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Bureaucracy

February 11, 2023

For other uses, see Bureaucracy (disambiguation).

The term bureaucracy (/bjʊəˈrɒkrəsi/) refers to a body of non-elected governing officials as well as to an administrative policy-making group.[1] Historically, a bureaucracy was a government administration managed by departments staffed with non-elected officials.[2] Today, bureaucracy is the administrative system governing any large institution, whether publicly owned or privately owned.[3][4] The public administration in many jurisdictions and sub-jurisdictions exemplifies bureaucracy, but so does any centralized hierarchical structure of an institution, e.g. hospitals, academic entities, business firms, professional societies, social clubs, etc.

There are two key dilemmas in bureaucracy. The first dilemma revolves around whether bureaucrats should be autonomous or directly accountable to their political masters.[5] The second dilemma revolves around bureaucrats' behavior strictly following the law or whether they have leeway to determine appropriate solutions for varied circumstances.[5]

Various commentators have argued for the necessity of bureaucracies in modern society. The German sociologist Max Weber (1864-1920) argued that bureaucracy constitutes the most efficient and rational way in which human activity can be organized and that systematic processes and organized hierarchies are necessary to maintain order, to maximize efficiency, and to eliminate favoritism. On the other hand, Weber also saw unfettered bureaucracy as a threat to individual freedom, with the potential of trapping individuals in an impersonal "iron cage" of rule-based, rational control.[6][7]

Etymology and usage

The term "bureaucracy" originated in the French language: it combines the French word bureau – desk or office – with the Greek word κράτος (kratos) – rule or political power.[8] The French economist Jacques Claude Marie Vincent de Gournay (1712-1759) coined the word in the mid-18th century.[9] Gournay never wrote the term down but a letter from a contemporary later quoted him:

The late M. de Gournay... sometimes used to say: "We have an illness in France which bids fair to play havoc with us; this illness is called bureaumania." Sometimes he used to invent a fourth or fifth form of government under the heading of "bureaucracy."

— Baron von Grimm (1723-1807)[10]

The first known English-language use dates to 1818[8] with Irish novelist Lady Morgan referring to the apparatus used by the British to subjugate their Irish colony as "the Bureaucratie, or office tyranny, by which Ireland has so long been governed."[11] By the mid-19th century the word appeared in a more neutral sense, referring to a system of public administration in which offices were held by unelected career officials. In this context "bureaucracy" was seen as a distinct form of management, often subservient to a monarchy.[12] In the 1920s the German sociologist Max Weber expanded the definition to include any system of administration conducted by trained professionals according to fixed rules.[12] Weber saw bureaucracy as a relatively positive development; however, by 1944 the Austrian economist Ludwig von Mises opined in the context of his experience in the Nazi regime that the term bureaucracy was "always applied with an opprobrious connotation",[13] and by 1957 the American sociologist Robert Merton suggested that the term "bureaucrat" had become an "epithet, a Schimpfwort" in some circumstances.[14]

The word "bureaucracy" is also used in politics and government with a disapproving tone to disparage official rules that make it difficult to do things.[by whom?] In workplaces, the word is used[by whom?] very often to blame complicated rules, processes, and written work that make it hard to get something done.[15] Socio-bureaucracy would then refer to certain social influences that may affect the function of a society.[16]

In modern usage, modern bureaucracy has been defined as comprising four features:[17]

  1. hierarchy (clearly defined spheres of competence and divisions of labor)
  2. continuity (a structure where administrators have a full-time salary and advance within the structure)
  3. impersonality (prescribed rules and operating rules rather than arbitrary actions)
  4. expertise (officials are chosen according to merit, have been trained, and hold access to knowledge)

Bureaucracy in a political theory is mainly a centralized form of management and tends to be differentiated from adhocracy, in which management tends more to decentralization.

History

Ancient

 
Students competed in imperial examinations to receive a position in the bureaucracy of Imperial China.

Although the term "bureaucracy" first originated in the mid-18th century, organized and consistent administrative systems existed much earlier. The development of writing (c. 3500 BC) and the use of documents was critical to the administration of this system, and the first definitive emergence of bureaucracy occurred in ancient Sumer, where an emergent class of scribes used clay tablets to administer the harvest and to allocate its spoils.[18] Ancient Egypt also had a hereditary class of scribes that administered the civil-service bureaucracy.[19]

In China, when the Qin dynasty (221–206 BC) unified China under the Legalist system, the emperor assigned administration to dedicated officials rather than nobility, ending feudalism in China, replacing it with a centralized, bureaucratic government. The form of government created by the first emperor and his advisors was used by later dynasties to structure their own government.[20][21] Under this system, the government thrived, as talented individuals could be more easily identified in the transformed society. The Han dynasty (202 BC - 220 AD) established a complicated bureaucracy based on the teachings of Confucius, who emphasized the importance of ritual in a family, in relationships, and in politics.[22] With each subsequent dynasty, the bureaucracy evolved. In 165 BC, Emperor Wen introduced the first method of recruitment to civil service through examinations, while Emperor Wu (r. 141–87 BC), cemented the ideology of Confucius into mainstream governance installed a system of recommendation and nomination in government service known as xiaolian, and a national academy[23][24][25] whereby officials would select candidates to take part in an examination of the Confucian classics, from which Emperor Wu would select officials.[26]

In the Sui dynasty (581–618) and the subsequent Tang dynasty (618–907) the shi class would begin to present itself by means of the fully standardized civil service examination system, of partial recruitment of those who passed standard exams and earned an official degree. Yet recruitment by recommendations to office was still prominent in both dynasties. It was not until the Song dynasty (960–1279) that the recruitment of those who passed the exams and earned degrees was given greater emphasis and significantly expanded.[27] During the Song dynasty (960–1279) the bureaucracy became meritocratic. Following the Song reforms, competitive examinations took place to determine which candidates qualified to hold given positions.[28] The imperial examination system lasted until 1905, six years before the Qing dynasty collapsed, marking the end of China's traditional bureaucratic system.[29]

A hierarchy of regional proconsuls and their deputies administered the Roman Empire.[citation needed] The reforms of Diocletian (Emperor from 284 to 305) doubled the number of administrative districts and led to a large-scale expansion of Roman bureaucracy.[30] The early Christian author Lactantius (c. 250 – c. 325) claimed that Diocletian's reforms led to widespread economic stagnation, since "the provinces were divided into minute portions, and many presidents and a multitude of inferior officers lay heavy on each territory."[31] After the Empire split, the Byzantine Empire developed a notoriously complicated administrative hierarchy, and in the 20th century the term "Byzantine" came to refer to any complex bureaucratic structure.[32][33]

Modern

Ashanti Empire

The government of the Ashanti Empire is built upon a sophisticated bureaucracy in Kumasi, with separate ministries which saw to the handling of state affairs. Ashanti's Foreign Office was based in Kumasi. Despite the small size of the office, it allowed the state to pursue complex negotiations with foreign powers. The Office was divided into departments that handled Ashanti relations separately with the British, French, Dutch, and Arabs. Scholars of Ashanti history, such as Larry Yarak and Ivor Wilkes, disagree over the power of this sophisticated bureaucracy in comparison to the Asantehene. However, both scholars agree that it was a sign of a highly developed government with a complex system of checks and balances.[34]

United Kingdom

 
The 18th century Department of Excise developed a sophisticated bureaucracy. Pictured, the Custom House in the City of London

Instead of the inefficient and often corrupt system of tax farming that prevailed in absolutist states such as France, the Exchequer was able to exert control over the entire system of tax revenue and government expenditure.[35] By the late 18th century, the ratio of fiscal bureaucracy to population in Britain was approximately 1 in 1300, almost four times larger than the second most heavily bureaucratized nation, France.[36] Thomas Taylor Meadows, Britain's consul in Guangzhou, argued in his Desultory Notes on the Government and People of China (1847) that "the long duration of the Chinese empire is solely and altogether owing to the good government which consists in the advancement of men of talent and merit only," and that the British must reform their civil service by making the institution meritocratic.[37] Influenced by the ancient Chinese imperial examination, the Northcote–Trevelyan Report of 1854 recommended that recruitment should be on the basis of merit determined through competitive examination, candidates should have a solid general education to enable inter-departmental transfers, and promotion should be through achievement rather than "preferment, patronage, or purchase".[38][37] This led to implementation of Her Majesty's Civil Service as a systematic, meritocratic civil service bureaucracy.[39]

In the British civil service, just as it was in China, entrance to the civil service was usually based on a general education in ancient classics, which similarly gave bureaucrats greater prestige. The Cambridge-Oxford ideal of the civil service was identical to the Confucian ideal of a general education in world affairs through humanism.[40] (Well into the 20th century, Classics, Literature, History and Language remained heavily favoured in British civil service examinations.[41] In the period of 1925–1935, 67 percent of British civil service entrants consisted of such graduates.[42]) Like the Chinese model's consideration of personal values, the British model also took personal physique and character into account.[43]

France

Like the British, the development of French bureaucracy was influenced by the Chinese system.[44] Under Louis XIV of France, the old nobility had neither power nor political influence, their only privilege being exemption from taxes. The dissatisfied noblemen complained about this "unnatural" state of affairs, and discovered similarities between absolute monarchy and bureaucratic despotism.[45] With the translation of Confucian texts during the Enlightenment, the concept of a meritocracy reached intellectuals in the West, who saw it as an alternative to the traditional ancien regime of Europe.[46] Western perception of China even in the 18th century admired the Chinese bureaucratic system as favourable over European governments for its seeming meritocracy; Voltaire claimed that the Chinese had "perfected moral science" and François Quesnay advocated an economic and political system modeled after that of the Chinese.[47] The governments of China, Egypt, Peru and Empress Catherine II were regarded as models of Enlightened Despotism, admired by such figures as Diderot, D'Alembert and Voltaire.[45]

Napoleonic France adopted this meritocracy system [46] and soon saw a rapid and dramatic expansion of government, accompanied by the rise of the French civil service and its complex systems of bureaucracy. This phenomenon became known as "bureaumania". In the early 19th century, Napoleon attempted to reform the bureaucracies of France and other territories under his control by the imposition of the standardized Napoleonic Code. But paradoxically, that led to even further growth of the bureaucracy.[48]

French civil service examinations adopted in the late 19th century were also heavily based on general cultural studies. These features have been likened to the earlier Chinese model.[43]

Other industrialized nations

By the mid-19th century, bureaucratic forms of administration were firmly in place across the industrialized world. Thinkers like John Stuart Mill and Karl Marx began to theorize about the economic functions and power-structures of bureaucracy in contemporary life. Max Weber was the first to endorse bureaucracy as a necessary feature of modernity, and by the late 19th century bureaucratic forms had begun their spread from government to other large-scale institutions.[12]

Within capitalist systems, informal bureaucratic structures began to appear in the form of corporate power hierarchies, as detailed in mid-century works like The Organization Man and The Man in the Gray Flannel Suit. Meanwhile, in the Soviet Union and Eastern Bloc nations, a powerful class of bureaucratic administrators termed nomenklatura governed nearly all aspects of public life.[49]

The 1980s brought a backlash against perceptions of "big government" and the associated bureaucracy. Politicians like Margaret Thatcher and Ronald Reagan gained power by promising to eliminate government regulatory bureaucracies, which they saw as overbearing, and return economic production to a more purely capitalistic mode, which they saw as more efficient.[50][51] In the business world, managers like Jack Welch gained fortune and renown by eliminating bureaucratic structures inside corporations.[52] Still, in the modern world, most organized institutions rely on bureaucratic systems to manage information, process records, and administer complex systems, although the decline of paperwork and the widespread use of electronic databases is transforming the way bureaucracies function.[53]

Theories

Karl Marx

Karl Marx theorized about the role and function of bureaucracy in his Critique of Hegel's Philosophy of Right, published in 1843. In Philosophy of Right, Hegel had supported the role of specialized officials in public administration, although he never used the term "bureaucracy" himself. By contrast, Marx was opposed to bureaucracy. Marx posited that while corporate and government bureaucracy seem to operate in opposition, in actuality they mutually rely on one another to exist. He wrote that "The Corporation is civil society's attempt to become state; but the bureaucracy is the state which has really made itself into civil society."[54]

John Stuart Mill

Writing in the early 1860s, political scientist John Stuart Mill theorized that successful monarchies were essentially bureaucracies, and found evidence of their existence in Imperial China, the Russian Empire, and the regimes of Europe. Mill referred to bureaucracy as a distinct form of government, separate from representative democracy. He believed bureaucracies had certain advantages, most importantly the accumulation of experience in those who actually conduct the affairs. Nevertheless, he believed this form of governance compared poorly to representative government, as it relied on appointment rather than direct election. Mill wrote that ultimately the bureaucracy stifles the mind, and that "a bureaucracy always tends to become a pedantocracy."[55]

Max Weber

The fully developed bureaucratic apparatus compares with other organisations exactly as does the machine with the non-mechanical modes of production.

–Max Weber[56]

The German sociologist Max Weber was the first to formally study bureaucracy and his works led to the popularization of this term.[57] In his essay Bureaucracy,[1],[58] published in his magnum opus Economy and Society, Weber described many ideal-typical forms of public administration, government, and business. His ideal-typical bureaucracy, whether public or private, is characterized by:

  • hierarchical organization
  • formal lines of authority (chain of command)
  • a fixed area of activity
  • rigid division of labor
  • regular and continuous execution of assigned tasks
  • all decisions and powers specified and restricted by regulations
  • officials with expert training in their fields
  • career advancement dependent on technical qualifications
  • qualifications evaluated by organizational rules, not individuals[6][59][60]

Weber listed several preconditions for the emergence of bureaucracy, including an increase in the amount of space and population being administered, an increase in the complexity of the administrative tasks being carried out, and the existence of a monetary economy requiring a more efficient administrative system.[59] Development of communication and transportation technologies make more efficient administration possible, and democratization and rationalization of culture results in demands for equal treatment.[59]

Although he was not necessarily an admirer of bureaucracy, Weber saw bureaucratization as the most efficient and rational way of organizing human activity and therefore as the key to rational-legal authority, indispensable to the modern world.[61] Furthermore, he saw it as the key process in the ongoing rationalization of Western society.[6][62] Weber also saw bureaucracy, however, as a threat to individual freedoms, and the ongoing bureaucratization as leading to a "polar night of icy darkness", in which increasing rationalization of human life traps individuals in a soulless "iron cage" of bureaucratic, rule-based, rational control.[6][7] Weber's critical study of the bureaucratization of society became one of the most enduring parts of his work.[6][62] Many aspects of modern public administration are based on his work, and a classic, hierarchically organized civil service of the Continental type is called "Weberian civil service" or "Weberian bureaucracy".[63] It is debated among social scientists whether Weberian bureaucracy contributes to economic growth.[64]

Woodrow Wilson

Main article: Bureaucracy in United States

Writing as an academic while a professor at Bryn Mawr College, Woodrow Wilson's essay The Study of Administration[65] argued for bureaucracy as a professional cadre, devoid of allegiance to fleeting politics. Wilson advocated a bureaucracy that

"...is a part of political life only as the methods of the counting house are a part of the life of society; only as machinery is part of the manufactured product. But it is, at the same time, raised very far above the dull level of mere technical detail by the fact that through its greater principles it is directly connected with the lasting maxims of political wisdom, the permanent truths of political progress."

Wilson did not advocate a replacement of rule by the governed, he simply advised that, "Administrative questions are not political questions. Although politics sets the tasks for administration, it should not be suffered to manipulate its offices". This essay became a foundation for the study of public administration in America.[66]

Ludwig von Mises

In his 1944 work Bureaucracy, the Austrian economist Ludwig von Mises compared bureaucratic management to profit management. Profit management, he argued, is the most effective method of organization when the services rendered may be checked by economic calculation of profit and loss. When, however, the service in question can not be subjected to economic calculation, bureaucratic management is necessary. He did not oppose universally bureaucratic management; on the contrary, he argued that bureaucracy is an indispensable method for social organization, for it is the only method by which the law can be made supreme, and is the protector of the individual against despotic arbitrariness. Using the example of the Catholic Church, he pointed out that bureaucracy is only appropriate for an organization whose code of conduct is not subject to change. He then went on to argue that complaints about bureaucratization usually refer not to the criticism of the bureaucratic methods themselves, but to "the intrusion of bureaucracy into all spheres of human life." Mises saw bureaucratic processes at work in both the private and public spheres; however, he believed that bureaucratization in the private sphere could only occur as a consequence of government interference. According to him, "What must be realized is only that the strait jacket of bureaucratic organization paralyzes the individual's initiative, while within the capitalist market society an innovator still has a chance to succeed. The former makes for stagnation and preservation of inveterate methods, the latter makes for progress and improvement."[13]

Robert K. Merton

American sociologist Robert K. Merton expanded on Weber's theories of bureaucracy in his work Social Theory and Social Structure, published in 1957. While Merton agreed with certain aspects of Weber's analysis, he also noted the dysfunctional aspects of bureaucracy, which he attributed to a "trained incapacity" resulting from "over conformity". He believed that bureaucrats are more likely to defend their own entrenched interests than to act to benefit the organization as a whole but that pride in their craft makes them resistant to changes in established routines. Merton stated that bureaucrats emphasize formality over interpersonal relationships, and have been trained to ignore the special circumstances of particular cases, causing them to come across as "arrogant" and "haughty".[14]

Elliott Jaques

In his book "A General Theory of Bureaucracy", first published in 1976, Dr. Elliott Jaques describes the discovery of a universal and uniform underlying structure of managerial or work levels in the bureaucratic hierarchy for any type of employment systems.[67]

Elliott Jaques argues and presents evidence that for the bureaucracy to provide a valuable contribution to the open society some of the following conditions must be met:

  • Number of levels in a bureaucracy hierarchy must match the complexity level of the employment system for which the bureaucratic hierarchy is created (Elliott Jaques identified maximum 8 levels of complexity for bureaucratic hierarchies).
  • Roles within a bureaucratic hierarchy differ in the level of work complexity.
  • The level of work complexity in the roles must be matched with the level of human capability of the role holders (Elliott Jaques identified maximum 8 Levels of human capability).
  • The level of work complexity in any managerial role within a bureaucratic hierarchy must be one level higher than the level of work complexity of the subordinate roles.
  • Any managerial role in a bureaucratic hierarchy must have full managerial accountabilities and authorities (veto selection to the team, decide task types and specific task assignments, decide personal effectiveness and recognition, decide initiation of removal from the team within due process).
  • Lateral working accountabilities and authorities must be defined for all the roles in the hierarchy (7 types of lateral working accountabilities and authorities: collateral, advisory, service-getting and -giving, coordinative, monitoring, auditing, prescribing).[68][69][70]

The definition of effective bureaucratic hierarchy by Elliott Jaques is of importance not only to sociology but to social psychology, social anthropology, economics, politics, and social philosophy. They also have a practical application in business and administrative studies.

Bureaucracy and democracy

Like every modern state, a liberal democracy is highly bureaucratized, with numerous sizable organizations filled with career civil servants. Some of those bureaucracies have a substantial amount of influence to preserve the current political system because they are primarily focused on defending the country and the state from threats from both within and beyond. Since these institutions frequently operate independently and are mostly shielded from politics, they frequently have no affiliation with any particular political party or group. For instance, loyal British civil officials work for both the Conservative and Labour parties. However, on occasion a group might seize control of a bureaucratic state, as the Nazis did in Germany in the 1930s.[71]

Although numerous ideals associated with democracy, such as equality, participation, and individuality, are in stark contrast to those associated with modern bureaucracy, specifically hierarchy, specialization, and impersonality, political theorists did not recognize bureaucracy as a threat to democracy. Yet democratic theorists still have not developed a sufficient solution to the problem bureaucratic authority poses to democratic government.[72]

One answer to this problem is to say that bureaucracy has no place at all in a real democracy. Theorists who adopt this perspective typically understand that they must demonstrate that bureaucracy does not necessarily occur in every contemporary society, only in those they perceive to be non-democratic. Because their democracy was resistant to bureaucracy, nineteenth-century British writers frequently referred to it as the "Continental nuisance."[72]

According to Marx and other socialist thinkers, the most advanced bureaucracies were those in France and Germany. However, they argued that bureaucracy was a symptom of the bourgeois state and would vanish along with capitalism, which gave rise to the bourgeois state. Though clearly not the democracies Marx had in mind, socialist societies ended up being more bureaucratic than the governments they replaced. Similarly, after capitalist economies developed the administrative systems required to support their extensive welfare states, the idea that bureaucracy exclusively exists in socialist governments could scarcely be maintained.[72]

See also

References

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Further reading

 
Wikiquote has quotations related to Bureaucracy.
 
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Bureaucracy.
  • Albrow, Martin. Bureaucracy. (London: Macmillan, 1970).
  • Cheng, Tun-Jen, Stephan Haggard, and David Kang. "Institutions and growth in Korea and Taiwan: the bureaucracy." in East Asian Development: New Perspectives (Routledge, 2020) pp. 87-111. online
  • Cornell, Agnes, Carl Henrik Knutsen, and Jan Teorell. "Bureaucracy and Growth." Comparative Political Studies 53.14 (2020): 2246-2282. online
  • Crooks, Peter, and Timothy H. Parsons, eds. Empires and bureaucracy in world history: from late antiquity to the twentieth century (Cambridge University Press, 2016) online.
  • Kingston, Ralph. Bureaucrats and Bourgeois Society: Office Politics and Individual Credit, 1789–1848. Palgrave Macmillan, 2011.
  • Neil Garston (ed.), Bureaucracy: Three Paradigms. Boston: Kluwer, 1993.
  • On Karl Marx: Hal Draper, Karl Marx's Theory of Revolution, Volume 1: State and Bureaucracy. New York: Monthly Review Press, 1979.
  • Marx comments on the state bureaucracy in his Critique of Hegel's Philosophy of Right and Engels discusses the origins of the state in Origins of the Family, marxists.org
  • Ludwig von Mises, Bureaucracy, Yale University Press, 1962. Liberty Fund (2007), ISBN 978-0-86597-663-4
  • Schwarz, Bill. (1996). The expansion of England: race, ethnicity and cultural history. Psychology Pres; ISBN 0-415-06025-7.
  • Watson, Tony J. (1980). Sociology, Work and Industry. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-32165-5. On Weber
  • Weber, Max. The Theory of Social and Economic Organization. Translated by A.M. Henderson and Talcott Parsons. London: Collier Macmillan Publishers, 1947.
  • Wilson, James Q. (1989). Bureaucracy. Basic Books. ISBN 978-0-465-00785-1.
  • Weber, Max, "Bureaucracy" in Weber, Max. Weber's Rationalism and Modern Society: New translations on Politics, Bureaucracy, and Social Stratification. Edited and Translated by Tony Waters and Dagmar Waters, 2015. ISBN 1137373539. English translation of "Bureaucracy" by Max Weber.

February 11, 2023
bureaucracy, other, uses, disambiguation, term, bureaucracy, ʊəˈr, refers, body, elected, governing, officials, well, administrative, policy, making, group, historically, bureaucracy, government, administration, managed, departments, staffed, with, elected, of. For other uses see Bureaucracy disambiguation The term bureaucracy b j ʊeˈr ɒ k r e s i refers to a body of non elected governing officials as well as to an administrative policy making group 1 Historically a bureaucracy was a government administration managed by departments staffed with non elected officials 2 Today bureaucracy is the administrative system governing any large institution whether publicly owned or privately owned 3 4 The public administration in many jurisdictions and sub jurisdictions exemplifies bureaucracy but so does any centralized hierarchical structure of an institution e g hospitals academic entities business firms professional societies social clubs etc There are two key dilemmas in bureaucracy The first dilemma revolves around whether bureaucrats should be autonomous or directly accountable to their political masters 5 The second dilemma revolves around bureaucrats behavior strictly following the law or whether they have leeway to determine appropriate solutions for varied circumstances 5 Various commentators have argued for the necessity of bureaucracies in modern society The German sociologist Max Weber 1864 1920 argued that bureaucracy constitutes the most efficient and rational way in which human activity can be organized and that systematic processes and organized hierarchies are necessary to maintain order to maximize efficiency and to eliminate favoritism On the other hand Weber also saw unfettered bureaucracy as a threat to individual freedom with the potential of trapping individuals in an impersonal iron cage of rule based rational control 6 7 Contents 1 Etymology and usage 2 History 2 1 Ancient 2 2 Modern 2 2 1 Ashanti Empire 2 2 2 United Kingdom 2 2 3 France 2 2 4 Other industrialized nations 3 Theories 3 1 Karl Marx 3 2 John Stuart Mill 3 3 Max Weber 3 4 Woodrow Wilson 3 5 Ludwig von Mises 3 6 Robert K Merton 3 7 Elliott Jaques 4 Bureaucracy and democracy 5 See also 6 References 7 Further readingEtymology and usage EditThe term bureaucracy originated in the French language it combines the French word bureau desk or office with the Greek word kratos kratos rule or political power 8 The French economist Jacques Claude Marie Vincent de Gournay 1712 1759 coined the word in the mid 18th century 9 Gournay never wrote the term down but a letter from a contemporary later quoted him The late M de Gournay sometimes used to say We have an illness in France which bids fair to play havoc with us this illness is called bureaumania Sometimes he used to invent a fourth or fifth form of government under the heading of bureaucracy Baron von Grimm 1723 1807 10 The first known English language use dates to 1818 8 with Irish novelist Lady Morgan referring to the apparatus used by the British to subjugate their Irish colony as the Bureaucratie or office tyranny by which Ireland has so long been governed 11 By the mid 19th century the word appeared in a more neutral sense referring to a system of public administration in which offices were held by unelected career officials In this context bureaucracy was seen as a distinct form of management often subservient to a monarchy 12 In the 1920s the German sociologist Max Weber expanded the definition to include any system of administration conducted by trained professionals according to fixed rules 12 Weber saw bureaucracy as a relatively positive development however by 1944 the Austrian economist Ludwig von Mises opined in the context of his experience in the Nazi regime that the term bureaucracy was always applied with an opprobrious connotation 13 and by 1957 the American sociologist Robert Merton suggested that the term bureaucrat had become an epithet a Schimpfwort in some circumstances 14 The word bureaucracy is also used in politics and government with a disapproving tone to disparage official rules that make it difficult to do things by whom In workplaces the word is used by whom very often to blame complicated rules processes and written work that make it hard to get something done 15 Socio bureaucracy would then refer to certain social influences that may affect the function of a society 16 In modern usage modern bureaucracy has been defined as comprising four features 17 hierarchy clearly defined spheres of competence and divisions of labor continuity a structure where administrators have a full time salary and advance within the structure impersonality prescribed rules and operating rules rather than arbitrary actions expertise officials are chosen according to merit have been trained and hold access to knowledge Bureaucracy in a political theory is mainly a centralized form of management and tends to be differentiated from adhocracy in which management tends more to decentralization History EditAncient Edit Students competed in imperial examinations to receive a position in the bureaucracy of Imperial China Although the term bureaucracy first originated in the mid 18th century organized and consistent administrative systems existed much earlier The development of writing c 3500 BC and the use of documents was critical to the administration of this system and the first definitive emergence of bureaucracy occurred in ancient Sumer where an emergent class of scribes used clay tablets to administer the harvest and to allocate its spoils 18 Ancient Egypt also had a hereditary class of scribes that administered the civil service bureaucracy 19 In China when the Qin dynasty 221 206 BC unified China under the Legalist system the emperor assigned administration to dedicated officials rather than nobility ending feudalism in China replacing it with a centralized bureaucratic government The form of government created by the first emperor and his advisors was used by later dynasties to structure their own government 20 21 Under this system the government thrived as talented individuals could be more easily identified in the transformed society The Han dynasty 202 BC 220 AD established a complicated bureaucracy based on the teachings of Confucius who emphasized the importance of ritual in a family in relationships and in politics 22 With each subsequent dynasty the bureaucracy evolved In 165 BC Emperor Wen introduced the first method of recruitment to civil service through examinations while Emperor Wu r 141 87 BC cemented the ideology of Confucius into mainstream governance installed a system of recommendation and nomination in government service known as xiaolian and a national academy 23 24 25 whereby officials would select candidates to take part in an examination of the Confucian classics from which Emperor Wu would select officials 26 In the Sui dynasty 581 618 and the subsequent Tang dynasty 618 907 the shi class would begin to present itself by means of the fully standardized civil service examination system of partial recruitment of those who passed standard exams and earned an official degree Yet recruitment by recommendations to office was still prominent in both dynasties It was not until the Song dynasty 960 1279 that the recruitment of those who passed the exams and earned degrees was given greater emphasis and significantly expanded 27 During the Song dynasty 960 1279 the bureaucracy became meritocratic Following the Song reforms competitive examinations took place to determine which candidates qualified to hold given positions 28 The imperial examination system lasted until 1905 six years before the Qing dynasty collapsed marking the end of China s traditional bureaucratic system 29 A hierarchy of regional proconsuls and their deputies administered the Roman Empire citation needed The reforms of Diocletian Emperor from 284 to 305 doubled the number of administrative districts and led to a large scale expansion of Roman bureaucracy 30 The early Christian author Lactantius c 250 c 325 claimed that Diocletian s reforms led to widespread economic stagnation since the provinces were divided into minute portions and many presidents and a multitude of inferior officers lay heavy on each territory 31 After the Empire split the Byzantine Empire developed a notoriously complicated administrative hierarchy and in the 20th century the term Byzantine came to refer to any complex bureaucratic structure 32 33 Modern Edit Ashanti Empire Edit The government of the Ashanti Empire is built upon a sophisticated bureaucracy in Kumasi with separate ministries which saw to the handling of state affairs Ashanti s Foreign Office was based in Kumasi Despite the small size of the office it allowed the state to pursue complex negotiations with foreign powers The Office was divided into departments that handled Ashanti relations separately with the British French Dutch and Arabs Scholars of Ashanti history such as Larry Yarak and Ivor Wilkes disagree over the power of this sophisticated bureaucracy in comparison to the Asantehene However both scholars agree that it was a sign of a highly developed government with a complex system of checks and balances 34 United Kingdom Edit The 18th century Department of Excise developed a sophisticated bureaucracy Pictured the Custom House in the City of London Instead of the inefficient and often corrupt system of tax farming that prevailed in absolutist states such as France the Exchequer was able to exert control over the entire system of tax revenue and government expenditure 35 By the late 18th century the ratio of fiscal bureaucracy to population in Britain was approximately 1 in 1300 almost four times larger than the second most heavily bureaucratized nation France 36 Thomas Taylor Meadows Britain s consul in Guangzhou argued in his Desultory Notes on the Government and People of China 1847 that the long duration of the Chinese empire is solely and altogether owing to the good government which consists in the advancement of men of talent and merit only and that the British must reform their civil service by making the institution meritocratic 37 Influenced by the ancient Chinese imperial examination the Northcote Trevelyan Report of 1854 recommended that recruitment should be on the basis of merit determined through competitive examination candidates should have a solid general education to enable inter departmental transfers and promotion should be through achievement rather than preferment patronage or purchase 38 37 This led to implementation of Her Majesty s Civil Service as a systematic meritocratic civil service bureaucracy 39 In the British civil service just as it was in China entrance to the civil service was usually based on a general education in ancient classics which similarly gave bureaucrats greater prestige The Cambridge Oxford ideal of the civil service was identical to the Confucian ideal of a general education in world affairs through humanism 40 Well into the 20th century Classics Literature History and Language remained heavily favoured in British civil service examinations 41 In the period of 1925 1935 67 percent of British civil service entrants consisted of such graduates 42 Like the Chinese model s consideration of personal values the British model also took personal physique and character into account 43 France Edit Like the British the development of French bureaucracy was influenced by the Chinese system 44 Under Louis XIV of France the old nobility had neither power nor political influence their only privilege being exemption from taxes The dissatisfied noblemen complained about this unnatural state of affairs and discovered similarities between absolute monarchy and bureaucratic despotism 45 With the translation of Confucian texts during the Enlightenment the concept of a meritocracy reached intellectuals in the West who saw it as an alternative to the traditional ancien regime of Europe 46 Western perception of China even in the 18th century admired the Chinese bureaucratic system as favourable over European governments for its seeming meritocracy Voltaire claimed that the Chinese had perfected moral science and Francois Quesnay advocated an economic and political system modeled after that of the Chinese 47 The governments of China Egypt Peru and Empress Catherine II were regarded as models of Enlightened Despotism admired by such figures as Diderot D Alembert and Voltaire 45 Napoleonic France adopted this meritocracy system 46 and soon saw a rapid and dramatic expansion of government accompanied by the rise of the French civil service and its complex systems of bureaucracy This phenomenon became known as bureaumania In the early 19th century Napoleon attempted to reform the bureaucracies of France and other territories under his control by the imposition of the standardized Napoleonic Code But paradoxically that led to even further growth of the bureaucracy 48 French civil service examinations adopted in the late 19th century were also heavily based on general cultural studies These features have been likened to the earlier Chinese model 43 Other industrialized nations Edit By the mid 19th century bureaucratic forms of administration were firmly in place across the industrialized world Thinkers like John Stuart Mill and Karl Marx began to theorize about the economic functions and power structures of bureaucracy in contemporary life Max Weber was the first to endorse bureaucracy as a necessary feature of modernity and by the late 19th century bureaucratic forms had begun their spread from government to other large scale institutions 12 Within capitalist systems informal bureaucratic structures began to appear in the form of corporate power hierarchies as detailed in mid century works like The Organization Man and The Man in the Gray Flannel Suit Meanwhile in the Soviet Union and Eastern Bloc nations a powerful class of bureaucratic administrators termed nomenklatura governed nearly all aspects of public life 49 The 1980s brought a backlash against perceptions of big government and the associated bureaucracy Politicians like Margaret Thatcher and Ronald Reagan gained power by promising to eliminate government regulatory bureaucracies which they saw as overbearing and return economic production to a more purely capitalistic mode which they saw as more efficient 50 51 In the business world managers like Jack Welch gained fortune and renown by eliminating bureaucratic structures inside corporations 52 Still in the modern world most organized institutions rely on bureaucratic systems to manage information process records and administer complex systems although the decline of paperwork and the widespread use of electronic databases is transforming the way bureaucracies function 53 Theories EditKarl Marx Edit Karl Marx theorized about the role and function of bureaucracy in his Critique of Hegel s Philosophy of Right published in 1843 In Philosophy of Right Hegel had supported the role of specialized officials in public administration although he never used the term bureaucracy himself By contrast Marx was opposed to bureaucracy Marx posited that while corporate and government bureaucracy seem to operate in opposition in actuality they mutually rely on one another to exist He wrote that The Corporation is civil society s attempt to become state but the bureaucracy is the state which has really made itself into civil society 54 John Stuart Mill Edit Writing in the early 1860s political scientist John Stuart Mill theorized that successful monarchies were essentially bureaucracies and found evidence of their existence in Imperial China the Russian Empire and the regimes of Europe Mill referred to bureaucracy as a distinct form of government separate from representative democracy He believed bureaucracies had certain advantages most importantly the accumulation of experience in those who actually conduct the affairs Nevertheless he believed this form of governance compared poorly to representative government as it relied on appointment rather than direct election Mill wrote that ultimately the bureaucracy stifles the mind and that a bureaucracy always tends to become a pedantocracy 55 Max Weber Edit The fully developed bureaucratic apparatus compares with other organisations exactly as does the machine with the non mechanical modes of production Max Weber 56 The German sociologist Max Weber was the first to formally study bureaucracy and his works led to the popularization of this term 57 In his essay Bureaucracy 1 58 published in his magnum opus Economy and Society Weber described many ideal typical forms of public administration government and business His ideal typical bureaucracy whether public or private is characterized by hierarchical organization formal lines of authority chain of command a fixed area of activity rigid division of labor regular and continuous execution of assigned tasks all decisions and powers specified and restricted by regulations officials with expert training in their fields career advancement dependent on technical qualifications qualifications evaluated by organizational rules not individuals 6 59 60 Weber listed several preconditions for the emergence of bureaucracy including an increase in the amount of space and population being administered an increase in the complexity of the administrative tasks being carried out and the existence of a monetary economy requiring a more efficient administrative system 59 Development of communication and transportation technologies make more efficient administration possible and democratization and rationalization of culture results in demands for equal treatment 59 Although he was not necessarily an admirer of bureaucracy Weber saw bureaucratization as the most efficient and rational way of organizing human activity and therefore as the key to rational legal authority indispensable to the modern world 61 Furthermore he saw it as the key process in the ongoing rationalization of Western society 6 62 Weber also saw bureaucracy however as a threat to individual freedoms and the ongoing bureaucratization as leading to a polar night of icy darkness in which increasing rationalization of human life traps individuals in a soulless iron cage of bureaucratic rule based rational control 6 7 Weber s critical study of the bureaucratization of society became one of the most enduring parts of his work 6 62 Many aspects of modern public administration are based on his work and a classic hierarchically organized civil service of the Continental type is called Weberian civil service or Weberian bureaucracy 63 It is debated among social scientists whether Weberian bureaucracy contributes to economic growth 64 Woodrow Wilson Edit Main article Bureaucracy in United StatesWriting as an academic while a professor at Bryn Mawr College Woodrow Wilson s essay The Study of Administration 65 argued for bureaucracy as a professional cadre devoid of allegiance to fleeting politics Wilson advocated a bureaucracy that is a part of political life only as the methods of the counting house are a part of the life of society only as machinery is part of the manufactured product But it is at the same time raised very far above the dull level of mere technical detail by the fact that through its greater principles it is directly connected with the lasting maxims of political wisdom the permanent truths of political progress Wilson did not advocate a replacement of rule by the governed he simply advised that Administrative questions are not political questions Although politics sets the tasks for administration it should not be suffered to manipulate its offices This essay became a foundation for the study of public administration in America 66 Ludwig von Mises Edit This section needs additional citations for verification Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources Unsourced material may be challenged and removed Find sources Bureaucracy news newspapers books scholar JSTOR January 2019 Learn how and when to remove this template message In his 1944 work Bureaucracy the Austrian economist Ludwig von Mises compared bureaucratic management to profit management Profit management he argued is the most effective method of organization when the services rendered may be checked by economic calculation of profit and loss When however the service in question can not be subjected to economic calculation bureaucratic management is necessary He did not oppose universally bureaucratic management on the contrary he argued that bureaucracy is an indispensable method for social organization for it is the only method by which the law can be made supreme and is the protector of the individual against despotic arbitrariness Using the example of the Catholic Church he pointed out that bureaucracy is only appropriate for an organization whose code of conduct is not subject to change He then went on to argue that complaints about bureaucratization usually refer not to the criticism of the bureaucratic methods themselves but to the intrusion of bureaucracy into all spheres of human life Mises saw bureaucratic processes at work in both the private and public spheres however he believed that bureaucratization in the private sphere could only occur as a consequence of government interference According to him What must be realized is only that the strait jacket of bureaucratic organization paralyzes the individual s initiative while within the capitalist market society an innovator still has a chance to succeed The former makes for stagnation and preservation of inveterate methods the latter makes for progress and improvement 13 Robert K Merton Edit American sociologist Robert K Merton expanded on Weber s theories of bureaucracy in his work Social Theory and Social Structure published in 1957 While Merton agreed with certain aspects of Weber s analysis he also noted the dysfunctional aspects of bureaucracy which he attributed to a trained incapacity resulting from over conformity He believed that bureaucrats are more likely to defend their own entrenched interests than to act to benefit the organization as a whole but that pride in their craft makes them resistant to changes in established routines Merton stated that bureaucrats emphasize formality over interpersonal relationships and have been trained to ignore the special circumstances of particular cases causing them to come across as arrogant and haughty 14 Elliott Jaques Edit In his book A General Theory of Bureaucracy first published in 1976 Dr Elliott Jaques describes the discovery of a universal and uniform underlying structure of managerial or work levels in the bureaucratic hierarchy for any type of employment systems 67 Elliott Jaques argues and presents evidence that for the bureaucracy to provide a valuable contribution to the open society some of the following conditions must be met Number of levels in a bureaucracy hierarchy must match the complexity level of the employment system for which the bureaucratic hierarchy is created Elliott Jaques identified maximum 8 levels of complexity for bureaucratic hierarchies Roles within a bureaucratic hierarchy differ in the level of work complexity The level of work complexity in the roles must be matched with the level of human capability of the role holders Elliott Jaques identified maximum 8 Levels of human capability The level of work complexity in any managerial role within a bureaucratic hierarchy must be one level higher than the level of work complexity of the subordinate roles Any managerial role in a bureaucratic hierarchy must have full managerial accountabilities and authorities veto selection to the team decide task types and specific task assignments decide personal effectiveness and recognition decide initiation of removal from the team within due process Lateral working accountabilities and authorities must be defined for all the roles in the hierarchy 7 types of lateral working accountabilities and authorities collateral advisory service getting and giving coordinative monitoring auditing prescribing 68 69 70 The definition of effective bureaucratic hierarchy by Elliott Jaques is of importance not only to sociology but to social psychology social anthropology economics politics and social philosophy They also have a practical application in business and administrative studies Bureaucracy and democracy EditLike every modern state a liberal democracy is highly bureaucratized with numerous sizable organizations filled with career civil servants Some of those bureaucracies have a substantial amount of influence to preserve the current political system because they are primarily focused on defending the country and the state from threats from both within and beyond Since these institutions frequently operate independently and are mostly shielded from politics they frequently have no affiliation with any particular political party or group For instance loyal British civil officials work for both the Conservative and Labour parties However on occasion a group might seize control of a bureaucratic state as the Nazis did in Germany in the 1930s 71 Although numerous ideals associated with democracy such as equality participation and individuality are in stark contrast to those associated with modern bureaucracy specifically hierarchy specialization and impersonality political theorists did not recognize bureaucracy as a threat to democracy Yet democratic theorists still have not developed a sufficient solution to the problem bureaucratic authority poses to democratic government 72 One answer to this problem is to say that bureaucracy has no place at all in a real democracy Theorists who adopt this perspective typically understand that they must demonstrate that bureaucracy does not necessarily occur in every contemporary society only in those they perceive to be non democratic Because their democracy was resistant to bureaucracy nineteenth century British writers frequently referred to it as the Continental nuisance 72 According to Marx and other socialist thinkers the most advanced bureaucracies were those in France and Germany However they argued that bureaucracy was a symptom of the bourgeois state and would vanish along with capitalism which gave rise to the bourgeois state Though clearly not the democracies Marx had in mind socialist societies ended up being more bureaucratic than the governments they replaced Similarly after capitalist economies developed the administrative systems required to support their extensive welfare states the idea that bureaucracy exclusively exists in socialist governments could scarcely be maintained 72 See also EditAdhocracy Anarchy Authority Civil servant Hierarchical organization Michel Crozier Power social and political Public administration Red tape Requisite Organization State polity TechnocracyReferences Edit Compare Bureaucracy Definition and More from the Free Merriam Webster Dictionary Merriam webster com Retrieved 26 May 2013 Definition of bureaucracy 1a a body of nonelected government officials b an administrative policy making group definition of bureaucracy Thefreedictionary com Retrieved 26 May 2013 Bureaucracy Definition Investopedia 4 September 2009 Retrieved 26 May 2013 Weber Max Bureaucracy in Weber s Rationalism and Modern Society translated and edited by Tony Waters and Dagmar Waters Palgrave Macmillan 2015 p 114 a b Dahlstrom Carl Lapuente Victor 2022 Comparative Bureaucratic Politics Annual Review of Political Science 25 1 43 63 doi 10 1146 annurev polisci 051120 102543 ISSN 1094 2939 S2CID 246605188 a b c d e Richard Swedberg Ola Agevall 2005 The Max Weber dictionary key words and central concepts Stanford University Press pp 18 21 ISBN 978 0 8047 5095 0 Retrieved 23 March 2011 a b George Ritzer Enchanting a Disenchanted World Revolutionizing the Means of Consumption Pine Forge Press 2004 ISBN 0 7619 8819 X Google Print p 55 a b Bureaucracy Merriam Webster Dictionary definition Retrieved 26 May 2013 Riggs Fred W 1979 Introduction Evolution semantique du terme bureaucratie Introduction semantic evolution of the bureaucracy term PDF Revue Internationale des Sciences Sociales in French Paris XXX I 4 J C N Raadschelders 1998 Handbook of Administrative History Transaction Publishers p 142 ISBN 9780765807267 Lady Morgan Sydney 1818 Florence Macarthy Henry Colburn p 35 Retrieved 18 November 2014 a b c Beetham David 1996 Bureaucracy ISBN 978 0816629398 Retrieved 26 May 2013 a b Ludwig von Mises 1944 Bureaucracy Retrieved 12 October 2012 a b Robert K Merton 1957 Social Theory and Social Structure Glencoe IL Free Press pp 195 206 Archived from the original on 27 December 2012 Retrieved 12 October 2012 Meaning of bureaucracy in English Cambridge org Wirl Franz July 1998 Socio economic typologies of bureaucratic corruption and implications Journal of Evolutionary Economics Springer Verlag 8 2 199 220 doi 10 1007 s001910050062 S2CID 154833892 BARNETT Michael FINNEMORE Marftha 2004 Rules for the World International Organizations in Global Politics Cornell University Press pp 17 18 ISBN 978 0 8014 4090 8 JSTOR 10 7591 j ctt7z7mx Compare Laurie E Pearce 1995 The Scribes and Scholars of Ancient Mesopotamia In Jack M Sasson ed Civilizations of the Ancient Near East Macmillan Library Reference pp 2265 2278 Retrieved 12 March 2014 Palace scribes recorded the activities of kings and the affairs of kingdoms in ancient Mesopotamia Scribes served a variety of administrative functions including arrangement and storage of texts collection of taxes and supervision of workers and supervision of public buildings such as granaries Scribes associated with the temple were not officiants in the temple cult They functioned largely in administrative and bureaucratic roles They received incoming staples for the temple including commodities such as grain fish wool and silver They traveled to various cities to fulfill official duties such as the purchase of grain for the temple complex Ronald J Williams 1972 Scribal Training in Ancient Egypt Journal of the American Oriental Society 92 2 214 221 doi 10 2307 600648 JSTOR 600648 China s First Empire History Today www historytoday com Archived from the original on 17 April 2017 Retrieved 17 April 2017 World and Its Peoples Eastern and Southern Asia p 36 Riegel Jeffrey 3 July 2002 Confucius In Edward N Zalta ed The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy Spring 2012 ed Michael Loewe 1994 p Divination Mythology and Monarchy in Han China https books google com books id m2tmgvB8zisC Creel H G 1949 Confucius The Man and the Myth New York John Day Company pp 239 241 Creel H G 1960 pp 239 241 Confucius and the Chinese Way Creel H G 1970 What Is Taoism 86 87 Xinzhong Yao 2003 p 231 The Encyclopedia of Confucianism 2 volume Set https books google com books id P c4CQAAQBAJ amp pg PA231 Griet Vankeerberghen 2001 pp 20 173 The Huainanzi and Liu An s Claim to Moral Authority https books google com books id zt vBqHQzpQC amp pg PA20 Michael Loewe pp 145 148 2011 Dong Zhongshu a Confucian Heritage and the Chunqiu Fanlu https books google com books id ZQjJxvkY 34C amp pg PA145 Edward A Kracke Jr Civil Service in Early Sung China 960 1067 p 253 Ebrey Patricia Buckley Anne Walthall James Palais 2006 East Asia A Cultural Social and Political History Boston Houghton Mifflin Company ISBN 0 618 13384 4 145 146 McKnight Brian E 15 February 1983 Village and Bureaucracy in Southern Sung China University of Chicago Press p 1 ISBN 978 0 226 56060 1 Retrieved 7 February 2013 the government of imperial China still seems in many ways curiously modern and familiar Bureaucratically organized and dominated by a graded civil service led by men selected through competitive examinations it was both a model for a precursor of the complex administrations of our modern world Wolfgang Franke 1960 The Reform and Abolition of the Traditional Chinese Examination System Harvard Univ Asia Center pp 69 71 ISBN 978 0 674 75250 4 As taken from the Laterculus Veronensis or Verona List reproduced in Barnes New Empire chs 12 13 with corrections in T D Barnes Emperors panegyrics prefects provinces and palaces 284 317 Journal of Roman Archaeology 9 1996 pp 539 42 See also Barnes Constantine and Eusebius 9 Cascio The New State of Diocletian and Constantine CAH 179 Rees Diocletian and the Tetrarchy pp 24 27 Lactantius Chapter 7 On the Manner in which the Persecutors Died Byzantine Definition and More from the Free Merriam Webster Dictionary Merriam webster com 31 August 2012 Retrieved 26 May 2013 Harper Douglas Byzantine Online Etymology Dictionary pertaining to Byzantium q v original name of Constantinople modern Istanbul 1770 from Late Latin Byzantinus originally used of the style of art and architecture developed there 4c 5c C E later in reference to the complex devious and intriguing character of the royal court of Constantinople 1937 Chioma Unini 15 March 2020 Historical Reminisciences Great Empires Of Yore Part 15 By Mike Ozekhome SAN TheNigeriaLawyer Retrieved 30 May 2020 3 Public finance in China and Britain in the long eighteenth century PDF Retrieved 17 December 2012 Linda Weiss John Hobson 1995 States and Economic Development A Comparative Historical Analysis Wiley ISBN 978 0745614571 Retrieved 7 February 2013 a b Bodde Derke China A Teaching Workbook Columbia University Full text of the Northcote Trevelyan Report Archived 22 December 2014 at the Wayback Machine Walker David 9 July 2003 Fair game The Guardian London UK Retrieved 9 July 2003 Joseph Richmond Levenson 1964 Confucian China and Its Modern Fate Volume 1 revised ed University of California Press pp 17 18 Fry Geoffrey Kingdon 1969 Statesmen in Disguise The Changing Role of the Administrative Class of the British Home Civil Service 1853 1965 Palgrave Macmillan UK pp 95 96 ISBN 978 1 349 00034 0 Finer Herman 1937 The British Civil Service The Fabian Society George Allen amp Unwin p 92 a b Rung Margaret C 2002 Servants of the State Managing Diversity amp Democracy in the Federal Workforce 1933 1953 University of Georgia Press pp 8 200 201 ISBN 0820323624 Mark W Huddleston William W Boyer 1996 The Higher Civil Service in the United States Quest for Reform University of Pittsburgh Pre p 15 ISBN 0822974738 a b Henry Jacoby 1 January 1973 The Bureaucratization of the World University of California Press p 40 43 ISBN 978 0 520 02083 2 Retrieved 16 September 2013 a b Schwarz 1996 p 229 Schwarz 1996 p 232 Raadschelders Jos C N 2000 Handbook of Administrative History Paper J C N Raadschelders ISBN 978 0765807267 Retrieved 26 May 2013 Michael Voslensky 1984 Nomenklatura The Soviet Ruling Class 1st ed Doubleday ISBN 978 0 385 17657 6 Viewpoints How did Margaret Thatcher change Britain BBC News 13 April 2013 Ronald Reagan 27 October 1964 A Time For Choosing Speech Ronald Reagan Presidential Library Archived from the original on 14 January 2016 Retrieved 13 March 2014 Jack Welch s Encore Businessweek com 14 June 1997 Archived from the original on 1 January 2010 Retrieved 12 July 2010 Stewart R Clegg Martin Harris Harro Hopfl eds 2011 Managing Modernity Beyond Bureaucracy Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0199563654 Karl Marx 1970 3A Marx s Critique of Hegel s Philosophy of Right 1843 Cambridge University Press Retrieved 12 October 2012 John Stuart Mill 1861 VI Of the Infirmities and Dangers to which Representative Government is Liable Considerations on Representative Government Retrieved 12 October 2012 Bureaucracy from Weber s Rationalism and Modern Society New Translations on Politics Bureaucracy and Social Stratification Chapter 6 Edited and Translated by Tony Waters and Dagmar Waters Palgrave MacMillan 2015 pp 73 128 ISBN 978 1137365866 Marshall Sashkin Molly G Sashkin 28 January 2003 Leadership that matters the critical factors for making a difference in people s lives and organizations success Berrett Koehler Publishers p 52 ISBN 978 1 57675 193 0 Retrieved 22 March 2011 Weber 2015 pp 73 127 in Weber s Rationalism and Modern Society edited and translated by Tony Waters and Dagmar Waters New York Palgrave MacMillan a b c Kenneth Allan Kenneth D Allan 2 November 2005 Explorations in Classical Sociological Theory Seeing the Social World Pine Forge Press pp 172 76 ISBN 978 1 4129 0572 5 Weber 2015 p 76 in Weber s Rationalism and Modern Society New Translations on Politics Bureaucracy and Social Stratification edited and translated by Tony Waters and Dagmar Waters New York Palgrave Macmillan Max Weber 2015 extract books google ca accessed 30 August 2015 a b George Ritzer 29 September 2009 Contemporary Sociological Theory and Its Classical Roots The Basics McGraw Hill pp 38 42 ISBN 978 0 07 340438 7 Retrieved 22 March 2011 Liesbet Hooghe 2001 The European Commission and the integration of Europe images of governance Cambridge University Press pp 40 ISBN 978 0 521 00143 4 Retrieved 24 March 2011 Cornell Agnes Knutsen Carl Henrik Teorell Jan 2020 Bureaucracy and Growth Comparative Political Studies 53 14 2246 2282 doi 10 1177 0010414020912262 ISSN 0010 4140 Woodrow Wilson The Study of Administration Political Science Quarterly July 1887 Christopher Hood 30 March 2000 The Art of the State Culture Rhetoric and Public Management Oxford University Press p 76 ISBN 978 0 19 829765 9 Retrieved 29 January 2019 Constructing the infrastructure for the knowledge economy methods and tools theory and structure Linger Henry New York Kluwer Academic Plenum Publishers 2004 p 104 ISBN 978 0306485541 OCLC 55877281 a href Template Cite book html title Template Cite book cite book a CS1 maint others link Elliott Jaques 1976 A general theory of bureaucracy London Heinemann ISBN 978 0435824785 OCLC 2089721 Psychoanalysis Psychotherapy www psychoanalysis and therapy com Retrieved 1 March 2018 In Praise of Hierarchy Harvard Business Review 1 January 1990 Retrieved 1 March 2018 John Mearsheimer 25 September 2018 The Great Delusion Liberal Dreams and International Realities Yale University Press ISBN 978 0300234190 a b c Bureaucracy and Democracy Restoring Responsibility Ethics in Government Business and Healthcare by Dennis F Thompson Cambridge University Press Cambridge 2004 pp 50 70 Further reading Edit Wikiquote has quotations related to Bureaucracy Wikimedia Commons has media related to Bureaucracy Albrow Martin Bureaucracy London Macmillan 1970 Cheng Tun Jen Stephan Haggard and David Kang Institutions and growth in Korea and Taiwan the bureaucracy in East Asian Development New Perspectives Routledge 2020 pp 87 111 online Cornell Agnes Carl Henrik Knutsen and Jan Teorell Bureaucracy and Growth Comparative Political Studies 53 14 2020 2246 2282 online Crooks Peter and Timothy H Parsons eds Empires and bureaucracy in world history from late antiquity to the twentieth century Cambridge University Press 2016 online Kingston Ralph Bureaucrats and Bourgeois Society Office Politics and Individual Credit 1789 1848 Palgrave Macmillan 2011 Neil Garston ed Bureaucracy Three Paradigms Boston Kluwer 1993 On Karl Marx Hal Draper Karl Marx s Theory of Revolution Volume 1 State and Bureaucracy New York Monthly Review Press 1979 Marx comments on the state bureaucracy in his Critique of Hegel s Philosophy of Right and Engels discusses the origins of the state in Origins of the Family marxists org Ludwig von Mises Bureaucracy Yale University Press 1962 Liberty Fund 2007 ISBN 978 0 86597 663 4 Schwarz Bill 1996 The expansion of England race ethnicity and cultural history Psychology Pres ISBN 0 415 06025 7 Watson Tony J 1980 Sociology Work and Industry Routledge ISBN 978 0 415 32165 5 On WeberWeber Max The Theory of Social and Economic Organization Translated by A M Henderson and Talcott Parsons London Collier Macmillan Publishers 1947 Wilson James Q 1989 Bureaucracy Basic Books ISBN 978 0 465 00785 1 Weber Max Bureaucracy in Weber Max Weber s Rationalism and Modern Society New translations on Politics Bureaucracy and Social Stratification Edited and Translated by Tony Waters and Dagmar Waters 2015 ISBN 1137373539 English translation of Bureaucracy by Max Weber Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Bureaucracy amp oldid 1136867106, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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