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Public policy

January 28, 2023

This article is about government action. For use of the phrase in legal doctrine, see Public policy doctrine.

Public policy is an institutionalized proposal or a decided set of elements like laws, regulations, guidelines, and actions[1][2] to solve or address relevant and real-world problems, guided by a conception[3] and often implemented by programs. Public policy can be considered to be the sum of government direct and indirect activities[4] and has been conceptualized in a variety of ways.

They are created and/or enacted on behalf of the public typically by a government. Sometimes they are made by nonprofit organisations[5] or are made in co-production with communities or citizens,[6][7] which can include potential experts,[8][9][10] scientists, engineers and stakeholders or scientific data, or sometimes use[11][12] some of their results. They are typically made[how?] by policy-makers affiliated with (in democratic polities) currently elected politicians. Therefore, the "policy process is a complex political process in which there are many actors: elected politicians, political party leaders, pressure groups, civil servants, publicly employed professionals, judges, non-governmental organizations, international agencies, academic experts, journalists and even sometimes citizens who see themselves as the passive recipients of policy."[13]

A popular way of understanding and engaging in public policy is through a series of stages known as "the policy cycle", which was first discussed by the political scientist Harold Lasswell in his book ‘The Decision Process: Seven Categories of Functional Analysis’ published in 1956. The characterization of particular stages can vary, but a basic sequence is: agenda setting – policy formulation – legitimation – implementation – evaluation. "It divides the policy process into a series of stages, from a notional starting point at which policymakers begin to think about a policy problem to a notional end point at which a policy has been implemented and policymakers think about how successful it has been before deciding what to do next."[14]

Officials considered as policymakers bear responsibility to reflect the interests of a host of different stakeholders. Policy design entails conscious and deliberate effort to define policy aims and map them instrumentally. Academics and other experts in policy studies have developed a range of tools and approaches to help in this task.

Varying conceptions of public policy

Public policy can be conceptualized in varying ways, according to the purposes of the speaker or author, and the characteristics of the situation they are concerned with.

One dividing line in conceptions of public policy is between those that see it primarily in terms of ideas (principles and plans of action) and those that see it as a collection of empirical phenomena (the things that are done, and their outcomes). The first of these conceptualizations is suitable when the matter of concern is relatively simple and unambiguous, and the means of enactment are expected to be highly disciplined. But where the matter is complex and/or contested – where intentions are confused and/or disguised – it may not be possible to define the policy ideas clearly and unambiguously. In this case it may be useful to identify a policy in terms of what actually happens.[15]

David Easton in the USA of the 1950s provided an illustration of the need he found to broaden his conceptualization of public policy beyond stated ideas: "If the formal policy of an educational system forbids discrimination against Negroes but local school boards or administrators so zone school attendance that Negroes are segregated in a few schools, both the impartial law and discriminatory practices must be considered part of the policy." Easton characterized public policy as "a web of decisions and actions that allocates values".[16]

Other definitions of public policy in terms of a broad range of empirical phenomena include that of Paul Cairney: "the sum total of government action from signals of intent to the final outcomes".[17]

An example of conceiving public policy as ideas is a definition by Richard Titmuss: "the principles that govern action directed towards given ends".[18] Titmuss' perspective was particularly one of social contract ethics.

More recently, Antonio Lassance has defined public policy as "an institutionalized proposal to solve a central problem, guided by a conception" (Lassance, 2020: 7).[3] Lassance's perspective and concerns are grounded in a theory of change or program theory[19][20] which he believes can be empirically tested.

One of the most known and controversial concepts of public policy is that of Thomas R. Dye, according to whom "public policy is whatever governments choose to do or not to do" (Dye, 1972: 2).[21] Although widely used, Dye's concept is also criticized as being an empty concept.[3] Dye himself admitted that his concept "discourages elaborate academic discussions of the definition of public policy - we say simply that public policy is whatever governments choose to do or not to do".[22]

In an institutionalist view, the foundation of public policy is composed of national constitutional laws and regulations. Further foundational aspects include both judicial interpretations and regulations which are generally authorized by legislation. Public policy is considered strong when it solves problems efficiently and effectively, serves and supports governmental institutions and policies, and encourages active citizenship.[23]

In his book Advanced Introduction to Public Policy, B. Guy Peters defines public policy as "the set of activities that governments engage in for the purpose of changing their economy and society", effectively saying that public policy is legislation brought in with the aim of benefiting or impacting the electorate in some way.[24] In another definition, author B. Dente in his book Understanding Policy Decisions explains public policy as "a set of actions that affect the solution of a policy problem, i.e. a dissatisfaction regarding a certain need, demand or opportunity for public intervention. Its quality is measured by the capacity to create public value."[25]

Other scholars define public policy as a system of "courses of action, regulatory measures, laws, and funding priorities concerning a given topic promulgated by a governmental entity or its representatives".[26] Public policy is commonly embodied in "constitutions, legislative acts, and judicial decisions".[27] Transformative constitutions of Global South considers judicial actions for Public policy as paramount, since the political forces that facilitate legislative decisions may run counter to the will of the people.[28]

Public policy focuses on the decisions that create the outputs of a political system, such as transport policies, the management of a public health service, the administration of a system schooling and the organization of a defense force.[29] The directly measurable policy outputs, "actions oactually taken in pursuance of policy decisions and statements," can be differentiated from the broader policy outcomes, "focus[ing] on a policy's societal consequences."[30]

In the United States, this concept refers not only to the result of policies, but more broadly to the decision-making and analysis of governmental decisions. As an academic discipline, public policy is studied by professors and students at public policy schools of major universities throughout the country. The U.S. professional association of public policy practitioners, researchers, scholars, and students is the Association for Public Policy Analysis and Management.

Much of public policy is concerned with evaluating decision-making in governments and public bureaucracies.[29]

Public policy making and the implementation of public policy

Public policy making can be characterized as a dynamic, complex, and interactive system through which public problems are identified and resolved through the creation of new policy or reform of existing policy.[31]

Public problems can originate in endless ways and require different policy responses (such as regulations, subsidies, import quotas, and laws) on the local, national, or international level. The public problems that influence public policy making can be of economic, social, or political nature.[32]

The Government holds a legal monopoly to initiate or threaten physical force to achieve its ends when necessary. For instance, in times of chaos when quick decision making is needed.[33]

Public policy making

Public policy making is a time-consuming 'policy cycle'.

The policy cycle as set out in Understanding Public Policy: Theories and Issues.[34]

Agenda setting

Agenda setting identifies problems that require government attention, deciding which issue deserve the most attention and defining the nature of the problem.

Social construction of problems

Most public problems are made through the reflection of social and ideological values. As societies and communities evolve over time, the nature in which norms, customs and morals are proven acceptable, unacceptable, desirable or undesirable changes as well.[35] Thus, the search of crucial problems to solve becomes difficult to distinguish within 'top-down' governmental bodies.

Policy stream

The policy stream is a concept developed by John Kingdon as a model proposed to show compelling problems need to be conjoined with two other factors: appropriate political climate and favourable and feasible solutions attached to problems) that flow together to move onto policy agenda. This reinforces the policy window, another concept demonstrating the critical moment within a time and situation that a new policy could be motivated.[36]

Problem stream

Because the definition of public problems are not obvious, they are most often denied and not acted upon. The problem stream represents a policy process to compromise for how worthy problems are to create policies and solutions.[35] This is represented in five discrete factors:

  • Indicators: Scientific measurements, qualitative, statistical data using empirical evidence is used to bring relevance to particular phenomena.
  • Interpretation: Policymakers make judgements whether an issue constitutes a problem worthy of action.
  • Ideology: Elements of dominant values, customs, beliefs are crucial to devising problems needed for attention.
  • Instances: Media coverage supports by drawing attention to issues, thus prompting policymakers to respond and address changes.

Therefore, John Kingdon's model[37] suggests the policy window appears through the emergence and connection of problems, politics and policies, emphasizing an opportunity to stimulate and initiate new policies.[35]

Issue attention cycle

The issue attention cycle is a concept developed by Anthony Downs (1972) where problems progress through five distinct stages.[38] This reinforces how the policy agenda does not necessarily lead to policy change, as public interest dissipates, most problems end up resolving themselves or get ignored by policymakers.[35] Its key stages include:

  1. Pre-problem stage: The problem is not recognized by the public, media or policy makers.
  2. Alarmed discovery and euphoric enthusiasm: Something is identified as a problem, supported awareness by media to pursue seriousness of problem
  3. Realization of costs which will be incurred by the solutions: Investigating through cost-benefit analysis, bringing awareness of financial, environmental, structural curbs to consider solutions and what makes for their consequences.
  4. Decline in public interest in issue: Citizens acquire acceptance of the problem and it becomes normalized. Newer issues attract the attention of the public. Limited attention span encourages policymakers to delay developing policy to see which public troubles demand necessary and worthwhile solving.
  5. Issue slips off, or back down, the policy agenda: The issue effectively disappears, although it has the possibility to re-emerge in other pressing circumstances.

Policy formulation

This is the setting of the objectives for the policy, along with identifying the cost and effect of solutions that could be proposed from policy instruments.

Legitimation

Legitimation is when approval/ support for the policy instruments is gathered, involving one of or a combination of executive approval, legislative approval, and seeking consent through consultation or referendums.

Implementation

Policy implementation is establishing or employing an organisation to take responsibility for the policy, making sure the organisation has the resources/legal authority to do so, in addition to making sure the policy is carried out as planned. An example of this would be the department of education being set up.

Enforcement
Further information: Enforcement

Enforcement mechanisms are a central part of various policies.[additional citation(s) needed] Enforcement mechanisms co-determine natural resource governance outcomes[39] and pollution-related policies may require proper enforcement mechanisms (and often substitutes) to have a positive effect.[40] Enforcement may include law enforcement or combine incentive and disincentive-based policy instruments.[41] A meta-analysis of policy studies across multiple policy domains suggests enforcement mechanisms are the "only modifiable treaty design choice" with the potential to improve the mostly low effectiveness of international treaties.[42][43]

Implementation gap

As stated by Paul Cairney, the implementation gap are the stages a policy must go through before an authoritative decision is made and carried out. As an example, the agenda setting stage is followed by the policy formulation, this will continue until the policy is implemented. [44]

Top-down and bottom-up implementation

"Top-down" and "bottom-up" describe the process of policy implementation. Top-down implementation means the carrying out of a policy at the top i.e. central government or legislature. The bottom-up approach suggests that the implementation should start with the target group, as they are seen as the actual implementers of policy.[45]

Evaluation

Evaluation is the process of assessing the extent to which the policy has been successful, or if this was the right policy to begin with/ was it implemented correctly and if so, did it go as expected.

Policy maintenance

Maintenance is when the policy makers decide to either terminate or continue the policy. The policy is usually either continued as is, modified, or discontinued.

Composition

This cycle will unless discontinued go back to the agenda-setting phase and the cycle will commence again. However, the policy cycle is illustrated in a chronological and cyclical structure which could be misleading as in actuality, policymaking would include overlapping stages between the multiple interactions of policy proposals, adjustments, decision-making amongst multiple government institutions and respective authoritative actors.[46] Likewise, although its heuristic model is straightforward and easy to understand, it is crucial to note that the cycle is not totally applicable in all situations of policymaking due to it being far too simple as there are more crucial steps that should go into more complex real life scenarios.[47]

Criticisms

Anthropologists have criticised the popular approaches to public policy including the rational choice theory. They state that understanding human behaviour such as the actors, activities, and influences that go into shaping policy decisions, implementations and results.[48] They argue that other policy methods fail to capture the current dynamics in todays society as well as ambiguity the understanding of many policy processes

Responsibility of policymakers

Each system is influenced by different public problems and issues, and has different stakeholders; as such, each requires different public policy.[49]

In public policy making, numerous individuals, corporations, non-profit organizations and interest groups compete and collaborate to influence policymakers to act in a particular way.[50] Therefore, "the failure [of public policies] is possibly not only the politician's fault because he/she is never the lone player in the field of decision making. There is a multitude of actors pursuing their goals, sometimes complementary, often competing or contradictory ones."[51] In this sense, public policies can be the result of actors involved, such as interest organisations, and not necessarily the will of the public.[52][53]

The large set of actors in the public policy process, such as politicians, civil servants, lobbyists, domain experts, and industry or sector representatives, use a variety of tactics and tools to advance their aims, including advocating their positions publicly, attempting to educate supporters and opponents, and mobilizing allies on a particular issue.[32] The use of effective tools and instruments determines the outcome of a policy.[54]

Many actors can be important in the public policy process, but government officials ultimately choose public policy in response to the public issue or problem at hand. In doing so, government officials are expected to meet public sector ethics and take the needs of all project stakeholders into account.[49]

It is however worth noting that what public policy is put forward can be influenced by the political stance of the party in power. Following the 2008/2009 financial crisis, David Cameron's Conservative party looked to implement a policy of austerity in 2010 after winning the general election that year, to shore up the economy and diminish the UK's national debt.[55] Whilst the Conservatives saw reducing the national debt as an absolute priority, the Labour Party, since the effects of Conservative austerity became apparent, have slated the policy for its 'needless' pressure on the working classes and those reliant on welfare, their 2019 election manifesto stating "Tory cuts [have] pushed our public services to breaking point" and that "the Conservatives have starved our education system of funding".[56] This is a good example of how varying political beliefs can impact what is perceived as paramount for the electorate.

Since societies have changed in the past decades, the public policy making system changed too. In the 2010s, public policy making is increasingly goal-oriented, aiming for measurable results and goals, and decision-centric, focusing on decisions that must be taken immediately.[49]

Furthermore, mass communications and technological changes such as the widespread availability of the Internet have caused the public policy system to become more complex and interconnected.[57] The changes pose new challenges to the current public policy systems and pressures leaders to evolve to remain effective and efficient.[49]

Public policies come from all governmental entities and at all levels: legislatures, courts, bureaucratic agencies, and executive offices at national, local and state levels. On the federal level, public policies are laws enacted by Congress, executive orders issued by the president, decisions handed down by the US Supreme Court, and regulations issued by bureaucratic agencies.[58]

On the local, public policies include city ordinances, fire codes, and traffic regulations. They also take the form of written rules and regulations of city governmental departments: the police, fire departments, street repair, or building inspection. On the state level, public policies involve laws enacted by the state legislatures, decisions made by state courts, rules developed by state bureaucratic agencies, and decisions made by governors.[58]

Policy design

Policy design entails conscious and deliberate effort to define policy aims and map them instrumentally.[59] Policy design proposes critical analysis of policy instruments and their implementation. Uncertainties policy designers face include (in brief):

  • Technical difficulties: mechanism, design, constituency, environment of public policies
  • Cost issues: resources, materials, products, etc.
  • Political problems: selection process of solutions and decision making. Policies require tedious and rigorous research on advise for its feasibility, legitimacy and choice.
  • Compliance: Understanding the target market and discovering data for those dependent, disadvantaged or deviant on policy change.
  • Effectiveness: There is a possibility of spillovers, complementariness and inconsistencies.

Nevertheless, policy design is elemental for the succession of public policy, with it comes intricate and multi-level approaches but it is necessary for good, careful policy design to be considered before implementing the policy.[59]

Data-driven policy

Data-driven policy is a policy designed by a government based on existing data, evidence, rational analysis and use of information technology to crystallize problems and highlight effective solutions.[60] Data-driven policy making aims to make use of data and collaborate with citizens to co-create policy.[61] Policy makers can now make use of new data sources and technological developments like Artificial Intelligence to gain new insights and make policy decisions which contribute to societal development.

In the 2020s, policymakers will use data for policies and public service design, while responding to citizen engagement demands.The Anticipatory Governance model is particularly important when considering the sheer amount of data available. In terms of using new technology to collect, analyze, and disseminate data, governments are only just beginning to utilize data science for policy implementation.[62] With new technologies implemented in government administration, a more complete visualization of current problems will emerge, allowing for more precision in targeted policy-making.[63] Data science involves the transformation, analysis, visualization, and presentation of data, and potentially improve the quality of life and society by providing a more informational environment for public debate and political decision-making. Some examples of utilizing data science in public policy making are resource optimization, improving current public services, and fraud and error mitigation.[64]

Data sets rarely merge between government agencies or within agencies or countries' governments. This is beginning to change with the COVID-19 pandemic spreading globally in early 2020.[65] Forecasting and creating data models to prevent the propagation of the virus has become a vital approach for policy makers in governments around the world.[66]

User-centered policy design

User-centered policies are policies that are designed and implemented with the end-users, or those who are impacted by the policy, as co-designers.[67][68] Policymakers using this design process utilize users' knowledge of their lived experiences.[67] This can allow for policymakers focus on including both comprehensiveness and comprehension within policies to aid in clarity for end-users, such as workers or organizations.[67]

Small system dynamics model

The small system dynamics model is a method of condensing and simplifying the understanding of complex issues related to overall productivity.[69]

Evidence-based policy

Evidence-based policy is associated with Adrian Smith because in his 1996 presidential address to the Royal Statistical Society, Smith questioned the current process of policy making and urged for a more "evidence-based approach" commenting that it has "valuable lessons to offer".[70]

Some policy scholars now avoid using the term evidence-based policy, using others such as evidence informed. This language shift allows continued thinking about the underlying desire to improve evidence use in terms of its rigor or quality, while avoiding some of the key limitations or reductionist ideas at times seen with the evidence-based language. Still, the language of evidence-based policy is widely used and, as such, can be interpreted to reflect a desire for evidence to be used well or appropriately in one way or another – such as by ensuring systematic consideration of rigorous and high quality policy relevant evidence, or by avoiding biased and erroneous applications of evidence for political ends.[71]

In the U.S.

Unlike the UK, the U.S. has a largely devolved government, with power at local, state and federal level. Due to these various levels of governance, it can often be difficult to coordinate passing bills and legislation, and there is often disagreement. Despite this, the system allows citizens to be relatively involved in inputting legislation. Furthermore, each level of government is set up in a similar way with similar rules, and all pump money into creating what is hoped to be effective legislation. Policy creation in America is often seen as unique to other countries.[72]

Artificial intelligence and public policy

Artificial intelligence (AI) has been used in recent years by public administrators to deliver services and for the general improvement of government operations. In the realm of policy making in the public sector, AI will also be used to optimize outcome forecasting, pattern perception, and most importantly for the development of evidence-based programs to generate sound policy.[73]

Using AI in government will continue to be used as an e-governance tool through virtual assistance on government websites and the automation of public online services.[citation needed] This will free public employees of answering frequently asked questions about government services or querying databases for information.

A drawback of using AI in public policy making and implementation is the concept of "algorithmic bias".[74] Algorithmic bias can cause the government use of AI to have errors in decision making and create distrust in government entities.

Academic discipline

Main article: Policy studies

As an academic discipline, public policy brings in elements of many social science fields and concepts, including economics, sociology, political economy, social policy, program evaluation, policy analysis, and public management, all as applied to problems of governmental administration, management, and operations.[75] At the same time, the study of public policy is distinct from political science or economics, in its focus on the application of theory to practice. While the majority of public policy degrees are master's and doctoral degrees, there are several universities that offer undergraduate education in public policy. Notable institutions include:

 
The Blavatnik School of Government building on Walton Street

Traditionally, the academic field of public policy focused on domestic policy. However, the wave of economic globalization that occurred in the late 20th and early 21st centuries created a need for a subset of public policy that focused on global governance, especially as it relates to issues that transcend national borders such as climate change, terrorism, nuclear proliferation, and economic development.[76] Consequently, many traditional public policy schools had to adjust their curricula to better suit this new policy landscape, as well as develop entirely new curricula altogether.[77]

Controversies

The Austrian and Chicago school of economics criticise public policymakers for not "understanding basic economics". In particular, a member of the Chicago school of economics, Thomas Sowell writes "Under popularly elected government, the political incentives are to do what is popular, even if the consequences are worse than the consequences of doing nothing, or doing something that is less popular".[78] Therefore, since "Economics studies the consequences of decisions that are made about the use of land, labour, capital and other resources that go into producing the volume of output which determines a country's standard of living";[79] this means that artificially tampering with the allocation of scarce resources such as implementing certain public policies such as price controls will cause inefficiency in the economy and decline in the standard of living within society.[80][81][82][83]

One of the biggest controversies of public policy is that policy making is often influenced by lobbyists such as big corporations in order to sway policies in their favour. The National Rifle Association of America (NRA) is an organisation that lobbies United States lawmakers to oppose stricter gun laws.[84]

Another controversy surrounding public policy is that much like anyone, policymakers can sometimes hold bias and end up looking for facts that can prove their preconceptions to be true.[85] In a study of politicians in Denmark, which was published in the British Journal of Political Science, it was established that they interpreted data between two groups in a case study more successfully when there was no labeling based on class or status as opposed to when they were labeled according to their class or status; their preconceptions affected how they viewed data.[86]

See also

 
Wikiquote has quotations related to Public policy.

References

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Further reading

  • Bueno de Mesquita, Ethan. 2017. Political Economy for Public Policy. Princeton University Press.
  • Gilbert, Brett Anitra; David B. Audretsch, McDougall, Patricia P. (2004), The Emergence of Entrepreneurship Policy, Small Business Economics 22
  • Cohen, Nissim (2012) “Policy entrepreneurs and the design of public policy: Conceptual framework and the case of the National Health Insurance Law in Israel” Journal of Social Research & Policy, 3 (1): 5–26.
  • David B. Audretsch; Grilo, Isabel; Thurik, A. Roy (2007), Explaining entrepreneurship and the role of policy: a framework, in: David Audretsch, Isabel Grilo and A. Roy Thurik (eds.), Handbook of Research on Entrepreneurship Policy, Edward Elgar Publishing
  • David B. Audretsch and Beckmann, Iris A.M. (2007), From Small Business to Entrepreneurship Policy, in: David Audretsch, Isabel Grilo and A. Roy Thurik (eds.), Handbook of Research on Entrepreneurship Policy, Edward Elgar Publishing
  • Considine, Mark (2005). Making Public Policy. Polity Press.

January 28, 2023
public, policy, this, article, about, government, action, phrase, legal, doctrine, doctrine, institutionalized, proposal, decided, elements, like, laws, regulations, guidelines, actions, solve, address, relevant, real, world, problems, guided, conception, ofte. This article is about government action For use of the phrase in legal doctrine see Public policy doctrine Public policy is an institutionalized proposal or a decided set of elements like laws regulations guidelines and actions 1 2 to solve or address relevant and real world problems guided by a conception 3 and often implemented by programs Public policy can be considered to be the sum of government direct and indirect activities 4 and has been conceptualized in a variety of ways They are created and or enacted on behalf of the public typically by a government Sometimes they are made by nonprofit organisations 5 or are made in co production with communities or citizens 6 7 which can include potential experts 8 9 10 scientists engineers and stakeholders or scientific data or sometimes use 11 12 some of their results They are typically made how by policy makers affiliated with in democratic polities currently elected politicians Therefore the policy process is a complex political process in which there are many actors elected politicians political party leaders pressure groups civil servants publicly employed professionals judges non governmental organizations international agencies academic experts journalists and even sometimes citizens who see themselves as the passive recipients of policy 13 A popular way of understanding and engaging in public policy is through a series of stages known as the policy cycle which was first discussed by the political scientist Harold Lasswell in his book The Decision Process Seven Categories of Functional Analysis published in 1956 The characterization of particular stages can vary but a basic sequence is agenda setting policy formulation legitimation implementation evaluation It divides the policy process into a series of stages from a notional starting point at which policymakers begin to think about a policy problem to a notional end point at which a policy has been implemented and policymakers think about how successful it has been before deciding what to do next 14 Officials considered as policymakers bear responsibility to reflect the interests of a host of different stakeholders Policy design entails conscious and deliberate effort to define policy aims and map them instrumentally Academics and other experts in policy studies have developed a range of tools and approaches to help in this task Contents 1 Varying conceptions of public policy 2 Public policy making and the implementation of public policy 2 1 Public policy making 2 1 1 Agenda setting 2 1 1 1 Social construction of problems 2 1 1 2 Policy stream 2 1 1 3 Problem stream 2 1 1 4 Issue attention cycle 2 1 2 Policy formulation 2 1 3 Legitimation 2 1 4 Implementation 2 1 4 1 Enforcement 2 1 5 Implementation gap 2 1 6 Top down and bottom up implementation 2 1 7 Evaluation 2 1 8 Policy maintenance 2 1 9 Composition 2 1 10 Criticisms 2 2 Responsibility of policymakers 3 Policy design 3 1 Data driven policy 3 2 User centered policy design 3 3 Small system dynamics model 3 4 Evidence based policy 3 4 1 In the U S 4 Artificial intelligence and public policy 5 Academic discipline 6 Controversies 7 See also 8 References 9 Further readingVarying conceptions of public policy EditPublic policy can be conceptualized in varying ways according to the purposes of the speaker or author and the characteristics of the situation they are concerned with One dividing line in conceptions of public policy is between those that see it primarily in terms of ideas principles and plans of action and those that see it as a collection of empirical phenomena the things that are done and their outcomes The first of these conceptualizations is suitable when the matter of concern is relatively simple and unambiguous and the means of enactment are expected to be highly disciplined But where the matter is complex and or contested where intentions are confused and or disguised it may not be possible to define the policy ideas clearly and unambiguously In this case it may be useful to identify a policy in terms of what actually happens 15 David Easton in the USA of the 1950s provided an illustration of the need he found to broaden his conceptualization of public policy beyond stated ideas If the formal policy of an educational system forbids discrimination against Negroes but local school boards or administrators so zone school attendance that Negroes are segregated in a few schools both the impartial law and discriminatory practices must be considered part of the policy Easton characterized public policy as a web of decisions and actions that allocates values 16 Other definitions of public policy in terms of a broad range of empirical phenomena include that of Paul Cairney the sum total of government action from signals of intent to the final outcomes 17 An example of conceiving public policy as ideas is a definition by Richard Titmuss the principles that govern action directed towards given ends 18 Titmuss perspective was particularly one of social contract ethics More recently Antonio Lassance has defined public policy as an institutionalized proposal to solve a central problem guided by a conception Lassance 2020 7 3 Lassance s perspective and concerns are grounded in a theory of change or program theory 19 20 which he believes can be empirically tested One of the most known and controversial concepts of public policy is that of Thomas R Dye according to whom public policy is whatever governments choose to do or not to do Dye 1972 2 21 Although widely used Dye s concept is also criticized as being an empty concept 3 Dye himself admitted that his concept discourages elaborate academic discussions of the definition of public policy we say simply that public policy is whatever governments choose to do or not to do 22 In an institutionalist view the foundation of public policy is composed of national constitutional laws and regulations Further foundational aspects include both judicial interpretations and regulations which are generally authorized by legislation Public policy is considered strong when it solves problems efficiently and effectively serves and supports governmental institutions and policies and encourages active citizenship 23 In his book Advanced Introduction to Public Policy B Guy Peters defines public policy as the set of activities that governments engage in for the purpose of changing their economy and society effectively saying that public policy is legislation brought in with the aim of benefiting or impacting the electorate in some way 24 In another definition author B Dente in his book Understanding Policy Decisions explains public policy as a set of actions that affect the solution of a policy problem i e a dissatisfaction regarding a certain need demand or opportunity for public intervention Its quality is measured by the capacity to create public value 25 Other scholars define public policy as a system of courses of action regulatory measures laws and funding priorities concerning a given topic promulgated by a governmental entity or its representatives 26 Public policy is commonly embodied in constitutions legislative acts and judicial decisions 27 Transformative constitutions of Global South considers judicial actions for Public policy as paramount since the political forces that facilitate legislative decisions may run counter to the will of the people 28 Public policy focuses on the decisions that create the outputs of a political system such as transport policies the management of a public health service the administration of a system schooling and the organization of a defense force 29 The directly measurable policy outputs actions oactually taken in pursuance of policy decisions and statements can be differentiated from the broader policy outcomes focus ing on a policy s societal consequences 30 In the United States this concept refers not only to the result of policies but more broadly to the decision making and analysis of governmental decisions As an academic discipline public policy is studied by professors and students at public policy schools of major universities throughout the country The U S professional association of public policy practitioners researchers scholars and students is the Association for Public Policy Analysis and Management Much of public policy is concerned with evaluating decision making in governments and public bureaucracies 29 Public policy making and the implementation of public policy EditPublic policy making can be characterized as a dynamic complex and interactive system through which public problems are identified and resolved through the creation of new policy or reform of existing policy 31 Public problems can originate in endless ways and require different policy responses such as regulations subsidies import quotas and laws on the local national or international level The public problems that influence public policy making can be of economic social or political nature 32 The Government holds a legal monopoly to initiate or threaten physical force to achieve its ends when necessary For instance in times of chaos when quick decision making is needed 33 Public policy making Edit Public policy making is a time consuming policy cycle The policy cycle as set out in Understanding Public Policy Theories and Issues 34 Agenda setting Edit Agenda setting identifies problems that require government attention deciding which issue deserve the most attention and defining the nature of the problem Social construction of problems Edit Most public problems are made through the reflection of social and ideological values As societies and communities evolve over time the nature in which norms customs and morals are proven acceptable unacceptable desirable or undesirable changes as well 35 Thus the search of crucial problems to solve becomes difficult to distinguish within top down governmental bodies Policy stream Edit The policy stream is a concept developed by John Kingdon as a model proposed to show compelling problems need to be conjoined with two other factors appropriate political climate and favourable and feasible solutions attached to problems that flow together to move onto policy agenda This reinforces the policy window another concept demonstrating the critical moment within a time and situation that a new policy could be motivated 36 Problem stream Edit Because the definition of public problems are not obvious they are most often denied and not acted upon The problem stream represents a policy process to compromise for how worthy problems are to create policies and solutions 35 This is represented in five discrete factors Indicators Scientific measurements qualitative statistical data using empirical evidence is used to bring relevance to particular phenomena Interpretation Policymakers make judgements whether an issue constitutes a problem worthy of action Ideology Elements of dominant values customs beliefs are crucial to devising problems needed for attention Instances Media coverage supports by drawing attention to issues thus prompting policymakers to respond and address changes Therefore John Kingdon s model 37 suggests the policy window appears through the emergence and connection of problems politics and policies emphasizing an opportunity to stimulate and initiate new policies 35 Issue attention cycle Edit The issue attention cycle is a concept developed by Anthony Downs 1972 where problems progress through five distinct stages 38 This reinforces how the policy agenda does not necessarily lead to policy change as public interest dissipates most problems end up resolving themselves or get ignored by policymakers 35 Its key stages include Pre problem stage The problem is not recognized by the public media or policy makers Alarmed discovery and euphoric enthusiasm Something is identified as a problem supported awareness by media to pursue seriousness of problem Realization of costs which will be incurred by the solutions Investigating through cost benefit analysis bringing awareness of financial environmental structural curbs to consider solutions and what makes for their consequences Decline in public interest in issue Citizens acquire acceptance of the problem and it becomes normalized Newer issues attract the attention of the public Limited attention span encourages policymakers to delay developing policy to see which public troubles demand necessary and worthwhile solving Issue slips off or back down the policy agenda The issue effectively disappears although it has the possibility to re emerge in other pressing circumstances Policy formulation Edit This is the setting of the objectives for the policy along with identifying the cost and effect of solutions that could be proposed from policy instruments Legitimation Edit Legitimation is when approval support for the policy instruments is gathered involving one of or a combination of executive approval legislative approval and seeking consent through consultation or referendums Implementation Edit Policy implementation is establishing or employing an organisation to take responsibility for the policy making sure the organisation has the resources legal authority to do so in addition to making sure the policy is carried out as planned An example of this would be the department of education being set up Enforcement Edit Further information Enforcement Enforcement mechanisms are a central part of various policies additional citation s needed Enforcement mechanisms co determine natural resource governance outcomes 39 and pollution related policies may require proper enforcement mechanisms and often substitutes to have a positive effect 40 Enforcement may include law enforcement or combine incentive and disincentive based policy instruments 41 A meta analysis of policy studies across multiple policy domains suggests enforcement mechanisms are the only modifiable treaty design choice with the potential to improve the mostly low effectiveness of international treaties 42 43 Implementation gap Edit As stated by Paul Cairney the implementation gap are the stages a policy must go through before an authoritative decision is made and carried out As an example the agenda setting stage is followed by the policy formulation this will continue until the policy is implemented 44 Top down and bottom up implementation Edit Top down and bottom up describe the process of policy implementation Top down implementation means the carrying out of a policy at the top i e central government or legislature The bottom up approach suggests that the implementation should start with the target group as they are seen as the actual implementers of policy 45 Evaluation Edit Evaluation is the process of assessing the extent to which the policy has been successful or if this was the right policy to begin with was it implemented correctly and if so did it go as expected Policy maintenance Edit Maintenance is when the policy makers decide to either terminate or continue the policy The policy is usually either continued as is modified or discontinued Composition Edit This cycle will unless discontinued go back to the agenda setting phase and the cycle will commence again However the policy cycle is illustrated in a chronological and cyclical structure which could be misleading as in actuality policymaking would include overlapping stages between the multiple interactions of policy proposals adjustments decision making amongst multiple government institutions and respective authoritative actors 46 Likewise although its heuristic model is straightforward and easy to understand it is crucial to note that the cycle is not totally applicable in all situations of policymaking due to it being far too simple as there are more crucial steps that should go into more complex real life scenarios 47 Criticisms Edit Anthropologists have criticised the popular approaches to public policy including the rational choice theory They state that understanding human behaviour such as the actors activities and influences that go into shaping policy decisions implementations and results 48 They argue that other policy methods fail to capture the current dynamics in todays society as well as ambiguity the understanding of many policy processes Responsibility of policymakers Edit Each system is influenced by different public problems and issues and has different stakeholders as such each requires different public policy 49 In public policy making numerous individuals corporations non profit organizations and interest groups compete and collaborate to influence policymakers to act in a particular way 50 Therefore the failure of public policies is possibly not only the politician s fault because he she is never the lone player in the field of decision making There is a multitude of actors pursuing their goals sometimes complementary often competing or contradictory ones 51 In this sense public policies can be the result of actors involved such as interest organisations and not necessarily the will of the public 52 53 The large set of actors in the public policy process such as politicians civil servants lobbyists domain experts and industry or sector representatives use a variety of tactics and tools to advance their aims including advocating their positions publicly attempting to educate supporters and opponents and mobilizing allies on a particular issue 32 The use of effective tools and instruments determines the outcome of a policy 54 Many actors can be important in the public policy process but government officials ultimately choose public policy in response to the public issue or problem at hand In doing so government officials are expected to meet public sector ethics and take the needs of all project stakeholders into account 49 It is however worth noting that what public policy is put forward can be influenced by the political stance of the party in power Following the 2008 2009 financial crisis David Cameron s Conservative party looked to implement a policy of austerity in 2010 after winning the general election that year to shore up the economy and diminish the UK s national debt 55 Whilst the Conservatives saw reducing the national debt as an absolute priority the Labour Party since the effects of Conservative austerity became apparent have slated the policy for its needless pressure on the working classes and those reliant on welfare their 2019 election manifesto stating Tory cuts have pushed our public services to breaking point and that the Conservatives have starved our education system of funding 56 This is a good example of how varying political beliefs can impact what is perceived as paramount for the electorate Since societies have changed in the past decades the public policy making system changed too In the 2010s public policy making is increasingly goal oriented aiming for measurable results and goals and decision centric focusing on decisions that must be taken immediately 49 Furthermore mass communications and technological changes such as the widespread availability of the Internet have caused the public policy system to become more complex and interconnected 57 The changes pose new challenges to the current public policy systems and pressures leaders to evolve to remain effective and efficient 49 Public policies come from all governmental entities and at all levels legislatures courts bureaucratic agencies and executive offices at national local and state levels On the federal level public policies are laws enacted by Congress executive orders issued by the president decisions handed down by the US Supreme Court and regulations issued by bureaucratic agencies 58 On the local public policies include city ordinances fire codes and traffic regulations They also take the form of written rules and regulations of city governmental departments the police fire departments street repair or building inspection On the state level public policies involve laws enacted by the state legislatures decisions made by state courts rules developed by state bureaucratic agencies and decisions made by governors 58 Policy design EditPolicy design entails conscious and deliberate effort to define policy aims and map them instrumentally 59 Policy design proposes critical analysis of policy instruments and their implementation Uncertainties policy designers face include in brief Technical difficulties mechanism design constituency environment of public policies Cost issues resources materials products etc Political problems selection process of solutions and decision making Policies require tedious and rigorous research on advise for its feasibility legitimacy and choice Compliance Understanding the target market and discovering data for those dependent disadvantaged or deviant on policy change Effectiveness There is a possibility of spillovers complementariness and inconsistencies Nevertheless policy design is elemental for the succession of public policy with it comes intricate and multi level approaches but it is necessary for good careful policy design to be considered before implementing the policy 59 Data driven policy Edit Data driven policy is a policy designed by a government based on existing data evidence rational analysis and use of information technology to crystallize problems and highlight effective solutions 60 Data driven policy making aims to make use of data and collaborate with citizens to co create policy 61 Policy makers can now make use of new data sources and technological developments like Artificial Intelligence to gain new insights and make policy decisions which contribute to societal development In the 2020s policymakers will use data for policies and public service design while responding to citizen engagement demands The Anticipatory Governance model is particularly important when considering the sheer amount of data available In terms of using new technology to collect analyze and disseminate data governments are only just beginning to utilize data science for policy implementation 62 With new technologies implemented in government administration a more complete visualization of current problems will emerge allowing for more precision in targeted policy making 63 Data science involves the transformation analysis visualization and presentation of data and potentially improve the quality of life and society by providing a more informational environment for public debate and political decision making Some examples of utilizing data science in public policy making are resource optimization improving current public services and fraud and error mitigation 64 Data sets rarely merge between government agencies or within agencies or countries governments This is beginning to change with the COVID 19 pandemic spreading globally in early 2020 65 Forecasting and creating data models to prevent the propagation of the virus has become a vital approach for policy makers in governments around the world 66 User centered policy design Edit User centered policies are policies that are designed and implemented with the end users or those who are impacted by the policy as co designers 67 68 Policymakers using this design process utilize users knowledge of their lived experiences 67 This can allow for policymakers focus on including both comprehensiveness and comprehension within policies to aid in clarity for end users such as workers or organizations 67 Small system dynamics model Edit The small system dynamics model is a method of condensing and simplifying the understanding of complex issues related to overall productivity 69 Evidence based policy Edit Evidence based policy is associated with Adrian Smith because in his 1996 presidential address to the Royal Statistical Society Smith questioned the current process of policy making and urged for a more evidence based approach commenting that it has valuable lessons to offer 70 Some policy scholars now avoid using the term evidence based policy using others such as evidence informed This language shift allows continued thinking about the underlying desire to improve evidence use in terms of its rigor or quality while avoiding some of the key limitations or reductionist ideas at times seen with the evidence based language Still the language of evidence based policy is widely used and as such can be interpreted to reflect a desire for evidence to be used well or appropriately in one way or another such as by ensuring systematic consideration of rigorous and high quality policy relevant evidence or by avoiding biased and erroneous applications of evidence for political ends 71 In the U S Edit Unlike the UK the U S has a largely devolved government with power at local state and federal level Due to these various levels of governance it can often be difficult to coordinate passing bills and legislation and there is often disagreement Despite this the system allows citizens to be relatively involved in inputting legislation Furthermore each level of government is set up in a similar way with similar rules and all pump money into creating what is hoped to be effective legislation Policy creation in America is often seen as unique to other countries 72 Artificial intelligence and public policy EditArtificial intelligence AI has been used in recent years by public administrators to deliver services and for the general improvement of government operations In the realm of policy making in the public sector AI will also be used to optimize outcome forecasting pattern perception and most importantly for the development of evidence based programs to generate sound policy 73 Using AI in government will continue to be used as an e governance tool through virtual assistance on government websites and the automation of public online services citation needed This will free public employees of answering frequently asked questions about government services or querying databases for information A drawback of using AI in public policy making and implementation is the concept of algorithmic bias 74 Algorithmic bias can cause the government use of AI to have errors in decision making and create distrust in government entities Academic discipline EditMain article Policy studies As an academic discipline public policy brings in elements of many social science fields and concepts including economics sociology political economy social policy program evaluation policy analysis and public management all as applied to problems of governmental administration management and operations 75 At the same time the study of public policy is distinct from political science or economics in its focus on the application of theory to practice While the majority of public policy degrees are master s and doctoral degrees there are several universities that offer undergraduate education in public policy Notable institutions include CIGI Campus home to the Balsillie School of International Affairs The Blavatnik School of Government building on Walton Street Balsillie School of International Affairs Blavatnik School of Government Lee Kuan Yew School of Public Policy NUS Leiden University Hertie School Berlin Graduate Institute of International and Development Studies Geneva John F Kennedy School of Government Harvard London School of Economics Sciences Po Paris National Defence University PakistanTraditionally the academic field of public policy focused on domestic policy However the wave of economic globalization that occurred in the late 20th and early 21st centuries created a need for a subset of public policy that focused on global governance especially as it relates to issues that transcend national borders such as climate change terrorism nuclear proliferation and economic development 76 Consequently many traditional public policy schools had to adjust their curricula to better suit this new policy landscape as well as develop entirely new curricula altogether 77 Controversies EditThe Austrian and Chicago school of economics criticise public policymakers for not understanding basic economics In particular a member of the Chicago school of economics Thomas Sowell writes Under popularly elected government the political incentives are to do what is popular even if the consequences are worse than the consequences of doing nothing or doing something that is less popular 78 Therefore since Economics studies the consequences of decisions that are made about the use of land labour capital and other resources that go into producing the volume of output which determines a country s standard of living 79 this means that artificially tampering with the allocation of scarce resources such as implementing certain public policies such as price controls will cause inefficiency in the economy and decline in the standard of living within society 80 81 82 83 One of the biggest controversies of public policy is that policy making is often influenced by lobbyists such as big corporations in order to sway policies in their favour The National Rifle Association of America NRA is an organisation that lobbies United States lawmakers to oppose stricter gun laws 84 Another controversy surrounding public policy is that much like anyone policymakers can sometimes hold bias and end up looking for facts that can prove their preconceptions to be true 85 In a study of politicians in Denmark which was published in the British Journal of Political Science it was established that they interpreted data between two groups in a case study more successfully when there was no labeling based on class or status as opposed to when they were labeled according to their class or status their preconceptions affected how they viewed data 86 See also Edit Politics portal Wikiquote has quotations related to Public policy Advocacy Advocacy evaluation Eightfold path policy analysis Harold Lasswell List of public policy topics by country List of public administration schools Mandate politics Overton window Policy Public comment Public criminology Public policy schoolReferences Edit Martinez Jessica What is Public Policy civiced org Retrieved 12 October 2022 What is Public Policy Why It s Important UoPeople University of the People 1 June 2021 Retrieved 12 October 2022 a b c Lassance Antonio 2020 11 10 What Is a Policy and What Is a Government Program A Simple Question With No Clear Answer Until Now Rochester NY doi 10 2139 ssrn 3727996 S2CID 234600314 SSRN 3727996 a href Template Cite journal html title Template Cite journal cite journal a Cite journal requires journal help Peters B Guy 2 August 2018 American Public Policy Promise and Performance CQ Press ISBN 978 1 5063 9957 7 Rinfret Sara Scheberie Denise Pautz Michelle 2018 Chapter 2 The Policy Process and Policy Theories Public Policy A Concise Introduction SAGE Publications pp 19 44 ISBN 978 1 5063 2971 0 Bovaird Tony Loeffler Elke User and Community Co production of Public Services and Public Policies through Collective Decision making the Role of Emerging Technologies Retrieved 12 October 2022 Brandsen Taco Steen Trui Verschuere Bram Co Creation and Co Production in Public Services Urgent Issues in Practice and Research Co Production and Co Creation PDF Retrieved 12 October 2022 Blomkamp Emma December 2018 The Promise of Co Design for Public Policy The Promise of Co Design for Public Policy Australian Journal of Public Administration 77 4 729 743 doi 10 1111 1467 8500 12310 Deroubaix J F 26 August 2008 The co production of a relevant expertise administrative and scientific cooperation in the French water policies elaboration and implementation since the 1990s Hydrology and Earth System Sciences 12 4 1165 1174 Bibcode 2008HESS 12 1165D doi 10 5194 hess 12 1165 2008 ISSN 1027 5606 Morgan M Granger 20 May 2014 Use and abuse of expert elicitation in support of decision making for public policy Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 111 20 7176 7184 Bibcode 2014PNAS 111 7176M doi 10 1073 pnas 1319946111 ISSN 0027 8424 PMC 4034232 PMID 24821779 Council National Research Education Division of Behavioral and Social Sciences and Policy Committee on the Use of Social Science Knowledge in Public 31 October 2012 Using Science as Evidence in Public Policy National Academies Press ISBN 978 0 309 26164 7 a href Template Cite book html title Template Cite book cite book a last3 has generic name help Ritter Alison 1 January 2009 How do drug policy makers access research evidence International Journal of Drug Policy 20 1 70 75 doi 10 1016 j drugpo 2007 11 017 ISSN 0955 3959 PMID 18226519 Hill Michael 2021 The public policy process 8th ed Milton Taylor amp Francis Group p 4 Cairney Paul 2019 Understanding public policy Theories and issues Bloomsbury Publishing Plc p 26 Nawarat Nongyao Medley Michael 2018 The Public Regime for Migrant Child Education in Thailand Alternative Depictions of Policy Asian Politics amp Policy 10 3 412 415 doi 10 1111 aspp 12408 S2CID 158615070 Easton David 1953 The political system An enquiry into the state of political science New York Alfred A Knopf p 130 Cairney Paul 2012 Understanding public policy Theories and issues Basingstoke UK Palgrave Macmillan p 5 Titmuss Richard 1974 Social Policy London George Allen amp Unwin p 23 ISBN 0 394 49447 4 Weiss Carol H 1972 Evaluation London Pearson pp 46 70 ISBN 978 0 13 292193 0 Kathryn E Newcomer Harry P Hatry Joseph S Wholey 2015 Handbook of Practical Program Evaluation Hoboken New Jersey Wiley pp 62 88 ISBN 978 1 118 89360 9 Dye Thomas R 1972 Understanding Public Policy Upper Saddle New Jersey Prentice Hall p 2 ISBN 978 0 205 71685 2 Dye Thomas R 1972 Understanding Public Policy Upper Saddle New Jersey Prentice Hall p 13 ISBN 978 0 13 613147 2 Characteristics of Successful Public Policy Norwich University Public Administration Norwich University Public Administration Retrieved 24 November 2014 Peters B G 2015 Advanced Introduction to Public Policy Edward Elgar p 3 ISBN 978 1 78195 576 5 Dente Bruno 2013 12 05 Understanding Policy Decisions SpringerBriefs in Applied Sciences and Technology Springer International Publishing pp 1 27 doi 10 1007 978 3 319 02520 9 1 ISBN 978 3 319 02519 3 a href Template Citation html title Template Citation citation a Missing or empty title help Definitions of Public Policy and the Law mainweb v musc edu Schuster W Michael 31 December 2008 For the Greater Good The Use of Public Policy Considerations in Confirming Chapter 11 Plans of Reorganization SSRN 1368469 a href Template Cite journal html title Template Cite journal cite journal a Cite journal requires journal help Pellissery Sony 2019 Transformative Law and Public Policy New Delhi Routledge ISBN 9780367348298 a b John Peter 1998 Analyzing Public Policy London Continuum p 10 ISBN 978 0 203 13621 8 Anderson J E 2003 Chapter 1 The Study of Public Policy Public Policymaking An Introduction Boston Houghton Mifflin Company John Peter 1998 Analysing Public Policy Continuum a b Sharkansky Ira R Hofferbert Dimensions of State Politics Economics and Public Policy The American Political Science Review Dusza Karl 1989 Max Weber s conception of the state International Journal of Politics Culture and Society 3 71 105 doi 10 1007 BF01430691 S2CID 145585927 Cairney Paul 2012 Introduction Theories and Issues Understanding Public Policy London Macmillan Education UK pp 1 21 doi 10 1007 978 0 230 35699 3 1 ISBN 978 0 230 22971 6 retrieved 2021 01 10 a b c d Dorey Peter 2005 Policy Making in Britain An Introduction London doi 10 4135 9781446279410 ISBN 978 0 7619 4904 6 Wilson William 1993 Can Sociology Play a Greater Role in Shaping the National Agenda Sociology and the Public Agenda Thousand Oaks CA SAGE Publications Inc pp 3 22 doi 10 4135 9781483325484 n1 ISBN 978 0 8039 5083 2 retrieved 2021 01 22 Beland Daniel Howlett Michael 2016 05 26 The Role and Impact of the Multiple Streams Approach in Comparative Policy Analysis Journal of Comparative Policy Analysis Research and Practice 18 3 221 227 doi 10 1080 13876988 2016 1174410 ISSN 1387 6988 S2CID 156139395 Gupta Kuhika Jenkins Smith Hank 2016 07 07 Lodge Martin Page Edward C Balla Steven J eds Anthony Downs Up and Down with Ecology The Issue Attention Cycle Oxford Handbooks Online doi 10 1093 oxfordhb 9780199646135 013 34 Yeboah Assiamah Emmanuel Muller Kobus Domfeh Kwame Ameyaw 1 January 2017 Institutional assessment in natural resource governance A conceptual overview Forest Policy and Economics 74 1 12 doi 10 1016 j forpol 2016 10 006 ISSN 1389 9341 Dhanshyam M Srivastava Samir K May 2021 Effective policy mix for plastic waste mitigation in India using System Dynamics Resources Conservation and Recycling 168 105455 doi 10 1016 j resconrec 2021 105455 ISSN 0921 3449 S2CID 233569368 Borner J Wunder S Wertz Kanounnikoff S Hyman G Nascimento N 1 November 2014 Forest law enforcement in the Brazilian Amazon Costs and income effects Global Environmental Change 29 294 305 doi 10 1016 j gloenvcha 2014 04 021 ISSN 0959 3780 Most international treaties are ineffective Canadian study finds CTVNews 3 August 2022 Retrieved 15 September 2022 Hoffman Steven J Baral Prativa Rogers Van Katwyk Susan Sritharan Lathika Hughsam Matthew Randhawa Harkanwal Lin Gigi Campbell Sophie Campus Brooke Dantas Maria Foroughian Neda Groux Gaelle Gunn Elliot Guyatt Gordon Habibi Roojin Karabit Mina Karir Aneesh Kruja Krista Lavis John N Lee Olivia Li Binxi Nagi Ranjana Naicker Kiyuri Rottingen John Arne Sahar Nicola Srivastava Archita Tejpar Ali Tran Maxwell Zhang Yu qing Zhou Qi Poirier Mathieu J P 9 August 2022 International treaties have mostly failed to produce their intended effects Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 119 32 e2122854119 Bibcode 2022PNAS 11922854H doi 10 1073 pnas 2122854119 ISSN 0027 8424 PMC 9372541 PMID 35914153 University press release Do international treaties actually work Study says they mostly don t York University Retrieved 15 September 2022 Howlett Michael Giest Sarah 2013 Chapter 2 The policy making process Routledge Handbook of public policy London New York Routledge Top down and Bottom up Approaches within Implementation Political Pipeline 21 February 2013 StackPath PDF Institute for Government Retrieved 2021 01 22 Understanding policy cycles EgyptToday 2018 08 02 Retrieved 2021 01 22 Wedel Janine R Shore Cris Feldman Gregory Lathrop Stacy July 2005 Toward an Anthropology of Public Policy The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 600 1 30 51 doi 10 1177 0002716205276734 ISSN 0002 7162 S2CID 56466867 a b c d Thei Geurts 2010 Public Policy Making The 21st Century Perspective a href Template Cite journal html title Template Cite journal cite journal a Cite journal requires journal help Kilpatrick Potucek Martin 2018 Public policy a comprehensive introduction Prague Karolinum Press pp 83 84 Page Benjamin I Shapiro Robert Y March 1983 Effects of Public Opinion on Policy American Political Science Review 77 1 175 190 doi 10 2307 1956018 ISSN 0003 0554 JSTOR 1956018 S2CID 143782308 via JSTOR Burstein Paul 2003 The impact of public opinion on public policy A review and an agenda Political Research Quarterly 56 1 30 doi 10 1177 106591290305600103 S2CID 154497611 Hupe Peter L Hill Michael J April 2016 And the rest is implementation Comparing approaches to what happens in policy processes beyond Great Expectations Public Policy and Administration 31 2 103 121 doi 10 1177 0952076715598828 ISSN 0952 0767 S2CID 153391005 Stanley Liam 2016 03 07 Legitimacy gaps taxpayer conflict and the politics of austerity in the UK PDF The British Journal of Politics and International Relations 18 2 389 406 doi 10 1177 1369148115615031 ISSN 1369 1481 S2CID 156681378 Rebuild our Public Services The Labour Party Retrieved 2019 12 31 Schramm Wilbur 165 The Process and Effects of mass communication Urbana University of Illinois Press ISBN 978 0 252 00197 0 a b Wilson Carter 2006 Public Policy Continuity and Change Illinois Waveland Press p 18 ISBN 1 4786 3671 8 a b Howlett Michael 2010 12 17 Designing Public Policies doi 10 4324 9780203838631 ISBN 978 0 203 83863 1 Esty Daniel Rushing Reece Summer 2007 The Promise of Data Driven Policymaking Issues in Science and Technology 23 4 Retrieved 2020 01 08 van Veenstra Anne Fleur Kotterink Bas 2017 Data Driven Policy Making The Policy Lab Approach PDF Electronic Participation Lecture Notes in Computer Science Springer International Publishing 10429 100 111 doi 10 1007 978 3 319 64322 9 9 ISBN 978 3 319 64321 2 Maffei Stefano Leoni Francesco Villari Beatrice 2020 04 02 Data driven anticipatory governance Emerging scenarios in data for policy practices Policy Design and Practice 3 2 123 134 doi 10 1080 25741292 2020 1763896 S2CID 219423835 Esty Daniel Rushing Reece 1970 01 01 The Promise of Data Driven Policymaking Issues in Science and Technology Retrieved 2022 03 29 Research in Data Science and Applied to Public Administration PDF Fundacao para a Ciencia e a Tecnologi 2020 a href Template Cite journal html title Template Cite journal cite journal a Cite journal requires journal help Covid 19 How unprecedented data sharing has led to faster than ever outbreak research Research and Innovation ec europa eu Retrieved 2022 05 06 Hasan A Putri E R M Susanto H Nuraini N 2021 01 20 Data driven modeling and forecasting of COVID 19 outbreak for public policy making ISA Transactions 124 135 143 doi 10 1016 j isatra 2021 01 028 ISSN 0019 0578 PMC 7816594 PMID 33487397 a b c Ranney Frances 11 March 2009 Beyond Foucault Toward a user centered approach to sexual harassment policy Technical Communication Quarterly 9 1 9 28 doi 10 1080 10572250009364683 S2CID 143856976 Moilanen Stephen May 15 2019 When to Use User Centered Design for Public Policy Stanford Social Innovation Review Retrieved 2020 11 06 Ghaffarzadegan Navid Lyneis John Richardson George P 2011 How small system dynamics models can help the public policy process System Dynamics Review 27 1 22 44 CiteSeerX 10 1 1 407 8702 doi 10 1002 sdr 442 ISSN 1099 1727 Boaz Ashby Young 2002 Systematic Reviews What have they got to offer evidence based policy and practice ESRC UK Centre for Evidence Based Policy and Practice Retrieved 7 May 2016 Parkhurst Justin 2017 The Politics of Evidence from Evidence Based Policy to the Good Governance of Evidence PDF London Routledge doi 10 4324 9781315675008 ISBN 978 1 138 93940 0 page needed Peters B Guy 30 September 2015 American public policy promise and performance Tenth ed Los Angeles ISBN 978 1 4833 9150 2 OCLC 908375236 Thierer Adam Castillo Andrea Russell Raymond 2017 08 23 Artificial Intelligence and Public Policy PDF Valle Cruz David Alejandro Ruvalcaba Gomez Edgar Sandoval Almazan Rodrigo Ignacio Criado J 2019 06 18 A Review of Artificial Intelligence in Government and its Potential from a Public Policy Perspective Proceedings of the 20th Annual International Conference on Digital Government Research dg o 2019 New York NY USA Association for Computing Machinery 91 99 doi 10 1145 3325112 3325242 ISBN 978 1 4503 7204 6 S2CID 189926890 Pellissery Sony 2015 Public Policy The SAGE Encyclopedia of World Poverty Sage Archived copy PDF Archived from the original PDF on 2012 04 26 Retrieved 2011 11 29 a href Template Cite web html title Template Cite web cite web a CS1 maint archived copy as title link Stone Diane Global public policy transnational policy communities and their networks Policy Studies Journal 36 no 1 2008 19 38 Sowell Thomas 2014 Basic Economics Basic Books p 416 Sowell Thomas 2014 Basic Economics Basic Books p 4 Hazlitt Henry 1988 Economics in one lesson Rothbard Murray 1963 America s Great Depression Mises Ludwig Von 1936 Socialism pp 99 113 Mises Ludwig Von 1949 Human Action How the NRA a powerful influence on American politics found itself under attack CBC Canadian Broadcasting Corporation 2020 09 03 Retrieved 2022 01 18 Tom Sasse 2018 Government must tackle bias in decision making Institute for Government Baekgaard M Christensen J Dahlmann C Mathiasen A amp Petersen N 2019 The Role of Evidence in Politics Motivated Reasoning and Persuasion among Politicians British Journal of Political Science 49 3 1117 1140 doi 10 1017 S0007123417000084Further reading EditBueno de Mesquita Ethan 2017 Political Economy for Public Policy Princeton University Press Gilbert Brett Anitra David B Audretsch McDougall Patricia P 2004 The Emergence of Entrepreneurship Policy Small Business Economics 22 Cohen Nissim 2012 Policy entrepreneurs and the design of public policy Conceptual framework and the case of the National Health Insurance Law in Israel Journal of Social Research amp Policy 3 1 5 26 David B Audretsch Grilo Isabel Thurik A Roy 2007 Explaining entrepreneurship and the role of policy a framework in David Audretsch Isabel Grilo and A Roy Thurik eds Handbook of Research on Entrepreneurship Policy Edward Elgar Publishing David B Audretsch and Beckmann Iris A M 2007 From Small Business to Entrepreneurship Policy in David Audretsch Isabel Grilo and A Roy Thurik eds Handbook of Research on Entrepreneurship Policy Edward Elgar Publishing Considine Mark 2005 Making Public Policy Polity Press Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Public policy amp oldid 1135881448, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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