was challenged by second generation scholars, beginning in the 1940s. Luther Gulick's fact-value dichotomy was a key contender for Wilson's proposed politics-administration dichotomy. In place of Wilson's first generation split, Gulick advocated a "seamless web of discretion and interaction".[63]

Luther Gulick and Lyndall Urwick are two second-generation scholars. Gulick, Urwick, and the new generation of administrators built on the work of contemporary behavioural, administrative, and organizational scholars including Henri Fayol, Fredrick Winslow Taylor, Paul Appleby, Frank Goodnow, and Willam Willoughby. The new generation of organizational theories no longer relied upon logical assumptions and generalizations about human nature like classical and enlightened theorists.

Gulick developed a comprehensive, generic theory of organization that emphasized the scientific method, efficiency, professionalism, structural reform, and executive control. Gulick summarized the duties of administrators with an acronym; POSDCORB, which stands for planning, organizing, staffing, directing, coordinating, reporting, and budgeting. Fayol developed a systematic, 14-point treatment of private management. Second-generation theorists drew upon private management practices for administrative sciences. A single, generic management theory bleeding the borders between the private and the public sector was thought to be possible. With the general theory, the administrative theory could be focused on governmental organizations. The mid-1940s theorists challenged Wilson and Gulick. The politics-administration dichotomy remained the centre of criticism.

1950s to the 1970s

During the 1950s, the United States experienced prolonged prosperity and solidified its place as a world leader. Public Administration experienced a kind of heyday due to the successful war effort and successful post war reconstruction in Western Europe and Japan. Government was popular as was President Eisenhower. In the 1960s and 1970s, government itself came under fire as ineffective, inefficient, and largely a wasted effort. The costly American intervention in Vietnam along with domestic scandals including the bugging of Democratic party headquarters (the 1974 Watergate scandal) are two examples of self-destructive government behaviour that alienated citizens.

 
The costly Vietnam War alienated U.S. citizens from their government. Pictured is Operation Arc Light, a U.S. bombing operation.

There was a call by citizens for efficient administration to replace ineffective, wasteful bureaucracy. Public administration would have to distance itself from politics to answer this call and remain effective. Elected officials supported these reforms. The Hoover Commission, chaired by University of Chicago professor Louis Brownlow, to examine reorganization of government. Brownlow subsequently founded the Public Administration Service (PAS) at the university, an organization which has provided consulting services to all levels of government until the 1970s.[citation needed]

Concurrently, after World War II, the whole concept of public administration expanded to include policymaking and analysis, thus the study of "administrative policy making and analysis" was introduced and enhanced into the government decision-making bodies. Later on, the human factor became a predominant concern and emphasis in the study of public administration. This period witnessed the development and inclusion of other social sciences knowledge, predominantly, psychology, anthropology, and sociology, into the study of public administration (Jeong, 2007).[38] Henceforth, the emergence of scholars such as, Fritz Morstein Marx with his book The Elements of Public Administration (1946), Paul H. Appleby Policy and Administration (1952), Frank Marini 'Towards a New Public Administration' (1971), and others that have contributed positively in these endeavors.

Stimulated by events during the 1960s such as an active civil rights movement, the Vietnam war and war protests, assassinations of a president and civil rights leaders, and an active women's movement, public administration changed course somewhat. Landmark legislation such as the Equal Pay Act of 1963 and the Civil Rights Act of 1964 also gave public administrators new responsibilities. These events were manifest in the public administration profession through the new public administration movement. “Under the stimulating patronage of Dwight Waldo, some of the best of the younger generation of scholars challenged the doctrine they had received”.[64] These new scholars demanded a more policy-oriented public administrators that incorporated “four themes: relevance, values, equity and change”.[65] All of these themes would encourage more participation among women and minorities.[52] Stimulated by the events of the 60s, the 1970s brought significant change for the American Society for Public Administration. Racial and ethnicity minority and women members organized to seek greater participation.[66] Eventually, the Conference on Minority Public Administrators and the Section for Women in Public Administration were established.[67]

1980s–1990s

In the late 1980s, yet another generation of public administration theorists began to displace the last. The new theory, which came to be called New Public Management, was proposed by David Osborne and Ted Gaebler in their book Reinventing Government.[68] The new model advocated the use of private sector-style models, organizational ideas and values to improve the efficiency and service-orientation of the public sector. During the Clinton Administration (1993–2001), Vice President Al Gore adopted and reformed federal agencies using NPM approaches. In the 1990s, new public management became prevalent throughout the bureaucracies of the US, the UK and, to a lesser extent, in Canada. The original public management theories have roots attributed to policy analysis, according to Richard Elmore in his 1986 article published in the "Journal of Policy Analysis and Management".[69]

Some modern authors define NPM as a combination of splitting large bureaucracies into smaller, more fragmented agencies, encouraging competition between different public agencies, and encouraging competition between public agencies and private firms and using economic incentives lines (e.g., performance pay for senior executives or user-pay models).[70] NPM treats individuals as "customers" or "clients" (in the private sector sense), rather than as citizens.[71]

Some critics argue that the New Public Management concept of treating people as "customers" rather than "citizens" is an inappropriate borrowing from the private sector model, because businesses see customers as a means to an end (profit), rather than as the proprietors of government (the owners), opposed to merely the customers of a business (the patrons). In New Public Management, people are viewed as economic units not democratic participants which is the hazard of linking an MBA (business administration, economic and employer-based model) too closely with the public administration (governmental, public good) sector. Nevertheless, the NPM model (one of four described by Elmore in 1986, including the "generic model") is still widely accepted at multiple levels of government (e.g., municipal, state/province, and federal) and in many OECD nations.

In the late 1990s, Janet and Robert Denhardt proposed a new public services model in response to the dominance of NPM.[72] A successor to NPM is digital era governance, focusing on themes of reintegrating government responsibilities, needs-based holism (executing duties in cursive ways), and digitalization (exploiting the transformational capabilities of modern IT and digital storage).

One example in the deployment of DEG is openforum.com.au, an Australian non-for-profit eDemocracy project which invites politicians, senior public servants, academics, business people and other key stakeholders to engage in high-level policy debate. Another example is Brunei's Information Department in deploying Social Media technology in improving its Digital Governance process.[73] The book chapter work concludes that digital dividends can be secured through the effective application of Social Media within the framework of Digital Era Governance.[73]

Another new public service model is what has been called New Public Governance, an approach which includes a centralization of power; an increased number, role and influence of partisan-political staff; personal-politicization of appointments to the senior public service; and, the assumption that the public service is promiscuously partisan for the government of the day.[74]

In the mid-1980s, the goal of community programs in the United States was often represented by terms such as independent living, community integration, inclusion, community participation, deinstitutionalization, and civil rights. Thus, the same public policy (and public administration) was to apply to all citizens, inclusive of disability. However, by the 1990s, categorical state systems were strengthened in the United States (Racino, in press, 2014), and efforts were made to introduce more disability content into the public policy curricula[75] with disability public policy (and administration) distinct fields in their own right.[76][77] Behaviorists have also dominated "intervention practice" (generally not the province of public administration) in recent years, believing that they are in opposition to generic public policy (termed ecological systems theory, of the late Urie Bronfenbrenner).

Increasingly, public policy academics and practitioners have utilized the theoretical concepts of political economy to explain policy outcomes such as the success or failure of reform efforts or the persistence of suboptimal outcomes.[78]

in the Philippines

The Philippines was the first country to offer Public Administration (PA) degree programs in Asia beginning in 1952. PA programs were offered by the newly established Institute of Public Administration at the University of the Philippines (UP) in 1951, in line with the Bell Mission's recommendations to rebuild the civil service and facilitate recovery from World War 2. Since then, Philippine PA education has evolved with the changing political, administrative, and economic landscape. PA programs have expanded across the country, and PA professional and educational associations have grown.[79]

Core branches

In academia, the field of public administration consists of a number of sub-fields. Scholars have proposed a number of different sets of sub-fields. One of the proposed models uses five "pillars":[6]

Decision-making models

Given the array of duties public administrators find themselves performing, the professional administrator might refer to a theoretical framework from which he or she might work. Indeed, many public and private administrative scholars have devised and modified decision-making models.

Niskanen's budget-maximizing

In 1971, Professor William Niskanen proposed a rational choice variation which he called the "budget-maximizing model". He claimed that rational bureaucrats will universally seek to increase the budgets of their units (to enhance their stature), thereby contributing to state growth and increased public expenditure. Niskanen served on President Reagan's Council of Economic Advisors; his model underpinned what has been touted as curtailed public spending and increased privatization. However, budgeted expenditures and the growing deficit during the Reagan administration is evidence of a different reality. A range of pluralist authors have critiqued Niskanen's universalist approach. These scholars have argued that officials tend also to be motivated by considerations of the public interest.

Dunleavy's bureau-shaping

The bureau-shaping model, a modification of Niskanen, holds that rational bureaucrats only maximize the part of their budget that they spend on their own agency's operations or give to contractors and interest groups. Groups that are able to organize a "flowback" of benefits to senior officials would, according to this theory, receive increased budgetary attention. For instance, rational officials will get no benefit from paying out larger welfare checks to millions of low-income citizens because this does not serve a bureaucrats' goals. Accordingly, one might instead expect a jurisdiction to seek budget increases for defense and security purposes in place programming. If we refer back to Reagan once again, Dunleavy's bureau shaping model accounts for the alleged decrease in the "size" of government while spending did not, in fact, decrease. Domestic entitlement programming was financially deemphasized for military research and personnel.

Academic field

Further information: Public policy school, Public policy degrees, and Political science § Education

Universities offer Undergraduate level Bachelor's degrees such as a Bachelor of Science (BS) or Bachelor of Arts (BA) in Public Administration or in Government, Political Science, and International Affairs with an academic concentration or specialization in Public Policy and Administration. Graduate school programs preparing students for advanced upper management careers in public administration typically offer the Master of Public Administration (MPA) degree, although at some universities, a Master of Arts (MA) or Master of Science (MS) in Public Administration is awarded for those taking the management tract, while those going for the research tract are offered the Master of Public Policy (MPP), a Master of Arts (MA), or a Master of Science (MS) in Public Policy - some universities combine both management and research tracts into a Master of Public Policy and Administration (MPPA), even though both Public Administration and Public Policy degrees have considerable overlap in both academic content and career prospects barring some differing academic requirements based on desired sub-specialties in their future careers. Doctorate programs in Public Administration, Public Policy, and Political Science with a sub-specialization in Public Policy and Administration are also offered as terminal degrees for those who want to go into academia or teach as at institutions of higher education. These education programs are collectively called public policy degrees and are generally taught at public policy schools, while some are taught within a college of arts and sciences.

Most public policy and administration programs combine elements of political science, economics, statistics, law mostly in the form of public law, administrative law, and Legal management (academic discipline), international relations (including international law), international development, public finance, leadership studies, ethics, sociology, comparative research, global studies, urban planning, urban studies, nonprofit studies, program evaluation, policy analysis,public policy, and public administration. More recently, public policy schools have applied quantitative analysis, management information systems, data science and analytics, organizational behavior, organization development, knowledge management, project management, political communication, political psychology, criminology and the sociology of law, philosophy (in particular political philosophy), peace and conflict studies, geography and geographic information science, intelligence studies, emergency management, cross-cultural studies, public health, environmental science and environmental studies, business administration, civil engineering, industrial engineering, systems engineering, human resource management, and operations research as part of their public policy and public administration education programs to tackle issue in the public sector, the non-profit sector, or the government relations and regulatory affairs industry in the private sector.

While degrees in Public Policy and Public Administration at most universities are generally taught at the graduate level (master's and PhD), some undergraduate degree program majors, concentrations, and minors either as standalone degrees or as concentrations within a degree in political science or international relations still exist, especially at research universities where research, graduate, and undergraduate faculty overlap and/or have close cooperation within an autonomous public policy school unlike liberal arts colleges (particularly liberal arts colleges in the United States) that focus on the more theoretical and philosophical sides of political science at their college of arts and sciences rather than the applied and administrative side of political science.

In the United States, the academic field of public administration draws heavily on political science and administrative law. Some MPA programs (as well as undergraduate Public Administration-Political Science academic majors with an elective interdisciplinary concentration, academic minor, or program membership in Economics) include economics courses to give students a background in microeconomic issues (markets, rationing mechanisms, etc.) and macroeconomic issues (e.g., national debt). Scholars such as John A. Rohr write of a long history behind the constitutional legitimacy of government bureaucracy. In Europe (notably in Britain and Germany), the divergence of the field from other disciplines can be traced to the 1720s continental university curriculum. Formally, official academic distinctions were made in the 1910s and 1890s, respectively.

The goals of the field of public administration are related to the democratic values of improving equality, justice, security, efficiency and effectiveness of public services in a non-profit venue; business administration, on the other hand, is primarily concerned with expanding market share, generating revenue and earning profit. For a field built on concepts (accountability, governance, decentralization and clientele), these concepts are often ill-defined and typologies often ignore certain aspects of these concepts.[80]

The more specific term "public management" refers to ordinary, routine or typical management that aims to achieve public good. In some definitions, "public management" refers to private sector, market-driven perspective on the operation of government.[81] This typically involves putting senior executives on performance contracts, rather than tenured positions, instituting pay-for-performance systems for executives, creating revenue-generating agencies and so on. This latter view is often called "new public management" (NPM) by its advocates. New Public Management represents a reform attempt that emphasizes the professional nature of public administration.[82] NPM advocates aim to replace the academic, moral or disciplinary emphasis of traditional public administration with a professional focus. Some theorists advocate a "bright line" differentiation of the professional field from related academic disciplines like political science and sociology; it remains interdisciplinary in nature.

One public administration scholar, Donald Kettl, argues that "public administration sits in a disciplinary backwater", because "for the last generation, scholars have sought to save or replace it with fields of study like implementation, public management, and formal bureaucratic theory".[16] Kettl states that "public administration, as a subfield within political science... is struggling to define its role within the discipline".[16] He notes two problems with public administration: it "has seemed methodologically to lag behind" and "the field's theoretical work too often seems not to define it"-indeed, "some of the most interesting recent ideas in public administration have come from outside the field".[16]

Public administration theory is the domain in which discussions of the meaning and purpose of government, the role of bureaucracy in supporting democratic governments, budgets, governance, and public affairs takes place. In recent years, public administration theory has periodically connoted a heavy orientation toward critical theory and postmodern philosophical notions of government, governance, and power. However, many public administration scholars support a classic definition of the term emphasizing constitutionality, public service, bureaucratic forms of organization, and hierarchical government.

Comparative public administration

Comparative public administration or CPA is defined as the study of administrative systems in a comparative fashion or the study of public administration in other countries. There have been several issues which have hampered the development of comparative public administration, including: the major differences between Western countries and developing countries; the lack of curriculum on this sub-field in public administration programs; and the lack of success in developing theoretical models which can be scientifically tested. Even though CPA is a weakly formed field as a whole, this sub-field of public administration is an attempt at cross-cultural analysis, a "quest for patterns and regularities of administrative action and behavior."[83] CPA is an integral part to the analysis of public administration techniques. The process of comparison allows for more widely applicable policies to be tested in a variety of situations.

Comparative public administration emerged during the post-World War II period in order to seek international developmental strategies which aided in the containment of communism during the Cold War. (Riggs 1954, Heady 1960)[84] The developers of this field expanded on a general theory, a research agenda, and generalized "lessons learned". (Riggs 1954, Heady 1960) A prominent figure of Public Administration, Woodrow Wilson, commented on the study by saying, "Like principles of civil liberty are everywhere fostering like methods of government; and if comparative studies of the ways and means of government should enable us to offer suggestions which will practicably combine openness and vigor in the administration of such governments with ready docility to all serious, well-sustained public criticism, they will have approved themselves worthy to be ranked among the highest and most fruitful of the great departments of political study".[85] As the financial state of the powering countries began to stabilize toward the decline of the Cold War, the field of CPA began to diminish.[84] The resulting decline caused the lack of further expansion of this study making it irrelevant.

Comparative public administration lacks curriculum, which has prevented it from becoming a major field of study. This lack of understanding of the basic concepts that build this field's foundation has ultimately led to its lack of use. For example, William Waugh, a professor at Georgia State University has stated "Comparative studies are difficult because of the necessity to provide enough information on the sociopolitical context of national administrative structures and processes for readers to understand why there are differences and similarities."[86] He also asserts, "Although there is sizable literature on comparative public administration it is scattered and dated."[86]

Waugh argues that public administration requires an understanding of different administrative structures and a comparison of different public administration models. The literature to build this base of knowledge is scattered and often hard to obtain. The lack or ill-formed use of comparative public administration has been detrimental for many countries, including the United States. Fred Riggs a political scientist, states that "comparisons to the United States also can be problematic, because of the tendency of many American scholars to presume the American organizational structures and processes are models for other nations to emulate, which was a failing of early developmental administrative studies."[86] In this, he claims the misuse and misapplication of comparative public administration has led to it being underdeveloped.

The development and better use comparative public administration could lead to better understanding. In 2002, the National Security Strategy was used in the battle of hearts and minds.[87] They tried to assimilate with an Arab and Islamic audience to push American values and democracy in an attempt to stop terrorism, when in fact the lack of comparison on the public level was ineffective and backfired.[87] The lack of willingness to understand their culture led to more tension in the Middle East.[87] In conclusion of these events there are not enough resources directed to the study of comparative public administration. For a basic understanding of sociopolitical structure of a society or culture is a key component of comparative public administration.

Despite all of its set backs there are examples of the application of well-formed Comparative Public Administration working in the world today. One of which is the comparison on the national level David Clark an author in this field states "In spite of similarities in public management reform rhetoric, it is argued that there is increasing divergence in the philosophy & practice of public service in the two nations, & and these differences reflect regimes that incorporate different ideals of citizenship."[88] This highlights the benefit of proper comparison of public administration. By examining patterns that emerge in international public sectors one can identify similarities and differences in many things including ideals of citizenship on the local level. Although the United States failed use of Comparative Public Administration in the Middle East is noted, they did properly incorporate it domestically. "During the Clinton administration, the focus on residential energy consumption in the United States was elevated to a high level with the inauguration of the Million Solar Roofs initiative, in which the Department of Energy (DOE) sponsored workshops, developed a pool of existing federal lending and financing options, and worked with partners in the solar and building industries to remove market barriers to strengthen grassroots demand for solar technologies".[89]

This grassroots demand may have come from the comparative knowledge that concluded "In the United States, residential and commercial buildings combined now use 71% of all electricity produced and account for 79% of all electricity expenditures. Annual CO2 emission attributed to electricity consumption in these U.S. buildings constitute 43% of the country's annual total CO2 emission, which is approximately equivalent to the total CO2 emission of Japan, France, and the United Kingdom combined. These levels support the claim of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change that energy use in buildings offer more potential for reducing carbon emission than any other single sector in the United States and abroad.".[89] This example compares CO2 emission in the United States to other countries and through the buildings sector; the US could cut down on CO2 emission. The field of comparative public administration is often misunderstood for the definition itself is complex and requires layers of understanding. The field will require many more years of collaborative research before it becomes a widely recognized academic study.

Bachelor's degrees, academic concentrations, and academic minors

See also: Bachelor's degree, Bachelor of Arts, and Bachelor of Science
See also: Academic concentration, Academic minor, and Student organization

Universities offer Undergraduate level Bachelor's degrees such as a Bachelor of Science (BS) and/or Bachelor of Arts (BA) in Public Administration or Government, Political Science, and International Affairs with a academic concentration or specialization in Public Policy and Administration. At a number of universities undergraduate level public administration and nonprofit management education is packaged together (along with international relations and security studies) in a degree in political science.

Master's degrees

See also: Master of Public Administration, Master of Public Policy, Master of Public Policy and Administration, Master of Nonprofit Organizations, Master of Arts, and Master of Science
 
Sciences Po, Havre Campus

Some public administration programs have similarities to business administration programs, in cases where the students from both the Master's in Public Administration (MPA) and Master's in Business Administration (MBA) programs take many of the same courses.[citation needed] In some programs, the MPA (or MAPA) is more clearly distinct from the MBA, in that the MPA often emphasizes substantially different ethical and sociological criteria that pertain to administering government programs for the public good that have not been key criteria for business managers, who typically aim to maximize profit or share price. The MPA is related to similar graduate-level government studies programs including Master of Arts (MA) programs in public affairs, public policy, and political science. MPA degrees may be more likely to include program emphases on policy analysis techniques or other topical focuses such as the study of international affairs as opposed to MA degrees, which tend to focus on constitutional issues such as separation of powers, administrative law, contracting with government, problems of governance and power, and participatory democracy. Some MPA degrees may be more oriented towards training students to undertake public service work tasks, whereas some MA programs may have a more academic, theoretical focus. Some universities offer their Masters in public administration as an MA degree (e.g., Carleton University in Ottawa, Canada and the University of Kerala in India).

Some universities offer mid-career Master's programs, sometimes called an MC/MPA, that can be taken part-time (often outside of business hours) by public servants and public service managers who are working full-time. Community programs may offer internships or continuing education credits. One example is the Maxwell School's mid-career Masters at Syracuse University, which was launched by Robert Iversen in the 1970s.

Doctoral degrees

See also: Doctor of Public Administration

There are two types of doctoral degrees in public administration: the Doctor of Public Administration (DPA) and the Ph.D. in public administration. The DPA is an applied-research doctoral degree in the field of public administration, focusing on the practice of public administration more than on its theoretical aspects. The DPA requires coursework beyond the Masters level and a thesis, dissertation or other doctoral project. Upon successful completion of the doctoral requirements, the title of "Doctor" is awarded and the post-nominals of D.P.A. can be used. Some universities use the Ph.D. as their doctoral degree in public administration (e.g., Carleton University in Ottawa, Canada, and the University Of Kerala in India). The Ph.D. is typically sought by individuals aiming to become professors of public administration or researchers. Individuals pursuing a Ph.D. in public administration often pursue more theoretical dissertation topics than their DPA counterparts.

Notable scholars

Main article: List of notable public administration scholars

Notable scholars of public administration have come from a range of fields. In the period before public administration existed as its own independent discipline, scholars contributing to the field came from economics, sociology, management, political science, administrative law, and, other related fields. More recently, scholars from public administration and public policy have contributed important studies and theories.

Notable Institutions

Career prospects

Public administration is "centrally concerned with the organization of government policies and programs as well as the behavior of officials (usually non-elected) formally responsible for their conduct".[90] Many non-elected public employees such as political appointees and civil servants are considered public administrators. This includes political appointees, upper management-level civil servants (senior executive service), and lower-level civil servants such as heads of city, county, regional, state and federal departments such as municipal budget directors, human resources (HR) administrators, city managers, census managers, state mental health directors, cabinet members (cabinet secretaries in presidential systems),[4] paralegals, lawyers, legislative assistants, office secretaries, project managers, and many more non-elected positions in government. Public administrators are public employees working in public departments and agencies, at all levels of government. Most industries in the private sector dealing with government relations and regulatory affairs, as well as nonprofit organizations in the voluntary sector also hire those with public administration and political science degrees.

International organizations

There are a number of international public administration organizations. The Commonwealth Association of Public Administration and Management (CAPAM) is diverse, as it includes the 54 member states of the Commonwealth from India and the UK to Nauru. Its biennial conference brings together ministers of public service, top public officials and leading scholars. The oldest organization is the International Institute of Administrative Sciences (IIAS). Based in Brussels, Belgium, the IIAS is a worldwide platform providing a space for exchanges that promote knowledge and good practices to improve the organization and operation of public administration. The IIAS also aims to ensure that public agencies will be in a position to better respond to the current and future expectations and needs of society. The IIAS has set up four entities: the International Association of Schools and Institutes of Administration (IASIA), the European Group for Public Administration (EGPA), The Latin American Group for Public Administration (LAGPA) and the Asian Group for Public Administration (AGPA). IASIA is an association of organizations and individuals whose activities and interests focus on public administration and management. The activities of its members include education and training of administrators and managers. It is the only worldwide scholarly association in the field of public management. EGPA, LAGPA and AGPA are the regional sub-entities of the IIAS. Another body, the International Committee of the US-based Network of Schools of Public Policy, Affairs, and Administration (NASPAA), has developed a number of relationships around the world. They include sub regional and National forums like CLAD, INPAE and NISPAcee, APSA, ASPA.[91]

The Center for Latin American Administration for Development (CLAD), based in Caracas, Venezuela, this regional network of schools of public administration set up by the governments in Latin America is the oldest in the region.[92] The institute is a founding member and played a central role in organizing the Inter-American Network of Public Administration Education (INPAE). Created in 2000, this regional network of schools is unique in that it is the only organization to be composed of institutions from North and Latin America and the Caribbean working in public administration and policy analysis. It has more than 49 members from top research schools in various countries throughout the hemisphere.[93]

NISPAcee is a network of experts, scholars and practitioners who work in the field of public administration in central Europe and Eastern Europe, including the Russian Federation and the Caucasus and Central Asia.[94] The US public administration and political science associations like NASPAA, American Political Science Association (APSA)[95] and American Society of Public Administration (ASPA).[96] These organizations have helped to create the fundamental establishment of modern public administration.

Eastern Regional Organization for Public Administration (EROPA) is a state-membership based organization, open to other organizations and individuals, headquartered in the Philippines with centres and membership organized around the Asia Pacific region. EROPA organizes annual conferences, and publishes a journal Asian Review of Public Administration (ARPA). It has a number of centres in the region, and assists in networking experts with its members.[97]

Public management

"Public management" is an approach to government administration and non-profit administration that resembles or draws on private-sector management and business techniques and approaches. These business approaches often aim to maximize efficiency and effectiveness and provide improved customer service. A contrast is drawn with the study of public administration, which emphasizes the social and cultural drivers of government that many contend (e.g., Graham T. Allison and Charles Goodsell) makes it different from the private sector.[98] proposes a positive and negative definitions of public management. The positive approach as: "praxeological ana rightful process of public service for citizens for the sake of their and following generations good through strengthening mutual relationships, competitiveness of national economy and practical increase of social utility through effective allocation of public resorurces".[99] Negative approach as: "Fiction, whose aim is the possibility of temporal or permanent appropriation of public goods for the implementation of the particular interests of a narrow social group".[100] Studying and teaching about public management are widely practiced in developed nations.

Organizations

Many entities study public management in particular, in various countries, including:

Comparative public management, through government performance auditing, examines the efficiency and effectiveness of two or more governments.

See also

Societies

Public management academic resources

  • Public Policy and Administration, ISSN 1749-4192, (electronic) ISSN 0952-0767 (print), SAGE Publications and Joint University Council of the Applied Social Sciences
  • International Journal of Public Sector Management, ISSN 0951-3558, Emerald Group Publishing
  • Public Management Review, ISSN 1471-9045 (electronic) ISSN 1471-9037 (paper) Routledge
  • Public Works Management & Policy, ISSN 1552-7549 (electronic) ISSN 1087-724X (paper), SAGE Publications

Notes

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References

Further reading

  • Dubois, H.F.W. & Fattore, G. (2009), 'Definitions and typologies in public administration research: the case of decentralization', International Journal of Public Administration, 32(8): 704–27.
  • Jeong Chun Hai @Ibrahim, & Nor Fadzlina Nawi. (2007). Principles of Public Administration: An Introduction. Kuala Lumpur: Karisma Publications. ISBN 978-983-195-253-5
  • Smith, Kevin B. and Licari, Michael J. (2006) Public Administration – Power and Politics in the Fourth Branch of Government, LA: Roxbury Pub. Co. ISBN 1-933220-04-X
  • White, Jay D. and Guy B. Adams. Research in public administration: reflections on theory and practice. 1994.
  • Donald Menzel and Harvey White (eds) 2011. The State of Public Administration: Issues, Challenges and Opportunity. New York: M. E. Sharpe.

Public management

  • Janicke, M. (1990). State Failure. Cambridge: Polity Press.
  • Kanter, R. M. (1985). The Change Masters: Corporate Entrepreneurs at Work. Hemel Hempstead: Unwin Paperbacks.
  • Lane, R. E. (1991). The Market Experience. New York: Cambridge University Press.
  • Lynn, L. E., Jr. (1996). "Public Management as Art, Science, and Profession." Chatham House, CQ Press.
  • Lynn, L. E., Jr. (2006). "Public Management: Old and New." Routledge.
  • Raczkowski, K. (2016). "Public Management: Theory and Practice." Springer

External links

 
Wikiquote has quotations related to Public administration.
  • Gov Monitor: A public administration, policy and public sector website
  • Public Administration Theory Network (PAT-Net) : This is an international network of professionals concerned with the advancement of public administration theory.
  • : A body which aims to establish an Internet-based network that links regional and national institutions devoted to public administration.
  • International Public Management Network
  • International Public Management Association for Human Resources

public-administration definition nature and dimension

March 31, 2023
public, administration, this, article, about, discipline, journal, public, administration, journal, journal, public, policy, administration, also, public, policy, political, science, nonprofit, management, this, article, tone, style, reflect, encyclopedic, ton. This article is about the discipline For the journal see Public Administration journal For the journal see Public Policy and Administration See also Public policy Political science and Nonprofit Management This article s tone or style may not reflect the encyclopedic tone used on Wikipedia See Wikipedia s guide to writing better articles for suggestions August 2022 Learn how and when to remove this template message Public administration a form of governance or public policy and administration an academic discipline is the implementation of public policy administration of government establishment public governance management of non profit establishment nonprofit governance and also a subfield of political science taught in public policy schools that studies this implementation and prepares civil servants especially those in administrative positions for working in the public sector voluntary sector 1 some industries in the private sector dealing with government relations and regulatory affairs and those working as think tank researchers As a field of inquiry with a diverse scope whose fundamental goal is to advance management and policies so that government can function 2 Some of the various definitions which have been offered for the term are the management of public programs 3 the translation of politics into the reality that citizens see every day 4 and the study of government decision making the analysis of the policies themselves the various inputs that have produced them and the inputs necessary to produce alternative policies 5 The word public administration is the combination of two words public and administration In every sphere of social economic and political life there is administration which means that for the proper functioning of the organization or institution it must be properly ruled or managed and from this concept emerges the idea of administration Public administration is both an academic discipline and a field of practice the latter is depicted in this picture of United States federal public servants at a meeting In the United States in the 1880s civil servants and academics like Woodrow Wilson worked to reform the civil service system and bring public administration into the realm of science 6 However until the mid twentieth century when German sociologist Max Weber s theory of bureaucracy prevailed he said there was no great interest in the theory of public administration The field is multidisciplinary in character and one of the various proposals for sub fields of public administration sets out six pillars including human resources organizational theory policy analysis statistics budgeting and ethics 6 Public administration is a segment of the larger field of administration It is simply regarded as bureaucracy heedless to the fact that bureaucracy as a particular organizational form is not only found in the government but also in private and third sector organizations Dhameja 2003 p 2 Public Administration is a discipline which is concerned with the organization and the formulation and implementation of public policies for the welfare of the people It functions in a political setting in order to accomplish the goals and objectives which are formulated by the political decision makers The focus of public administration thus is on public bureaucracy The subject got its major boost after the Minnowbrook conference held at Syracuse university in the year 1968 presided over by Dwight Waldo It was this time when the concept of New Public Administration emerged Thus public administration as a course of government action in relation to public policy as an outline of what government wants to do plays an important role in our society It can be understood as the course of action or inaction by the government with regard to a particular issue or set of issues It can be associated with formally approved policy goals and means as well as the regulations and practices of agencies that implement the programs The relationship between what the government public administration wants to accomplish and what actually occurs is carried by public policy Therefore the ultimate goal of all public policies is to achieve particular objectives that the government has in mind The nation s citizens welfare is a major consideration in the formulation and implementation of these programs Because of this the public s opinion for one exerts considerable pressure on the course of government public administration policies Contents 1 Definitions 2 History 2 1 India in the 600 BCE 2 2 Antiquity to the 19th century 2 3 US History 1880s to 1940s 2 3 1 Retrieving the Lost Contribution of Women to the Founding of PA in the US 2 4 US in the 1940s 2 4 1 1950s to the 1970s 2 4 2 1980s 1990s 2 5 in the Philippines 3 Core branches 4 Decision making models 4 1 Niskanen s budget maximizing 4 2 Dunleavy s bureau shaping 5 Academic field 5 1 Comparative public administration 5 2 Bachelor s degrees academic concentrations and academic minors 5 3 Master s degrees 5 4 Doctoral degrees 5 5 Notable scholars 5 6 Notable Institutions 6 Career prospects 7 International organizations 8 Public management 8 1 Organizations 9 See also 9 1 Societies 9 2 Public management academic resources 10 Notes 11 References 12 Further reading 12 1 Public management 13 External linksDefinitions Edit Administrators tend to work with both paper documents and computer files There has been a significant shift from paper to electronic records during the past two decades Although government institutions continue to print and maintain paper documents as official records the vast majority of records are now created and stored in electronic format 7 pictured here is Stephen C Dunn Deputy Comptroller for the US Navy Public administration refers to the management and implementation of public policies and programs by government agencies and officials at various levels of government including national state and local levels The primary goal of public administration is to ensure the efficient and effective delivery of public services to citizens and to promote the public good Public administration involves a range of activities including budgeting personnel management policy analysis program evaluation and implementation of regulations and laws Public administrators work in a variety of areas including healthcare education transportation housing environmental protection and social welfare The field of public administration is interdisciplinary drawing on knowledge and methods from fields such as political science economics sociology law and management Public administrators may work in government agencies non profit organizations or in the private sector and their roles may include policy analysts program managers budget analysts and executive directors 8 In 1947 Paul H Appleby defined public administration as the public leadership of public affairs directly responsible for executive action In a democracy it has to do with such leadership and executive action in terms that respect and contribute to the dignity the worth and the potentials of the citizen 9 One year later Gordon Clapp then Chairman of the Tennessee Valley Authority defined public administration as a public instrument whereby democratic society may be more completely realized This implies that it must relate itself to concepts of justice liberty and fuller economic opportunity for human beings and is thus concerned with people with ideas and with things 10 According to James D Carroll amp Alfred M Zuck the publication by Woodrow Wilson of his essay The Study of Administration in 1887 is generally regarded as the beginning of public administration as a specific field of study 11 Drawing on the democracy theme and discarding the link to the executive branch Patricia M Shields asserts that public administration deals with the stewardship and implementation of the products of a living democracy 12 The key term product refers to those items that are constructed or produced such as prisons roads laws schools and security As implementors public managers engage these products They participate in the doing and making of the living democracy A living democracy is an environment that is changing organic imperfect inconsistent and teaming with values Stewardship is emphasized because public administration is concerned with accountability and effective use of scarce resources and ultimately making the connection between the doing the making and democratic values 13 More recently scholars claim that public administration has no generally accepted definition because the scope of the subject is so great and so debatable that it is easier to explain than define 14 Public administration is a field of study i e a discipline and an occupation There is much disagreement about whether the study of public administration can properly be called a discipline largely because of the debate over whether public administration is a sub field of political science or a sub field of administrative science the latter an outgrowth of its roots in policy analysis and evaluation research 14 15 Scholar Donald Kettl is among those who view public administration as a sub field within political science 16 According to Lalor a society with a public authority that provides at least one public good can be said to have a public administration whereas the absence of either or a fortiori both a public authority or the provision of at least one public good implies the absence of a public administration He argues that public administration is the public provision of public goods in which the demand function is satisfied more or less effectively by politics whose primary tool is rhetoric providing for public goods and the supply function is satisfied more or less efficiently by public management whose primary tools are speech acts producing public goods The moral purpose of public administration implicit in its acceptance of its role is the maximization of the opportunities of the public to satisfy its wants 17 The North American Industry Classification System definition of the Public Administration NAICS 91 sector states that public administration comprises establishments primarily engaged in activities of a governmental nature that is the enactment and judicial interpretation of laws and their pursuant regulations and the administration of programs based on them This includes Legislative activities taxation national defense public order and safety immigration services foreign affairs and international assistance and the administration of government programs are activities that are purely governmental in nature 18 From the academic perspective the National Center for Education Statistics NCES in the United States defines the study of public administration as A program that prepares individuals to serve as managers in the executive arm of local state and federal government and that focuses on the systematic study of executive organization and management Includes instruction in the roles development and principles of public administration the management of public policy executive legislative relations public budgetary processes and financial management administrative law public personnel management professional ethics and research methods 19 History EditThe examples and perspective in this article deal primarily with the United States and do not represent a worldwide view of the subject You may improve this article discuss the issue on the talk page or create a new article as appropriate February 2016 Learn how and when to remove this template message India in the 600 BCE Edit Main article Charvaka Public administration Such neat and prosperous civilisations as Harappa and Mohenjo daaro must have had a disciplined benevolent and uncorrupt cadre of public servants In support of this there are many references to Brihaspati s works on laws and governance An interesting extract from Aaine Akbari vol III tr by H S Barrett pp217 218 written by Abul Fazl the famous historian of Akbar s court mentions a symposium of philosophers of all faiths held in 1578 at Akbar s instance This sounds credible in the context of Akbar s restless desire to find truth reflected in his launching a new religion called Din e elaahi The account under advisement is given by the well known historian Vincent Smith in his article titled The Jain Teachers of Akbar Some Charvaka thinkers are said to have participated in the symposium Under the heading Naastika Abul Fazl has referred to the good work judicious administration and welfare schemes that were emphasised by the Charvaka law makers Somadeva has also mentioned the Charvaka method of defeating the enemies of the nation He has referred to thirteen enemies who remain disguised in the kingdom for their selfish interests They may contain a few relatives of the king and subsidiary rulers but they should not be spared They should be rigorously punished like any other such opponent Kautilya as already mentioned has given a detailed scheme to remove the enemies in the garb of friends The Charvaka stalwart Brihaspati is so much more ancient than Kautilya and Somadeva He appears to be contemporaneous with the Harappa and Mohenjo daaro culture The central point of traditional religious ritual is to earn ready money for its perpetrators All unproductive barren rites designed for various moments in human life starting from several months prior to birth and extending over several years beyond death in the form of the annual sraddha many of which are current even today are but channels to feed the priests They are unreal imagined and wasteful While they are unreal imagined and wasteful the feeding is real This cunning paradox was realised by the Charvaka for its real worth They wanted financial causes to produce financial results Imagined causes only produced imagined results not real ones 20 21 Antiquity to the 19th century Edit Dating back to Antiquity Pharaohs kings and emperors have required pages treasurers and tax collectors to administer the practical business of government Prior to the 19th century staffing of most public administrations was rife with nepotism favouritism and political patronage which was often referred to as a spoils system Public administrators have long been the eyes and ears of rulers In medieval times the abilities to read and write add and subtract were as dominated by the educated elite as public employment Consequently the need for expert civil servants whose ability to read and write formed the basis for developing expertise in such necessary activities as legal record keeping paying and feeding armies and levying taxes As the European Imperialist age progressed and the militarily powers extended their hold over other continents and people the need for a sophisticated public administration grew The field of management may well be said to have originated in ancient China 22 including possibly the first highly centralized bureaucratic state and the earliest by the second century BC example of an administration based on merit through testing 23 Far in advance of the rest of the world until almost the end of the 18th century Sinologist Herrlee G Creel and other scholars find the influence of Chinese administration in Europe by the 12th century for example in Fredrick II s promulgations characterized as the birth certificate of modern bureaucracy 24 25 26 27 Thomas Taylor Meadows Britain s consul in Guangzhou argued in his Desultory Notes on the Government and People of China 1847 that the long duration of the Chinese empire is solely and altogether owing to the good government which consists in the advancement of men of talent and merit only and that the British must reform their civil service by making the institution meritocratic 28 Influenced by the ancient Chinese imperial examination the Northcote Trevelyan Report of 1854 recommended that recruitment should be on the basis of merit determined through competitive examination candidates should have a solid general education to enable inter departmental transfers and promotion should be through achievement rather than preferment patronage or purchase 29 28 This led to implementation of Her Majesty s Civil Service as a systematic meritocratic civil service bureaucracy 30 Like the British the development of French bureaucracy was influenced by the Chinese system Voltaire claimed that the Chinese had perfected moral science and Francois Quesnay advocated an economic and political system modeled after that of the Chinese 31 French civil service examinations adopted in the late 19th century were also heavily based on general cultural studies These features have been likened to the earlier Chinese model 32 Though Chinese administration cannot be traced to any one individual emphasizing a merit system figures of the Fa Jia like 4th century BC reformer Shen Buhai 400 337 BC may have had more influence than any other and might be considered its founder if not valuable as a rare pre modern example of abstract theory of administration Creel writes that in Shen Buhai there are the seeds of the civil service examination and that if one wishes to exaggerate it would no doubt be possible to translate Shen Buhai s term Shu or technique as science and argue that he was the first political scientist though Creel does not care to go this far 33 The eighteenth century noble King Frederick William I of Prussia created professorates in Cameralism in an effort to train a new class of public administrators The universities of Frankfurt an der Oder and University of Halle were Prussian institutions emphasizing economic and social disciplines with the goal of societal reform Johann Heinrich Gottlob Justi was the most well known professor of Cameralism Thus from a Western European perspective Classic Medieval and Enlightenment era scholars formed the foundation of the discipline that has come to be called public administration Lorenz von Stein an 1855 German professor from Vienna is considered the founder of the science of public administration in many parts of the world In the time of Von Stein public administration was considered a form of administrative law but Von Stein believed this concept too restrictive Von Stein taught that public administration relies on many preestablished disciplines such as sociology political science administrative law and public finance He called public administration an integrating science and stated that public administrators should be concerned with both theory and practice He argued that public administration is a science because knowledge is generated and evaluated according to the scientific method Modern American public administration is an extension of democratic governance justified by classic and liberal philosophers of the western world ranging from Aristotle to John Locke 34 to Thomas Jefferson 35 36 US History 1880s to 1940s Edit Woodrow Wilson In the United States of America Woodrow Wilson is considered the father of public administration He first formally recognized public administration in an 1887 article entitled The Study of Administration The future president wrote that it is the object of administrative study to discover first what government can properly and successfully do and secondly how it can do these proper things with the utmost possible efficiency and at the least possible cost either of money or of energy 37 Wilson was more influential to the science of public administration than Von Stein primarily due to an article Wilson wrote in 1887 in which he advocated four concepts Separation of politics and administration Comparative analysis of political and private organizations Improving efficiency with business like practices and attitudes toward daily operations Improving the effectiveness of public service through management and by training civil servants merit based assessmentThe separation of politics and administration has been the subject of lasting debate The different perspectives regarding this dichotomy contribute to differentiating characteristics of the suggested generations of public administration original research By the 1920s scholars of public administration had responded to Wilson s solicitation and thus textbooks in this field were introduced A few distinguished scholars of that period were Luther Gulick Lyndall Urwick Henri Fayol Frederick Taylor and others Frederick Taylor 1856 1915 another prominent scholar in the field of administration and management also published a book entitled The Principles of Scientific Management 1911 He believed that scientific analysis would lead to the discovery of the one best way to do things or carrying out an operation This according to him could help save cost and time Taylor s technique was later introduced to private industrialists and later into the various government organizations Jeong 2007 38 Taylor s approach is often referred to as Taylor s Principles or Taylorism Taylor s scientific management consisted of main four principles Frederick W Taylor 1911 Replace rule of thumb work methods with methods based on a scientific study of the tasks Scientifically select train and develop each employee rather than passively leaving them to train themselves Provide detailed instruction and supervision of each worker in the performance of that worker s discrete task Montgomery 1997 250 Divide work nearly equally between managers and workers so that the managers apply scientific management principles to planning the work and the workers actually perform the tasks Taylor had very precise ideas about how to introduce his system approach It is only through enforced standardization of methods enforced adoption of the best implements and working conditions and enforced cooperation that this faster work can be assured And the duty of enforcing the adoption of standards and enforcing this cooperation rests with management alone 39 The American Society for Public Administration ASPA the leading professional group for public administration was founded in 1939 ASPA sponsors the journal Public Administration Review which was founded in 1940 40 Retrieving the Lost Contribution of Women to the Founding of PA in the US Edit This section may be too long to read and navigate comfortably Please consider splitting content into sub articles condensing it or adding subheadings Please discuss this issue on the article s talk page March 2023 Contemporary scholars 41 42 43 44 are reclaiming a companion public administration origin story which includes the contributions of women This has become known as the alternative or Settlement model of public administration 41 During the 19th century upper class women in the United States and Europe organized voluntary associations that worked to mitigate the excesses of urbanization and industrialization that plagued their towns and cities Eventually these voluntary associations became networks that were able to spearhead changes to policy and administration 45 46 These women s civic clubs worked to make cities and work spaces safer cleaner streets water and sewage workplace regulation and more suited to the needs of their children playgrounds libraries juvenile courts child labor laws These were administrative and policy spaces ignored by their fathers and husbands The work of these clubs was amplified by newly organized non profit organizations Settlement Houses usually situated in industrialized city slums filled with immigrants 42 47 48 49 The Settlement movement and its leaders such as Jane Addams Julia Lathrop and Florence Kelley were instrumental in crafting the alternative feminine inspired model of public administration 50 51 This settlement model of public administration had two interrelated components municipal housekeeping and industrial citizenship 47 52 Municipal housekeeping 53 called for cities to be run like a caring home The city should be conceived as an extension of the home where families could be safe and children cared for Clean streets clean water playgrounds educational curricular reform and juvenile courts are examples of reforms associated with this movement Industrial citizenship 54 focused on the problems and risks of labor force participation in a laissez faire newly industrialized economy Reforms which mitigated workplace problems such as child labor unsanitary workplaces excessive work schedules risks of industrial accidents and old age poverty were the focus of these efforts Organized settlement women s reform efforts led to workplace safety laws and inspections Settlement reformers went on to serve as local state and federal administrators Jane Addams was a garbage inspector Florence Kelley served as the chief factory inspector for the State of Illinois Julia Lathrop was the first director of the Women s Bureau and Francis Perkins was Secretary of Labor during the F Roosevelt Administration 55 56 57 Reforms that emerged from the New Deal e g income for the old unemployment insurance aid for dependent children and the disabled child labor prohibitions and limits on hours worked etc were supported by leaders of the Settlement movement Richard Stillman 58 credits Jane Addams a key leader of the Settlement movement and a pioneer of public administration with conceiving and spawning the modern welfare state The accomplishments of the Settlement movement and their conception of public administration was ignored in the early literature of public administration The alternative model of Public Administration was invisible or buried for about 100 years until Camilla Stivers published Bureau Men and Settlement Women in 2000 50 Settlement workers explicitly fought for social justice as they campaigned for reform 49 They sought policy changes that would improve the lives of immigrants women children sick old and impoverished people Both municipal housekeeping and industrial citizenship applied a pragmatic ethic of care informed by feminine experience to policy and administration 59 While they saw the relevance of the traditional public administration values efficiency effectiveness etc and practices 60 61 of their male reformist counterparts they also emphasized social justice and social equity Jane Addams for example was a founder of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored people NAACP 62 US in the 1940s Edit Luther Gulick 1892 1993 was an expert on public administration The separation of politics and administration advocated by Wilson continues to play a significant role in public administration today However the dominance of this dichotomy was challenged by second generation scholars beginning in the 1940s Luther Gulick s fact value dichotomy was a key contender for Wilson s proposed politics administration dichotomy In place of Wilson s first generation split Gulick advocated a seamless web of discretion and interaction 63 Luther Gulick and Lyndall Urwick are two second generation scholars Gulick Urwick and the new generation of administrators built on the work of contemporary behavioural administrative and organizational scholars including Henri Fayol Fredrick Winslow Taylor Paul Appleby Frank Goodnow and Willam Willoughby The new generation of organizational theories no longer relied upon logical assumptions and generalizations about human nature like classical and enlightened theorists Gulick developed a comprehensive generic theory of organization that emphasized the scientific method efficiency professionalism structural reform and executive control Gulick summarized the duties of administrators with an acronym POSDCORB which stands for planning organizing staffing directing coordinating reporting and budgeting Fayol developed a systematic 14 point treatment of private management Second generation theorists drew upon private management practices for administrative sciences A single generic management theory bleeding the borders between the private and the public sector was thought to be possible With the general theory the administrative theory could be focused on governmental organizations The mid 1940s theorists challenged Wilson and Gulick The politics administration dichotomy remained the centre of criticism 1950s to the 1970s Edit During the 1950s the United States experienced prolonged prosperity and solidified its place as a world leader Public Administration experienced a kind of heyday due to the successful war effort and successful post war reconstruction in Western Europe and Japan Government was popular as was President Eisenhower In the 1960s and 1970s government itself came under fire as ineffective inefficient and largely a wasted effort The costly American intervention in Vietnam along with domestic scandals including the bugging of Democratic party headquarters the 1974 Watergate scandal are two examples of self destructive government behaviour that alienated citizens The costly Vietnam War alienated U S citizens from their government Pictured is Operation Arc Light a U S bombing operation There was a call by citizens for efficient administration to replace ineffective wasteful bureaucracy Public administration would have to distance itself from politics to answer this call and remain effective Elected officials supported these reforms The Hoover Commission chaired by University of Chicago professor Louis Brownlow to examine reorganization of government Brownlow subsequently founded the Public Administration Service PAS at the university an organization which has provided consulting services to all levels of government until the 1970s citation needed Concurrently after World War II the whole concept of public administration expanded to include policymaking and analysis thus the study of administrative policy making and analysis was introduced and enhanced into the government decision making bodies Later on the human factor became a predominant concern and emphasis in the study of public administration This period witnessed the development and inclusion of other social sciences knowledge predominantly psychology anthropology and sociology into the study of public administration Jeong 2007 38 Henceforth the emergence of scholars such as Fritz Morstein Marx with his book The Elements of Public Administration 1946 Paul H Appleby Policy and Administration 1952 Frank Marini Towards a New Public Administration 1971 and others that have contributed positively in these endeavors Stimulated by events during the 1960s such as an active civil rights movement the Vietnam war and war protests assassinations of a president and civil rights leaders and an active women s movement public administration changed course somewhat Landmark legislation such as the Equal Pay Act of 1963 and the Civil Rights Act of 1964 also gave public administrators new responsibilities These events were manifest in the public administration profession through the new public administration movement Under the stimulating patronage of Dwight Waldo some of the best of the younger generation of scholars challenged the doctrine they had received 64 These new scholars demanded a more policy oriented public administrators that incorporated four themes relevance values equity and change 65 All of these themes would encourage more participation among women and minorities 52 Stimulated by the events of the 60s the 1970s brought significant change for the American Society for Public Administration Racial and ethnicity minority and women members organized to seek greater participation 66 Eventually the Conference on Minority Public Administrators and the Section for Women in Public Administration were established 67 1980s 1990s Edit In the late 1980s yet another generation of public administration theorists began to displace the last The new theory which came to be called New Public Management was proposed by David Osborne and Ted Gaebler in their book Reinventing Government 68 The new model advocated the use of private sector style models organizational ideas and values to improve the efficiency and service orientation of the public sector During the Clinton Administration 1993 2001 Vice President Al Gore adopted and reformed federal agencies using NPM approaches In the 1990s new public management became prevalent throughout the bureaucracies of the US the UK and to a lesser extent in Canada The original public management theories have roots attributed to policy analysis according to Richard Elmore in his 1986 article published in the Journal of Policy Analysis and Management 69 Some modern authors define NPM as a combination of splitting large bureaucracies into smaller more fragmented agencies encouraging competition between different public agencies and encouraging competition between public agencies and private firms and using economic incentives lines e g performance pay for senior executives or user pay models 70 NPM treats individuals as customers or clients in the private sector sense rather than as citizens 71 Some critics argue that the New Public Management concept of treating people as customers rather than citizens is an inappropriate borrowing from the private sector model because businesses see customers as a means to an end profit rather than as the proprietors of government the owners opposed to merely the customers of a business the patrons In New Public Management people are viewed as economic units not democratic participants which is the hazard of linking an MBA business administration economic and employer based model too closely with the public administration governmental public good sector Nevertheless the NPM model one of four described by Elmore in 1986 including the generic model is still widely accepted at multiple levels of government e g municipal state province and federal and in many OECD nations In the late 1990s Janet and Robert Denhardt proposed a new public services model in response to the dominance of NPM 72 A successor to NPM is digital era governance focusing on themes of reintegrating government responsibilities needs based holism executing duties in cursive ways and digitalization exploiting the transformational capabilities of modern IT and digital storage One example in the deployment of DEG is openforum com au an Australian non for profit eDemocracy project which invites politicians senior public servants academics business people and other key stakeholders to engage in high level policy debate Another example is Brunei s Information Department in deploying Social Media technology in improving its Digital Governance process 73 The book chapter work concludes that digital dividends can be secured through the effective application of Social Media within the framework of Digital Era Governance 73 Another new public service model is what has been called New Public Governance an approach which includes a centralization of power an increased number role and influence of partisan political staff personal politicization of appointments to the senior public service and the assumption that the public service is promiscuously partisan for the government of the day 74 In the mid 1980s the goal of community programs in the United States was often represented by terms such as independent living community integration inclusion community participation deinstitutionalization and civil rights Thus the same public policy and public administration was to apply to all citizens inclusive of disability However by the 1990s categorical state systems were strengthened in the United States Racino in press 2014 and efforts were made to introduce more disability content into the public policy curricula 75 with disability public policy and administration distinct fields in their own right 76 77 Behaviorists have also dominated intervention practice generally not the province of public administration in recent years believing that they are in opposition to generic public policy termed ecological systems theory of the late Urie Bronfenbrenner Increasingly public policy academics and practitioners have utilized the theoretical concepts of political economy to explain policy outcomes such as the success or failure of reform efforts or the persistence of suboptimal outcomes 78 in the Philippines Edit The Philippines was the first country to offer Public Administration PA degree programs in Asia beginning in 1952 PA programs were offered by the newly established Institute of Public Administration at the University of the Philippines UP in 1951 in line with the Bell Mission s recommendations to rebuild the civil service and facilitate recovery from World War 2 Since then Philippine PA education has evolved with the changing political administrative and economic landscape PA programs have expanded across the country and PA professional and educational associations have grown 79 Core branches EditIn academia the field of public administration consists of a number of sub fields Scholars have proposed a number of different sets of sub fields One of the proposed models uses five pillars 6 Organizational theory in public administration is the study of the structure of governmental entities and the many particulars inculcated in them Ethics in public administration serves as a normative approach to decision making Policy analysis and program evaluation serves as an empirical approach to decision making Public budgeting is the activity within a government that seeks to allocate scarce resources among unlimited demands Human resource management is an in house structure that ensures that public service staffing is done in an unbiased ethical and values based manner The basic functions of the HR system are employee benefits employee health care compensation and many more e g human rights Americans with Disabilities Act The executives managing the HR director and other key departmental personnel are also part of the public administration system Decision making models EditThis section does not cite any sources Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources Unsourced material may be challenged and removed March 2010 Learn how and when to remove this template message Given the array of duties public administrators find themselves performing the professional administrator might refer to a theoretical framework from which he or she might work Indeed many public and private administrative scholars have devised and modified decision making models Niskanen s budget maximizing Edit In 1971 Professor William Niskanen proposed a rational choice variation which he called the budget maximizing model He claimed that rational bureaucrats will universally seek to increase the budgets of their units to enhance their stature thereby contributing to state growth and increased public expenditure Niskanen served on President Reagan s Council of Economic Advisors his model underpinned what has been touted as curtailed public spending and increased privatization However budgeted expenditures and the growing deficit during the Reagan administration is evidence of a different reality A range of pluralist authors have critiqued Niskanen s universalist approach These scholars have argued that officials tend also to be motivated by considerations of the public interest Dunleavy s bureau shaping Edit The bureau shaping model a modification of Niskanen holds that rational bureaucrats only maximize the part of their budget that they spend on their own agency s operations or give to contractors and interest groups Groups that are able to organize a flowback of benefits to senior officials would according to this theory receive increased budgetary attention For instance rational officials will get no benefit from paying out larger welfare checks to millions of low income citizens because this does not serve a bureaucrats goals Accordingly one might instead expect a jurisdiction to seek budget increases for defense and security purposes in place programming If we refer back to Reagan once again Dunleavy s bureau shaping model accounts for the alleged decrease in the size of government while spending did not in fact decrease Domestic entitlement programming was financially deemphasized for military research and personnel Academic field EditFurther information Public policy school Public policy degrees and Political science Education Universities offer Undergraduate level Bachelor s degrees such as a Bachelor of Science BS or Bachelor of Arts BA in Public Administration or in Government Political Science and International Affairs with an academic concentration or specialization in Public Policy and Administration Graduate school programs preparing students for advanced upper management careers in public administration typically offer the Master of Public Administration MPA degree although at some universities a Master of Arts MA or Master of Science MS in Public Administration is awarded for those taking the management tract while those going for the research tract are offered the Master of Public Policy MPP a Master of Arts MA or a Master of Science MS in Public Policy some universities combine both management and research tracts into a Master of Public Policy and Administration MPPA even though both Public Administration and Public Policy degrees have considerable overlap in both academic content and career prospects barring some differing academic requirements based on desired sub specialties in their future careers Doctorate programs in Public Administration Public Policy and Political Science with a sub specialization in Public Policy and Administration are also offered as terminal degrees for those who want to go into academia or teach as at institutions of higher education These education programs are collectively called public policy degrees and are generally taught at public policy schools while some are taught within a college of arts and sciences Most public policy and administration programs combine elements of political science economics statistics law mostly in the form of public law administrative law and Legal management academic discipline international relations including international law international development public finance leadership studies ethics sociology comparative research global studies urban planning urban studies nonprofit studies program evaluation policy analysis public policy and public administration More recently public policy schools have applied quantitative analysis management information systems data science and analytics organizational behavior organization development knowledge management project management political communication political psychology criminology and the sociology of law philosophy in particular political philosophy peace and conflict studies geography and geographic information science intelligence studies emergency management cross cultural studies public health environmental science and environmental studies business administration civil engineering industrial engineering systems engineering human resource management and operations research as part of their public policy and public administration education programs to tackle issue in the public sector the non profit sector or the government relations and regulatory affairs industry in the private sector While degrees in Public Policy and Public Administration at most universities are generally taught at the graduate level master s and PhD some undergraduate degree program majors concentrations and minors either as standalone degrees or as concentrations within a degree in political science or international relations still exist especially at research universities where research graduate and undergraduate faculty overlap and or have close cooperation within an autonomous public policy school unlike liberal arts colleges particularly liberal arts colleges in the United States that focus on the more theoretical and philosophical sides of political science at their college of arts and sciences rather than the applied and administrative side of political science In the United States the academic field of public administration draws heavily on political science and administrative law Some MPA programs as well as undergraduate Public Administration Political Science academic majors with an elective interdisciplinary concentration academic minor or program membership in Economics include economics courses to give students a background in microeconomic issues markets rationing mechanisms etc and macroeconomic issues e g national debt Scholars such as John A Rohr write of a long history behind the constitutional legitimacy of government bureaucracy In Europe notably in Britain and Germany the divergence of the field from other disciplines can be traced to the 1720s continental university curriculum Formally official academic distinctions were made in the 1910s and 1890s respectively The goals of the field of public administration are related to the democratic values of improving equality justice security efficiency and effectiveness of public services in a non profit venue business administration on the other hand is primarily concerned with expanding market share generating revenue and earning profit For a field built on concepts accountability governance decentralization and clientele these concepts are often ill defined and typologies often ignore certain aspects of these concepts 80 The more specific term public management refers to ordinary routine or typical management that aims to achieve public good In some definitions public management refers to private sector market driven perspective on the operation of government 81 This typically involves putting senior executives on performance contracts rather than tenured positions instituting pay for performance systems for executives creating revenue generating agencies and so on This latter view is often called new public management NPM by its advocates New Public Management represents a reform attempt that emphasizes the professional nature of public administration 82 NPM advocates aim to replace the academic moral or disciplinary emphasis of traditional public administration with a professional focus Some theorists advocate a bright line differentiation of the professional field from related academic disciplines like political science and sociology it remains interdisciplinary in nature One public administration scholar Donald Kettl argues that public administration sits in a disciplinary backwater because for the last generation scholars have sought to save or replace it with fields of study like implementation public management and formal bureaucratic theory 16 Kettl states that public administration as a subfield within political science is struggling to define its role within the discipline 16 He notes two problems with public administration it has seemed methodologically to lag behind and the field s theoretical work too often seems not to define it indeed some of the most interesting recent ideas in public administration have come from outside the field 16 Public administration theory is the domain in which discussions of the meaning and purpose of government the role of bureaucracy in supporting democratic governments budgets governance and public affairs takes place In recent years public administration theory has periodically connoted a heavy orientation toward critical theory and postmodern philosophical notions of government governance and power However many public administration scholars support a classic definition of the term emphasizing constitutionality public service bureaucratic forms of organization and hierarchical government Comparative public administration Edit Comparative public administration or CPA is defined as the study of administrative systems in a comparative fashion or the study of public administration in other countries There have been several issues which have hampered the development of comparative public administration including the major differences between Western countries and developing countries the lack of curriculum on this sub field in public administration programs and the lack of success in developing theoretical models which can be scientifically tested Even though CPA is a weakly formed field as a whole this sub field of public administration is an attempt at cross cultural analysis a quest for patterns and regularities of administrative action and behavior 83 CPA is an integral part to the analysis of public administration techniques The process of comparison allows for more widely applicable policies to be tested in a variety of situations Comparative public administration emerged during the post World War II period in order to seek international developmental strategies which aided in the containment of communism during the Cold War Riggs 1954 Heady 1960 84 The developers of this field expanded on a general theory a research agenda and generalized lessons learned Riggs 1954 Heady 1960 A prominent figure of Public Administration Woodrow Wilson commented on the study by saying Like principles of civil liberty are everywhere fostering like methods of government and if comparative studies of the ways and means of government should enable us to offer suggestions which will practicably combine openness and vigor in the administration of such governments with ready docility to all serious well sustained public criticism they will have approved themselves worthy to be ranked among the highest and most fruitful of the great departments of political study 85 As the financial state of the powering countries began to stabilize toward the decline of the Cold War the field of CPA began to diminish 84 The resulting decline caused the lack of further expansion of this study making it irrelevant Comparative public administration lacks curriculum which has prevented it from becoming a major field of study This lack of understanding of the basic concepts that build this field s foundation has ultimately led to its lack of use For example William Waugh a professor at Georgia State University has stated Comparative studies are difficult because of the necessity to provide enough information on the sociopolitical context of national administrative structures and processes for readers to understand why there are differences and similarities 86 He also asserts Although there is sizable literature on comparative public administration it is scattered and dated 86 Waugh argues that public administration requires an understanding of different administrative structures and a comparison of different public administration models The literature to build this base of knowledge is scattered and often hard to obtain The lack or ill formed use of comparative public administration has been detrimental for many countries including the United States Fred Riggs a political scientist states that comparisons to the United States also can be problematic because of the tendency of many American scholars to presume the American organizational structures and processes are models for other nations to emulate which was a failing of early developmental administrative studies 86 In this he claims the misuse and misapplication of comparative public administration has led to it being underdeveloped The development and better use comparative public administration could lead to better understanding In 2002 the National Security Strategy was used in the battle of hearts and minds 87 They tried to assimilate with an Arab and Islamic audience to push American values and democracy in an attempt to stop terrorism when in fact the lack of comparison on the public level was ineffective and backfired 87 The lack of willingness to understand their culture led to more tension in the Middle East 87 In conclusion of these events there are not enough resources directed to the study of comparative public administration For a basic understanding of sociopolitical structure of a society or culture is a key component of comparative public administration Despite all of its set backs there are examples of the application of well formed Comparative Public Administration working in the world today One of which is the comparison on the national level David Clark an author in this field states In spite of similarities in public management reform rhetoric it is argued that there is increasing divergence in the philosophy amp practice of public service in the two nations amp and these differences reflect regimes that incorporate different ideals of citizenship 88 This highlights the benefit of proper comparison of public administration By examining patterns that emerge in international public sectors one can identify similarities and differences in many things including ideals of citizenship on the local level Although the United States failed use of Comparative Public Administration in the Middle East is noted they did properly incorporate it domestically During the Clinton administration the focus on residential energy consumption in the United States was elevated to a high level with the inauguration of the Million Solar Roofs initiative in which the Department of Energy DOE sponsored workshops developed a pool of existing federal lending and financing options and worked with partners in the solar and building industries to remove market barriers to strengthen grassroots demand for solar technologies 89 This grassroots demand may have come from the comparative knowledge that concluded In the United States residential and commercial buildings combined now use 71 of all electricity produced and account for 79 of all electricity expenditures Annual CO2 emission attributed to electricity consumption in these U S buildings constitute 43 of the country s annual total CO2 emission which is approximately equivalent to the total CO2 emission of Japan France and the United Kingdom combined These levels support the claim of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change that energy use in buildings offer more potential for reducing carbon emission than any other single sector in the United States and abroad 89 This example compares CO2 emission in the United States to other countries and through the buildings sector the US could cut down on CO2 emission The field of comparative public administration is often misunderstood for the definition itself is complex and requires layers of understanding The field will require many more years of collaborative research before it becomes a widely recognized academic study Bachelor s degrees academic concentrations and academic minors Edit See also Bachelor s degree Bachelor of Arts and Bachelor of ScienceSee also Academic concentration Academic minor and Student organizationThis is missing information about Bachelor s degrees and undergraduate concentrations but information on this within the article is missing Please expand the to include this information Further details may exist on the talk page July 2022 Universities offer Undergraduate level Bachelor s degrees such as a Bachelor of Science BS and or Bachelor of Arts BA in Public Administration or Government Political Science and International Affairs with a academic concentration or specialization in Public Policy and Administration At a number of universities undergraduate level public administration and nonprofit management education is packaged together along with international relations and security studies in a degree in political science Master s degrees Edit See also Master of Public Administration Master of Public Policy Master of Public Policy and Administration Master of Nonprofit Organizations Master of Arts and Master of Science Sciences Po Havre Campus Some public administration programs have similarities to business administration programs in cases where the students from both the Master s in Public Administration MPA and Master s in Business Administration MBA programs take many of the same courses citation needed In some programs the MPA or MAPA is more clearly distinct from the MBA in that the MPA often emphasizes substantially different ethical and sociological criteria that pertain to administering government programs for the public good that have not been key criteria for business managers who typically aim to maximize profit or share price The MPA is related to similar graduate level government studies programs including Master of Arts MA programs in public affairs public policy and political science MPA degrees may be more likely to include program emphases on policy analysis techniques or other topical focuses such as the study of international affairs as opposed to MA degrees which tend to focus on constitutional issues such as separation of powers administrative law contracting with government problems of governance and power and participatory democracy Some MPA degrees may be more oriented towards training students to undertake public service work tasks whereas some MA programs may have a more academic theoretical focus Some universities offer their Masters in public administration as an MA degree e g Carleton University in Ottawa Canada and the University of Kerala in India Some universities offer mid career Master s programs sometimes called an MC MPA that can be taken part time often outside of business hours by public servants and public service managers who are working full time Community programs may offer internships or continuing education credits One example is the Maxwell School s mid career Masters at Syracuse University which was launched by Robert Iversen in the 1970s Doctoral degrees Edit See also Doctor of Public Administration There are two types of doctoral degrees in public administration the Doctor of Public Administration DPA and the Ph D in public administration The DPA is an applied research doctoral degree in the field of public administration focusing on the practice of public administration more than on its theoretical aspects The DPA requires coursework beyond the Masters level and a thesis dissertation or other doctoral project Upon successful completion of the doctoral requirements the title of Doctor is awarded and the post nominals of D P A can be used Some universities use the Ph D as their doctoral degree in public administration e g Carleton University in Ottawa Canada and the University Of Kerala in India The Ph D is typically sought by individuals aiming to become professors of public administration or researchers Individuals pursuing a Ph D in public administration often pursue more theoretical dissertation topics than their DPA counterparts Notable scholars Edit Main article List of notable public administration scholars Notable scholars of public administration have come from a range of fields In the period before public administration existed as its own independent discipline scholars contributing to the field came from economics sociology management political science administrative law and other related fields More recently scholars from public administration and public policy have contributed important studies and theories Notable Institutions Edit O Neill School of Public and Environmental Affairs at Indiana University University of Georgia School of Public and International Affairs Leiden University Blavatnik School of Government Erasmus University Rotterdam Hertie School in Berlin Harvard Kennedy School of Government London School of Economics Munk School of Global Affairs and Public Policy Paul H Nitze School of Advanced International Studies Sciences Po Paris University of WarwickCareer prospects EditPublic administration is centrally concerned with the organization of government policies and programs as well as the behavior of officials usually non elected formally responsible for their conduct 90 Many non elected public employees such as political appointees and civil servants are considered public administrators This includes political appointees upper management level civil servants senior executive service and lower level civil servants such as heads of city county regional state and federal departments such as municipal budget directors human resources HR administrators city managers census managers state mental health directors cabinet members cabinet secretaries in presidential systems 4 paralegals lawyers legislative assistants office secretaries project managers and many more non elected positions in government Public administrators are public employees working in public departments and agencies at all levels of government Most industries in the private sector dealing with government relations and regulatory affairs as well as nonprofit organizations in the voluntary sector also hire those with public administration and political science degrees International organizations EditThere are a number of international public administration organizations The Commonwealth Association of Public Administration and Management CAPAM is diverse as it includes the 54 member states of the Commonwealth from India and the UK to Nauru Its biennial conference brings together ministers of public service top public officials and leading scholars The oldest organization is the International Institute of Administrative Sciences IIAS Based in Brussels Belgium the IIAS is a worldwide platform providing a space for exchanges that promote knowledge and good practices to improve the organization and operation of public administration The IIAS also aims to ensure that public agencies will be in a position to better respond to the current and future expectations and needs of society The IIAS has set up four entities the International Association of Schools and Institutes of Administration IASIA the European Group for Public Administration EGPA The Latin American Group for Public Administration LAGPA and the Asian Group for Public Administration AGPA IASIA is an association of organizations and individuals whose activities and interests focus on public administration and management The activities of its members include education and training of administrators and managers It is the only worldwide scholarly association in the field of public management EGPA LAGPA and AGPA are the regional sub entities of the IIAS Another body the International Committee of the US based Network of Schools of Public Policy Affairs and Administration NASPAA has developed a number of relationships around the world They include sub regional and National forums like CLAD INPAE and NISPAcee APSA ASPA 91 The Center for Latin American Administration for Development CLAD based in Caracas Venezuela this regional network of schools of public administration set up by the governments in Latin America is the oldest in the region 92 The institute is a founding member and played a central role in organizing the Inter American Network of Public Administration Education INPAE Created in 2000 this regional network of schools is unique in that it is the only organization to be composed of institutions from North and Latin America and the Caribbean working in public administration and policy analysis It has more than 49 members from top research schools in various countries throughout the hemisphere 93 NISPAcee is a network of experts scholars and practitioners who work in the field of public administration in central Europe and Eastern Europe including the Russian Federation and the Caucasus and Central Asia 94 The US public administration and political science associations like NASPAA American Political Science Association APSA 95 and American Society of Public Administration ASPA 96 These organizations have helped to create the fundamental establishment of modern public administration Eastern Regional Organization for Public Administration EROPA is a state membership based organization open to other organizations and individuals headquartered in the Philippines with centres and membership organized around the Asia Pacific region EROPA organizes annual conferences and publishes a journal Asian Review of Public Administration ARPA It has a number of centres in the region and assists in networking experts with its members 97 Public management Edit Public management is an approach to government administration and non profit administration that resembles or draws on private sector management and business techniques and approaches These business approaches often aim to maximize efficiency and effectiveness and provide improved customer service A contrast is drawn with the study of public administration which emphasizes the social and cultural drivers of government that many contend e g Graham T Allison and Charles Goodsell makes it different from the private sector 98 proposes a positive and negative definitions of public management The positive approach as praxeological ana rightful process of public service for citizens for the sake of their and following generations good through strengthening mutual relationships competitiveness of national economy and practical increase of social utility through effective allocation of public resorurces 99 Negative approach as Fiction whose aim is the possibility of temporal or permanent appropriation of public goods for the implementation of the particular interests of a narrow social group 100 Studying and teaching about public management are widely practiced in developed nations Organizations Edit Many entities study public management in particular in various countries including In the US the American Society for Public Administration Indiana University Bloomington In Canada the Institute of Public Administration of Canada the Observatoire de l Administtation publique and various projects of the Federation of Canadian Municipalities and Infrastructure Canada In the UK Newcastle Business School Warwick Business School the London School of Economics University College London the UK local democracy project and London Health Observatory In the Netherlands Erasmus University Rotterdam In Australia the Institute of Public Administration Australia In France the Ecole nationale d administration the Sciences Po School of Public Affairs the INET National Institute of Territorial Studies and the IMPGT fr Institute of Public Management and Territorial Governance in Aix en Provence Aix Marseille University In Belgium the Public Governance Institute KU Leuven In Germany the German University of Administrative Sciences Speyer the Hertie School of Governance the Bachelor and Master of Politics Administration amp International Relations PAIR at the Zeppelin University Friedrichshafen and the Bachelor and Master of Public Policy amp Management and the Executive Public Management Master of University of Potsdam In Switzerland the University of Geneva and the Swiss Graduate School of Public Administration IDHEAP In Italy the SDA Bocconi School of Management the graduate business school of Bocconi University in Milan Italy In Cyprus the Cyprus International Institute of Management or CIIM In Ireland the Institute of Public Administration Dublin In South Africa Regenesys Business School through the Regenesys School of Public Management and MANCOSA 101 Comparative public management through government performance auditing examines the efficiency and effectiveness of two or more governments See also EditAdministration government Administrative discretion Administrative law Budgeting Bureaucracy Civil society Community services Max Weber Doctor of Public Administration List of Public Administration Journals List of public administration schools Master of Public Administration Municipal government Official Politics Professional administration Public administration theory Public policy Policy Studies Public policy schools Teleadministration Theories of administration The Study of Administration Societies Edit International Institute of Administrative Sciences American Society for Public Administration Chinese Public Administration Society Dutch Association for Public Administration Indian Institute of Public Administration Joint University Council of the Applied Social Sciences Korea Institute of Public Administration Royal Institute of Public Administration Public management academic resources Edit Public Policy and Administration ISSN 1749 4192 electronic ISSN 0952 0767 print SAGE Publications and Joint University Council of the Applied Social Sciences International Journal of Public Sector Management ISSN 0951 3558 Emerald Group Publishing Public Management Review ISSN 1471 9045 electronic ISSN 1471 9037 paper Routledge Public Works Management amp Policy ISSN 1552 7549 electronic ISSN 1087 724X paper SAGE PublicationsNotes Edit Random House Unabridged Dictionary Dictionary infoplease com Retrieved 2014 08 23 Handbook of Public Administration Eds Jack Rabin W Bartley Hildreth and Gerard J Miller 1989 Marcel Dekker NY p iii Robert and Janet Denhardt Public Administration An Action Orientation 6th Ed 2009 Thomson Wadsworth Belmont CA a b Kettl Donald and James Fessler 2009 The Politics of the Administrative Process Washington D C CQ Press Jerome B McKinney and Lawrence C Howard Public Administration Balancing Power and Accountability 2nd Ed 1998 Praeger Publishing Westport CT p 62 a b Shafritz J M A C Hyde 2007 Classics of Public Administration Wadsworth Boston Electronic Records and Document Management Systems A New Tool for Enhancing the Public s Right to Access Government Held Information PDF Retrieved 2017 04 29 What Is Public Administration UNC MPA Retrieved 2023 01 15 Appleby Paul 1947 Toward Better Public Administration Public Administration Review Vol 7 No 2 pp 93 99 Clapp Gordon 1948 Public Administration in an Advancing South Public Administration Review Vol 8 no 2 pp 169 75 Clapp attributed part of this definition to Charles Beard Carroll J D amp Zuck A M 1983 The Study of Public Administration Revisited A Report of the Centennial Agendas project of the American Society for Public Administration Washington DC American Society for Public Administration Shields Patricia 1998 Pragmatism as a Philosophy of Science A Tool for Public Administration Research in Public Administration Vol 4 pp 195 225 Shields Patricia 1998 Pragmatism as a Philosophy of Science A Tool for Public Administration Research in Public Administration Vol 4 p 199 a b Public Administration the Canadian Encyclopedia Archived from the original on March 28 2017 Retrieved March 13 2018 Haveman R H 1987 Policy analysis and evaluation research after twenty years Policy Studies Journal 16 1 191 218 a b c d Kettl Donald F The Future of Public Administration PDF H net org Retrieved October 25 2010 Lalor Stephen A General Theory of Public Administration 2014 Definition Public Administration NAICS 91 Ic gc ca Archived from the original on May 6 2013 Retrieved October 25 2010 CIP user site Nces ed gov Retrieved 2014 08 23 Salunkhe A H October 16 1998 Astik Shiromani Charvak Lokayat via Google Books Smith Vincent Arthur October 16 1917 The Jain Teachers of Akbar Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute via Google Books Ewan Ferlie Laurence E Lynn Christopher Pollitt 2005 The Oxford Handbook of Public Management p 30 Kazin Edwards and Rothman 2010 142 One of the oldest examples of a merit based civil service system existed in the imperial bureaucracy of China Tan Chung Geng Yinzheng 2005 India and China twenty centuries of civilization interaction and vibrations University of Michigan Press p 128 China not only produced the world s first bureaucracy but also the world s first meritocracy Konner Melvin 2003 Unsettled an anthropology of the Jews Viking Compass p 217 ISBN 9780670032440 China is the world s oldest meritocracy Tucker Mary Evelyn 2009 Touching the Depths of Things Cultivating Nature in East Asia Ecology and the Environment Perspectives from the Humanities 51 To staff these institutions they created the oldest meritocracy in the world in which government appointments were based on civil service examinations that drew on the values of the Confucian Classics Ewan Ferlie Laurence E Lynn Christopher Pollitt 2005 p 30 The Oxford Handbook of Public Management Herrlee G Creel 1974 p 119 Shen Pu Hai A Secular Philosopher of Administration Journal of Chinese Philosophy Volume 1 Creel The Origins of Statecraft in China I The Western Chou Empire Chicago pp 9 27 Otto B Van der Sprenkel Max Weber on China History and Theory 3 1964 357 a b Bodde Derke China A Teaching Workbook Columbia University Full text of the Northcote Trevelyan Report Archived 22 December 2014 at the Wayback Machine Walker David 2003 07 09 Fair game The Guardian London UK Retrieved 2003 07 09 Mark W Huddleston William W Boyer 1996 The Higher Civil Service in the United States Quest for Reform University of Pittsburgh Pre p 15 ISBN 0822974738 Rung Margaret C 2002 Servants of the State Managing Diversity amp Democracy in the Federal Workforce 1933 1953 University of Georgia Press pp 8 200 201 ISBN 0820323624 Creel What Is Taoism 94 Creel 1974 p 4 119 Shen Pu hai A Chinese Political Philosopher of the Fourth Century B C Creel 1964 155 6 Herrlee G Creel 1974 p 119 Shen Pu Hai A Secular Philosopher of Administration Journal of Chinese Philosophy Volume 1 Paul R Goldin p 16 Persistent Misconceptions about Chinese Legalism https www academia edu 24999390 Persistent Misconceptions about Chinese Legalism Second Treatise on Government Declaration of Independence Ryan M Mejia B and Georgiev M Ed 2010 AM Gov 2010 McGraw Hill New York Wilson Woodrow June 1887 The Study of Administration Political Science Quarterly 2 a b Jeong Chun Hai Ibrahim amp Nor Fadzlina Nawi 2007 Principles of Public Administration An Introduction Kuala Lumpur Karisma Publications ISBN 978 983 195 253 5 Frederick W Taylor 1856 1915 Principles of Scientific Management New York amp London Harper Brothers Also see Jeong Chun Hai Ibrahim amp Nor Fadzlina Nawi 2007 Principles of Public Administration An Introduction Kuala Lumpur Karisma Publications ISBN 978 983 195 253 5 Our Web Site Has Moved Aspanet org Archived from the original on 2011 12 03 Retrieved 2014 08 23 a b Shields P M amp Elias N M 2022 Introduction to the Handbook on Gender and Public Administration In Shields P and Elias N Eds Handbook on Gender and Public Administration pp 1 19 Edward Elgar Publishing https www elgaronline com view edcoll 9781789904727 9781789904727 00008 xml a b Stivers C 2000 Bureau Men Settlement Women Constructing Public Administration in the Progressive Era University Press of Kansas Burnier D 2008 Erased history Frances Perkins and the emergence of care centered public administration Administration amp Society 40 4 403 22 Burnier D 2022 The long road of administrative memory Jane Addams Frances Perkins and care centered administration In Shields P and Elias N Eds Handbook on Gender and Public Administration Cheltenham UK and Northampton MA USA Edward Elgar Publishing Skocpol T 1992 Protecting Soldiers and Mothers The Political Origins of Social Policy in the United States Harvard University Press Hunt K 2006 Women as citizens changing the polity In Simonton D Ed The Routledge History of Women in Europe Since 1700 pp 216 58 Routledge a b Shields P 2022 The origins of the settlement model of public administration In Shields P and Elias N Eds Handbook on Gender and Public Administration Cheltenham UK and Northampton MA USA Edward Elgar Publishing Shields P 2017 Jane Addams pioneer in American sociology social work and public administration In Shields P Ed Jane Addams Progressive Pioneer of Peace Philosophy Sociology Social Work and Public Administration pp 43 67 Springer a b Burnier D 2021 Hiding in plain sight recovering public administration s lost legacy of social justice Administrative Theory amp Praxis https doi org 10 1080 10841806 2021 1891796 a b Stivers C 2000 Bureau Men Settlement Women Constructing Public Administration in the Progressive Era University Press of Kansas McGuire J T 2011 Continuing an alternative view of public administration Mary van Kleeck and industrial citizenship 1918 1927 Administration amp Society 43 1 66 86 a b Shields P M amp Elias N M 2022 Introduction to the Handbook on Gender and Public Administration In Shields P and Elias N Eds Handbook on Gender and Public Administration pp 1 19 Edward Elgar Publishing https www elgaronline com view edcoll 9781789904727 9781789904727 00008 xml Shields P 2017 Jane Addams pioneer in American sociology social work and public administration In Shields P Ed Jane Addams Progressive Pioneer of Peace Philosophy Sociology Social Work and Public Administration pp 43 67 Springer Shields P 2022 Jane Addams and Public Administration Clarifying Industrial Citizenship In Shields P Hamington M amp Soeters J Eds The Oxford Handbook of Jane Addams Oxford University Press DOI 10 1093 oxfordhb 9780197544518 013 3 Shields P 2022 The origins of the settlement model of public administration In Shields P and Elias N Eds Handbook on Gender and Public Administration Cheltenham UK and Northampton MA USA Edward Elgar Publishing Burnier D 2008 Erased history Frances Perkins and the emergence of care centered public administration Administration amp Society 40 4 403 22 Newman M A 2004 Madam Secretary Frances Perkins In Felbinger C and Hanes W Eds Outstanding Women in Public Administration Leaders Mentors and Pioneers pp 83 102 Routledge Stillman II R 1998 Creating the American State The Moral Reformers and the Modern Administrative World They Made University of Alabama Press p 82 Burnier D 2022 The long road of administrative memory Jane Addams Frances Perkins and care centered administration In Shields P and Elias N Eds Handbook on Gender and Public Administration Cheltenham UK and Northampton MA USA Edward Elgar Publishing Schachter H L 2002 Women progressive era reform and scientific management Administration amp Society 34 5 563 78 Schachter H L 2011 The New York School of Philanthropy the Bureau of Municipal Research and the trail of the missing women a public administration history detective story Administration amp Society 43 1 3 21 Shields P ed 2017 Jane Addams Progressive Pioneer of Peace Philosophy Sociology Social Work and Public Administration Springer Fry Brian R 1989 Mastering Public Administration from Max Weber to Dwight Waldo Chatham New Jersey Chatham House Publishers Inc p 80 Schick A 1975 The trauma of politics public administration in the sixties In Mosher F Ed American Public Administration Past Present Future pp 142 80 University of Alabama Press p 161 Schick A 1975 The trauma of politics public administration in the sixties In Mosher F Ed American Public Administration Past Present Future pp 142 80 University of Alabama Press p 162 Foye Cox N 2006 Women in public administration breaking new ground In Felbinger C and Haynes W Eds Profiles of Outstanding Women in Public Administration pp 7 42 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Public administration and disability community services administration in the US Boca Raton CRC Press ISBN 9781466579828 Corduneanu Huci Cristina Hamilton Alexander Masses Ferrer Issel 2012 Understanding Policy Change How to Apply Political Economy Concepts in Practice Washington DC The World Bank Torneo Ador R 2020 04 02 Public administration education in the Philippines 1951 2020 History challenges and prospects Journal of Public Affairs Education 26 2 127 149 doi 10 1080 15236803 2020 1744066 ISSN 1523 6803 S2CID 216242934 Dubois Hans F W Fattore Giovanni 2009 Definitions and Typologies in Public Administration Research The Case of Decentralization International Journal of Public Administration 32 8 704 27 doi 10 1080 01900690902908760 S2CID 154709846 The field of public administration knows many concepts By focusing on one such concept this research shows how definitions can be deceptive Riccucci Norma 2010 Public Administration Georgetown University Press Retrieved 2023 01 05 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10 1111 1477 7053 00021 S2CID 146653009 ProQuest 218320986 a b Farhar Barbara Coburn Timothy January February 2008 A New Market Paradigm for Zero Energy Homes A Comparative Case Study Environment 50 1 18 20 27 29 32 ProQuest 224021643 UN Economic and Social Council Committee of Experts on Public Administration Definition of basic concepts and terminologies in governance and public administration 2006 NASPAA International Web Portal Globalmpa net Archived from the original on 2014 05 17 Retrieved 2014 08 23 CLAD CLAD 2007 08 29 Retrieved 2017 04 29 1 Archived May 25 2015 at the Wayback Machine Studio Floyd Andruch Jan Homepage NISPAcee Information Portal nispa sk APSA American Political Science Association Apsanet org Retrieved 2014 08 23 aspanet org Archived from the original on 2019 10 29 Retrieved 2004 09 13 Eastern Regional Organization for Public Administration Eastern Regional Organization for Public Administration Retrieved 17 April 2017 Raczkowski Konrad 2016 Public management theory and practice Cham Heidelberg New York Dordrecht London Springer p 15 ISBN 978 3 319 20312 6 OCLC 914254547 Raczkowski Konrad 2016 Public management theory and practice Cham Heidelberg New York Dordrecht London Springer p 15 ISBN 978 3 319 20312 6 OCLC 914254547 Raczkowski Konrad 14 July 2015 Public management theory and practice Cham ISBN 978 3 319 20312 6 OCLC 914254547 Home Mancosa Retrieved 2017 04 29 References EditKirchwey George W 1905 Civil Administration In Gilman D C Peck H T Colby F M eds New International Encyclopedia 1st ed New York Dodd Mead Further reading EditDubois H F W amp Fattore G 2009 Definitions and typologies in public administration research the case of decentralization International Journal of Public Administration 32 8 704 27 Jeong Chun Hai Ibrahim amp Nor Fadzlina Nawi 2007 Principles of Public Administration An Introduction Kuala Lumpur Karisma Publications ISBN 978 983 195 253 5 Smith Kevin B and Licari Michael J 2006 Public Administration Power and Politics in the Fourth Branch of Government LA Roxbury Pub Co ISBN 1 933220 04 X White Jay D and Guy B Adams Research in public administration reflections on theory and practice 1994 Donald Menzel and Harvey White eds 2011 The State of Public Administration Issues Challenges and Opportunity New York M E Sharpe Public management Edit Janicke M 1990 State Failure Cambridge Polity Press Kanter R M 1985 The Change Masters Corporate Entrepreneurs at Work Hemel Hempstead Unwin Paperbacks Lane R E 1991 The Market Experience New York Cambridge University Press Lynn L E Jr 1996 Public Management as Art Science and Profession Chatham House CQ Press Lynn L E Jr 2006 Public Management Old and New Routledge Raczkowski K 2016 Public Management Theory and Practice SpringerExternal links Edit Wikiquote has quotations related to Public administration Gov Monitor A public administration policy and public sector website Public Administration Theory Network PAT Net This is an international network of professionals concerned with the advancement of public administration theory United Nations Public Administration Network UNPAN A body which aims to establish an Internet based network that links regional and national institutions devoted to public administration National Association of Schools of Public Affairs and Administration International Public Management Network International Public Management Association for Human Resources American Society for Public Administration public administration definition nature and dimension Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Public administration amp oldid 1147059297, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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