Hmong language
Hmong or Mong (/หmสล/; RPA: Hmoob, Nyiakeng Puachue: ๐๐ฉ๐ฐโ, Pahawh: ๐ฌ๐ฌฃ๐ฌต, [mฬฅษฬฬ]) is a dialect continuum of the West Hmongic branch of the Hmongic languages spoken by the Hmong people of Sichuan, Yunnan, Guizhou, Guangxi, Hainan, northern Vietnam, Thailand, and Laos.[2] There are some 2.7 million speakers of varieties that are largely mutually intelligible, including over 280,000 Hmong Americans as of 2013.[3] Over half of all Hmong speakers speak the various dialects in China, where the Dananshan (ๅคงๅๅฑฑ) dialect forms the basis of the standard language.[4] However, Hmong Daw and Mong Leng are widely known only in Laos and the United States; Dananshan is more widely known in the native region of Hmong.
Hmong | |
---|---|
Mong / Miao | |
lus Hmoob / lug Moob / lol Hmongb / lus Hmรดngz (Vietnam) / ๐ฌ๐ฌฐ๐ฌ ๐ฌ๐ฌฃ๐ฌต / ๐๐ง๐ต๐๐ฉ๐ฐโ | |
Pronunciation | [mฬฅษฬฬ] |
Nativeย to | China, Vietnam, Laos, Myanmar and Thailand |
Ethnicity | Hmong |
Native speakers | 8.0 million[1] |
HmongโMien
| |
Hmong writing: incl. Pahawh Hmong, Nyiakeng Puachue Hmong, multiple Latin standards | |
Official status | |
Recognised minority languageย in | |
Language codes | |
ISO 639-2 | hmn Hmong, Mong (China, Laos) |
ISO 639-3 | hmn โ inclusive code for the Hmong/Mong macrolanguage (China, Laos), including all Core Hmongic languages, except hmf and hmv Individual codes: cqd ย โย Chuanqiandian Cluster Miao (cover term for Hmong in China)hea ย โย Northern Qiandong Miaohma ย โย Southern Mashan Hmonghmc ย โย Central Huishui Hmonghmd ย โย Large Flowery Miaohme ย โย Eastern Huishui Hmonghmf ย โย Hmong Don (Vietnam)hmg ย โย Southwestern Guiyang Hmonghmh ย โย Southwestern Huishui Hmonghmi ย โย Northern Huishui Hmonghmj ย โย Gehml ย โย Luopohe Hmonghmm ย โย Central Mashan Hmonghmp ย โย Northern Mashan Hmonghmq ย โย Eastern Qiandong Miaohms ย โย Southern Qiandong Miaohmv ย โย Hmong Dรด (Vietnam)hmw ย โย Western Mashan Hmonghmy ย โย Southern Guiyang Hmonghmz ย โย Hmong Shua (Sinicized Miao)hnj ย โย Mong Njua/Mong Leng (China, Laos), Blue/Green Hmong (United States)hrm ย โย A-Hmo, Horned Miao (China)huj ย โย Northern Guiyang Hmongmmr ย โย Western Xiangxi Miaomuq ย โย Eastern Xiangxi Miaomww ย โย Hmong Daw (China, Laos), White Hmong (United States)sfm ย โย Small Flowery Miao |
Glottolog | firs1234 |
Linguasphere | 48-AAA-a |
Map of Hmong-Mien languages, West Hmongic language in purple | |
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Varieties
Mong Leng (Moob Leeg) and Hmong Daw (Hmoob Dawb) are part of a dialect cluster known in China as Chuanqiandian Miao (Chinese: ๅท้ปๆป่; lit. 'SichuanโGuizhouโYunnan Miao'), called the "Chuanqiandian cluster" in English (or "Miao cluster" in other languages) since West Hmongic is also called Chuanqiandian Miao. The variety spoken from Sichuan in China to Thailand and Laos is referred to in China as the "First Local Variety" (็ฌฌไธๅ่ฏญ) of the cluster. Mong Leng and Hmong Daw are just those varieties of the cluster that migrated to Laos. The names Mong Leng, Hmong Dleu/Der, and Hmong Daw are also used in China for various dialects of the cluster.
Ethnologue once distinguished only the Laotian varieties (Hmong Daw, Mong Leng), Sinicized Miao (Hmong Shua), and the Vietnamese varieties (Hmong Dรด, Hmong Don). The Vietnamese varieties are very poorly known; population estimates are not even available. In 2007, Horned Miao, Small Flowery Miao, and the Chuanqiandian cluster of China were split off from Mong Leng [blu].[5]
These varieties are as follows, along with some alternative names.
- Hmong/Mong/Chuanqiandian Miao macrolanguage (China, Laos, also spoken by minorities in Thailand and the United States), including:
- Hmong Daw (Hmong Der, Hmoob Dawb, Hmong Dleu, Hmongb Dleub, 'White Hmong'; Chinese: ็ฝ่, Bรกi Miรกo, 'White Miao'),
- Mong Leng (Moob Leeg, Moob Ntsuab, Mongb Nzhuab, 'Blue/Green Hmong'; Chinese: ้่, Qฤซng Miรกo, 'Blue-Green Miao'),
- Hmong Shua (Hmongb Shuat; 'Sinicized Miao'),
- Hmo or A-Hmo (Chinese: ่ง่, Jiวo Miรกo, 'Horned Miao'),
- Small Flowery Miao,
- and the rest of the Chuanqiandian Miao cluster located in China.
- Hmong languages of Vietnam, not considered part of the China/Laos macrolanguage and possibly forming their own distinct macrolanguage โ they are still not very well classified even if they are described by Ethnologue as having vigorous use (in Vietnam) but without population estimates; they have most probably been influenced by Vietnamese, as well as by French (in the former Indochina colonies) and later American English, and they may be confused with varieties spoken by minorities living today in the United States, Europe or elsewhere in Asia (where their varieties may have been assimilated locally, but separately in each area, with other Hmong varieties imported from Laos and China):
- Hmong Dรด (Vietnam),
- Hmong Don (Vietnam, assumed).
The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) stated that the White and Leng dialects "are said to be mutually intelligible to a well-trained ear, with pronunciation and vocabulary differences analogous to the differences between British and American English."[6]
Several Chinese varieties may overlap with or be more distinct than the varieties listed above:
- Dananshan Miao (Hmong Drout Raol, Hmong Hout Lab; called Hmong Dou in Northern Hmong), the basis of the Chinese standard of the Chuanqiandian cluster
- Black Miao (subgroups: Hmong Dlob, Hmong Buak/Hmoob Puas; Chinese: ้ป่, Hฤi Miรกo)[7]
- Southern Hmong (subgroups: Hmongb Shib, Hmongb Lens, Hmongb Dlex Nchab, Hmongb Sad; includes Mong Leng)
- Northern Hmong (subgroups: Hmongb Soud, Hmong Be/Hmongb Bes, Hmongb Ndrous)
- Western Sichuan Miao (Chinese: ๅท่, Chuฤn Miรกo)
In the 2007 request to establish an ISO code for the Chuanqiandian cluster, corresponding to the "first local dialect" (็ฌฌไธๅ่ฏญ) of the Chuanqiandian cluster in Chinese, the proposer made the following statement on mutual intelligibility:
A colleague has talked with speakers of a number of these closely-related lects in the US, in Thailand and in China, and has had many discussions with Chinese linguists and foreign researchers or community development workers who have had extensive contact with speakers of these lects. As a result of these conversations this colleague believes that many of these lects are likely to have high inherent mutual intelligibility within the cluster. Culturally, while each sub-group prides itself on its own distinctives, they also recognize that other sub-groups within this category are culturally similar to themselves and accept the others as members of the same general ethnic group. However, this category of lects is internally varied and geographically scattered and mixed over a broad land area, and comprehensive intelligibility testing would be required to confirm reports of mutual intelligibility throughout the cluster.[8]
Varieties in Laos
According to the CDC, "although there is no official preference for one dialect over the other, White Hmong seems to be favored in many ways":[6] the Romanized Popular Alphabet (RPA) most closely reflects that of White Hmong (Hmong Daw); most educated Hmong speak White Hmong because White Hmong people lack the ability to understand Mong Leng; and most Hmong dictionaries only include the White Hmong dialect. Furthermore, younger generations of Hmong are more likely to speak White Hmong, and speakers of Mong Leng are more likely to understand White Hmong than speakers of White Hmong are.[6]
Varieties in the United States
Most Hmong in the United States speak White Hmong (Hmoob Dawb) and Mong Leng (Moob Leeg), with around 60% speaking White Hmong and 40% Mong Leng. The CDC states that "though some Hmong report difficulty understanding speakers of a dialect not their own, for the most part, Mong Leng seem to do better when understanding both dialects."[6]
Phonology
The three dialects described here are Hmong Daw (also called White Miao or Hmong Der),[9] Mong Leeg (also called Blue/Green Miao or Mong Leng),[10] and Dananshan (Standard Chinese Miao).[11] Hmong Daw and Mong Leeg are the two major dialects spoken by Hmong Americans. Although mutually intelligible, the dialects differ in both lexicon and certain aspects of phonology. For instance, Mong Leeg lacks the voiceless/aspirated /mฬฅ/ of Hmong Daw (as exemplified by their names) and has a third nasalized vowel, /รฃ/; Dananshan has a couple of extra diphthongs in native words, numerous Chinese loans, and an eighth tone.
Vowels
The vowel systems of Hmong Daw and Mong Leeg are as shown in the following charts.[12] (Phonemes particular to Hmong Dawโ and Mong Leegโก are color-coded and indicated by a dagger or double dagger respectively.)
- 1st Row: IPA, Hmong RPA
- 2nd Row: Nyiakeng Puachue
- 3rd Row: Pahawh
Front | Central | Back | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
oral | nasal | oral | nasal | oral | nasal | |
Close | i โจiโฉ ๐ฌ, ๐ฌ | ษจ โจwโฉ ๐ฌ, ๐ฌ | u โจuโฉ ๐ฌ, ๐ฌ | |||
Mid | e โจeโฉ ๐ฌ, ๐ฌ | แบฝ~eล โจeeโฉ ๐ฌ, ๐ฌ | ษ โจoโฉ ๐ฌ, ๐ฌ | ษฬ~ษล โจooโฉ ๐ฌ, ๐ฌ | ||
Open | a โจaโฉ ๐ฌ, ๐ฌ | รฃ~aล โจaaโฉ ๐ฌ, ๐ฌโก |
Closing | Centering | |
---|---|---|
Close component is front | ai โจaiโฉ ๐ค๐ฆ, ๐ฃโ ๐ฌ, ๐ฌ | iษ โจiaโฉ ๐ฆ๐ค, ๐โ ๐ฌ, ๐ฌโ |
Close component is central | aษจ โจawโฉ ๐ค๐ฌ, ๐ขโ ๐ฌ, ๐ฌ | |
Close component is back | au โจauโฉ ๐ค๐จ, ๐ โ ๐ฌ, ๐ฌ | uษ โจuaโฉ ๐ง๐ค, ๐โ ๐ฌ, ๐ฌ |
The Dananshan standard of China is similar. Phonemic differences from Hmong Daw and Mong Leeg are color-coded and marked as absent or added.
Front | Central | Back | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
oral | nasal | oral | nasal | oral | nasal | |
Close | i | (ษจ) (added) | u | |||
Mid | e | en | o | oล | ||
Open | a | aล |
Closing | Centering | |
---|---|---|
Close component is front | aj โจaiโฉ | (absent) |
Close component is back | aw โจauโฉ | wษ โจuaโฉ |
ษw โจouโฉ eฮฒ โจeuโฉ (added) |
Dananshan [ษจ] occurs only after non-palatal affricates, and is written โจiโฉ, much like Mandarin Chinese. /u/ is pronounced [y] after palatal consonants. There is also a triphthong /jeฮฒ/ โจieuโฉ, as well as other i- and u-initial sequences in Chinese borrowings, such as /je, waj, jaw, wen, waล/.
Consonants
Hmong makes a number of phonemic contrasts unfamiliar to English speakers. All non-glottal stops and affricates distinguish aspirated and unaspirated forms, and most also distinguish prenasalization independently of this. The consonant inventory of Hmong is shown in the chart below. (Consonants particular to Hmong Dawโ and Mong Leegโก are color-coded and indicated by a dagger or double dagger respectively.)
- 1st Row: IPA, Hmong RPA
- 2nd Row: Nyiakeng Puachue
- 3rd Row: Pahawh
Labial | Alveolar | Retroflex | Palatal | Velar | Uvular | Glottal | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
plain | lateral* | plain | sibilant | lateral* | plain | sibilant | ||||||
Nasal | voiceless | mฬฅ โจhmโฉ ๐๐โ ๐ฌฃ๐ฌตโ | (mฬฅหก) โจhmlโฉ ๐ ๐โ ๐ฌ ๐ฌฐโ | nฬฅ โจhnโฉ ๐ ๐โ ๐ฌฉโ | ษฒฬฅ โจhnyโฉ ๐๐โ ๐ฌฃ๐ฌฐโ | |||||||
voiced | m โจmโฉ ๐โ ๐ฌฆ | (mหก) โจmlโฉ ๐ โ ๐ฌ | n โจnโฉ ๐ โ ๐ฌฌ | ษฒ โจnyโฉ ๐โ ๐ฌฎ๐ฌต | โจษดโฉ ๐ขโ | |||||||
Plosive/ Affricate | tenuis | p โจpโฉ ๐โ ๐ฌช๐ฌต | (pหก) โจplโฉ ๐กโ ๐ฌ๐ฌต | t โจtโฉ ๐โ ๐ฌง๐ฌต | ts โจtxโฉ ๐โ ๐ฌฏ๐ฌต | (tหก) โจdlโฉ ๐โ ๐ฌญโก | ส โจrโฉ ๐โ ๐ฌก | tส โจtsโฉ ๐โ ๐ฌ๐ฌฐ | c โจcโฉ ๐โ ๐ฌฏ | k โจkโฉ*** ๐โ | q โจqโฉ ๐โ ๐ฌฆ๐ฌต | ส โจauโฉ ๐ โ ๐ฌฎ๐ฌฐ |
aspirated | pสฐ โจphโฉ ๐๐โ ๐ฌ๐ฌต | (pหกสฐ) โจplhโฉ ๐ก๐โ ๐ฌช | tสฐ โจthโฉ ๐๐โ ๐ฌ๐ฌฐ | tsสฐ โจtxhโฉ ๐๐โ ๐ฌฆ๐ฌฐ | (tหกสฐ) โจdlhโฉ ๐๐โ ๐ฌญ๐ฌดโก | สสฐ โจrhโฉ ๐๐โ ๐ฌข๐ฌต | tสสฐ โจtshโฉ ๐๐โ ๐ฌช๐ฌฐ | cสฐ โจchโฉ ๐๐โ ๐ฌง | kสฐ โจkhโฉ ๐๐โ ๐ฌฉ๐ฌฐ | qสฐ โจqhโฉ ๐๐โ ๐ฌฃ | ||
voiced | d โจdโฉ ๐โ ๐ฌ๐ฌฐโ | |||||||||||
murmured | dสฑ โจdhโฉ ๐๐โ ๐ฌ๐ฌตโ | |||||||||||
prenasalized** | แตb โจnpโฉ ๐โ ๐ฌจ๐ฌต | (แตbหก) โจnplโฉ ๐โ ๐ฌซ๐ฌฐ | โฟd โจntโฉ ๐โ ๐ฌฉ๐ฌต | โฟdz โจntxโฉ ๐โ ๐ฌข๐ฌฐ | (โฟdหก) โจndlโฉ ๐โ ๐ฌญ๐ฌฐโก | แถฏษ โจnrโฉ ๐โ ๐ฌ๐ฌฐ | แถฏdส โจntsโฉ ๐โ ๐ฌ | แถฎษ โจncโฉ ๐โ ๐ฌค๐ฌฐ | แตษก โจnkโฉ ๐โ ๐ฌข | แถฐษข โจnqโฉ ๐โ ๐ฌฌ๐ฌฐ | ||
แตpสฐ โจnphโฉ ๐๐โ ๐ฌก๐ฌฐ | (แตpหกสฐ) โจnplhโฉ ๐๐โ ๐ฌก๐ฌต | โฟtสฐ โจnthโฉ ๐๐โ ๐ฌซ | โฟtsสฐ โจntxhโฉ ๐๐โ ๐ฌฅ๐ฌต | (โฟtหกสฐ) โจndlhโฉ ๐๐โ ๐ฌญ๐ฌตโก | แถฏสสฐ โจnrhโฉ ๐๐โ ๐ฌจ๐ฌฐ | แถฏtสสฐ โจntshโฉ ๐๐โ ๐ฌฏ๐ฌฐ | แถฎtสสฐ โจnchโฉ ๐๐โ ๐ฌจ | แตkสฐ โจnkhโฉ ๐๐โ ๐ฌซ๐ฌต | แถฐqสฐ โจnqhโฉ ๐๐โ ๐ฌฌ๐ฌต | |||
Continuant | voiceless | f โจfโฉ ๐โ ๐ฌ๐ฌต | s โจxโฉ ๐โ ๐ฌฎ | lฬฅ โจhlโฉ ๐๐โ ๐ฌฅ | ส โจsโฉ ๐โ ๐ฌค๐ฌต | ษ ~ รง โจxyโฉ ๐โ ๐ฌง๐ฌฐ | h โจhโฉ ๐โ ๐ฌ | |||||
voiced | v โจvโฉ ๐โ ๐ฌ | l โจlโฉ ๐โ ๐ฌ | ส โจzโฉ ๐โ ๐ฌฅ๐ฌฐ | ส ~ ส โจyโฉ ๐โ ๐ฌค | ||||||||
Approximant | voiceless | |||||||||||
voiced | โจษปโฉ ๐ฃโ |
The Dananshan standard of China is similar. (Phonemic differences from Hmong Daw and Mong Leeg are color-coded and marked as absent or added. Minor differences, such as the voicing of prenasalized stops, or whether /c/ is an affricate or /h/ is velar, may be a matter of transcription.) Aspirates, voiceless fricatives, voiceless nasals, and glottal stop only occur with yin tones (1, 3, 5, 7). Standard orthography is added in angled brackets. The glottal stop is not written; it is not distinct from a zero initial. There is also a /w/, which occurs only in foreign words.
Labial | Alveolar | Retroflex | Palatal | Velar | Uvular | Glottal | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
plain | lateral* | plain | sibilant | lateral* | plain | sibilant | ||||||
Nasal | voiceless | mฬฅ โจhmโฉ | (absent) | nฬฅ โจhnโฉ | ษฒฬฅ โจhniโฉ | |||||||
voiced | m โจmโฉ | (absent) | n โจnโฉ | ษฒ โจniโฉ | ล โจnggโฉ (added) | |||||||
Plosive/ Affricate | tenuis | p โจbโฉ | (pหก) โจblโฉ | t โจdโฉ | ts โจzโฉ | (tหก) โจdlโฉ | ส โจdrโฉ | tส โจzhโฉ | tษ โจjโฉ | k โจgโฉ | q โจghโฉ | (ส) |
aspirated | pสฐ โจpโฉ | (pหกสฐ) โจplโฉ | tสฐ โจtโฉ | tsสฐ โจcโฉ | (tหกสฐ) โจtlโฉ | สสฐ โจtrโฉ | tสสฐ โจchโฉ | tษสฐ โจqโฉ | kสฐ โจkโฉ | qสฐ โจkhโฉ | ||
voiced | (absent) | |||||||||||
prenasalized** | แตp โจnbโฉ | (แตpหก) โจnblโฉ | โฟt โจndโฉ | โฟts โจnzโฉ | (absent) | แถฏส โจndrโฉ | แถฏtส โจnzhโฉ | โฟtษ โจnjโฉ | แตk โจngโฉ | แถฐq โจnghโฉ | ||
แตpสฐ โจnpโฉ | (แตpหกสฐ) โจnplโฉ | โฟtสฐ โจntโฉ | โฟtsสฐ โจncโฉ | (absent) | แถฏสสฐ โจntrโฉ | แถฏtสสฐ โจnchโฉ | โฟtษสฐ โจnqโฉ | แตkสฐ โจnkโฉ | แถฐqสฐ โจnkhโฉ | |||
Continuant | voiceless | f โจfโฉ | s โจsโฉ | lฬฅ โจhlโฉ | ส โจshโฉ | ษ โจxโฉ | x โจhโฉ | |||||
voiced | v โจvโฉ | l โจlโฉ | ส โจrโฉ | ส ~ ส โจyโฉ | (w) |
^* The status of the consonants described here as single phonemes with lateral release is controversial. A number of scholars instead analyze them as biphonemic clusters with /l/ as the second element. The difference in analysis (e.g., between /pหก/ and /pl/) is not based on any disagreement in the sound or pronunciation of the consonants in question, but on differing theoretical grounds. Those in favor of a unit-phoneme analysis generally argue for this based on distributional evidence (i.e., if clusters, these would be the only clusters in the language, although see below) and dialect evidence (the laterally released dentals in Mong Leeg, e.g. /tl/, correspond to the voiced dentals of White Hmong), whereas those in favor of a cluster analysis tend to argue on the basis of general phonetic principles (other examples of labial phonemes with lateral release appear extremely rare or nonexistent[13]).
^** Some linguists prefer to analyze the prenasalized consonants as clusters whose first element is /n/. However, this cluster analysis is not as common as the above one involving /l/.
^*** Only used in Hmong RPA and not in Pahawh Hmong, since Hmong RPA uses Latin script and Pahawh Hmong does not. For example, in Hmong RPA, to write keeb, the order Consonant + Vowel + Tone (CVT) must be followed, so it is k + ee + b = keeb, but in Pahawh Hmong, it is just Keeb "๐ฌ๐ฌถ" (2nd-Stage Version).
Syllable structure
Hmong syllables have simple structure: all syllables have an onset consonant (except in a few particles); nuclei may consist of a monophthong or diphthong; and the only coda consonants that occur are nasals. In Hmong Daw and Mong Leeg, nasal codas have become nasalized vowels, though they may be accompanied by weakly articulated [ล]. Similarly, a short [ส] may accompany the low-falling creaky tone.
Dananshan has a syllabic /lฬฉ/ (written โจlโฉ) in Chinese loans, such as lf 'two' and lx 'child'.
Tones
Hmong is a tonal language and makes use of seven (Hmong Daw and Mong Leeg) or eight (Dananshan) distinct tones.
Tone | Hmong Daw example[14] | Hmong/Mong RPA spelling | Vietnamese Hmong spelling | Nyiakeng Puachue | Pahawh Hmong | Hmong Pronunciation |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
High หฅ | /pษฬ/ 'ball' | pob | poz | ๐๐จ๐ฐโ | ๐ฌ๐ฌฐ๐ฌช๐ฌต | |
Mid หง | /pษ/ 'spleen' | po | po | ๐๐จโ | ๐ฌ๐ฌฐ๐ฌช๐ฌต | |
Low หฉ | /pษฬ/ 'thorn' | pos | pos | ๐๐จ๐ดโ | ๐ฌ๐ฌฒ๐ฌช๐ฌต | |
High-falling หฅหง | /pษฬ/ 'female' | poj | pox | ๐๐จ๐ฒโ | ๐ฌ๐ฌฒ๐ฌช๐ฌต | |
Mid-rising หงหฆ | /pษฬ/ 'to throw' | pov | por | ๐๐จ๐ณโ | ๐ฌ๐ฌถ๐ฌช๐ฌต | |
Low checked (creaky) tone หฉ (phrase final: long low rising หจหฉหง) | /pษฬฐฬ/ 'to see' | pom | pov | ๐๐จ๐ฑโ | ๐ฌ๐ฌช๐ฌต | |
Mid-falling breathy tone หงหฉ | /pษฬคฬ/ 'grandmother' | pog | pol | ๐๐จ๐ตโ | ๐ฌ๐ฌช๐ฌต |
The Dananshan tones are transcribed as pure tone. However, given how similar several of them are, it is likely that there are also phonational differences as in Hmong Daw and Mong Leeg. Tones 4 and 6, for example, are said to make tenuis plosives breathy voiced (ๆต้ๆฐ), suggesting they may be breathy/murmured like the Hmong g-tone. Tones 7 and 8 are used in early Chinese loans with entering tone, suggesting they may once have marked checked syllables.
Because voiceless consonants apart from tenuis plosives are restricted to appearing before certain tones (1, 3, 5, 7), those are placed first in the table:
Tone | IPA | Orthography |
---|---|---|
1 high falling | หฆหง 43 | b |
3 top | หฅ 5 | d |
5 high | หฆ 4 | t |
7 mid | หง 3 | k |
2 mid falling | หงหฉ 31 | x |
4 low falling (breathy) | หจหฉฬค 21 | l |
6 low rising (breathy) | หฉหงฬค 13 | s |
8 mid rising | หจหฆ 24 | f |
So much information is conveyed by the tones that it is possible to speak intelligibly using musical tunes only; there is a tradition of young lovers communicating covertly this way by playing on a jaw harp (though this method may only convey vowel sounds).[15]
Orthography
Robert Cooper, an anthropologist, collected a Hmong folktale saying that the Hmong used to have a written language, and important information was written down in a treasured book. The folktale explains that cows and rats ate the book, so, in the words of Anne Fadiman, author of The Spirit Catches You and You Fall Down, "no text was equal to the task of representing a culture as rich as that of the Hmong." Therefore, the folktale states that the Hmong language was exclusively oral from that point onwards.[16]
Natalie Jill Smith, author of "Ethnicity, Reciprocity, Reputation and Punishment: An Ethnoexperimental Study of Cooperation among the Chaldeans and Hmong of Detroit (Michigan)", wrote that the Qing Dynasty had caused a previous Hmong writing system to die out when it stated that the death penalty would be imposed on those who wrote it down.[17]
Since the end of the 19th century, linguists created over two dozen Hmong writing systems, including systems using Chinese characters, the Lao alphabet, the Russian alphabet, the Thai alphabet, and the Vietnamese alphabet. In addition, in 1959 Shong Lue Yang, a Hmong spiritual leader from Laos, created an 81 symbol writing system called Pahawh. Yang was not previously literate in any language. Chao Fa, an anti-Laotian government Hmong group, uses this writing system.[16]
In the 1980s, Nyiakeng Puachue Hmong script was created by a Hmong Minister, Reverend Chervang Kong Vang, to be able to capture Hmong vocabulary clearly and also to remedy redundancies in the language as well as address semantic confusions that was lacking in other scripts. Nyiakeng Puachue Hmong script was mainly used by United Christians Liberty Evangelical Church, a church also founded by Vang, although the script have been found to be in use in Laos, Thailand, Vietnam, France, and Australia.[18] The script bears strong resemblance to the Lao alphabet in structure and form and characters inspired from the Hebrew alphabets, although the characters themselves are different.[19]
Other experiments by Hmong and non-Hmong orthographers have been undertaken using invented letters.[20]
The Romanized Popular Alphabet (RPA), the most widely used script for Hmong Daw and Mong Leeg, was developed in Laos between 1951 and 1953 by three Western missionaries.[16] In the United States Hmong do not use RPA for spelling of proper nouns, because they want their names to be easily pronounced by people unfamiliar with RPA. For instance Hmong in the U.S. spell Hmoob as "Hmong," and Liab Lis is spelled as Lia Lee.[21]
The Dananshan standard in China is written in a pinyin-based alphabet, with tone letters similar to those used in RPA.
Correspondence between orthographies
The following is a list of pairs of RPA and Dananshan segments having the same sound (or very similar sounds). Note however that RPA and the standard in China not only differ in orthographic rules, but are also used to write different languages. The list is ordered alphabetically by the RPA, apart from prenasalized stops and voiceless sonorants, which come after their oral and voiced homologues. There are three overriding patterns to the correspondences: RPA doubles a vowel for nasalization, whereas pinyin uses โจngโฉ; RPA uses โจhโฉ for aspiration, whereas pinyin uses the voicing distinction of the Latin script; pinyin uses โจhโฉ (and โจrโฉ) to derive the retroflex and uvular series from the dental and velar, whereas RPA uses sequences based on โจt, x, kโฉ vs. โจr, s, qโฉ for the same.
Vowels
RPA | Pinyin | Vietnamese | Pahawh |
---|---|---|---|
a | ๐ฌ, ๐ฌ | ||
aa | ang | ๐ฌ, ๐ฌ | |
ai | ๐ฌ, ๐ฌ | ||
au | รขu | ๐ฌ, ๐ฌ | |
aw | โ | ฦกฦฐ | ๐ฌ, ๐ฌ |
e | รช | ๐ฌ, ๐ฌ | |
ee | eng | รชnh | ๐ฌ, ๐ฌ |
โ | eu | โ | โ |
i | ๐ฌ, ๐ฌ | ||
ia | โ | iรช | ๐ฌ, ๐ฌ |
o | ๐ฌ, ๐ฌ | ||
oo | ong | รดng | ๐ฌ, ๐ฌ |
โ | ou | โ | โ |
u | u | ๐ฌ, ๐ฌ | |
ua | uรด | ๐ฌ, ๐ฌ | |
w | i | ฦฐ | ๐ฌ, ๐ฌ |
Consonants
RPA | Dananshan | Vietnamese | Pahawh |
---|---|---|---|
c | j | ch | ๐ฌฏ |
ch | q | ๐ฌง | |
nc | nj | nd | ๐ฌค๐ฌฐ |
nch | nq | ๐ฌจ | |
d | โ | ฤ | ๐ฌ๐ฌฐ |
dh | โ | ฤh | ๐ฌ๐ฌต |
dl | ฤr | ๐ฌญ | |
dlh | tl | ฤl | ๐ฌญ๐ฌด |
ndl | โ | nฤr | ๐ฌญ๐ฌฐ |
ndlh | โ | nฤl | ๐ฌญ๐ฌต |
f | ph | ๐ฌ๐ฌต | |
h | ๐ฌ | ||
k | g | c | โ |
kh | k | kh | ๐ฌฉ๐ฌฐ |
nk | ng | g | ๐ฌข |
nkh | nk | nkh | ๐ฌซ๐ฌต |
l | ๐ฌ | ||
hl | ๐ฌฅ | ||
m | ๐ฌฆ | ||
hm | ๐ฌฃ๐ฌต | ||
ml | โ | mn | ๐ฌ |
hml | โ | hmn | ๐ฌ ๐ฌฐ |
n | ๐ฌฌ | ||
hn | hn | ๐ฌฉ | |
โ | ngg | โ | โ |
ny | ni | nh | ๐ฌฎ๐ฌต |
hny | hni | hnh | ๐ฌฃ๐ฌฐ |
p | b | p | ๐ฌช๐ฌต |
ph | p | ph | ๐ฌ๐ฌต |
np | nb | b | ๐ฌจ๐ฌต |
nph | np | mf | ๐ฌก๐ฌฐ |
pl | bl | pl | ๐ฌ๐ฌต |
plh | pl | fl | ๐ฌช |
npl | nbl | bl | ๐ฌซ๐ฌฐ |
nplh | npl | mfl | ๐ฌก๐ฌต |
q | gh | k | ๐ฌฆ๐ฌต |
qh | kh | qh | ๐ฌฃ |
nq | ngh | ng | ๐ฌฌ๐ฌฐ |
nqh | nkh | nkr | ๐ฌฌ๐ฌต |
r | dr | tr | ๐ฌก |
rh | tr | rh | ๐ฌข๐ฌต |
nr | ndr | r | ๐ฌ๐ฌฐ |
nrh | ntr | nr | ๐ฌจ๐ฌฐ |
s | sh | s | ๐ฌค๐ฌต |
t | d | t | ๐ฌง๐ฌต |
th | t | th | ๐ฌ๐ฌฐ |
nt | nd | nt | ๐ฌฉ๐ฌต |
nth | nt | nth | ๐ฌซ |
ts | zh | ts | ๐ฌ๐ฌฐ |
tsh | ch | tsh | ๐ฌช๐ฌฐ |
nts | nzh | nts | ๐ฌ |
ntsh | nch | ntsh | ๐ฌฏ๐ฌฐ |
tx | z | tx | ๐ฌฏ๐ฌต |
txh | c | cx | ๐ฌฆ๐ฌฐ |
ntx | nz | nz | ๐ฌข๐ฌฐ |
ntxh | nc | nx | ๐ฌฅ๐ฌต |
v | ๐ฌ | ||
โ | w | โ | โ |
x | s | x | ๐ฌฎ |
xy | x | sh | ๐ฌง๐ฌฐ |
y | z | ๐ฌค | |
z | r | j | ๐ฌฅ๐ฌฐ |
There is no simple correspondence between the tone letters. The historical connection between the tones is as follows. The Chinese names reflect the tones given to early Chinese loan words with those tones in Chinese.
Tone class | Tone number | Dananshan orthog. | RPA | Vietnamese Hmong | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Hmoob | Moob | ||||
ๅนณ or A | 1 | b หฆหง | b หฅ | z | |
2 | x หงหฉ | j หฅหง | x | ||
ไธ or B | 3 | d หฅ | v หงหฆ | r | |
4 | l หจหฉฬค | s | g | s | |
ๅป or C | 5 | t หฆ | (unmarked) หง | ||
6 | s หฉหงฬค | g หงหฉฬค | l | ||
ๅ ฅ or D | 7 | k หง | s หฉ | s | |
8 | f หจหฆ | m หฉฬฐ ~ d หจหฉหง | v ~ k |
Tones 4 and 7 merged in Hmoob Dawb, whereas tones 4 and 6 merged in Mong Leeg.[22]
Example: lus Hmoob /ฬค lแนณหงหฉ mฬฅฬฅรตหฆ / ๐๐ง๐ด๐๐๐ฐ๐ฉโ / (White Hmong) / lug Moob / ๐๐ง๐ต๐๐ฉ๐ฐโ / (Mong Leng) / lol Hmongb (Dananshan) / lus Hmรดngz (Vietnamese) "Hmong language".
Grammar
Hmong is an analytic SVO language in which adjectives and demonstratives follow the noun. Noun phrases can contain the following elements (parentheses indicate optional elements):[23]
(possessive) + (quantifier) + (classifier) + noun + (adjective) + (demonstrative)
The Hmong pronominal system distinguishes between three grammatical persons and three numbers โ singular, dual, and plural. They are not marked for case, that is, the same word is used to translate both "I" and "me", "she" and "her", and so forth. These are the personal pronouns of Hmong Daw and Mong Leeg:
- 1st Row: IPA, Hmong RPA
- 2nd Row: Vietnamese Hmong
- 3rd Row: Pahawh Hmong
- 4th Row: Nyiakeng Puachue
Number: | Singular | Dual | Plural |
---|---|---|---|
First | kuv cur ๐๐ง๐ณโ | wb ฦฐz ๐ฌ๐ฐโ | peb pรชz ๐๐ช๐ฐโ |
Second | koj cox ๐๐จ๐ฒโ | neb nรชz ๐ ๐ช๐ฐโ | nej nรชx ๐ ๐ช๐ฒโ |
Third | nws nฦฐs ๐ ๐ฌ๐ดโ | nkawd gฦกฦฐk ๐๐ค๐ถ๐ฌโ | lawv lฦกฦฐr ๐๐ค๐ณ๐ฌโ |
Number: | Singular | Dual | Plural |
---|---|---|---|
First | kuv cur ๐๐ง๐ณโ | ib iz ๐ฆ๐ฐโ | peb pรชz ๐๐ช๐ฐโ |
Second | koj cox ๐๐จ๐ฒโ | meb mรชz ๐๐ช๐ฐโ | mej mรชx ๐๐ช๐ฒโ |
Third | nwg nฦฐs ๐ ๐ฌ๐ตโ | ob tug oz tus ๐จ๐ฐ๐๐ง๐ตโ | puab puรดz ๐๐ง๐ฐ๐คโ |
Verbs
Hmong is an isolating language in which most morphemes are monosyllables. As a result, verbs are not overtly inflected. Tense, aspect, mood, person, number, gender, and case are indicated lexically.[24]
Serial verb construction
Hmong verbs can be serialized, with two or more verbs combined in one clause. It is common for as many as five verbs to be strung together, sharing the same subject.
Here is an example from White Hmong:
Yam
Zav
๐ฌ๐ฌค
zoo
jรดng
๐ฌ๐ฌฅ๐ฌฐ
tshaj
tshax
๐ฌ๐ฌฐ๐ฌช๐ฌฐ
plaws,
plฦกฦฐs,
๐ฌ๐ฌฐ๐ฌ๐ฌต,
nej
nรชx
๐ฌ๐ฌฒ๐ฌฌ
yuav
zuรดr
๐ฌ๐ฌฒ๐ฌค
tsum
tsuv
๐ฌ๐ฌ๐ฌฐ
mus
mus
๐ฌ๐ฌฐ๐ฌฆ
nrhiav
nriรชz
๐ฌ๐ฌฒ๐ฌจ๐ฌฐ
nug
nuv
๐ฌ๐ฌฒ๐ฌฌ
xyuas
shuรดs
๐ฌ๐ฌฒ๐ฌง๐ฌฐ
saib
saiz
๐ฌ๐ฌฐ๐ฌค๐ฌต
luag
luรดv
๐ฌ๐ฌถ๐ฌ
muaj
muรดj
๐ฌ๐ฌฐ๐ฌฆ
kev
cรชr
๐ฌ
pab
paz
๐ฌ๐ฌฒ๐ฌช๐ฌต
hom
hov
๐ฌ๐ฌ
dab
ฤaz
๐ฌ๐ฌฒ๐ฌ๐ฌฐ
tsi
tsi
๐ฌ๐ฌ๐ฌฐ
nyob
nhoz
๐ฌ๐ฌฐ๐ฌฎ๐ฌต
ncig
ndil
๐ฌ๐ฌฒ๐ฌค๐ฌฐ
ib
ib
๐ฌ๐ฌฒ๐ฌฎ๐ฌฐ
cheeb
qรชnhz
๐ฌ๐ฌถ๐ฌง
tsam
tsav
๐ฌ๐ฌ๐ฌฐ
ntawm
ntฦกฦฐv
๐ฌ๐ฌฐ๐ฌฉ๐ฌต
nej.
nรชx.
๐ฌ๐ฌฒ๐ฌฌ.
๐๐ค๐ฑ๐๐ฉ๐๐๐ฒ๐ค๐ก๐ค๐ด๐ฌโ, ๐
๐ช๐ฒ๐๐ง๐ณ๐๐ง๐ฑโ "๐๐ง๐ด๐๐๐ฆ๐ณ๐ค๐
๐ง๐ต๐๐ง๐ด๐ค๐๐ค๐ฐ๐ฆโ" ๐๐ง๐ต๐ค๐๐ง๐ฒ๐ค๐๐ช๐ณ๐๐ค๐ฐ๐๐จ๐ฑโ ๐ค๐ฐ๐๐ฆ๐๐จ๐ฐ๐๐ฆ๐ตโ ๐ฆ๐ฐ๐๐๐ฐ๐ซ๐๐ค๐ฑ๐๐ค๐ฑ๐ฌ๐
๐ช๐ฒโ.
Thing best, you (plural) must go seek, ask, examine, look others have services variations what on tour the area at you (plural)
Tense
Because the verb form in Hmong does not change to indicate tense, the simplest way to indicate the time of an event is to use temporal adverb phrases like "last year," "today," or "next week."
Here is an example from White Hmong:
Nag hmo
Nav hmo
๐ฌ๐ฌถ๐ฌฌ ๐ฌ๐ฌฐ๐ฌฃ๐ฌต
๐ ๐ค๐ต ๐๐๐จโ
yesterday
kuv
cur
๐ฌ๐ฌฒ
๐๐ง๐ณโ
I
mus
mus
๐ฌ๐ฌฐ๐ฌฆ
๐๐ง๐ดโ
go
tom
tov
๐ฌ๐ฌง๐ฌต
๐๐จ๐ฑโ
LOC
khw.
khฦฐ.
๐ฌ๐ฌฐ๐ฌฉ๐ฌฐ.
๐๐๐ฌโ.
market
'I went to the market yesterday.'
Aspect
Aspectual differences are indicated by a number of verbal modifiers. Here are the most common ones:
Progressive: (Mong Leeg) taab tom + verb, (White Hmong) tab tom + verb = situation in progress
Puab
Puรดz
๐ฌ๐ฌถ๐ฌช๐ฌต
๐๐ง๐ฐ๐คโ
they
taab tom
tangz tov
๐ฌ๐ฌฒ๐ฌง๐ฌต ๐ฌ๐ฌง๐ฌต
๐๐ฅ๐ฐโ ๐๐จ๐ฑโ
PROG
haus
hรขus
๐ฌ ๐ฌฐ๐ฌ
๐๐ค๐ด๐จโ
drink
dlej.
ฤrรชx
๐ฌ๐ฌฒ๐ฌญ.
๐๐ช๐ฒโ.
water
(Mong Leeg)
ย
ย
ย
ย
'They are drinking water.'
Taab/tab tom + verb can also be used to indicate a situation that is about to start. That is clearest when taab/tab tom occurs in conjunction with the irrealis marker yuav. Note that the taab tom construction is not used if it is clear from the context that a situation is ongoing or about to begin.
Perfective: sentence/clause + lawm = completed situation
Kuv
Cur
๐ฌ๐ฌฒ
๐๐ง๐ณโ
I
noj
nox
๐ฌ๐ฌฒ๐ฌฌ
๐ ๐จ๐ฒโ
eat
mov
mor
๐ฌ๐ฌถ๐ฌฆ
๐๐จ๐ณโ
rice
lawm.
lฦกฦฐv
๐ฌ๐ฌฐ๐ฌ.
๐๐ค๐ฑ๐ฌโ.
PERF
(Leeg and White Hmong)
ย
ย
ย
ย
'I am finished/I am done eating rice.' / 'I have already eaten "rice".'
Lawm at the end of a sentence can also indicate that an action is underway:
Tus
๐ฌ๐ฌฐ๐ฌง๐ฌต
๐๐ง๐ดโ
CLF
tub
๐ฌ๐ฌฐ๐ฌง๐ฌต
๐๐ง๐ฐโ
boy
tau
๐ฌง๐ฌต
๐๐ค๐จโ
get
rab
๐ฌ๐ฌฒ๐ฌก
๐๐ค๐ฐโ
CLF
hneev,
๐ฌ๐ฌฒ๐ฌฉ,
๐ ๐๐ณ๐ซโ,
crossbow
nws
๐ฌ๐ฌฒ๐ฌฌ
๐ ๐ฌ๐ดโ
he
thiaj
๐ฌ๐ฌถ๐ฌ๐ฌฐ
๐๐๐ฆ๐ฒ๐คโ
then
mus
๐ฌ๐ฌฐ๐ฌฆ
๐๐ง๐ดโ
go
ua si
๐ฌ๐ฌฎ๐ฌฐ ๐ฌ๐ฌค๐ฌต
๐ง๐คโ ๐๐ฆโ
play
lawm.
๐ฌ๐ฌฐ๐ฌ.
๐๐ค๐ฑ๐ฌโ.
PFV
(White Hmong)
ย
ย
ย
'The boy got the crossbow and went off to play.' / 'The boy went off to play because he got the bow.'
Another common way to indicate the accomplishment of an action or attainment is by using tau, which, as a main verb, means 'to get/obtain.' It takes on different connotations when it is combined with other verbs. When it occurs before the main verb (i.e. tau + verb), it conveys the attainment or fulfillment of a situation. Whether the situation took place in the past, the present, or the future is indicated at the discourse level rather than the sentence level. If the event took place in the past, tau + verb translates to the past tense in English.
Lawv
๐ฌ๐ฌถ๐ฌ
๐๐ค๐ณ๐ฌโ
they
tau
๐ฌง๐ฌต
๐๐ค๐จโ
attain
noj
๐ฌ๐ฌฒ๐ฌฌ
๐ ๐จ๐ฒโ
eat
nqaij
๐ฌ๐ฌถ๐ฌฌ๐ฌฐ
๐๐ค๐ฒ๐ฆโ
meat
nyug.
๐ฌ๐ฌฒ๐ฌฎ๐ฌต.
๐๐ง๐ตโ.
beef
(White Hmong)
ย
ย
ย
'They ate beef.'
Tau is optional if an explicit past time marker is present (e.g. nag hmo, last night). Tau can also mark the fulfillment of a situation in the future:
Thaum
๐ฌ๐ฌ๐ฌฐ
๐๐๐ค๐ฑ๐จโ
when
txog
๐ฌ๐ฌฏ๐ฌต
๐๐จ๐ตโ
arrive
peb
๐ฌ๐ฌฐ๐ฌช๐ฌต
๐๐ช๐ฐโ
New
caug
๐ฌ ๐ฌฒ๐ฌฏ
๐๐ค๐ต๐จโ
Year
lawm
๐ฌ๐ฌฐ๐ฌ
๐๐ค๐ฑ๐ฌโ
PFV
sawv daws
๐ฌ๐ฌถ๐ฌค๐ฌต ๐ฌ๐ฌฐ๐ฌ๐ฌฐ
๐๐ค๐ณ๐ฌโ ๐๐ค๐ด๐ฌโ
everybody
thiaj
๐ฌ๐ฌถ๐ฌ๐ฌฐ
๐๐๐ฆ๐ฒ๐คโ
then
tau
๐ฌง๐ฌต
๐๐ค๐จโ
attain
hnav
๐ฌ๐ฌฉ
๐ ๐๐ณ๐คโ
wear
khaub ncaws
๐ฌ๐ฌฐ๐ฌฉ๐ฌฐ ๐ฌ๐ฌฐ๐ฌค๐ฌฐ
๐๐๐ค๐ฐ๐จโ ๐๐ค๐ด๐ฌโ
clothes
tshiab.
๐ฌ๐ฌช๐ฌฐ.
๐๐๐ฆ๐ฐ๐คโ.
new
(White Hmong)
ย
ย
ย
'So when the New Year arrives, everybody gets to wear new clothes.'
When tau follows the main verb (i.e. verb + tau), it indicates the accomplishment of the purpose of an action.
Kuv
๐ฌ๐ฌฒ
๐๐ง๐ณโ
I
xaav
๐ฌ๐ฌฎ
๐๐ฅ๐ณโ
think
xaav
๐ฌ๐ฌฎ
๐๐ฅ๐ณโ
think
ib plag,
๐ฌ๐ฌฒ๐ฌฎ๐ฌฐ ๐ฌ๐ฌถ๐ฌ๐ฌต,
๐ฆ๐ฐโ ๐ก๐ค๐ตโ,
awhile,
kuv
๐ฌ๐ฌฒ
๐๐ง๐ณโ
I
xaav
๐ฌ๐ฌฎ
๐๐ฅ๐ณโ
think
tau
๐ฌง๐ฌต
๐๐ค๐จโ
get
tswv yim.
๐ฌ๐ฌ๐ฌฐ ๐ฌ๐ฌค.
๐๐ฌ๐ณโ ๐๐ฆ๐ฑโ.
idea
(Mong Leeg)
ย
ย
ย
'I thought it over and got an idea.'
Tau is also common in serial verb constructions that are made up of a verb, followed by an accomplishment: (White Hmong) nrhiav tau, to look for; caum tau, to chase; yug tau, to give birth.
Mood
Future: yuav + verb:
Kuv
๐ฌ๐ฌฒ
๐๐ง๐ณโ
yuav
๐ฌ๐ฌฒ๐ฌค
๐๐ง๐ณ๐คโ
moog.
๐ฌ๐ฌถ๐ฌฆ.
๐๐ฉ๐ตโ.
(Mong Leeg)
ย
ย
'I will be going.'
Yuav + verb may also be seen as indicative of the irrealis mood, for situations that are unfulfilled or unrealized. That includes hypothetical or non-occurring situations with past, present, or future time references:
Tus
๐ฌ๐ฌฐ๐ฌง๐ฌต
๐๐ง๐ดโ
CLF
Tsov
๐ฌ๐ฌถ๐ฌ๐ฌฐ
๐๐จ๐ณโ
Tiger
hais tias,
๐ฌ๐ฌฐ๐ฌ ๐ฌ๐ฌฐ๐ฌง๐ฌต,
๐๐ค๐ด๐ฆโ ๐๐ฆ๐ด๐คโ,
say,
"Kuv
"๐ฌ๐ฌฒ
"๐๐ง๐ณโ
I
tshaib
๐ฌ๐ฌฐ๐ฌช๐ฌฐ
๐๐๐ค๐ฐ๐ฆโ
hungry
tshaib
๐ฌ๐ฌฐ๐ฌช๐ฌฐ
๐๐๐ค๐ฐ๐ฆโ
hungry
plab
๐ฌ๐ฌฒ๐ฌ๐ฌต
๐ก๐ค๐ฐโ
stomach
li
๐ฌ๐ฌ
๐๐ฆโ
INT
kuv
๐ฌ๐ฌฒ
๐๐ง๐ณโ
I
yuav
๐ฌ๐ฌฒ๐ฌค
๐๐ง๐ณ๐คโ
IRR
noj
๐ฌ๐ฌฒ๐ฌฌ
๐ ๐จ๐ฒโ
eat
koj".
๐ฌ๐ฌฒ."
๐๐จ๐ฒโ".
you
(from a White Hmong folk tale)
ย
ย
ย
'The Tiger said, "I'm very hungry and I'm going to eat you.'
Tus
๐ฌ๐ฌฐ๐ฌง๐ฌต
๐๐ง๐ดโ
CLF
Qav
๐ฌ๐ฌฆ๐ฌต
๐๐ค๐ณโ
Frog
tsis
๐ฌ๐ฌฐ๐ฌ๐ฌฐ
๐๐ฆ๐ดโ
NEG
paub
๐ฌ๐ฌฐ๐ฌช๐ฌต
๐๐ค๐ฐ๐จโ
know
yuav
๐ฌ๐ฌฒ๐ฌค
๐๐ง๐ณ๐คโ
IRR
ua
๐ฌ๐ฌฎ๐ฌฐ
๐ง๐คโ
do
li
๐ฌ๐ฌ
๐๐ฆโ
ย
cas
๐ฌ๐ฌฒ๐ฌฏ
๐๐ค๐ดโ
what
li.
๐ฌ๐ฌ.
๐๐ฆโ.
INT
'The frog didn't know what to do.'
Phrases
Colors
Many Hmong, and non-Hmong people who are learning the Hmong language, tend to use the word "Xim" (Thai/Lao word) to indicate a specific color. While the true Hmong word for color is "Kob". For example, "Kuv nyiam kob ntsuab;" meaning "I like the color green / I like the green color".
List of colors:
๐ฌ๐ฌ Liab [red]
๐ฌ๐ฌถ๐ฌ Ntsuab [green]
๐ฌ๐ฌ๐ฌฐ ๐ฌ๐ฌฎ Tsam xem [purple]
๐ฌ๐ฌฐ๐ฌ๐ฌฐ Dub [black]
๐ฌ๐ฌฒ๐ฌฎ Xiav [blue]
๐ฌ๐ฌ๐ฌฐ Dawb [white]
๐ฌ๐ฌฎ๐ฌฐ / ๐ฌ๐ฌฒ ๐ฌ๐ฌฒ๐ฌ๐ฌต Av / Kas fes [brown]
๐ฌ๐ฌฐ๐ฌ๐ฌฐ Daj [yellow]
๐ฌ๐ฌฐ๐ฌฆ๐ฌฐ Txho [grey]
๐ฌ๐ฌฒ ๐ฌ๐ฌข๐ฌฐ Kab ntxwv [orange]
๐ฌ๐ฌฐ๐ฌช๐ฌต ๐ฌ๐ฌถ๐ฌค Paj yeeb [pink]
Numbers
Numeral | Hmong Numeral | Pahawh Hmong | Hmong RPA | Hmong Loanwords | Pahawh Symbols |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
0 | ๐ญ | ๐ฌ๐ฌฒ๐ฌข๐ฌฐ | Ntxaiv | Xoom (Thai/Lao word) | ๐ญ (Ones) |
1 | ๐ญ | ๐ฌ๐ฌฒ๐ฌฎ๐ฌฐ | Ib | ||
2 | ๐ญ | ๐ฌ๐ฌฐ๐ฌฎ๐ฌฐ | Ob | ||
3 | ๐ญ | ๐ฌ๐ฌฐ๐ฌช๐ฌต | Peb | ||
4 | ๐ญ | ๐ฌ๐ฌฐ๐ฌ๐ฌต | Plaub | ||
5 | ๐ญ | ๐ฌ๐ฌฒ๐ฌ๐ฌฐ | Tsib | ||
6 | ๐ญ | ๐ฌก | Rau | ||
7 | ๐ญ | ๐ฌ๐ฌฐ๐ฌง๐ฌฐ | Xya | ||
8 | ๐ญ | ๐ฌ๐ฌค | Yim | ||
9 | ๐ญ | ๐ฌ๐ฌฐ๐ฌฏ | Cuaj | ||
10 | ๐ญ๐ญ | ๐ฌ | Kaum | ๐ญ (Tens) | |
11 | ๐ญ๐ญ | ๐ฌ ๐ฌ๐ฌฒ๐ฌฎ๐ฌฐ | Kaum ib | ||
20 | ๐ญ๐ญ | ๐ฌ๐ฌฐ๐ฌฌ ๐ฌ๐ฌข | Nees nkaum | ||
21 | ๐ญ๐ญ | ๐ฌ๐ฌฐ๐ฌฌ ๐ฌ๐ฌข ๐ฌ๐ฌฒ๐ฌฎ๐ฌฐ | Nees nkaum ib | ||
30 | ๐ญ๐ญ | ๐ฌ๐ฌฐ๐ฌช๐ฌต ๐ฌ ๐ฌฒ๐ฌฏ | Peb caug | ||
31 | ๐ญ๐ญ | ๐ฌ๐ฌฐ๐ฌช๐ฌต ๐ฌ ๐ฌฒ๐ฌฏ ๐ฌ๐ฌฒ๐ฌฎ๐ฌฐ | Peb caug ib | ||
40 | ๐ญ๐ญ | ๐ฌ๐ฌฐ๐ฌ๐ฌต ๐ฌ ๐ฌฒ๐ฌฏ | Plaub caug | ||
41 | ๐ญ๐ญ | ๐ฌ๐ฌฐ๐ฌ๐ฌต ๐ฌ ๐ฌฒ๐ฌฏ ๐ฌ๐ฌฒ๐ฌฎ๐ฌฐ | Plaub caug ib | ||
50 | ๐ญ๐ญ | ๐ฌ๐ฌฒ๐ฌ๐ฌฐ ๐ฌ ๐ฌฒ๐ฌฏ | Tsib caug | ||
51 | ๐ญ๐ญ | ๐ฌ๐ฌฒ๐ฌ๐ฌฐ ๐ฌ ๐ฌฒ๐ฌฏ ๐ฌ๐ฌฒ๐ฌฎ๐ฌฐ | Tsib caug ib | ||
60 | ๐ญ๐ญ | ๐ฌก ๐ฌ๐ฌฏ | Rau caum | ||
61 | ๐ญ๐ญ | ๐ฌก ๐ฌ๐ฌฏ ๐ฌ๐ฌฒ๐ฌฎ๐ฌฐ | Rau caum ib | ||
70 | ๐ญ๐ญ | ๐ฌ๐ฌฐ๐ฌง๐ฌฐ ๐ฌ๐ฌฏ | Xya caum | ||
71 | ๐ญ๐ญ | ๐ฌ๐ฌฐ๐ฌง๐ฌฐ ๐ฌ๐ฌฏ ๐ฌ๐ฌฒ๐ฌฎ๐ฌฐ | Xya caum ib | ||
80 | ๐ญ๐ญ | ๐ฌ๐ฌค ๐ฌ๐ฌฏ | Yim caum | ||
81 | ๐ญ๐ญ | ๐ฌ๐ฌค ๐ฌ๐ฌฏ ๐ฌ๐ฌฒ๐ฌฎ๐ฌฐ | Yim caum ib | ||
90 | ๐ญ๐ญ | ๐ฌ๐ฌฐ๐ฌฏ ๐ฌ๐ฌฏ | Cuaj caum | ||
91 | ๐ญ๐ญ | ๐ฌ๐ฌฐ๐ฌฏ ๐ฌ๐ฌฏ ๐ฌ๐ฌฒ๐ฌฎ๐ฌฐ | Cuaj caum ib | ||
100 | ๐ญ๐ญ | ๐ฌ๐ฌฒ๐ฌฎ๐ฌฐ ๐ฌ๐ฌฒ๐ฌช๐ฌต | Ib puas | ๐ญ (Hundreds) | |
1,000 | ๐ญ,๐ญ๐ญ๐ญ | ๐ฌ๐ฌฒ๐ฌฎ๐ฌฐ ๐ฌ๐ฌฆ๐ฌฐ | Ib txhiab | Ib phav (Thai/Lao word) | ๐ญ๐ญ (Thousands) |
10,000 | ๐ญ๐ญ,๐ญ๐ญ๐ญ | ๐ฌ ๐ฌ๐ฌฆ๐ฌฐ | Kaum txhiab | Kaum phav (Thai/Lao word) | ๐ญ (Ten thousand) |
100,000 | ๐ญ๐ญ๐ญ,๐ญ๐ญ๐ญ | ๐ฌ๐ฌฒ๐ฌฎ๐ฌฐ ๐ฌ๐ฌฒ๐ฌช๐ฌต ๐ฌ๐ฌฆ๐ฌฐ | Ib puas txhiab | Ib puas phav (Thai/Lao word) | ๐ญ๐ญ (Hundred Thousands) |
1,000,000 | ๐ญ,๐ญ๐ญ๐ญ,๐ญ๐ญ๐ญ | ๐ฌ๐ฌฒ๐ฌฎ๐ฌฐ ๐ฌ๐ฌก | Ib roob | Ib lab (Thai/Lao word) | ๐ญ (Millions) |
10,000,000 | ๐ญ๐ญ,๐ญ๐ญ๐ญ,๐ญ๐ญ๐ญ | ๐ฌ ๐ฌ๐ฌก | Kaum roob | Kaum lab (Thai/Lao word) | ๐ญ๐ญ (Ten Millions) |
100,000,000 | ๐ญ๐ญ๐ญ,๐ญ๐ญ๐ญ,๐ญ๐ญ๐ญ | ๐ฌ๐ฌฒ๐ฌฎ๐ฌฐ ๐ฌ๐ฌฒ๐ฌช๐ฌต ๐ฌ๐ฌก | Ib puas roob | Ib puas lab (Thai/Lao word) | ๐ญ (Hundred Millions) |
1,000,000,000 | ๐ญ,๐ญ๐ญ๐ญ,๐ญ๐ญ๐ญ,๐ญ๐ญ๐ญ | ๐ฌ๐ฌฒ๐ฌฎ๐ฌฐ ๐ฌ | Ib kem | Ib phav lab (Thai/Lao word) | ๐ญ๐ญ (Billions) |
10,000,000,000 | ๐ญ๐ญ,๐ญ๐ญ๐ญ,๐ญ๐ญ๐ญ,๐ญ๐ญ๐ญ | ๐ฌ ๐ฌ | Kaum kem | Kaum phav lab (Thai/Lao word) | ๐ญ (Ten Billions) |
100,000,000,000 | ๐ญ๐ญ๐ญ,๐ญ๐ญ๐ญ,๐ญ๐ญ๐ญ,๐ญ๐ญ๐ญ | ๐ฌ๐ฌฒ๐ฌฎ๐ฌฐ ๐ฌ๐ฌฒ๐ฌช๐ฌต ๐ฌ | Ib puas kem | Ib puas phav lab (Thai/Lao word) | ๐ญ ๐ญ (Hundred Billions) |
1,000,000,000,000 | ๐ญ,๐ญ๐ญ๐ญ,๐ญ๐ญ๐ญ,๐ญ๐ญ๐ญ,๐ญ๐ญ๐ญ | ๐ฌ๐ฌฒ๐ฌฎ๐ฌฐ ๐ฌ๐ฌง๐ฌต | Ib tas | Ib lab lab (Thai/Lao word) | ๐ญก (Trillions) |
The number 1975 would be written as ๐ญ๐ญ๐ญ๐ญ.
Days of the Week
Days | Pahawh Hmong | Hmong RPA | Hmong Loanwords |
---|---|---|---|
Sunday | ๐ฌ๐ฌฒ๐ฌฅ๐ฌฐ ๐ฌ๐ฌฐ๐ฌฉ | Zwj hnub | Vas thiv (Thai/Lao word) |
Monday | ๐ฌ๐ฌฒ๐ฌฅ๐ฌฐ ๐ฌ๐ฌฅ | Zwj hli | Vas cas (Thai/Lao word) |
Tuesday | ๐ฌ๐ฌฒ๐ฌฅ๐ฌฐ ๐ฌ๐ฌถ๐ฌฆ๐ฌต | Zwj quag | Vas as qhas (Thai/Lao word) |
Wednesday | ๐ฌ๐ฌฒ๐ฌฅ๐ฌฐ ๐ฌ๐ฌถ๐ฌ๐ฌต | Zwj feeb | Vas phuv (Thai/Lao word) |
Thursday | ๐ฌ๐ฌฒ๐ฌฅ๐ฌฐ ๐ฌ๐ฌถ๐ฌง๐ฌต | Zwj teeb | Vas phab hav (Thai/Lao word) |
Friday | ๐ฌ๐ฌฒ๐ฌฅ๐ฌฐ ๐ฌ๐ฌถ | Zwj kuab | Vas xuv (Thai/Lao word) |
Saturday | ๐ฌ๐ฌฒ๐ฌฅ๐ฌฐ ๐ฌ๐ฌถ๐ฌฏ | Zwj cag | Vas xom (Thai/Lao word) |
A sentence like, "Today is Monday" would be translated as "Hnub no yog zwj hli", and not "Hnub no yog hnub ib/Monday" in Hmong.
Months of the Year
Months | Pahawh Hmong (Formal) | Hmong RPA | Informal |
---|---|---|---|
January | ๐ฌ๐ฌฐ๐ฌค ๐ฌ๐ฌถ๐ฌฏ | Yeej ceeb | [Lub] Ib hlis |
February | ๐ฌ๐ฌฐ ๐ฌ๐ฌถ๐ฌฎ | Kub xeeb | [Lub] Ob hlis |
March | ๐ฌ๐ฌฐ๐ฌค ๐ฌ๐ฌฒ | Yaj kiav | [Lub] Peb hlis |
April | ๐ฌ ๐ฌ๐ฌฏ | Keem com | [Lub] Plaub hlis |
May | ๐ฌ๐ฌฐ ๐ฌ๐ฌถ๐ฌฌ | Kub nuj | [Lub] Tsib hlis |
June | ๐ฌ๐ฌถ๐ฌง๐ฌต ๐ฌ๐ฌถ๐ฌ | Tov liaj | [Lub] Rau hlis |
July | ๐ฌ๐ฌฐ๐ฌ ๐ฌ๐ฌถ๐ฌฎ | Huaj xeeb | [Lub] Xya hlis |
August | ๐ฌ๐ฌถ๐ฌฏ ๐ฌ๐ฌฏ | Ceeb cua | [Lub] Yim hlis |
September | ๐ฌ๐ฌ๐ฌฐ ๐ฌ๐ฌฐ ๐ฌ๐ฌฐ๐ฌ | Tsiab kub leej | [Lub] Cuaj hlis |
October | ๐ฌ๐ฌช๐ฌต ๐ฌ๐ฌฐ๐ฌช๐ฌฐ | Peem tshais | [Lub] Kaum hlis |
November | ๐ฌ๐ฌฒ๐ฌ ๐ฌ๐ฌฒ ๐ฌ๐ฌฆ๐ฌฐ | Looj keev txheem | [Lub] Kaum ib hlis |
December | ๐ฌ๐ฌถ๐ฌจ๐ฌต ๐ฌ๐ฌฏ | Npuag cawb | [Lub] Kaum ob hlis |
Worldwide usage
The Hmong language has found a significant presence in the United States, particularly in Minnesota. The Hmong people first arrived in Minnesota in late 1975 following the communist seizure of power in Indochina. Many educated Hmong elites with leadership experience and English-language skills were among the first to be welcomed by Minnesotans. These elites worked to solidify the social services targeted to refugees, attracting others to migrate to the region. The first Hmong family arrived in Minnesota on November 5, 1975.[25]
The Hmong language program in the Department of Asian and Middle Eastern Studies at the University of Minnesota is one of the first programs in the United States to teach language-accredited Hmong classes.[26]
In May 2013, Google Translate introduced support for Hmong Daw (referred to only as Hmong).[27]
Samples
From the Universal Declaration of Human Rights Article 1:
Hmong RPA | Vietnamese Hmong | Nyiakeng Puachue Hmong | Pahawh Hmong | English Translation | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Txhua tus neeg yug los muaj kev ywj pheej thiab | Cxuรด tus nรชnhl zul los muรดx cรชr zฦฐx fรชnhx thiรชz | ๐๐๐ง๐ค๐๐ง๐ด๐ ๐ซ๐ต๐๐ง๐ต๐๐จ๐ด ๐๐ง๐ฒ๐ค๐๐ช๐ณ๐๐ฌ๐ฒ๐๐๐ฒ๐ซ๐๐๐ฆ๐ฐ๐คโ | ๐ฌ๐ฌฆ๐ฌฐ ๐ฌ๐ฌฐ๐ฌง๐ฌต ๐ฌ๐ฌฒ๐ฌฌ ๐ฌ๐ฌฒ๐ฌค ๐ฌ๐ฌฒ๐ฌ ๐ฌ๐ฌฐ๐ฌฆ ๐ฌ ๐ฌ๐ฌฒ๐ฌค ๐ฌ๐ฌฐ๐ฌ๐ฌต ๐ฌ๐ฌ๐ฌฐ | All human beings are born free and | ||||||
sib npaug zos hauv txoj cai. Lawv xaj | siz npรขul jรดs hรขur txox chai. Lฦกฦฐr xax | ๐๐ฆ๐ฐ๐๐ค๐ต๐จ๐๐จ๐ด ๐๐ค๐ณ๐จ๐๐จ๐ฒ๐๐ค๐ฆ. ๐๐ค๐ณ๐ฌ๐๐ค๐ฒโ | ๐ฌ๐ฌฒ๐ฌค๐ฌต ๐ฌ ๐ฌฒ๐ฌจ๐ฌต ๐ฌ๐ฌฒ๐ฌฅ๐ฌฐ ๐ฌ๐ฌฒ๐ฌ ๐ฌ๐ฌฒ๐ฌฏ๐ฌต ๐ฌ๐ฌฏ. ๐ฌ๐ฌถ๐ฌ ๐ฌ๐ฌฐ๐ฌฎ | equal in dignity and rights. They are | ||||||
nrog lub laj thawj thiab lub siab | ndol luz lax thฦกฦฐx thiรชz luz siรชz | ๐๐จ๐ต๐๐ง๐ฐ๐๐ค๐ฒ๐๐๐ค๐ฒ๐ฌ ๐๐๐ฆ๐ฐ๐ค๐๐ง๐ฐ๐๐ฆ๐ฐ๐คโ | ๐ฌ๐ฌ๐ฌฐ ๐ฌ๐ฌฐ๐ฌ ๐ฌ๐ฌ๐ฌฐ ๐ฌ๐ฌฒ๐ฌ๐ฌฐ ๐ฌ๐ฌ๐ฌฐ ๐ฌ๐ฌฐ๐ฌ ๐ฌ๐ฌค๐ฌต | endowed with reason and conscience | ||||||
thiab ib leeg yuav tsum coj ua ke ntawm ib leeg ntawm txoj kev ua kwv tij. | thiรชz iz lรชnhl zuรดr tsuv chox uรด cรช ntฦกฦฐv iz lรชnhl ntฦกฦฐv txรดx cรชr uรด cฦฐr tiz. | ๐๐๐ฆ๐ฐ๐ค ๐ฆ๐ฐ๐๐ซ๐ต๐๐ง๐ณ๐ค๐๐ง๐ฑ๐๐จ๐ฒ ๐ง๐ค ๐๐ช๐๐ค๐ฑ๐ฌ๐ฆ๐ฐ๐๐ซ๐ต๐๐ค๐ฑ๐ฌ๐๐จ๐ฒ๐๐ช๐ง๐ณ ๐ง๐ค๐๐ฌ๐ณ๐๐ฆ๐ฒ.โ | ๐ฌ๐ฌ๐ฌฐ ๐ฌ๐ฌฎ๐ฌฐ ๐ฌ๐ฌฒ๐ฌ ๐ฌ๐ฌฒ๐ฌค ๐ฌ๐ฌ๐ฌฐ ๐ฌ๐ฌฒ๐ฌฏ ๐ฌ ๐ฌฎ๐ฌฐ ๐ฌ๐ฌฐ ๐ฌ๐ฌฐ๐ฌฉ๐ฌต ๐ฌ๐ฌฒ๐ฌฎ๐ฌฐ ๐ฌ๐ฌฒ๐ฌ ๐ฌ๐ฌฐ๐ฌฉ๐ฌต ๐ฌ๐ฌฒ๐ฌฏ๐ฌต ๐ฌ ๐ฌ ๐ฌฎ๐ฌฐ ๐ฌ ๐ฌ๐ฌฐ๐ฌง๐ฌต. | and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood. | ||||||
Hmong IPA | ||||||||||
tsสฐuษหง tuหฉ neลหงหฉฬค สuหงหฉฬค lษหฉ muษหฅหง keหงหงหฆ สษจหฅหง pสฐeลหฅหง tสฐiษหฆ สiหฆ แตbauหงหฉฬค สษหฉ hauหงหฆ tsษหฅหง caiหง. Laษจหงหฆ saหฅหง แถฏษษหงหฉฬค luหฆ laหฅหง tสฐaษจหฅหง tสฐiษหฆ luหฆ สiษหฆ tสฐiษหฆ iหฆ leลหงหฉฬค สuษหงหฆ tสuหฉฬฐ cษหฅหง uษหง keหง โฟdaษจหฉฬฐ iหฆ leลหงหฉฬค โฟdaษจหฉฬฐ tsษหฅหง keหงหงหฆ uษหง kษจหงหฆ tiหฅหง. |
Sample text in both Hmong RPA and Pahawh Hmong:[28][29][30]
Hmong RPA | Pahawh Hmong | Hmong IPA | ||
---|---|---|---|---|
Hmoob yog ib nywj keeb neeg uas yeej nrog ntiaj teb neeg tib txhij tshwm sim los. Niaj hnoob tam sim no tseem muaj nyob thoob plaws hauv ntiaj teb, xws: es xias, yus lauv, auv tas lias, thiab as mes lis kas. Hom neeg Hmoob no yog thooj li cov neeg nyob sab es xias. Tab sis nws muaj nws puav pheej teej tug, moj kuab, txuj ci, mooj kav moj coj, thiab txheeb meem mooj meej kheej ib yam nkaus li lwm haiv neeg. Hmoob yog ib hom neeg uas nyiam txoj kev ncaj ncees, nyiam kev ywj pheej, nyiam phooj ywg, muaj kev cam hwm, muaj txoj kev sib hlub, sib pab thiab sib tshua heev. | ๐ฌ๐ฌฃ๐ฌต ๐ฌ๐ฌค ๐ฌ๐ฌฒ๐ฌฎ๐ฌฐ ๐ฌ๐ฌฒ๐ฌฎ๐ฌต ๐ฌ๐ฌถ ๐ฌ๐ฌฒ๐ฌฌ ๐ฌ๐ฌฒ๐ฌฎ๐ฌฐ ๐ฌ๐ฌฐ๐ฌค ๐ฌ๐ฌ๐ฌฐ ๐ฌ๐ฌถ๐ฌฉ๐ฌต ๐ฌ๐ฌฐ๐ฌง๐ฌต ๐ฌ๐ฌฒ๐ฌฌ ๐ฌ๐ฌฒ๐ฌง๐ฌต ๐ฌ๐ฌฐ๐ฌฆ๐ฌฐ ๐ฌ๐ฌช๐ฌฐ ๐ฌ๐ฌค๐ฌต ๐ฌ๐ฌฒ๐ฌ. ๐ฌ๐ฌถ๐ฌฌ ๐ฌ๐ฌฉ ๐ฌ๐ฌง๐ฌต ๐ฌ๐ฌค๐ฌต ๐ฌ๐ฌฐ๐ฌฌ ๐ฌ๐ฌฒ๐ฌ ๐ฌ๐ฌ๐ฌฐ ๐ฌ๐ฌฐ๐ฌฆ ๐ฌ๐ฌฐ๐ฌฎ๐ฌต ๐ฌ๐ฌ๐ฌฐ ๐ฌ๐ฌฐ๐ฌ๐ฌต ๐ฌ๐ฌฒ๐ฌ ๐ฌ๐ฌถ๐ฌฉ๐ฌต ๐ฌ๐ฌฐ๐ฌง๐ฌต, ๐ฌ๐ฌฒ๐ฌฎ ๐ฌ๐ฌ: ๐ฌ๐ฌฒ๐ฌฎ๐ฌฐ ๐ฌ๐ฌฐ๐ฌฎ, ๐ฌ๐ฌฐ๐ฌค ๐ฌ๐ฌฒ๐ฌ, ๐ฌ๐ฌฒ๐ฌฎ๐ฌฐ ๐ฌ๐ฌฒ๐ฌง๐ฌต ๐ฌ๐ฌฐ๐ฌ, ๐ฌ๐ฌ๐ฌฐ ๐ฌ๐ฌฒ๐ฌฎ๐ฌฐ ๐ฌ๐ฌฒ๐ฌฆ ๐ฌ๐ฌฐ๐ฌ ๐ฌ๐ฌฒ. ๐ฌ๐ฌ ๐ฌ๐ฌฒ๐ฌฌ ๐ฌ๐ฌฃ๐ฌต ๐ฌ๐ฌฐ๐ฌฌ ๐ฌ๐ฌค ๐ฌ๐ฌฒ๐ฌ๐ฌฐ ๐ฌ๐ฌ ๐ฌ๐ฌถ๐ฌฏ ๐ฌ๐ฌฒ๐ฌฌ ๐ฌ๐ฌฐ๐ฌฎ๐ฌต ๐ฌ๐ฌฒ๐ฌค๐ฌต ๐ฌ๐ฌฒ๐ฌฎ๐ฌฐ ๐ฌ๐ฌฐ๐ฌฎ. ๐ฌ๐ฌฒ๐ฌง๐ฌต ๐ฌ๐ฌฐ๐ฌค๐ฌต ๐ฌ๐ฌฒ๐ฌฌ ๐ฌ๐ฌฐ๐ฌฆ ๐ฌ๐ฌฒ๐ฌฌ ๐ฌ๐ฌฒ๐ฌช๐ฌต ๐ฌ๐ฌฐ๐ฌ๐ฌต ๐ฌ๐ฌฐ๐ฌง๐ฌต ๐ฌ๐ฌฒ๐ฌง๐ฌต, ๐ฌ๐ฌฒ๐ฌฆ ๐ฌ๐ฌถ, ๐ฌ๐ฌถ๐ฌฏ๐ฌต ๐ฌ๐ฌฏ, ๐ฌ๐ฌฒ๐ฌฆ ๐ฌ ๐ฌ๐ฌฒ๐ฌฆ ๐ฌ๐ฌฒ๐ฌฏ, ๐ฌ๐ฌ๐ฌฐ ๐ฌ๐ฌถ๐ฌฆ๐ฌฐ ๐ฌ๐ฌฆ ๐ฌ๐ฌฒ๐ฌฆ ๐ฌ๐ฌฐ๐ฌฆ ๐ฌ๐ฌฐ๐ฌฉ๐ฌฐ ๐ฌ๐ฌฒ๐ฌฎ๐ฌฐ ๐ฌ๐ฌค ๐ฌ ๐ฌฐ๐ฌข ๐ฌ๐ฌ ๐ฌ๐ฌ ๐ฌ๐ฌฒ๐ฌ ๐ฌ๐ฌฒ๐ฌฌ. ๐ฌ๐ฌฃ๐ฌต ๐ฌ๐ฌค ๐ฌ๐ฌฒ๐ฌฎ๐ฌฐ ๐ฌ๐ฌ ๐ฌ๐ฌฒ๐ฌฌ ๐ฌ๐ฌฒ๐ฌฎ๐ฌฐ ๐ฌ๐ฌฐ๐ฌฎ๐ฌต ๐ฌ๐ฌฒ๐ฌฏ๐ฌต ๐ฌ ๐ฌ๐ฌฐ๐ฌค๐ฌฐ ๐ฌ๐ฌฐ๐ฌค๐ฌฐ, ๐ฌ๐ฌฐ๐ฌฎ๐ฌต ๐ฌ ๐ฌ๐ฌฒ๐ฌค ๐ฌ๐ฌฐ๐ฌ๐ฌต, ๐ฌ๐ฌฐ๐ฌฎ๐ฌต ๐ฌ๐ฌฒ๐ฌ๐ฌต ๐ฌ๐ฌถ๐ฌค, ๐ฌ๐ฌฐ๐ฌฆ ๐ฌ ๐ฌ๐ฌฏ ๐ฌ๐ฌ, ๐ฌ๐ฌฐ๐ฌฆ ๐ฌ๐ฌฒ๐ฌฏ๐ฌต ๐ฌ ๐ฌ๐ฌฒ๐ฌค๐ฌต ๐ฌ๐ฌฐ๐ฌฅ, ๐ฌ๐ฌฒ๐ฌค๐ฌต ๐ฌ๐ฌฒ๐ฌช๐ฌต ๐ฌ๐ฌ๐ฌฐ ๐ฌ๐ฌฒ๐ฌค๐ฌต ๐ฌ๐ฌช๐ฌฐ ๐ฌ๐ฌฒ๐ฌ. | mษลหฆ สษหงหฉฬค iหฆ ษฒษจหฅหง keลหฆ neลหงหฉฬค uษหฉ สeลหฅหง แถฏษษหงหฉฬค โฟdiษหฅหง teหฆ neลหงหฉฬค tiหฆ tsสฐiหฅหง tสสฐษจหฉฬฐ สiหฉฬฐ lษหฉ. Niษหฅหง nฬฅษลหฆ taหฉฬฐ สiหฉฬฐ nษหง tสeลหฉฬฐ muษหฅหง ษฒษหฆ tสฐษลหฆ pหกaษจหฉ hauหงหฆ โฟdiษหฅหง teหฆ, sษจหฉ: eหฉ siษหฉ, สuหฉ lauหงหฆ, auหงหฆ taหฉ liหงษหฉ, tสฐiษหฆ aหฉ meหฉ liหงหฉ kaหฉ. Hษหฉฬฐ neลหงหฉฬค Mฬฅษลหฆ nษหง สษหงหฉฬค tสฐษลหฅหง liหง cษหงหฆ neลหงหฉฬค ษฒษหฆ สaหฆ eหฉ siษหฉ. Taหฆ สiหฉ nษจหฉ muษหฅหง nษจหฉ puษหงหฆ pสฐeลหฅหง teลหฅหง tuหงหฉฬค, mษหฅหง kuษหฆ, tsuหฅหง ciหง, mษลหฅหง kaหงหฆ mษหฅหง cษหฅหง, tสฐiษหฆ tsสฐeลหฆ meลหฉฬฐ mษลหฅหง meลหฅหง kสฐeลหฅหง iหฆ สaหฉฬฐ แตษกauหฉ liหง lษจหฉฬฐ haiหงหฆ neลหงหฉฬค. Mฬฅษลหฆ สษหงหฉฬค iหฆ Hษหฉฬฐ neลหงหฉฬค uษหฉ ษฒiษหฉฬฐ tsษหฅหง keหงหฆ แถฎษaหฅหง แถฎษeลหฉ, ษฒiษหฉฬฐ keหงหฆ สษจหฅหง pสฐeลหฅหง, ษฒiษหฉฬฐ pสฐษลหฅหง สษจหงหฉฬค, muษหฅหง keหงหฆ caหฉฬฐ hษจหฉฬฐ, muษหฅหง tsษหฅหง keหงหฆ สiหฆ lฬฅuหฆ, สiหฆ paหฆ tสฐiษหฆ สiหฆ tสสฐuษหง heลหงหฆ. |
In popular culture
The 2008 film Gran Torino by Clint Eastwood features a large American Hmong speaking cast.[31][32] The screenplay was written in English and the actors improvised the Hmong parts of the script. The decision to cast Hmong actors received a positive reception in Hmong communities.[33] The film also gained recognition and collected awards such as the Ten Best Films of 2008 from the American Film Institute and a Cรฉsar Award in France for Best Foreign Film.[34][35]
See also
References
- ^ Hmong at Ethnologue (25th ed., 2022) ย
Chuanqiandian Cluster Miao (cover term for Hmong in China) at Ethnologue (25th ed., 2022) ย
Northern Qiandong Miao at Ethnologue (25th ed., 2022) ย
Southern Mashan Hmong at Ethnologue (25th ed., 2022) ย
Central Huishui Hmong at Ethnologue (25th ed., 2022) ย
Large Flowery Miao at Ethnologue (25th ed., 2022) ย
Eastern Huishui Hmong at Ethnologue (25th ed., 2022) ย
(Additional references under 'Language codes' in the information box) - ^ Ratliff, Martha (1992). Meaningful Tone: A Study of Tonal Morphology in Compounds, Form Classes, and Expressive Phrases in White Hmong. Dekalb, Illinois: Center for Southeast Asian Studies, Northern Illinois University.
- ^ Elizabeth M. Hoeffel; Sonya Rastogi; Myoung Ouk Kim; Hasan Shahid (March 2012). "The Asian Population: 2010" (PDF). 2010 Census Briefs. United States Census Bureau. Retrieved 20 March 2013.
- ^ Not of Chinese Miao as a whole for which the standard language is based on Hmu
- ^ "2007-188 - ISO 639-3". www.sil.org.
- ^ a b c d "Chapter 2. Overview of Lao Hmong Culture." () Promoting Cultural Sensitivity: Hmong Guide. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. p. 14. Retrieved on May 5, 2013.
- ^ Note however that "Black Miao" is more commonly used for Hmu.
- ^ "ISO 639-3 New Code Request" (PDF). Retrieved 2018-09-30.
- ^ Golston, Chris; Phong Yang (2001). "Hmong loanword phonology". In C. Fรฉry; A. D. Green; R. van de Vijver (eds.). Proceedings of HILP 5 (Linguistics in Potsdam 12ย ed.). Potsdam: University of Potsdam. pp.ย 40โ57. ISBNย 3-935024-27-4. [1]
- ^ Smalley, William et al. Mother of Writing. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1990. p. 48-51. See also: Mortensen, David. โPreliminaries to Mong Leng (Mong Njua) Phonologyโ Unpublished, UC Berkeley. 2004. 29 October 2012 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ ็่พ ไธไธป็ผ๏ผใ่่ฏญ็ฎๅฟใ๏ผๆฐๆๅบ็็คพ๏ผ1985ๅนดใ
- ^ "Hmong Dictionary - Dictionary Hmong".
- ^ Even the landmark book The Sounds of the World's Languages specifically describes lateral release as involving a homorganic consonant.
- ^ Examples taken from: Heimbach, Ernest H. White HmongโEnglish Dictionary [White Meo-English Dictionary]. 2003 ed. Ithaca, NY: Cornell Southeast Asia Program Publications, 1969. Note that many of these words have multiple meanings.
- ^ Robson, David. "The beautiful languages of the people who talk like birds". BBC Future. Retrieved 25 March 2020.
- ^ a b c Fadiman, Anne. "Note on Hmong Orthography, Pronunciation, and Quotations." The Spirit Catches You and You Fall Down. Farrar, Straus and Giroux. 1997. 291.
- ^ Smith, Natalie Jill. "Ethnicity, Reciprocity, Reputation and Punishment: An Ethnoexperimental Study of Cooperation among the Chaldeans and Hmong of Detroit (Michigan)" (PhD dissertation). University of California, Los Angeles, 2001. p. 225. UMI Number: 3024065. Cites: Hamilton-Merritt, 1993 and Faderman [sic], 1998
- ^ Ian James & Mattias Persson. "New Hmong Script". Retrieved April 7, 2018.
This excellent script has been used by members of the United Christians Liberty Evangelical church in America for more than 25 years, in printed material and videos.
- ^ Everson, Michael (2017-02-15). "L2/17-002R3: Proposal to encode the Nyiakeng Puachue Hmong script in the UCS" (PDF).
- ^ http://www.hmonglanguage.net Hmong Language online encyclopedia.
- ^ Fadiman, Anne. "Note on Hmong Orthography, Pronunciation, and Quotations." The Spirit Catches You and You Fall Down. Farrar, Straus and Giroux. 1997. 292.
- ^ Mortensen (2004)
- ^ Ratliff, Martha (1997). (PDF). MonโKhmer Studies Journal. 27: 317โ328. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2012-02-18. Retrieved 2007-06-06. ()
- ^ Strecker, David and Lopao Vang. White Hmong Grammar. 1986.
- ^ "Hmong and Hmong Americans in Minnesota". MNopedia. 2023-07-02. Retrieved 2023-07-02.
- ^ "Hmong". College of Liberal Arts. Retrieved 2023-07-02.
- ^ Donald Melanson (8 May 2013). "Google Translate adds five more languages to its repertoire". Engadget. Retrieved 22 February 2018.
- ^ "Pahawh Hmong alphabet and pronunciation". omniglot.com. Retrieved 2020-12-28.
- ^ Oppitz, Michael. "Die geschichte der verlorenen schrift" (PDF). Retrieved 27 December 2020.
- ^ "์ธ๊ณ์ ๋ฌธ์๋ค". podor.egloos.com (in Korean). Retrieved 2020-12-28.
- ^ Ebert, Roger. "Gran Torino movie review and film summary (2008) | Roger Ebert". Retrieved 2022-09-15.
- ^ "Hmong get a mixed debut in new Eastwood film". MPR News. Retrieved 2022-09-15.
- ^ O'Brien, Kathleen. "Rutgers scholar sheds light on 'Gran Torino' ethnic stars November 17, 2020, at the Wayback Machine." The Star-Ledger. Thursday January 15, 2009. Retrieved on March 16, 2012.
- ^ "Prison drama A Prophet sweeps French Oscars". BBC News. March 1, 2010. from the original on November 17, 2020. Retrieved 28 April 2010.
- ^ "AFI Awards 2008". afi.com. American Film Institute. from the original on May 11, 2011. Retrieved December 16, 2008.
Bibliography
- Cooper, Robert, Editor. The Hmong: A Guide to Traditional Lifestyles. Singapore: Times Editions. 1998. pp.ย 35โ41.
- Finck, John. "Clan Leadership in the Hmong Community of Providence, Rhode Island." In The Hmong in the West, Editors, Bruce T. Downing and Douglas P. Olney. Minneapolis, MN: Southeast Asian Refugee Studies Project, Center for Urban and Regional Affairs, University of Minnesota, 1982, pp.ย 22โ25.
- Thao, Paoze, Mong Education at the Crossroads, New York: University Press of America, 1999, pp.ย 12โ13.
- Xiong Yuyou, Diana Cohen (2005). Student's Practical MiaoโChineseโEnglish Handbook / Npout Ndeud Xof Geuf Lol Hmongb Lol Shuad Lol Yenb. Yunnan Nationalities Publishing House, 539 pp.ย ISBNย 7-5367-3287-2.
Further reading
- Enwall, Joakim. Hmong Writing Systems in Vietnam: A Case Study of Vietnam's Minority Language Policy. Stockholm, Sweden: Center for Pacific Asian Studies, 1995.
- Lyman, Thomas Amis (Chulalongkorn University). "The Mong (Leeg Miao) and their Language: A Brief Compendium" (). p.ย 63โ66.
- Miyake, Marc. 2011. Unicode 6.1: the Old Miao script.
- Miyake, Marc. 2012. Anglo-Hmong tonology.
External links
- White Hmong Vocabulary List (from the World Loanword Database)
- White Hmong Swadesh List on Wiktionary (see Swadesh list)
- Lomation's Hmong Text Reader โ free online program that can read Hmong words/text.
- Online Hmong dictionary (including audio clips)
- : consonants, vowels, tones of Mong Njua and Hmong Daw
- Hmong Resources
- Hmong basic lexicon at the Global Lexicostatistical Database
- Hmong text reader
- https://rpa.oneoffcoder.com/cvt.html Romanized Popular Alphabet
- English-Hmong Phrasebook with Useful Wordlist (for Hmong Speakers), Center for Applied Linguistics, Washington, DC.