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Wikipedia

Alternative fuel vehicle

May 17, 2023

An alternative fuel vehicle is a motor vehicle that runs on alternative fuel rather than traditional petroleum fuels (petrol or petrodiesel). The term also refers to any technology (e.g. electric cars, hybrid electric vehicles, solar-powered vehicles) powering an engine that does not solely involve petroleum.[citation needed] Because of a combination of factors, such as environmental concerns, high oil-prices and the potential for peak oil, development of cleaner alternative fuels and advanced power systems for vehicles has become a high priority for many governments and vehicle manufacturers around the world.

As of January 2017, the Toyota Prius was the world's top selling hybrid electric vehicle, with global sales of almost 4 million units.[1]
A Brazilian filling station with four alternative fuels for sale: biodiesel (B3), gasohol (E25), neat ethanol (E100), and compressed natural gas (CNG)
As of December 2016, the Chevrolet Volt family was the world's top selling plug-in hybrid, with global sales of about 134,500 units.[2]

Vehicle engines powered by gasoline/petrol first emerged in the 1860s and 1870s; they took until the 1930s to completely dominate the original "alternative" engines driven by steam (18th century), by gases (early 19th century), or by electricity (c. 1830s).

Hybrid electric vehicles such as the Toyota Prius are not actually alternative fuel vehicles, but through advanced technologies in the electric battery and motor/generator, they make a more efficient use of petroleum fuel.[3] Other research-and-development efforts in alternative forms of power focus on developing all-electric and fuel cell vehicles, and even on the stored energy of compressed air.

An environmental analysis of the impacts of various vehicle-fuels extends beyond just operating efficiency and emissions, especially if a technology comes into wide use. A life-cycle assessment of a vehicle involves production and post-use considerations. A cradle-to-cradle design is more important than a focus on a single factor such as the type of fuel.[4][5]

Global outlook

As of 2017, there were more than 1.4 billion motor vehicles on the world's roads,[6] compared with just more than 116 million alternative fuel and advanced technology vehicles that had been sold or converted worldwide at the end of 2016 and consisting of:

 
Brazil is the world's leader in flexible-fuel car sales, with cumulative sales totalling 25.5 million units as of June 2015 .[7]
  • About 55 million flex fuel automobiles, motorcycles and light duty trucks manufactured and sold worldwide by mid 2015, led by Brazil with 29.5 million by mid 2015,[7][8] followed by the United States with 17.4 million by the end of 2014,[9] Canada with about 1.6 million by 2014,[10] and Sweden with 243,100 through December 2014.[11][12][13] The Brazilian flex fuel fleet includes over 4 million flexible-fuel motorcycles produced since 2009 through March 2015.[8]
  • 22.7 million natural gas vehicles as of August 2015, led by China (4.4 million) Iran with 4.00 million, followed by Pakistan (3.70 million), Argentina (2.48 million), India (1.80 million) and Brazil (1.78 million).[14]
  • 24.9 million LPG powered vehicles by December 2013, led by Turkey with 3.93 million, South Korea (2.4 million), and Poland (2.75 million).[15]
  • More than 12 million hybrid electric vehicles have been sold worldwide.[1][16] As of April 2016, Japan ranked as the market leader with more than 5 million hybrids sold, followed by the United States with cumulative sales of over 4 million units since 1999, and Europe with about 1.5 million hybrids delivered since 2000.[16] As of January 2017, global sales are by Toyota Motor Company with more than 10 million Lexus and Toyota hybrids sold,[1] followed by Honda Motor Co., Ltd. with cumulative global sales of more than 1.35 million hybrids as of June 2014.[17][18][19] As of January 2017, global hybrid sales are led by the Prius family, with cumulative sales of 6.1 million units.[1] The Toyota Prius liftback is the world's top selling hybrid electric car with cumulative sales of 3.985 million units through January 2017.[1]
  • 5.7 million neat-ethanol only light-vehicles built in Brazil since 1979,[20] with 2.4 to 3.0 million vehicles still in use by 2003.[21][22] and 1.22 million units as of December 2011.[23]
 
The Tesla Model 3 all-electric car is the world's all-time best-selling plug-in electric car with about 950,000 units sold as of March 2021.
As of December 2020, China had the world's largest stock of highway legal plug-in electric passenger cars with 4.5 million units, representing 42% of the world's stock of plug-in cars.[29][30] Europe ranked next with over 3.2 million plug-in passenger cars at the end of 2020, accounting for about 30% of the global stock.[29][31][32] The U.S. cumulative sales totaled about 1.8 million plug-in cars through December 2020.[33]
  • There were 31,225 passenger fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEV) powered with hydrogen on the world's roads.[34] South Korea is the country market with the largest stock of passenger FCEVs with 10,041 units, followed by the United States (9,135), China (5,546) and Japan (4,100).[34]

Single fuel source

Engine air compressor

 
The Peugeot 2008 HYbrid air prototype replaced conventional hybrid batteries with a compressed air propulsion system
Main articles: Compressed-air engine, Compressed-air vehicle, and Compressed-air car

The air engine is an emission-free piston engine that uses compressed air as a source of energy. The first compressed air car was invented by a French engineer named Guy Nègre. The expansion of compressed air may be used to drive the pistons in a modified piston engine. Efficiency of operation is gained through the use of environmental heat at normal temperature to warm the otherwise cold expanded air from the storage tank. This non-adiabatic expansion has the potential to greatly increase the efficiency of the machine. The only exhaust is cold air (−15 °C), which could also be used to air condition the car. The source for air is a pressurized carbon-fiber tank. Air is delivered to the engine via a rather conventional injection system. Unique crank design within the engine increases the time during which the air charge is warmed from ambient sources and a two-stage process allows improved heat transfer rates.

Electric, fed by external source

Electric power fed from an external source to the vehicle is standard in railway electrification. At such systems usually the tracks form one pole, while the other is usually a single overhead wire or a rail insulated against ground.

On roads this system does not work as described, as normal road surfaces are very poor electric conductors; and so electric vehicles fed with external power on roads require at least two overhead wires. The most common type of road vehicles fed with electricity from external source are trolleybusses, but there are also some trucks powered with this technology. The advantage is that the vehicle can be operated without breaks for refueling or charging. Disadvantages include: a large infrastructure of electric wires; difficulty in driving as one has to prevent a dewirement of the vehicle; vehicles cannot overtake each other; a danger of electrocution; and an aesthetic problem.

Wireless transmission (see Wireless power transfer) is possible, in principal; but the infrastructure (especially wiring) necessary for inductive or capacitive coupling would be extensive and expensive. In principle it is also possible to transmit energy by microwaves or by lasers to the vehicle, but this may be inefficient and dangerous for the power required. Beside this, in the case of lasers one requires a guidance system to track the vehicle to be powered, as laser beams have a small diameter.

Battery-electric

Main articles: Battery electric vehicle and Electric car

Battery electric vehicles (BEVs), also known as all-electric vehicles (AEVs), are electric vehicles whose main energy storage is in the chemical energy of batteries. BEVs are the most common form of what is defined by the California Air Resources Board (CARB) as zero emission vehicle (ZEV) because they produce no tailpipe emissions at the point of operation. The electrical energy carried on board a BEV to power the motors is obtained from a variety of battery chemistries arranged into battery packs. For additional range genset trailers or pusher trailers are sometimes used, forming a type of hybrid vehicle. Batteries used in electric vehicles include "flooded" lead-acid, absorbed glass mat, NiCd, nickel metal hydride, Li-ion, Li-poly and zinc-air batteries.

Attempts at building viable, modern battery-powered electric vehicles began in the 1950s with the introduction of the first modern (transistor controlled) electric car – the Henney Kilowatt, even though the concept was out in the market since 1890. Despite the poor sales of the early battery-powered vehicles, development of various battery-powered vehicles continued through the mid-1990s, with such models as the General Motors EV1 and the Toyota RAV4 EV.

 
The Nissan Leaf was the world's top selling highway-capable all-electric car until December 2019.[25]

Battery powered cars had primarily used lead-acid batteries and NiMH batteries. Lead-acid batteries' recharge capacity is considerably reduced if they're discharged beyond 75% on a regular basis, making them a less-than-ideal solution. NiMH batteries are a better choice[citation needed], but are considerably more expensive than lead-acid. Lithium-ion battery powered vehicles such as the Venturi Fetish and the Tesla Roadster have recently demonstrated excellent performance and range, and nevertheless is used in most mass production models launched since December 2010.

Expanding on traditional Lithium-ion batteries predominately used in today's battery electric vehicles, is an emerging science that is paving the way to utilize a carbon fiber structure (a vehicle body or chassis in this case) as a structural battery. Experiments being conducted at the Chalmers University of Technology in Sweden are showing that when coupled with Lithium-ion insertion mechanisms, an enhanced carbon fiber structure can have electromechanical properties. This means that the carbon fiber structure itself can act as its own battery/power source for propulsion. This would negate the need for traditional heavy battery banks, reducing weight and therefore increasing fuel efficiency.[35]

As of December 2015, several neighborhood electric vehicles, city electric cars and series production highway-capable electric cars and utility vans have been made available for retails sales, including Tesla Roadster, GEM cars, Buddy, Mitsubishi i MiEV and its rebadged versions Peugeot iOn and Citroën C-Zero, Chery QQ3 EV, JAC J3 EV, Nissan Leaf, Smart ED, Mia electric, BYD e6, Renault Kangoo Z.E., Bolloré Bluecar, Renault Fluence Z.E., Ford Focus Electric, BMW ActiveE, Renault Twizy, Tesla Model S, Honda Fit EV, RAV4 EV second generation, Renault Zoe, Mitsubishi Minicab MiEV, Roewe E50, Chevrolet Spark EV, Fiat 500e, BMW i3, Volkswagen e-Up!, Nissan e-NV200, Volkswagen e-Golf, Mercedes-Benz B-Class Electric Drive, Kia Soul EV, BYD e5, and Tesla Model X.[36] The world's all-time top selling highway legal electric car is the Nissan Leaf, released in December 2010, with global sales of more than 250,000 units through December 2016.[37] The Tesla Model S, released in June 2012, ranks second with global sales of over 158,000 cars delivered as of December 2016.[37] The Renault Kangoo Z.E. utility van is the leader of the light-duty all-electric segment with global sales of 25,205 units through December 2016.[38]

Electric, stored-otherway

Electricity can be also stored in supercapacitors and supraconductors. However supraconductor storage is unsuitable for vehicle propulsion as it requires extreme deep temperature and produces strong magnetic fields. Supercapacitors, however, can be used in vehicles and are used in some trams on sections without overhead wire. They can be load in during regular stops, at which passengers enter and leave the train, but can only travel a few kilometres with the stored energy. However, this is no problem in this case as the next stop is usually in reachable distance.

Solar

See also: Solar vehicle, Solar car racing, and List of solar car teams
 
Nuna team at a racecourse.
 
Nuna solar powered car, which has travelled up to 140km/h (84mph).

A solar car is an electric vehicle powered by solar energy obtained from solar panels on the car. Solar panels cannot currently be used to directly supply a car with a suitable amount of power at this time, but they can be used to extend the range of electric vehicles. They are raced in competitions such as the World Solar Challenge and the North American Solar Challenge. These events are often sponsored by Government agencies such as the United States Department of Energy keen to promote the development of alternative energy technology such as solar cells and electric vehicles. Such challenges are often entered by universities to develop their students' engineering and technological skills as well as motor vehicle manufacturers such as GM and Honda.

 
Trev's battery lasts over 250,000 kilometres.

The North American Solar Challenge is a solar car race across North America. Originally called Sunrayce, organized and sponsored by General Motors in 1990, it was renamed American Solar Challenge in 2001, sponsored by the United States Department of Energy and the National Renewable Energy Laboratory. Teams from universities in the United States and Canada compete in a long distance test of endurance as well as efficiency, driving thousands of miles on regular highways.

Nuna is the name of a series of manned solar powered vehicles that won the World solar challenge in Australia three times in a row, in 2001 (Nuna 1 or just Nuna), 2003 (Nuna 2) and 2005 (Nuna 3). The Nunas are built by students of the Delft University of Technology.

The World solar challenge is a solar powered car race over 3,021 kilometres (1,877 mi) through central Australia from Darwin to Adelaide. The race attracts teams from around the world, most of which are fielded by universities or corporations although some are fielded by high schools.

Trev (two-seater renewable energy vehicle) was designed by the staff and students at the University of South Australia. Trev was first displayed at the 2005 World Solar Challenge as the concept of a low-mass, efficient commuter car. With 3 wheels and a mass of about 300 kg, the prototype car had maximum speed of 120 km/h and acceleration of 0–100 km/h in about 10 seconds. The running cost of Trev is projected to be less than 1/10 of the running cost of a small petrol car.

Dimethyl ether fuel

 
Installation of BioDME synthesis towers at Chemrec's pilot facility

Dimethyl ether (DME) is a promising fuel in diesel engines,[39] petrol engines (30% DME / 70% LPG), and gas turbines owing to its high cetane number, which is 55, compared to diesel's, which is 40–53.[40][41] Only moderate modifications are needed to convert a diesel engine to burn DME. The simplicity of this short carbon chain compound leads during combustion to very low emissions of particulate matter, NOx, CO. For these reasons as well as being sulfur-free, DME meets even the most stringent emission regulations in Europe (EURO5), U.S. (U.S. 2010), and Japan (2009 Japan).[42] Mobil is using DME in their methanol to gasoline process.

DME is being developed as a synthetic second generation biofuel (BioDME), which can be manufactured from lignocellulosic biomass.[43] Currently the EU is considering BioDME in its potential biofuel mix in 2030;[44] the Volvo Group is the coordinator for the European Community Seventh Framework Programme project BioDME[45][46] where Chemrec's BioDME pilot plant based on black liquor gasification is nearing completion in Piteå, Sweden.[47]

Ammonia fuelled vehicles

 
Ammoniacal Gas Engine Streetcar in New Orleans drawn by Alfred Waud in 1871.
 
The X-15 aircraft used ammonia as one component fuel of its rocket engine

Ammonia is produced by combining gaseous hydrogen with nitrogen from the air. Large-scale ammonia production uses natural gas for the source of hydrogen. Ammonia was used during World War II to power buses in Belgium, and in engine and solar energy applications prior to 1900. Liquid ammonia also fuelled the Reaction Motors XLR99 rocket engine, that powered the X-15 hypersonic research aircraft. Although not as powerful as other fuels, it left no soot in the reusable rocket engine and its density approximately matches the density of the oxidizer, liquid oxygen, which simplified the aircraft's design.

Ammonia has been proposed as a practical alternative to fossil fuel for internal combustion engines.[48] The calorific value of ammonia is 22.5 MJ/kg (9690 BTU/lb), which is about half that of diesel. In a normal engine, in which the water vapour is not condensed, the calorific value of ammonia will be about 21% less than this figure. It can be used in existing engines with only minor modifications to carburettors/injectors.

If produced from coal, the CO2 can be readily sequestered[48][49] (the combustion products are nitrogen and water).

Ammonia engines or ammonia motors, using ammonia as a working fluid, have been proposed and occasionally used.[50] The principle is similar to that used in a fireless locomotive, but with ammonia as the working fluid, instead of steam or compressed air. Ammonia engines were used experimentally in the 19th century by Goldsworthy Gurney in the UK and in streetcars in New Orleans. In 1981 a Canadian company converted a 1981 Chevrolet Impala to operate using ammonia as fuel.[51][52]

Ammonia and GreenNH3 is being used with success by developers in Canada,[53] since it can run in spark ignited or diesel engines with minor modifications, also the only green fuel to power jet engines, and despite its toxicity is reckoned to be no more dangerous than petrol or LPG.[54] It can be made from renewable electricity, and having half the density of petrol or diesel can be readily carried in sufficient quantities in vehicles. On complete combustion it has no emissions other than nitrogen and water vapour. The combustion chemical formula is 4 NH3 + 3 O2 → 2 N2 + 6 H2O, 75% water is the result.

Biofuels

Main article: Biofuel

Bioalcohol and ethanol

See also: Alcohol fuel, Ethanol fuel, Methanol economy, Methanol fuel, Common ethanol fuel mixtures, Flexible-fuel vehicle, E85, and Biobutanol
 
The Ford Model T was the first commercial flex-fuel vehicle. The engine was capable of running on gasoline or ethanol, or a mix of both.
 
The 1996 Ford Taurus was the first flexible-fuel vehicle produced with versions capable of running with either ethanol (E85) or methanol (M85) blended with gasoline.
 
The 2003 VW Gol 1.6 Total Flex was the first commercial flexible-fuel vehicle in the Brazilian market, capable of running on any mixture of gasoline (E20 to E25 blend) and ethanol (E100).

The first commercial vehicle that used ethanol as a fuel was the Ford Model T, produced from 1908 through 1927. It was fitted with a carburetor with adjustable jetting, allowing use of gasoline or ethanol, or a combination of both.[55][56][57] Other car manufactures also provided engines for ethanol fuel use.[58] In the United States, alcohol fuel was produced in corn-alcohol stills until Prohibition criminalized the production of alcohol in 1919. The use of alcohol as a fuel for internal combustion engines, either alone or in combination with other fuels, lapsed until the oil price shocks of the 1970s. Furthermore, additional attention was gained because of its possible environmental and long-term economical advantages over fossil fuel.

Both ethanol and methanol have been used as an automotive fuel.[59] While both can be obtained from petroleum or natural gas, ethanol has attracted more attention because it is considered a renewable resource, easily obtained from sugar or starch in crops and other agricultural produce such as grain, sugarcane, sugar beets or even lactose. Since ethanol occurs in nature whenever yeast happens to find a sugar solution such as overripe fruit, most organisms have evolved some tolerance to ethanol, whereas methanol is toxic. Other experiments involve butanol, which can also be produced by fermentation of plants. Support for ethanol comes from the fact that it is a biomass fuel, which addresses climate change and greenhouse gas emissions, though these benefits are now highly debated,[58][60][61][62] including the heated 2008 food vs fuel debate.

Most modern cars are designed to run on gasoline are capable of running with a blend from 10% up to 15% ethanol mixed into gasoline (E10-E15). With a small amount of redesign, gasoline-powered vehicles can run on ethanol concentrations as high as 85% (E85), the maximum set in the United States and Europe due to cold weather during the winter,[63] or up to 100% (E100) in Brazil, with a warmer climate. Ethanol has close to 34% less energy per volume than gasoline,[64][65] consequently fuel economy ratings with ethanol blends are significantly lower than with pure gasoline, but this lower energy content does not translate directly into a 34% reduction in mileage, because there are many other variables that affect the performance of a particular fuel in a particular engine, and also because ethanol has a higher octane rating which is beneficial to high compression ratio engines.

For this reason, for pure or high ethanol blends to be attractive for users, its price must be lower than gasoline to offset the lower fuel economy. As a rule of thumb, Brazilian consumers are frequently advised by the local media to use more alcohol than gasoline in their mix only when ethanol prices are 30% lower or more than gasoline, as ethanol price fluctuates heavily depending on the results and seasonal harvests of sugar cane and by region.[66][67] In the US, and based on EPA tests for all 2006 E85 models, the average fuel economy for E85 vehicles was found 25.56% lower than unleaded gasoline.[58] The EPA-rated mileage of current American flex-fuel vehicles[68] could be considered when making price comparisons, though E85 has octane rating of about 104 and could be used as a substitute for premium gasoline. Regional retail E85 prices vary widely across the US, with more favorable prices in the Midwest region, where most corn is grown and ethanol produced. In August 2008 the US average spread between the price of E85 and gasoline was 16.9%, while in Indiana was 35%, 30% in Minnesota and Wisconsin, 19% in Maryland, 12 to 15% in California, and just 3% in Utah.[69] Depending on the vehicle capabilities, the break even price of E85 usually has to be between 25 and 30% lower than gasoline.[58]

 
E85 fuel sold at a regular gasoline station in Washington, D.C..

Reacting to the high price of oil and its growing dependence on imports, in 1975 Brazil launched the Pro-alcool program, a huge government-subsidized effort to manufacture ethanol fuel (from its sugar cane crop) and ethanol-powered automobiles. These ethanol-only vehicles were very popular in the 1980s, but became economically impractical when oil prices fell – and sugar prices rose – late in that decade. In May 2003 Volkswagen built for the first time a commercial ethanol flexible fuel car, the Gol 1.6 Total Flex. These vehicles were a commercial success and by early 2009 other nine Brazilian manufacturers are producing flexible fuel vehicles: Chevrolet, Fiat, Ford, Peugeot, Renault, Honda, Mitsubishi, Toyota, Citroën, and Nissan.[20][70] The adoption of the flex technology was so rapid, that flexible fuel cars reached 87.6% of new car sales in July 2008.[71] As of August 2008, the fleet of "flex" automobiles and light commercial vehicles had reached 6 million new vehicles sold,[72] representing almost 19% of all registered light vehicles.[73] The rapid success of "flex" vehicles, as they are popularly known, was made possible by the existence of 33,000 filling stations with at least one ethanol pump available by 2006, a heritage of the Pro-alcool program.[74][75]

In the United States, initial support to develop alternative fuels by the government was also a response to the 1973 oil crisis, and later on, as a goal to improve air quality. Also, liquid fuels were preferred over gaseous fuels not only because they have a better volumetric energy density but also because they were the most compatible fuels with existing distribution systems and engines, thus avoiding a big departure from the existing technologies and taking advantage of the vehicle and the refueling infrastructure.[59] California led the search of sustainable alternatives with interest in methanol.[59] In 1996, a new FFV Ford Taurus was developed, with models fully capable of running either methanol or ethanol blended with gasoline.[59][76] This ethanol version of the Taurus was the first commercial production of an E85 FFV.[77] The momentum of the FFV production programs at the American car companies continued, although by the end of the 1990s, the emphasis was on the FFV E85 version, as it is today.[59] Ethanol was preferred over methanol because there is a large support in the farming community and thanks to government's incentive programs and corn-based ethanol subsidies.[78] Sweden also tested both the M85 and the E85 flexifuel vehicles, but due to agriculture policy, in the end emphasis was given to the ethanol flexifuel vehicles.[79]

Biodiesel

Main article: Biodiesel
 
Bus running on soybean biodiesel
 
Biodiesel (B20) pump in the U.S.

The main benefit of Diesel combustion engines is that they have a 44% fuel burn efficiency; compared with just 25–30% in the best gasoline engines.[80] In addition diesel fuel has slightly higher energy density by volume than gasoline. This makes Diesel engines capable of achieving much better fuel economy than gasoline vehicles.

Biodiesel (fatty acid methyl ester), is commercially available in most oilseed-producing states in the United States. As of 2005, it is somewhat more expensive than fossil diesel, though it is still commonly produced in relatively small quantities (in comparison to petroleum products and ethanol). Many farmers who raise oilseeds use a biodiesel blend in tractors and equipment as a matter of policy, to foster production of biodiesel and raise public awareness. It is sometimes easier to find biodiesel in rural areas than in cities. Biodiesel has lower energy density than fossil diesel fuel, so biodiesel vehicles are not quite able to keep up with the fuel economy of a fossil fuelled diesel vehicle, if the diesel injection system is not reset for the new fuel. If the injection timing is changed to take account of the higher cetane value of biodiesel, the difference in economy is negligible. Because biodiesel contains more oxygen than diesel or vegetable oil fuel, it produces the lowest emissions from diesel engines, and is lower in most emissions than gasoline engines. Biodiesel has a higher lubricity than mineral diesel and is an additive in European pump diesel for lubricity and emissions reduction.

Some Diesel-powered cars can run with minor modifications on 100% pure vegetable oils. Vegetable oils tend to thicken (or solidify if it is waste cooking oil), in cold weather conditions so vehicle modifications (a two tank system with diesel start/stop tank), are essential in order to heat the fuel prior to use under most circumstances. Heating to the temperature of engine coolant reduces fuel viscosity, to the range cited by injection system manufacturers, for systems prior to 'common rail' or 'unit injection ( VW PD)' systems. Waste vegetable oil, especially if it has been used for a long time, may become hydrogenated and have increased acidity. This can cause the thickening of fuel, gumming in the engine and acid damage of the fuel system. Biodiesel does not have this problem, because it is chemically processed to be PH neutral and lower viscosity. Modern low emission diesels (most often Euro -3 and -4 compliant), typical of the current production in the European industry, would require extensive modification of injector system, pumps and seals etc. due to the higher operating pressures, that are designed thinner (heated) mineral diesel than ever before, for atomisation, if they were to use pure vegetable oil as fuel. Vegetable oil fuel is not suitable for these vehicles as they are currently produced. This reduces the market as increasing numbers of new vehicles are not able to use it. However, the German Elsbett company has successfully produced single tank vegetable oil fuel systems for several decades, and has worked with Volkswagen on their TDI engines. This shows that it is technologically possible to use vegetable oil as a fuel in high efficiency / low emission diesel engines.

Greasestock is an event held yearly in Yorktown Heights, New York, and is one of the largest showcases of vehicles using waste oil as a biofuel in the United States.[81][82][83][84]

Biogas

Main article: Biogas

Compressed biogas may be used for internal combustion engines after purification of the raw gas. The removal of H2O, H2S and particles can be seen as standard producing a gas which has the same quality as compressed natural gas. The use of biogas is particularly interesting for climates where the waste heat of a biogas powered power plant cannot be used during the summer.[54][85]

Charcoal

In the 1930s Tang Zhongming made an invention using abundant charcoal resources for Chinese auto market. The charcoal-fuelled car was later used intensively in China, serving the army and conveyancer after the breakout of World War II.

Compressed natural gas

Main article: Natural gas vehicle
 
The Brazilian Fiat Siena Tetrafuel 1.4, the first multifuel car that runs as a flexible-fuel on pure gasoline, or E25, or E100; or runs as a bi-fuel with natural gas (CNG).

High-pressure compressed natural gas (CNG), mainly composed of methane, that is used to fuel normal combustion engines instead of gasoline. Combustion of methane produces the least amount of CO2 of all fossil fuels. Gasoline cars can be retrofitted to CNG and become bifuel Natural gas vehicles (NGVs) as the gasoline tank is kept. The driver can switch between CNG and gasoline during operation. Natural gas vehicles (NGVs) are popular in regions or countries where natural gas is abundant. Widespread use began in the Po River Valley of Italy, and later became very popular in New Zealand by the eighties, though its use has declined.[86]

 
Buses powered with CNG are common in the United States.

As of December 2012, there were 17.8 million natural gas vehicles worldwide, led by Iran with 3.30 million, followed by Pakistan (2.79 million), Argentina (2.29 million), Brazil (1.75 million), China (1.58 million) and India (1.5 million).[14] As of 2010, the Asia-Pacific region led the global market with a share of 54%.[87] In Europe they are popular in Italy (730,000), Ukraine (200,000), Armenia (101,352), Russia (100,000) and Germany (91,500),[87] and they are becoming more so as various manufacturers produce factory made cars, buses, vans and heavy vehicles.[85] In the United States CNG powered buses are the favorite choice of several public transit agencies, with an estimated CNG bus fleet of some 130,000.[88] Other countries where CNG-powered buses are popular include India, Australia, Argentina, and Germany.[86]

CNG vehicles are common in South America, where these vehicles are mainly used as taxicabs in main cities of Argentina and Brazil. Normally, standard gasoline vehicles are retrofitted in specialized shops, which involve installing the gas cylinder in the trunk and the CNG injection system and electronics. The Brazilian GNV fleet is concentrated in the cities of Rio de Janeiro and São Paulo.[89] Pike Research reports that almost 90% of NGVs in Latin America have bi-fuel engines, allowing these vehicles to run on either gasoline or CNG.[90]

In 2006 the Brazilian subsidiary of FIAT introduced the Fiat Siena Tetra fuel, a four-fuel car developed under Magneti Marelli of Fiat Brazil.[91][92] This automobile can run on 100% ethanol (E100), E25 (Brazil's normal ethanol gasoline blend), pure gasoline (not available in Brazil), and natural gas, and switches from the gasoline-ethanol blend to CNG automatically, depending on the power required by road conditions.[93] Other existing option is to retrofit an ethanol flexible-fuel vehicle to add a natural gas tank and the corresponding injection system. Some taxicabs in São Paulo and Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, run on this option, allowing the user to choose among three fuels (E25, E100 and CNG) according to current market prices at the pump. Vehicles with this adaptation are known in Brazil as "tri-fuel" cars.[94]

HCNG or hydrogen enriched compressed natural gas for automobile use is premixed at the hydrogen station.

Liquefied natural gas

Main article: Natural gas vehicle

Liquefied natural gas (LNG) is natural gas that has been cooled to a point at which it becomes a cryogenic liquid. In this liquid state, natural gas is more than 2 times as dense as highly compressed CNG. LNG fuel systems function on any vehicle capable of burning natural gas. Unlike CNG, which is stored at high pressure (typically 3000 or 3600 psi) and then regulated to a lower pressure that the engine can accept, LNG is stored at low pressure (50 to 150 psi) and simply vaporized by a heat exchanger before entering the fuel metering devices to the engine. Because of its high energy density compared to CNG, it is very suitable for those interested in long ranges while running on natural gas.

In the United States, the LNG supply chain is the main thing that has held back this fuel source from growing rapidly. The LNG supply chain is very analogous to that of diesel or gasoline. First, pipeline natural gas is liquefied in large quantities, which is analogous to refining gasoline or diesel. Then, the LNG is transported via semi trailer to fuel stations where it is stored in bulk tanks until it is dispensed into a vehicle. CNG, on the other hand, requires expensive compression at each station to fill the high-pressure cylinder cascades.

Autogas

Main article: Autogas
 
A propane-fueled school bus in the United States.

LPG or liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) is a low pressure liquefied gas mixture composed mainly of propane and butane which burns in conventional gasoline combustion engines with less CO2 than gasoline. Gasoline cars can be retrofitted to LPG aka Autogas and become bifuel vehicles as the gasoline tank is not removed, allowing drivers to switch between LPG and gasoline during operation. Estimated 10 million vehicles running worldwide.

There are 17.473 million LPG powered vehicles worldwide as of December 2010, and the leading countries are Turkey (2.394 million vehicles), Poland (2.325 million), and South Korea (2.3 million).[15] In the U.S., 190,000 on-road vehicles use propane,[95] and 450,000 forklifts use it for power. However, it is banned in Pakistan (DEC 2013) as it is considered a risk to public safety by OGRA.

Hyundai Motor Company began sales of the Elantra LPI Hybrid in the South Korean domestic market in July 2009. The Elantra LPI (Liquefied Petroleum Injected) is the world's first hybrid electric vehicle to be powered by an internal combustion engine built to run on liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) as a fuel.[96][97]

Formic acid

Main article: Formic acid

Formic acid is used by converting it first to hydrogen, and using that in a hydrogen fuel cell. It can also be used directly in formic acid fuel cells. Formic acid is much easier to store than hydrogen.[98][99]

Hydrogen

Main articles: Hydrogen vehicle and Hydrogen economy
 
The 2009 Honda FCX Clarity is a hydrogen fuel cell automobile launched to the market in 2008.
 
Hydrogen fueling station in California.
 
Sequel, a hydrogen fuel cell-powered vehicle from General Motors.
 
The Hyundai ix35 FCEV was released for leasing in the U.S. in 2014.
 
The Toyota Mirai is one of the first hydrogen fuel-cell vehicles to be sold commercially to retail customers, initially, only in Japan and California.[100][101]

A hydrogen car is an automobile which uses hydrogen as its primary source of power for locomotion. These cars generally use the hydrogen in one of two methods: combustion or fuel-cell conversion. In combustion, the hydrogen is "burned" in engines in fundamentally the same method as traditional gasoline cars. In fuel-cell conversion, the hydrogen is turned into electricity through fuel cells which then powers electric motors. With either method, the only byproduct from the spent hydrogen is water, however during combustion with air NOx can be produced.

Honda introduced its fuel cell vehicle in 1999 called the FCX and have since then introduced the second generation FCX Clarity. Limited marketing of the FCX Clarity, based on the 2007 concept model, began in June 2008 in the United States, and it was introduced in Japan in November 2008.[102] The FCX Clarity was available in the U.S. only in Los Angeles Area, where 16 hydrogen filling stations are available, and until July 2009, only 10 drivers have leased the Clarity for US$600 a month. At the 2012 World Hydrogen Energy Conference, Daimler AG, Honda, Hyundai and Toyota all confirmed plans to produce hydrogen fuel cell vehicles for sale by 2015, with some types planned to enter the showroom in 2013.[103] From 2008 to 2014, Honda leased a total of 45 FCX units in the US.[104]

A small number of prototype hydrogen cars currently exist, and a significant amount of research is underway to make the technology more viable. The common internal combustion engine, usually fueled with gasoline (petrol) or diesel liquids, can be converted to run on gaseous hydrogen. However, the most efficient use of hydrogen involves the use of fuel cells and electric motors instead of a traditional engine. Hydrogen reacts with oxygen inside the fuel cells, which produces electricity to power the motors. One primary area of research is hydrogen storage, to try to increase the range of hydrogen vehicles while reducing the weight, energy consumption, and complexity of the storage systems. Two primary methods of storage are metal hydrides and compression. Some believe that hydrogen cars will never be economically viable and that the emphasis on this technology is a diversion from the development and popularization of more efficient hybrid cars and other alternative technologies.[citation needed]

A study by The Carbon Trust for the UK Department of Energy and Climate Change suggests that hydrogen technologies have the potential to deliver UK transport with near-zero emissions whilst reducing dependence on imported oil and curtailment of renewable generation. However, the technologies face very difficult challenges, in terms of cost, performance and policy.[105]

Buses, trains, PHB bicycles, canal boats, cargo bikes, golf carts, motorcycles, wheelchairs, ships, airplanes, submarines, and rockets can already run on hydrogen, in various forms. NASA used hydrogen to launch Space Shuttles into space. A working toy model car runs on solar power, using a regenerative fuel cell to store energy in the form of hydrogen and oxygen gas. It can then convert the fuel back into water to release the solar energy.[106]

BMW's Clean Energy internal combustion hydrogen car has more power and is faster than hydrogen fuel cell electric cars. A limited series production of the 7 Series Saloon was announced as commencing at the end of 2006. A BMW hydrogen prototype (H2R) using the driveline of this model broke the speed record for hydrogen cars at 300 km/h (186 mi/h), making automotive history. Mazda has developed Wankel engines to burn hydrogen. The Wankel uses a rotary principle of operation, so the hydrogen burns in a different part of the engine from the intake. This reduces pre-detonation, a problem with hydrogen fueled piston engines.[citation needed]

The other major car companies like Daimler, Chrysler, Honda, Toyota, Ford and General Motors, are investing in hydrogen fuel cells instead. VW, Nissan, and Hyundai/Kia also have fuel cell vehicle prototypes on the road. In addition, transit agencies across the globe are running prototype fuel cell buses. Fuel cell vehicles, such as the new Honda Clarity, can get up to 70 miles (110 km) on a kilogram of hydrogen.[citation needed]

The Hyundai ix35 FCEV fuel cell vehicle is available for lease in the U.S.[107] In 2014, a total of 54 units were leased.[108] Sales of the Toyota Mirai to government and corporate customers began in Japan on December 15, 2014.[109] Toyota delivered the first market placed Mirai to the Prime Minister's Official Residence and announced it got 1,500 orders in Japan in one month after sales began against a sales target of 400 for 12 months.[101][110]

Deliveries to retail customers began in California in October 2015. A total of 57 units were delivered between October and November 2015.[111] Toyota scheduled to release the Mirai in the Northeastern States in the first half of 2016. The market launch in Europe is slated for September 2015.[112]

Liquid nitrogen car

Main article: Liquid nitrogen vehicle
Further information: Liquid nitrogen economy

Liquid nitrogen (LN2) is a method of storing energy. Energy is used to liquefy air, and then LN2 is produced by evaporation, and distributed. LN2 is exposed to ambient heat in the car and the resulting nitrogen gas can be used to power a piston or turbine engine. The maximum amount of energy that can be extracted from LN2 is 213 Watt-hours per kg (W·h/kg) or 173 W·h per liter, in which a maximum of 70 W·h/kg can be utilized with an isothermal expansion process. Such a vehicle with a 350-liter (93 gallon) tank can achieve ranges similar to a gasoline powered vehicle with a 50-liter (13 gallon) tank. Theoretical future engines, using cascading topping cycles, can improve this to around 110 W·h/kg with a quasi-isothermal expansion process. The advantages are zero harmful emissions and superior energy densities compared to a compressed-air vehicle as well as being able to refill the tank in a matter of minutes.

Nuclear power

Main article: Nuclear propulsion
 
Mars rover Curiosity driven by radioisotope thermoelectric generators

In principle, it is possible to build a vehicle powered by nuclear fission or nuclear decay. However, there are two major problems: first one has to transform the energy, which comes as heat and radiation into energy usable for a drive. One possible would be to use a steam turbine as in a nuclear power plant, but such a device would take too much space. A more suitable way would be direct conversion into electricity for example with thermoelements or thermionic devices. The second problem is that nuclear fission produces high levels of neutron and gamma rays, which require excessive shielding, that would result in a vehicle too large for use on public roads. However studies were made in this way by Ford Nucleon.

A better way for a nuclear powered vehicle would be the use of power of radioactive decay in radioisotope thermoelectric generators, which are also very safe and reliable. The required shielding of these devices depends on the used radio nuclide. Plutonium-238 as nearly pure alpha radiator does not require much shielding. As prices for suitable radionuclide are high and energy density is low (generating 1 watt with Plutonium-238 requires a half gram of it), this way of propulsion is too expensive for wide use. Also radioisotope thermoelectric generators offer according to their large content of high radioactive material an extreme danger in case of misuse for example by terrorists. The only vehicle in use, which is driven by radioisotope thermoelectric generators is the Mars rover Curiosity.

Other forms of nuclear power as fusion and annihilation are at present not available for vehicle propulsion, as no working fusion reactor is available and it is questionable if one can ever built one with a size suitable for a road vehicle. Annihilation may perhaps work in some ways (see antimatter drive), but there is no technology existing to produce and store enough antimatter.

Flywheels

Flywheels can be also used for alternative fuel and were used in the 1950s for the propulsion of buses in Switzerland, the such called gyrobuses. The flywheel of the bus was loaded up by electric power at the terminals of the line and allowed it to travel a way up to 8 kilometres just with its flywheel. Flywheel-powered vehicles are quieter than vehicles with combustion engine, require no overhead wire and generate no exhausts, but the flywheel device has a great weight (1.5 tons for 5 kWh) and requires special safety measures due to its high rotational speed.

Silanes

Silanes higher than heptasilane can be stored like gasoline and may also work as fuel. They have the advantage that they can also burn with the nitrogen of the air, but have as major disadvantage its high price and that its combustion products are solid, which gives trouble in combustion engines.

Spring

The power of wound-up springs or twisted rubber cords can be used for the propulsion of small vehicles. However this way of energy storage allows only saving small energy amounts not suitable for the propulsion of vehicles for transporting people. Spring-powered vehicles are wind-up toys or mousetrap cars.

Steam

Main article: Steam car

A steam car is a car that has a steam engine. Wood, coal, ethanol, or others can be used as fuel. The fuel is burned in a boiler and the heat converts water into steam. When the water turns to steam, it expands. The expansion creates pressure. The pressure pushes the pistons back and forth. This turns the driveshaft to spin the wheels which provides moves the car forward. It works like a coal-fueled steam train, or steam boat. The steam car was the next logical step in independent transport.

Steam cars take a long time to start, but some can reach speeds over 100 mph (161 km/h) eventually. The late model Doble steam cars could be brought to operational condition in less than 30 seconds, had high top speeds and fast acceleration, but were expensive to buy.

A steam engine uses external combustion, as opposed to internal combustion. Gasoline-powered cars are more efficient at about 25–28% efficiency. In theory, a combined cycle steam engine in which the burning material is first used to drive a gas turbine can produce 50% to 60% efficiency. However, practical examples of steam engined cars work at only around 5–8% efficiency.

The best known and best selling steam-powered car was the Stanley Steamer. It used a compact fire-tube boiler under the hood to power a simple two-piston engine which was connected directly to the rear axle. Before Henry Ford introduced monthly payment financing with great success, cars were typically purchased outright. This is why the Stanley was kept simple; to keep the purchase price affordable.

Steam produced in refrigeration also can be use by a turbine in other vehicle types to produce electricity, that can be employed in electric motors or stored in a battery.

Steam power can be combined with a standard oil-based engine to create a hybrid. Water is injected into the cylinder after the fuel is burned, when the piston is still superheated, often at temperatures of 1500 degrees or more. The water will instantly be vaporized into steam, taking advantage of the heat that would otherwise be wasted.

Wind

 
Wind powered vehicles for recreational purposes

Wind-powered vehicles have been well-known for a long time. They can be realized with sails similar to those used on ships, by using an onboard wind turbine, which drives the wheels directly or which generates electricity for an electric motor, or can be pulled by a kite. Wind-powered land vehicles need an enormous clearance in height, especially when sails or kites are used and are unsuitable in urban area. They may be also be difficult to steer. Wind-powered vehicles are only used for recreational activities on beaches or other free areas.

The concept is described in further detail here: [1].

Wood gas

 
Vehicle with a gasifier
Main article: Wood gas generator

Wood gas can be used to power cars with ordinary internal combustion engines if a wood gasifier is attached. This was quite popular during World War II in several European and Asian countries because the war prevented easy and cost-effective access to oil.

Herb Hartman of Woodward, Iowa currently drives a wood powered Cadillac. He claims to have attached the gasifier to the Cadillac for just $700. Hartman claims, "A full hopper will go about fifty miles depending on how you drive it," and he added that splitting the wood was "labor-intensive. That's the big drawback."[113]

Multiple fuel source

Dual fuel

Dual fuel vehicle is referred as the vehicle using two types of fuel in the same time (can be gas + liquid, gas + gas, liquid + liquid) with different fuel tank.

Diesel-CNG dual fuel is a system using two type of fuel which are diesel and compressed natural gas (CNG) at the same time. It is because of CNG need a source of ignition for combustion in diesel engine.[114]

Flexible fuel

 
Six typical Brazilian full flex-fuel models from several carmakers, popularly known as "flex" cars, that run on any blend of ethanol and gasoline(actually between E20-E25 to E100).
Main article: Flexible-fuel vehicle
See also: Neat ethanol vehicle

A flexible-fuel vehicle (FFV) or dual-fuel vehicle (DFF) is an alternative fuel automobile or light duty truck with a multifuel engine that can use more than one fuel, usually mixed in the same tank, and the blend is burned in the combustion chamber together. These vehicles are colloquially called flex-fuel, or flexifuel in Europe, or just flex in Brazil. FFVs are distinguished from bi-fuel vehicles, where two fuels are stored in separate tanks. The most common commercially available FFV in the world market is the ethanol flexible-fuel vehicle, with the major markets concentrated in the United States, Brazil, Sweden, and some other European countries. In addition to flex-fuel vehicles running with ethanol, in the US and Europe there were successful test programs with methanol flex-fuel vehicles, known as M85 FFVs, and more recently there have been also successful tests using p-series fuels with E85 flex fuel vehicles, but as of June 2008, this fuel is not yet available to the general public.

Ethanol flexible-fuel vehicles have standard gasoline engines that are capable of running with ethanol and gasoline mixed in the same tank. These mixtures have "E" numbers which describe the percentage of ethanol in the mixture, for example, E85 is 85% ethanol and 15% gasoline. (See common ethanol fuel mixtures for more information.) Though technology exists to allow ethanol FFVs to run on any mixture up to E100,[58][115] in the U.S. and Europe, flex-fuel vehicles are optimized to run on E85. This limit is set to avoid cold starting problems during very cold weather. The alcohol content might be reduced during the winter, to E70 in the U.S. or to E75 in Sweden. Brazil, with a warmer climate, developed vehicles that can run on any mix up to E100, though E20-E25 is the mandatory minimum blend, and no pure gasoline is sold in the country.

About 48 million automobiles, motorcycles and light duty trucks manufactured and sold worldwide by mid 2015, and concentrated in four markets,[116] Brazil (29.5 million by mid 2015),[7][8] the United States (17.4 million by the end of 2014),[9] Canada (1.6 million by 2014),[10] and Sweden (243,100 through December 2014).[11][12][13] The Brazilian flex fuel fleet includes over 4 million flexible-fuel motorcycles produced since 2009 through March 2015.[8] In Brazil, 65% of flex-fuel car owners were using ethanol fuel regularly in 2009,[117] while, the actual number of American FFVs being run on E85 is much lower; surveys conducted in the U.S. have found that 68% of American flex-fuel car owners were not aware they owned an E85 flex.[58] This is thought to be due to a number of factors, including:

 
Typical labeling used in the US to identify E85 vehicles. Top left: a small sticker in the back of the fuel filler door. Bottom left: the bright yellow gas cap used in newer models. E85 Flexfuel badging used in newer models from Chrysler (top right), Ford (middle right) and GM (bottom right).
  • The appearance of flex-fuel and non-flex-fuel vehicles is identical;
  • There is no price difference between a pure-gasoline vehicle and its flex-fuel variant;
  • The lack of consumer awareness of flex-fuel vehicles;
  • The lack of promotion of flex-fuel vehicles by American automakers, who often do not label the cars or market them in the same way they do to hybrid cars

By contrast, automakers selling FFVs in Brazil commonly affix badges advertising the car as a flex-fuel vehicle. As of 2007, new FFV models sold in the U.S. were required to feature a yellow gas cap emblazoned with the label "E85/gasoline", in order to remind drivers of the cars' flex-fuel capabilities.[118][119] Use of E85 in the U.S. is also affected by the relatively low number of E85 filling stations in operation across the country, with just over 1,750 in August 2008,[120] most of which are concentrated in the Corn Belt states, led by Minnesota with 353 stations, followed by Illinois with 181, and Wisconsin with 114.[121] By comparison, there are some 120,000 stations providing regular non-ethanol gasoline in the United States alone.[122]

 
US E85FlexFuel Chevrolet Impala LT 2009.

There have been claims that American automakers are motivated to produce flex-fuel vehicles due to a loophole in the Corporate Average Fuel Economy (CAFE) requirements, which gives the automaker a "fuel economy credit" for every flex-fuel vehicle sold, whether or not the vehicle is actually fueled with E85 in regular use.[75] This loophole allegedly allows the U.S. auto industry to meet CAFE fuel economy targets not by developing more fuel-efficient models, but by spending between US$100 and US$200 extra per vehicle to produce a certain number of flex-fuel models, enabling them to continue selling less fuel-efficient vehicles such as SUVs, which netted higher profit margins than smaller, more fuel-efficient cars.[123][124]

In the United States, E85 FFVs are equipped with sensor that automatically detect the fuel mixture, signaling the ECU to tune spark timing and fuel injection so that fuel will burn cleanly in the vehicle's internal combustion engine. Originally, the sensors were mounted in the fuel line and exhaust system; more recent models do away with the fuel line sensor. Another feature of older flex-fuel cars is a small separate gasoline storage tank that was used for starting the car on cold days, when the ethanol mixture made ignition more difficult.

 
The Honda CG 150 Titan Mix was the first flex-fuel motorcycle launched to the market in the world.

Modern Brazilian flex-fuel technology enables FFVs to run an any blend between E20-E25 gasohol and E100 ethanol fuel, using a lambda probe to measure the quality of combustion, which informs the engine control unit as to the exact composition of the gasoline-alcohol mixture. This technology, developed by the Brazilian subsidiary of Bosch in 1994, and further improved and commercially implemented in 2003 by the Italian subsidiary of Magneti Marelli, is known as "Software Fuel Sensor". The Brazilian subsidiary of Delphi Automotive Systems developed a similar technology, known as "Multifuel", based on research conducted at its facility in Piracicaba, São Paulo.[125] This technology allows the controller to regulate the amount of fuel injected and spark time, as fuel flow needs to be decreased to avoid detonation due to the high compression ratio (around 12:1) used by flex-fuel engines.

The first flex motorcycle was launched by Honda in March 2009. Produced by its Brazilian subsidiary Moto Honda da Amazônia, the CG 150 Titan Mix is sold for around US$2,700.[126][127][128][129] Because the motorcycle does not have a secondary gas tank for a cold start like the Brazilian flex cars do, the tank must have at least 20% of gasoline to avoid start up problems at temperatures below 15 °C (59 °F). The motorcycle's panel includes a gauge to warn the driver about the actual ethanol-gasoline mix in the storage tank.[129][130]

Hybrids

Hybrid electric vehicle

Main articles: Hybrid vehicle and Hybrid electric vehicle

A hybrid vehicle uses multiple propulsion systems to provide motive power. The most common type of hybrid vehicle is the gasoline-electric hybrid vehicles, which use gasoline (petrol) and electric batteries for the energy used to power internal-combustion engines (ICEs) and electric motors. These motors are usually relatively small and would be considered "underpowered" by themselves, but they can provide a normal driving experience when used in combination during acceleration and other maneuvers that require greater power.

 
The Toyota Prius is the world's best-selling hybrid electric vehicle, with global sales of almost 4 million units through January 2017.[1]

The Toyota Prius first went on sale in Japan in 1997 and it is sold worldwide since 2000. By 2017 the Prius is sold in more than 90 countries and regions, with Japan and the United States as its largest markets.[1][131] In May 2008, global cumulative Prius sales reached the 1 million units, and by September 2010, the Prius reached worldwide cumulative sales of 2 million units,[131] and 3 million units by June 2013.[132] As of January 2017, global hybrid sales are led by the Prius family, with cumulative sales of 6.0361 million units, excluding its plug-in hybrid variant.[1] The Toyota Prius liftback is the leading model of the Toyota brand with cumulative sales of 3.985 million units, followed by the Toyota Aqua/Prius c, with global sales of 1.380 million units, the Prius v/α/+ with 671,200, the Camry Hybrid with 614,700 units, the Toyota Auris with 378,000 units, and the Toyota Yaris Hybrid with 302,700.[1] The best-selling Lexus model is the Lexus RX 400h/RX 450h with global sales of 363,000 units.

The Honda Insight is a two-seater hatchback hybrid automobile manufactured by Honda. It was the first mass-produced hybrid automobile sold in the United States, introduced in 1999, and produced until 2006.[133][134] Honda introduced the second-generation Insight in Japan in February 2009, and the new Insight went on sale in the United States on April 22, 2009.[135][136] Honda also offers the Honda Civic Hybrid since 2002.

As of January 2017, there are over 50 models of hybrid electric cars available in several world markets, with more than 12 million hybrid electric vehicles sold worldwide since their inception in 1997.[1][16] As of April 2016, Japan ranked as the market leader with more than 5 million hybrids sold, followed by the United States with cumulative sales of over 4 million units since 1999, and Europe with about 1.5 million hybrids delivered since 2000.[16] Japan has the world's highest hybrid market penetration. By 2013 the hybrid market share accounted for more than 30% of new standard passenger car sold, and about 20% new passenger vehicle sales including kei cars.[137] The Netherlands ranks second with a hybrid market share of 4.5% of new car sales in 2012.[138]

As of January 2017, global sales are by Toyota Motor Company with more than 10 million Lexus and Toyota hybrids sold,[1] followed by Honda Motor Co., Ltd. with cumulative global sales of more than 1.35 million hybrids as of June 2014;[17][18][19] Ford Motor Corporation with over 424 thousand hybrids sold in the United States through June 2015, of which, around 10% are plug-in hybrids;[139][140][141][142][143] Hyundai Group with cumulative global sales of 200 thousand hybrids as of March 2014, including both Hyundai Motors and Kia Motors hybrid models;[144] and PSA Peugeot Citroën with over 50,000 diesel-powered hybrids sold in Europe through December 2013.[145]

The Elantra LPI Hybrid, launched in the South Korean domestic market in July 2009, is a hybrid vehicle powered by an internal combustion engine built to run on liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) as a fuel. The Elantra PLI is a mild hybrid and the first hybrid to adopt advanced lithium polymer (Li–Poly) batteries.[96][97]

Plug-in hybrid electric vehicle

Main article: Plug-in hybrid

Until 2010 most plug-in hybrids on the road in the U.S. were conversions of conventional hybrid electric vehicles,[146] and the most prominent PHEVs were conversions of 2004 or later Toyota Prius, which have had plug-in charging and more batteries added and their electric-only range extended.[147] Chinese battery manufacturer and automaker BYD Auto released the F3DM to the Chinese fleet market in December 2008[148][149][150] and began sales to the general public in Shenzhen in March 2010.[151][152] General Motors began deliveries of the Chevrolet Volt in the U.S. in December 2010.[153] Deliveries to retail customers of the Fisker Karma began in the U.S. in November 2011.

 
The Mitsubishi Outlander P-HEV is the world's all-time best selling plug-in hybrid with 270,000 units sold through December 2020.[28]

During 2012, the Toyota Prius Plug-in Hybrid, Ford C-Max Energi, and Volvo V60 Plug-in Hybrid were released. The following models were launched during 2013 and 2015: Honda Accord Plug-in Hybrid, Mitsubishi Outlander P-HEV, Ford Fusion Energi, McLaren P1 (limited edition), Porsche Panamera S E-Hybrid, BYD Qin, Cadillac ELR, BMW i3 REx, BMW i8, Porsche 918 Spyder (limited production), Volkswagen XL1 (limited production), Audi A3 Sportback e-tron, Volkswagen Golf GTE, Mercedes-Benz S 500 e, Porsche Cayenne S E-Hybrid, Mercedes-Benz C 350 e, BYD Tang, Volkswagen Passat GTE, Volvo XC90 T8, BMW X5 xDrive40e, Hyundai Sonata PHEV, and Volvo S60L PHEV.

As of December 2015, about 500,000 highway-capable plug-in hybrid electric cars had been sold worldwide since December 2008, out of total cumulative global sales of 1.2 million light-duty plug-in electric vehicles.[154] As of December 2016, the Volt/Ampera family of plug-in hybrids, with combined sales of about 134,500 units is the top selling plug-in hybrid in the world. Ranking next are the Mitsubishi Outlander P-HEV with about 119,500, and the Toyota Prius Plug-in Hybrid with almost 78,000.[2]

Pedal-assisted electric hybrid vehicle

In very small vehicles, the power demand decreases, so human power can be employed to make a significant improvement in battery life. Three such commercially made vehicles are the Sinclair C5, ELF and TWIKE.

Comparative assessment of fossil and alternative fuels

 
Different fuel pathways require different amounts of energy to drive 100 km. From left to right: Coal to electricity to electrical car. Renewable energy (e.g. wind or photovoltaics) to electrical car. Renewable energy to hydrogen to hydrogen-powered car. Petroleum to diesel to internal combustion engine.

According to a recent comparative energy and environmental analysis of the vehicle fuel end use (petroleum and natural gas derivatives & hydrogen; biofuels like ethanol or biodiesel, and their mixtures; as well as electricity intended to be used in plug-in electric vehicles), the renewable and non-renewable unit energy costs and CO2 emission cost are suitable indicators for assessing the renewable energy consumption intensity and the environmental impact, and for quantifying the thermodynamic performance of the transportation sector. This analysis allows ranking the energy conversion processes along the vehicle fuels production routes and their end-use, so that the best options for the transportation sector can be determined and better energy policies may be issued. Thus, if a drastic CO2 emissions abatement of the transportation sector is pursued, a more intensive utilization of ethanol in the Brazilian transportation sector mix is advisable. However, as the overall exergy conversion efficiency of the sugar cane industry is still very low, which increases the unit energy cost of ethanol, better production and end-use technologies are required. Nonetheless, with the current scenario of a predominantly renewable Brazilian electricity mix, based on more than 80% of renewable sources, this source consolidates as the most promising energy source to reduce the large amount of greenhouse gas emissions which transportation sector is responsible for.[155]

See also

References

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External links

May 17, 2023
alternative, fuel, vehicle, alternative, fuel, vehicle, motor, vehicle, that, runs, alternative, fuel, rather, than, traditional, petroleum, fuels, petrol, petrodiesel, term, also, refers, technology, electric, cars, hybrid, electric, vehicles, solar, powered,. An alternative fuel vehicle is a motor vehicle that runs on alternative fuel rather than traditional petroleum fuels petrol or petrodiesel The term also refers to any technology e g electric cars hybrid electric vehicles solar powered vehicles powering an engine that does not solely involve petroleum citation needed Because of a combination of factors such as environmental concerns high oil prices and the potential for peak oil development of cleaner alternative fuels and advanced power systems for vehicles has become a high priority for many governments and vehicle manufacturers around the world As of January 2017 update the Toyota Prius was the world s top selling hybrid electric vehicle with global sales of almost 4 million units 1 A Brazilian filling station with four alternative fuels for sale biodiesel B3 gasohol E25 neat ethanol E100 and compressed natural gas CNG As of December 2016 update the Chevrolet Volt family was the world s top selling plug in hybrid with global sales of about 134 500 units 2 Vehicle engines powered by gasoline petrol first emerged in the 1860s and 1870s they took until the 1930s to completely dominate the original alternative engines driven by steam 18th century by gases early 19th century or by electricity c 1830s Hybrid electric vehicles such as the Toyota Prius are not actually alternative fuel vehicles but through advanced technologies in the electric battery and motor generator they make a more efficient use of petroleum fuel 3 Other research and development efforts in alternative forms of power focus on developing all electric and fuel cell vehicles and even on the stored energy of compressed air An environmental analysis of the impacts of various vehicle fuels extends beyond just operating efficiency and emissions especially if a technology comes into wide use A life cycle assessment of a vehicle involves production and post use considerations A cradle to cradle design is more important than a focus on a single factor such as the type of fuel 4 5 Contents 1 Global outlook 2 Single fuel source 2 1 Engine air compressor 2 2 Electric fed by external source 2 3 Battery electric 2 4 Electric stored otherway 2 5 Solar 2 6 Dimethyl ether fuel 2 7 Ammonia fuelled vehicles 2 8 Biofuels 2 8 1 Bioalcohol and ethanol 2 8 2 Biodiesel 2 8 3 Biogas 2 9 Charcoal 2 10 Compressed natural gas 2 11 Liquefied natural gas 2 12 Autogas 2 13 Formic acid 2 14 Hydrogen 2 15 Liquid nitrogen car 2 16 Nuclear power 2 17 Flywheels 2 18 Silanes 2 19 Spring 2 20 Steam 2 21 Wind 2 22 Wood gas 3 Multiple fuel source 3 1 Dual fuel 3 2 Flexible fuel 3 3 Hybrids 3 3 1 Hybrid electric vehicle 3 3 2 Plug in hybrid electric vehicle 3 3 3 Pedal assisted electric hybrid vehicle 4 Comparative assessment of fossil and alternative fuels 5 See also 6 References 7 External linksGlobal outlook EditAs of 2017 update there were more than 1 4 billion motor vehicles on the world s roads 6 compared with just more than 116 million alternative fuel and advanced technology vehicles that had been sold or converted worldwide at the end of 2016 and consisting of Brazil is the world s leader in flexible fuel car sales with cumulative sales totalling 25 5 million units as of June 2015 update 7 About 55 million flex fuel automobiles motorcycles and light duty trucks manufactured and sold worldwide by mid 2015 led by Brazil with 29 5 million by mid 2015 7 8 followed by the United States with 17 4 million by the end of 2014 9 Canada with about 1 6 million by 2014 10 and Sweden with 243 100 through December 2014 11 12 13 The Brazilian flex fuel fleet includes over 4 million flexible fuel motorcycles produced since 2009 through March 2015 8 22 7 million natural gas vehicles as of August 2015 update led by China 4 4 million Iran with 4 00 million followed by Pakistan 3 70 million Argentina 2 48 million India 1 80 million and Brazil 1 78 million 14 24 9 million LPG powered vehicles by December 2013 led by Turkey with 3 93 million South Korea 2 4 million and Poland 2 75 million 15 More than 12 million hybrid electric vehicles have been sold worldwide 1 16 As of April 2016 update Japan ranked as the market leader with more than 5 million hybrids sold followed by the United States with cumulative sales of over 4 million units since 1999 and Europe with about 1 5 million hybrids delivered since 2000 16 As of January 2017 update global sales are by Toyota Motor Company with more than 10 million Lexus and Toyota hybrids sold 1 followed by Honda Motor Co Ltd with cumulative global sales of more than 1 35 million hybrids as of June 2014 update 17 18 19 As of January 2017 update global hybrid sales are led by the Prius family with cumulative sales of 6 1 million units 1 The Toyota Prius liftback is the world s top selling hybrid electric car with cumulative sales of 3 985 million units through January 2017 1 5 7 million neat ethanol only light vehicles built in Brazil since 1979 20 with 2 4 to 3 0 million vehicles still in use by 2003 21 22 and 1 22 million units as of December 2011 23 The Tesla Model 3 all electric car is the world s all time best selling plug in electric car with about 950 000 units sold as of March 2021 update More than 10 million highway legal plug in electric passenger cars and light utility vehicles had been sold worldwide at the end of 2020 24 As of December 2020 update the Tesla Model 3 listed as the world s top selling highway capable plug in electric car in history with global sales since inception of more than 800 000 units 25 26 followed by the Nissan Leaf with 500 000 units 27 The Mitsubishi Outlander P HEV is the world s all time best selling plug in hybrid with global sales of 270 000 units through December 2020 28 As of December 2020 update China had the world s largest stock of highway legal plug in electric passenger cars with 4 5 million units representing 42 of the world s stock of plug in cars 29 30 Europe ranked next with over 3 2 million plug in passenger cars at the end of 2020 accounting for about 30 of the global stock 29 31 32 The U S cumulative sales totaled about 1 8 million plug in cars through December 2020 33 There were 31 225 passenger fuel cell electric vehicles FCEV powered with hydrogen on the world s roads 34 South Korea is the country market with the largest stock of passenger FCEVs with 10 041 units followed by the United States 9 135 China 5 546 and Japan 4 100 34 Single fuel source EditEngine air compressor Edit The Peugeot 2008 HYbrid air prototype replaced conventional hybrid batteries with a compressed air propulsion system This article needs additional citations for verification Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources Unsourced material may be challenged and removed Find sources Alternative fuel vehicle news newspapers books scholar JSTOR September 2008 Learn how and when to remove this template message Main articles Compressed air engine Compressed air vehicle and Compressed air car The air engine is an emission free piston engine that uses compressed air as a source of energy The first compressed air car was invented by a French engineer named Guy Negre The expansion of compressed air may be used to drive the pistons in a modified piston engine Efficiency of operation is gained through the use of environmental heat at normal temperature to warm the otherwise cold expanded air from the storage tank This non adiabatic expansion has the potential to greatly increase the efficiency of the machine The only exhaust is cold air 15 C which could also be used to air condition the car The source for air is a pressurized carbon fiber tank Air is delivered to the engine via a rather conventional injection system Unique crank design within the engine increases the time during which the air charge is warmed from ambient sources and a two stage process allows improved heat transfer rates Electric fed by external source Edit Electric power fed from an external source to the vehicle is standard in railway electrification At such systems usually the tracks form one pole while the other is usually a single overhead wire or a rail insulated against ground On roads this system does not work as described as normal road surfaces are very poor electric conductors and so electric vehicles fed with external power on roads require at least two overhead wires The most common type of road vehicles fed with electricity from external source are trolleybusses but there are also some trucks powered with this technology The advantage is that the vehicle can be operated without breaks for refueling or charging Disadvantages include a large infrastructure of electric wires difficulty in driving as one has to prevent a dewirement of the vehicle vehicles cannot overtake each other a danger of electrocution and an aesthetic problem Wireless transmission see Wireless power transfer is possible in principal but the infrastructure especially wiring necessary for inductive or capacitive coupling would be extensive and expensive In principle it is also possible to transmit energy by microwaves or by lasers to the vehicle but this may be inefficient and dangerous for the power required Beside this in the case of lasers one requires a guidance system to track the vehicle to be powered as laser beams have a small diameter Battery electric Edit This article needs additional citations for verification Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources Unsourced material may be challenged and removed Find sources Alternative fuel vehicle news newspapers books scholar JSTOR September 2008 Learn how and when to remove this template message Main articles Battery electric vehicle and Electric car General Motors EV1 electric car Battery electric vehicles BEVs also known as all electric vehicles AEVs are electric vehicles whose main energy storage is in the chemical energy of batteries BEVs are the most common form of what is defined by the California Air Resources Board CARB as zero emission vehicle ZEV because they produce no tailpipe emissions at the point of operation The electrical energy carried on board a BEV to power the motors is obtained from a variety of battery chemistries arranged into battery packs For additional range genset trailers or pusher trailers are sometimes used forming a type of hybrid vehicle Batteries used in electric vehicles include flooded lead acid absorbed glass mat NiCd nickel metal hydride Li ion Li poly and zinc air batteries Attempts at building viable modern battery powered electric vehicles began in the 1950s with the introduction of the first modern transistor controlled electric car the Henney Kilowatt even though the concept was out in the market since 1890 Despite the poor sales of the early battery powered vehicles development of various battery powered vehicles continued through the mid 1990s with such models as the General Motors EV1 and the Toyota RAV4 EV The Nissan Leaf was the world s top selling highway capable all electric car until December 2019 25 Battery powered cars had primarily used lead acid batteries and NiMH batteries Lead acid batteries recharge capacity is considerably reduced if they re discharged beyond 75 on a regular basis making them a less than ideal solution NiMH batteries are a better choice citation needed but are considerably more expensive than lead acid Lithium ion battery powered vehicles such as the Venturi Fetish and the Tesla Roadster have recently demonstrated excellent performance and range and nevertheless is used in most mass production models launched since December 2010 Expanding on traditional Lithium ion batteries predominately used in today s battery electric vehicles is an emerging science that is paving the way to utilize a carbon fiber structure a vehicle body or chassis in this case as a structural battery Experiments being conducted at the Chalmers University of Technology in Sweden are showing that when coupled with Lithium ion insertion mechanisms an enhanced carbon fiber structure can have electromechanical properties This means that the carbon fiber structure itself can act as its own battery power source for propulsion This would negate the need for traditional heavy battery banks reducing weight and therefore increasing fuel efficiency 35 As of December 2015 update several neighborhood electric vehicles city electric cars and series production highway capable electric cars and utility vans have been made available for retails sales including Tesla Roadster GEM cars Buddy Mitsubishi i MiEV and its rebadged versions Peugeot iOn and Citroen C Zero Chery QQ3 EV JAC J3 EV Nissan Leaf Smart ED Mia electric BYD e6 Renault Kangoo Z E Bollore Bluecar Renault Fluence Z E Ford Focus Electric BMW ActiveE Renault Twizy Tesla Model S Honda Fit EV RAV4 EV second generation Renault Zoe Mitsubishi Minicab MiEV Roewe E50 Chevrolet Spark EV Fiat 500e BMW i3 Volkswagen e Up Nissan e NV200 Volkswagen e Golf Mercedes Benz B Class Electric Drive Kia Soul EV BYD e5 and Tesla Model X 36 The world s all time top selling highway legal electric car is the Nissan Leaf released in December 2010 with global sales of more than 250 000 units through December 2016 37 The Tesla Model S released in June 2012 ranks second with global sales of over 158 000 cars delivered as of December 2016 update 37 The Renault Kangoo Z E utility van is the leader of the light duty all electric segment with global sales of 25 205 units through December 2016 38 Electric stored otherway Edit Electricity can be also stored in supercapacitors and supraconductors However supraconductor storage is unsuitable for vehicle propulsion as it requires extreme deep temperature and produces strong magnetic fields Supercapacitors however can be used in vehicles and are used in some trams on sections without overhead wire They can be load in during regular stops at which passengers enter and leave the train but can only travel a few kilometres with the stored energy However this is no problem in this case as the next stop is usually in reachable distance Solar Edit This article needs additional citations for verification Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources Unsourced material may be challenged and removed Find sources Alternative fuel vehicle news newspapers books scholar JSTOR September 2008 Learn how and when to remove this template message See also Solar vehicle Solar car racing and List of solar car teams Nuna team at a racecourse Nuna solar powered car which has travelled up to 140km h 84mph A solar car is an electric vehicle powered by solar energy obtained from solar panels on the car Solar panels cannot currently be used to directly supply a car with a suitable amount of power at this time but they can be used to extend the range of electric vehicles They are raced in competitions such as the World Solar Challenge and the North American Solar Challenge These events are often sponsored by Government agencies such as the United States Department of Energy keen to promote the development of alternative energy technology such as solar cells and electric vehicles Such challenges are often entered by universities to develop their students engineering and technological skills as well as motor vehicle manufacturers such as GM and Honda Trev s battery lasts over 250 000 kilometres The North American Solar Challenge is a solar car race across North America Originally called Sunrayce organized and sponsored by General Motors in 1990 it was renamed American Solar Challenge in 2001 sponsored by the United States Department of Energy and the National Renewable Energy Laboratory Teams from universities in the United States and Canada compete in a long distance test of endurance as well as efficiency driving thousands of miles on regular highways Nuna is the name of a series of manned solar powered vehicles that won the World solar challenge in Australia three times in a row in 2001 Nuna 1 or just Nuna 2003 Nuna 2 and 2005 Nuna 3 The Nunas are built by students of the Delft University of Technology The World solar challenge is a solar powered car race over 3 021 kilometres 1 877 mi through central Australia from Darwin to Adelaide The race attracts teams from around the world most of which are fielded by universities or corporations although some are fielded by high schools Trev two seater renewable energy vehicle was designed by the staff and students at the University of South Australia Trev was first displayed at the 2005 World Solar Challenge as the concept of a low mass efficient commuter car With 3 wheels and a mass of about 300 kg the prototype car had maximum speed of 120 km h and acceleration of 0 100 km h in about 10 seconds The running cost of Trev is projected to be less than 1 10 of the running cost of a small petrol car Dimethyl ether fuel Edit Installation of BioDME synthesis towers at Chemrec s pilot facility Dimethyl ether DME is a promising fuel in diesel engines 39 petrol engines 30 DME 70 LPG and gas turbines owing to its high cetane number which is 55 compared to diesel s which is 40 53 40 41 Only moderate modifications are needed to convert a diesel engine to burn DME The simplicity of this short carbon chain compound leads during combustion to very low emissions of particulate matter NOx CO For these reasons as well as being sulfur free DME meets even the most stringent emission regulations in Europe EURO5 U S U S 2010 and Japan 2009 Japan 42 Mobil is using DME in their methanol to gasoline process DME is being developed as a synthetic second generation biofuel BioDME which can be manufactured from lignocellulosic biomass 43 Currently the EU is considering BioDME in its potential biofuel mix in 2030 44 the Volvo Group is the coordinator for the European Community Seventh Framework Programme project BioDME 45 46 where Chemrec s BioDME pilot plant based on black liquor gasification is nearing completion in Pitea Sweden 47 Ammonia fuelled vehicles Edit Ammoniacal Gas Engine Streetcar in New Orleans drawn by Alfred Waud in 1871 The X 15 aircraft used ammonia as one component fuel of its rocket engine Ammonia is produced by combining gaseous hydrogen with nitrogen from the air Large scale ammonia production uses natural gas for the source of hydrogen Ammonia was used during World War II to power buses in Belgium and in engine and solar energy applications prior to 1900 Liquid ammonia also fuelled the Reaction Motors XLR99 rocket engine that powered the X 15 hypersonic research aircraft Although not as powerful as other fuels it left no soot in the reusable rocket engine and its density approximately matches the density of the oxidizer liquid oxygen which simplified the aircraft s design Ammonia has been proposed as a practical alternative to fossil fuel for internal combustion engines 48 The calorific value of ammonia is 22 5 MJ kg 9690 BTU lb which is about half that of diesel In a normal engine in which the water vapour is not condensed the calorific value of ammonia will be about 21 less than this figure It can be used in existing engines with only minor modifications to carburettors injectors If produced from coal the CO2 can be readily sequestered 48 49 the combustion products are nitrogen and water Ammonia engines or ammonia motors using ammonia as a working fluid have been proposed and occasionally used 50 The principle is similar to that used in a fireless locomotive but with ammonia as the working fluid instead of steam or compressed air Ammonia engines were used experimentally in the 19th century by Goldsworthy Gurney in the UK and in streetcars in New Orleans In 1981 a Canadian company converted a 1981 Chevrolet Impala to operate using ammonia as fuel 51 52 Ammonia and GreenNH3 is being used with success by developers in Canada 53 since it can run in spark ignited or diesel engines with minor modifications also the only green fuel to power jet engines and despite its toxicity is reckoned to be no more dangerous than petrol or LPG 54 It can be made from renewable electricity and having half the density of petrol or diesel can be readily carried in sufficient quantities in vehicles On complete combustion it has no emissions other than nitrogen and water vapour The combustion chemical formula is 4 NH3 3 O2 2 N2 6 H2O 75 water is the result Biofuels Edit Main article Biofuel Bioalcohol and ethanol Edit See also Alcohol fuel Ethanol fuel Methanol economy Methanol fuel Common ethanol fuel mixtures Flexible fuel vehicle E85 and Biobutanol The Ford Model T was the first commercial flex fuel vehicle The engine was capable of running on gasoline or ethanol or a mix of both The 1996 Ford Taurus was the first flexible fuel vehicle produced with versions capable of running with either ethanol E85 or methanol M85 blended with gasoline The 2003 VW Gol 1 6 Total Flex was the first commercial flexible fuel vehicle in the Brazilian market capable of running on any mixture of gasoline E20 to E25 blend and ethanol E100 The first commercial vehicle that used ethanol as a fuel was the Ford Model T produced from 1908 through 1927 It was fitted with a carburetor with adjustable jetting allowing use of gasoline or ethanol or a combination of both 55 56 57 Other car manufactures also provided engines for ethanol fuel use 58 In the United States alcohol fuel was produced in corn alcohol stills until Prohibition criminalized the production of alcohol in 1919 The use of alcohol as a fuel for internal combustion engines either alone or in combination with other fuels lapsed until the oil price shocks of the 1970s Furthermore additional attention was gained because of its possible environmental and long term economical advantages over fossil fuel Both ethanol and methanol have been used as an automotive fuel 59 While both can be obtained from petroleum or natural gas ethanol has attracted more attention because it is considered a renewable resource easily obtained from sugar or starch in crops and other agricultural produce such as grain sugarcane sugar beets or even lactose Since ethanol occurs in nature whenever yeast happens to find a sugar solution such as overripe fruit most organisms have evolved some tolerance to ethanol whereas methanol is toxic Other experiments involve butanol which can also be produced by fermentation of plants Support for ethanol comes from the fact that it is a biomass fuel which addresses climate change and greenhouse gas emissions though these benefits are now highly debated 58 60 61 62 including the heated 2008 food vs fuel debate Most modern cars are designed to run on gasoline are capable of running with a blend from 10 up to 15 ethanol mixed into gasoline E10 E15 With a small amount of redesign gasoline powered vehicles can run on ethanol concentrations as high as 85 E85 the maximum set in the United States and Europe due to cold weather during the winter 63 or up to 100 E100 in Brazil with a warmer climate Ethanol has close to 34 less energy per volume than gasoline 64 65 consequently fuel economy ratings with ethanol blends are significantly lower than with pure gasoline but this lower energy content does not translate directly into a 34 reduction in mileage because there are many other variables that affect the performance of a particular fuel in a particular engine and also because ethanol has a higher octane rating which is beneficial to high compression ratio engines For this reason for pure or high ethanol blends to be attractive for users its price must be lower than gasoline to offset the lower fuel economy As a rule of thumb Brazilian consumers are frequently advised by the local media to use more alcohol than gasoline in their mix only when ethanol prices are 30 lower or more than gasoline as ethanol price fluctuates heavily depending on the results and seasonal harvests of sugar cane and by region 66 67 In the US and based on EPA tests for all 2006 E85 models the average fuel economy for E85 vehicles was found 25 56 lower than unleaded gasoline 58 The EPA rated mileage of current American flex fuel vehicles 68 could be considered when making price comparisons though E85 has octane rating of about 104 and could be used as a substitute for premium gasoline Regional retail E85 prices vary widely across the US with more favorable prices in the Midwest region where most corn is grown and ethanol produced In August 2008 the US average spread between the price of E85 and gasoline was 16 9 while in Indiana was 35 30 in Minnesota and Wisconsin 19 in Maryland 12 to 15 in California and just 3 in Utah 69 Depending on the vehicle capabilities the break even price of E85 usually has to be between 25 and 30 lower than gasoline 58 E85 fuel sold at a regular gasoline station in Washington D C Reacting to the high price of oil and its growing dependence on imports in 1975 Brazil launched the Pro alcool program a huge government subsidized effort to manufacture ethanol fuel from its sugar cane crop and ethanol powered automobiles These ethanol only vehicles were very popular in the 1980s but became economically impractical when oil prices fell and sugar prices rose late in that decade In May 2003 Volkswagen built for the first time a commercial ethanol flexible fuel car the Gol 1 6 Total Flex These vehicles were a commercial success and by early 2009 other nine Brazilian manufacturers are producing flexible fuel vehicles Chevrolet Fiat Ford Peugeot Renault Honda Mitsubishi Toyota Citroen and Nissan 20 70 The adoption of the flex technology was so rapid that flexible fuel cars reached 87 6 of new car sales in July 2008 71 As of August 2008 the fleet of flex automobiles and light commercial vehicles had reached 6 million new vehicles sold 72 representing almost 19 of all registered light vehicles 73 The rapid success of flex vehicles as they are popularly known was made possible by the existence of 33 000 filling stations with at least one ethanol pump available by 2006 a heritage of the Pro alcool program 74 75 In the United States initial support to develop alternative fuels by the government was also a response to the 1973 oil crisis and later on as a goal to improve air quality Also liquid fuels were preferred over gaseous fuels not only because they have a better volumetric energy density but also because they were the most compatible fuels with existing distribution systems and engines thus avoiding a big departure from the existing technologies and taking advantage of the vehicle and the refueling infrastructure 59 California led the search of sustainable alternatives with interest in methanol 59 In 1996 a new FFV Ford Taurus was developed with models fully capable of running either methanol or ethanol blended with gasoline 59 76 This ethanol version of the Taurus was the first commercial production of an E85 FFV 77 The momentum of the FFV production programs at the American car companies continued although by the end of the 1990s the emphasis was on the FFV E85 version as it is today 59 Ethanol was preferred over methanol because there is a large support in the farming community and thanks to government s incentive programs and corn based ethanol subsidies 78 Sweden also tested both the M85 and the E85 flexifuel vehicles but due to agriculture policy in the end emphasis was given to the ethanol flexifuel vehicles 79 Biodiesel Edit This article needs additional citations for verification Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources Unsourced material may be challenged and removed Find sources Alternative fuel vehicle news newspapers books scholar JSTOR September 2008 Learn how and when to remove this template message Main article Biodiesel Bus running on soybean biodiesel Biodiesel B20 pump in the U S The main benefit of Diesel combustion engines is that they have a 44 fuel burn efficiency compared with just 25 30 in the best gasoline engines 80 In addition diesel fuel has slightly higher energy density by volume than gasoline This makes Diesel engines capable of achieving much better fuel economy than gasoline vehicles Biodiesel fatty acid methyl ester is commercially available in most oilseed producing states in the United States As of 2005 it is somewhat more expensive than fossil diesel though it is still commonly produced in relatively small quantities in comparison to petroleum products and ethanol Many farmers who raise oilseeds use a biodiesel blend in tractors and equipment as a matter of policy to foster production of biodiesel and raise public awareness It is sometimes easier to find biodiesel in rural areas than in cities Biodiesel has lower energy density than fossil diesel fuel so biodiesel vehicles are not quite able to keep up with the fuel economy of a fossil fuelled diesel vehicle if the diesel injection system is not reset for the new fuel If the injection timing is changed to take account of the higher cetane value of biodiesel the difference in economy is negligible Because biodiesel contains more oxygen than diesel or vegetable oil fuel it produces the lowest emissions from diesel engines and is lower in most emissions than gasoline engines Biodiesel has a higher lubricity than mineral diesel and is an additive in European pump diesel for lubricity and emissions reduction Some Diesel powered cars can run with minor modifications on 100 pure vegetable oils Vegetable oils tend to thicken or solidify if it is waste cooking oil in cold weather conditions so vehicle modifications a two tank system with diesel start stop tank are essential in order to heat the fuel prior to use under most circumstances Heating to the temperature of engine coolant reduces fuel viscosity to the range cited by injection system manufacturers for systems prior to common rail or unit injection VW PD systems Waste vegetable oil especially if it has been used for a long time may become hydrogenated and have increased acidity This can cause the thickening of fuel gumming in the engine and acid damage of the fuel system Biodiesel does not have this problem because it is chemically processed to be PH neutral and lower viscosity Modern low emission diesels most often Euro 3 and 4 compliant typical of the current production in the European industry would require extensive modification of injector system pumps and seals etc due to the higher operating pressures that are designed thinner heated mineral diesel than ever before for atomisation if they were to use pure vegetable oil as fuel Vegetable oil fuel is not suitable for these vehicles as they are currently produced This reduces the market as increasing numbers of new vehicles are not able to use it However the German Elsbett company has successfully produced single tank vegetable oil fuel systems for several decades and has worked with Volkswagen on their TDI engines This shows that it is technologically possible to use vegetable oil as a fuel in high efficiency low emission diesel engines Greasestock is an event held yearly in Yorktown Heights New York and is one of the largest showcases of vehicles using waste oil as a biofuel in the United States 81 82 83 84 Biogas Edit Main article Biogas Compressed biogas may be used for internal combustion engines after purification of the raw gas The removal of H2O H2S and particles can be seen as standard producing a gas which has the same quality as compressed natural gas The use of biogas is particularly interesting for climates where the waste heat of a biogas powered power plant cannot be used during the summer 54 85 Charcoal Edit In the 1930s Tang Zhongming made an invention using abundant charcoal resources for Chinese auto market The charcoal fuelled car was later used intensively in China serving the army and conveyancer after the breakout of World War II Compressed natural gas Edit Main article Natural gas vehicle The Brazilian Fiat Siena Tetrafuel 1 4 the first multifuel car that runs as a flexible fuel on pure gasoline or E25 or E100 or runs as a bi fuel with natural gas CNG High pressure compressed natural gas CNG mainly composed of methane that is used to fuel normal combustion engines instead of gasoline Combustion of methane produces the least amount of CO2 of all fossil fuels Gasoline cars can be retrofitted to CNG and become bifuel Natural gas vehicles NGVs as the gasoline tank is kept The driver can switch between CNG and gasoline during operation Natural gas vehicles NGVs are popular in regions or countries where natural gas is abundant Widespread use began in the Po River Valley of Italy and later became very popular in New Zealand by the eighties though its use has declined 86 Buses powered with CNG are common in the United States As of December 2012 update there were 17 8 million natural gas vehicles worldwide led by Iran with 3 30 million followed by Pakistan 2 79 million Argentina 2 29 million Brazil 1 75 million China 1 58 million and India 1 5 million 14 As of 2010 the Asia Pacific region led the global market with a share of 54 87 In Europe they are popular in Italy 730 000 Ukraine 200 000 Armenia 101 352 Russia 100 000 and Germany 91 500 87 and they are becoming more so as various manufacturers produce factory made cars buses vans and heavy vehicles 85 In the United States CNG powered buses are the favorite choice of several public transit agencies with an estimated CNG bus fleet of some 130 000 88 Other countries where CNG powered buses are popular include India Australia Argentina and Germany 86 CNG vehicles are common in South America where these vehicles are mainly used as taxicabs in main cities of Argentina and Brazil Normally standard gasoline vehicles are retrofitted in specialized shops which involve installing the gas cylinder in the trunk and the CNG injection system and electronics The Brazilian GNV fleet is concentrated in the cities of Rio de Janeiro and Sao Paulo 89 Pike Research reports that almost 90 of NGVs in Latin America have bi fuel engines allowing these vehicles to run on either gasoline or CNG 90 In 2006 the Brazilian subsidiary of FIAT introduced the Fiat Siena Tetra fuel a four fuel car developed under Magneti Marelli of Fiat Brazil 91 92 This automobile can run on 100 ethanol E100 E25 Brazil s normal ethanol gasoline blend pure gasoline not available in Brazil and natural gas and switches from the gasoline ethanol blend to CNG automatically depending on the power required by road conditions 93 Other existing option is to retrofit an ethanol flexible fuel vehicle to add a natural gas tank and the corresponding injection system Some taxicabs in Sao Paulo and Rio de Janeiro Brazil run on this option allowing the user to choose among three fuels E25 E100 and CNG according to current market prices at the pump Vehicles with this adaptation are known in Brazil as tri fuel cars 94 HCNG or hydrogen enriched compressed natural gas for automobile use is premixed at the hydrogen station Liquefied natural gas Edit Main article Natural gas vehicle Liquefied natural gas LNG is natural gas that has been cooled to a point at which it becomes a cryogenic liquid In this liquid state natural gas is more than 2 times as dense as highly compressed CNG LNG fuel systems function on any vehicle capable of burning natural gas Unlike CNG which is stored at high pressure typically 3000 or 3600 psi and then regulated to a lower pressure that the engine can accept LNG is stored at low pressure 50 to 150 psi and simply vaporized by a heat exchanger before entering the fuel metering devices to the engine Because of its high energy density compared to CNG it is very suitable for those interested in long ranges while running on natural gas In the United States the LNG supply chain is the main thing that has held back this fuel source from growing rapidly The LNG supply chain is very analogous to that of diesel or gasoline First pipeline natural gas is liquefied in large quantities which is analogous to refining gasoline or diesel Then the LNG is transported via semi trailer to fuel stations where it is stored in bulk tanks until it is dispensed into a vehicle CNG on the other hand requires expensive compression at each station to fill the high pressure cylinder cascades Autogas Edit Main article Autogas A propane fueled school bus in the United States LPG or liquefied petroleum gas LPG is a low pressure liquefied gas mixture composed mainly of propane and butane which burns in conventional gasoline combustion engines with less CO2 than gasoline Gasoline cars can be retrofitted to LPG aka Autogas and become bifuel vehicles as the gasoline tank is not removed allowing drivers to switch between LPG and gasoline during operation Estimated 10 million vehicles running worldwide There are 17 473 million LPG powered vehicles worldwide as of December 2010 and the leading countries are Turkey 2 394 million vehicles Poland 2 325 million and South Korea 2 3 million 15 In the U S 190 000 on road vehicles use propane 95 and 450 000 forklifts use it for power However it is banned in Pakistan DEC 2013 as it is considered a risk to public safety by OGRA Hyundai Motor Company began sales of the Elantra LPI Hybrid in the South Korean domestic market in July 2009 The Elantra LPI Liquefied Petroleum Injected is the world s first hybrid electric vehicle to be powered by an internal combustion engine built to run on liquefied petroleum gas LPG as a fuel 96 97 Formic acid Edit Main article Formic acid Formic acid is used by converting it first to hydrogen and using that in a hydrogen fuel cell It can also be used directly in formic acid fuel cells Formic acid is much easier to store than hydrogen 98 99 Hydrogen Edit This article needs additional citations for verification Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources Unsourced material may be challenged and removed Find sources Alternative fuel vehicle news newspapers books scholar JSTOR September 2008 Learn how and when to remove this template message Main articles Hydrogen vehicle and Hydrogen economy The 2009 Honda FCX Clarity is a hydrogen fuel cell automobile launched to the market in 2008 Hydrogen fueling station in California Sequel a hydrogen fuel cell powered vehicle from General Motors The Hyundai ix35 FCEV was released for leasing in the U S in 2014 The Toyota Mirai is one of the first hydrogen fuel cell vehicles to be sold commercially to retail customers initially only in Japan and California 100 101 A hydrogen car is an automobile which uses hydrogen as its primary source of power for locomotion These cars generally use the hydrogen in one of two methods combustion or fuel cell conversion In combustion the hydrogen is burned in engines in fundamentally the same method as traditional gasoline cars In fuel cell conversion the hydrogen is turned into electricity through fuel cells which then powers electric motors With either method the only byproduct from the spent hydrogen is water however during combustion with air NOx can be produced Honda introduced its fuel cell vehicle in 1999 called the FCX and have since then introduced the second generation FCX Clarity Limited marketing of the FCX Clarity based on the 2007 concept model began in June 2008 in the United States and it was introduced in Japan in November 2008 102 The FCX Clarity was available in the U S only in Los Angeles Area where 16 hydrogen filling stations are available and until July 2009 only 10 drivers have leased the Clarity for US 600 a month At the 2012 World Hydrogen Energy Conference Daimler AG Honda Hyundai and Toyota all confirmed plans to produce hydrogen fuel cell vehicles for sale by 2015 with some types planned to enter the showroom in 2013 103 From 2008 to 2014 Honda leased a total of 45 FCX units in the US 104 A small number of prototype hydrogen cars currently exist and a significant amount of research is underway to make the technology more viable The common internal combustion engine usually fueled with gasoline petrol or diesel liquids can be converted to run on gaseous hydrogen However the most efficient use of hydrogen involves the use of fuel cells and electric motors instead of a traditional engine Hydrogen reacts with oxygen inside the fuel cells which produces electricity to power the motors One primary area of research is hydrogen storage to try to increase the range of hydrogen vehicles while reducing the weight energy consumption and complexity of the storage systems Two primary methods of storage are metal hydrides and compression Some believe that hydrogen cars will never be economically viable and that the emphasis on this technology is a diversion from the development and popularization of more efficient hybrid cars and other alternative technologies citation needed A study by The Carbon Trust for the UK Department of Energy and Climate Change suggests that hydrogen technologies have the potential to deliver UK transport with near zero emissions whilst reducing dependence on imported oil and curtailment of renewable generation However the technologies face very difficult challenges in terms of cost performance and policy 105 Buses trains PHB bicycles canal boats cargo bikes golf carts motorcycles wheelchairs ships airplanes submarines and rockets can already run on hydrogen in various forms NASA used hydrogen to launch Space Shuttles into space A working toy model car runs on solar power using a regenerative fuel cell to store energy in the form of hydrogen and oxygen gas It can then convert the fuel back into water to release the solar energy 106 BMW s Clean Energy internal combustion hydrogen car has more power and is faster than hydrogen fuel cell electric cars A limited series production of the 7 Series Saloon was announced as commencing at the end of 2006 A BMW hydrogen prototype H2R using the driveline of this model broke the speed record for hydrogen cars at 300 km h 186 mi h making automotive history Mazda has developed Wankel engines to burn hydrogen The Wankel uses a rotary principle of operation so the hydrogen burns in a different part of the engine from the intake This reduces pre detonation a problem with hydrogen fueled piston engines citation needed The other major car companies like Daimler Chrysler Honda Toyota Ford and General Motors are investing in hydrogen fuel cells instead VW Nissan and Hyundai Kia also have fuel cell vehicle prototypes on the road In addition transit agencies across the globe are running prototype fuel cell buses Fuel cell vehicles such as the new Honda Clarity can get up to 70 miles 110 km on a kilogram of hydrogen citation needed The Hyundai ix35 FCEV fuel cell vehicle is available for lease in the U S 107 In 2014 a total of 54 units were leased 108 Sales of the Toyota Mirai to government and corporate customers began in Japan on December 15 2014 109 Toyota delivered the first market placed Mirai to the Prime Minister s Official Residence and announced it got 1 500 orders in Japan in one month after sales began against a sales target of 400 for 12 months 101 110 Deliveries to retail customers began in California in October 2015 A total of 57 units were delivered between October and November 2015 111 Toyota scheduled to release the Mirai in the Northeastern States in the first half of 2016 The market launch in Europe is slated for September 2015 112 Liquid nitrogen car Edit This article needs additional citations for verification Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources Unsourced material may be challenged and removed Find sources Alternative fuel vehicle news newspapers books scholar JSTOR September 2008 Learn how and when to remove this template message Main article Liquid nitrogen vehicle Further information Liquid nitrogen economy Liquid nitrogen LN2 is a method of storing energy Energy is used to liquefy air and then LN2 is produced by evaporation and distributed LN2 is exposed to ambient heat in the car and the resulting nitrogen gas can be used to power a piston or turbine engine The maximum amount of energy that can be extracted from LN2 is 213 Watt hours per kg W h kg or 173 W h per liter in which a maximum of 70 W h kg can be utilized with an isothermal expansion process Such a vehicle with a 350 liter 93 gallon tank can achieve ranges similar to a gasoline powered vehicle with a 50 liter 13 gallon tank Theoretical future engines using cascading topping cycles can improve this to around 110 W h kg with a quasi isothermal expansion process The advantages are zero harmful emissions and superior energy densities compared to a compressed air vehicle as well as being able to refill the tank in a matter of minutes Nuclear power Edit Main article Nuclear propulsion Mars rover Curiosity driven by radioisotope thermoelectric generators In principle it is possible to build a vehicle powered by nuclear fission or nuclear decay However there are two major problems first one has to transform the energy which comes as heat and radiation into energy usable for a drive One possible would be to use a steam turbine as in a nuclear power plant but such a device would take too much space A more suitable way would be direct conversion into electricity for example with thermoelements or thermionic devices The second problem is that nuclear fission produces high levels of neutron and gamma rays which require excessive shielding that would result in a vehicle too large for use on public roads However studies were made in this way by Ford Nucleon A better way for a nuclear powered vehicle would be the use of power of radioactive decay in radioisotope thermoelectric generators which are also very safe and reliable The required shielding of these devices depends on the used radio nuclide Plutonium 238 as nearly pure alpha radiator does not require much shielding As prices for suitable radionuclide are high and energy density is low generating 1 watt with Plutonium 238 requires a half gram of it this way of propulsion is too expensive for wide use Also radioisotope thermoelectric generators offer according to their large content of high radioactive material an extreme danger in case of misuse for example by terrorists The only vehicle in use which is driven by radioisotope thermoelectric generators is the Mars rover Curiosity Other forms of nuclear power as fusion and annihilation are at present not available for vehicle propulsion as no working fusion reactor is available and it is questionable if one can ever built one with a size suitable for a road vehicle Annihilation may perhaps work in some ways see antimatter drive but there is no technology existing to produce and store enough antimatter Flywheels Edit Flywheels can be also used for alternative fuel and were used in the 1950s for the propulsion of buses in Switzerland the such called gyrobuses The flywheel of the bus was loaded up by electric power at the terminals of the line and allowed it to travel a way up to 8 kilometres just with its flywheel Flywheel powered vehicles are quieter than vehicles with combustion engine require no overhead wire and generate no exhausts but the flywheel device has a great weight 1 5 tons for 5 kWh and requires special safety measures due to its high rotational speed Silanes Edit Silanes higher than heptasilane can be stored like gasoline and may also work as fuel They have the advantage that they can also burn with the nitrogen of the air but have as major disadvantage its high price and that its combustion products are solid which gives trouble in combustion engines Spring Edit The power of wound up springs or twisted rubber cords can be used for the propulsion of small vehicles However this way of energy storage allows only saving small energy amounts not suitable for the propulsion of vehicles for transporting people Spring powered vehicles are wind up toys or mousetrap cars Steam Edit The Stanley Steamer car Main article Steam car A steam car is a car that has a steam engine Wood coal ethanol or others can be used as fuel The fuel is burned in a boiler and the heat converts water into steam When the water turns to steam it expands The expansion creates pressure The pressure pushes the pistons back and forth This turns the driveshaft to spin the wheels which provides moves the car forward It works like a coal fueled steam train or steam boat The steam car was the next logical step in independent transport Steam cars take a long time to start but some can reach speeds over 100 mph 161 km h eventually The late model Doble steam cars could be brought to operational condition in less than 30 seconds had high top speeds and fast acceleration but were expensive to buy A steam engine uses external combustion as opposed to internal combustion Gasoline powered cars are more efficient at about 25 28 efficiency In theory a combined cycle steam engine in which the burning material is first used to drive a gas turbine can produce 50 to 60 efficiency However practical examples of steam engined cars work at only around 5 8 efficiency The best known and best selling steam powered car was the Stanley Steamer It used a compact fire tube boiler under the hood to power a simple two piston engine which was connected directly to the rear axle Before Henry Ford introduced monthly payment financing with great success cars were typically purchased outright This is why the Stanley was kept simple to keep the purchase price affordable Steam produced in refrigeration also can be use by a turbine in other vehicle types to produce electricity that can be employed in electric motors or stored in a battery Steam power can be combined with a standard oil based engine to create a hybrid Water is injected into the cylinder after the fuel is burned when the piston is still superheated often at temperatures of 1500 degrees or more The water will instantly be vaporized into steam taking advantage of the heat that would otherwise be wasted Wind Edit Wind powered vehicles for recreational purposes Wind powered vehicles have been well known for a long time They can be realized with sails similar to those used on ships by using an onboard wind turbine which drives the wheels directly or which generates electricity for an electric motor or can be pulled by a kite Wind powered land vehicles need an enormous clearance in height especially when sails or kites are used and are unsuitable in urban area They may be also be difficult to steer Wind powered vehicles are only used for recreational activities on beaches or other free areas The concept is described in further detail here 1 Wood gas Edit Vehicle with a gasifier Main article Wood gas generator Wood gas can be used to power cars with ordinary internal combustion engines if a wood gasifier is attached This was quite popular during World War II in several European and Asian countries because the war prevented easy and cost effective access to oil Herb Hartman of Woodward Iowa currently drives a wood powered Cadillac He claims to have attached the gasifier to the Cadillac for just 700 Hartman claims A full hopper will go about fifty miles depending on how you drive it and he added that splitting the wood was labor intensive That s the big drawback 113 Multiple fuel source EditDual fuel Edit Dual fuel vehicle is referred as the vehicle using two types of fuel in the same time can be gas liquid gas gas liquid liquid with different fuel tank Diesel CNG dual fuel is a system using two type of fuel which are diesel and compressed natural gas CNG at the same time It is because of CNG need a source of ignition for combustion in diesel engine 114 Flexible fuel Edit Six typical Brazilian full flex fuel models from several carmakers popularly known as flex cars that run on any blend of ethanol and gasoline actually between E20 E25 to E100 Main article Flexible fuel vehicleSee also Neat ethanol vehicle A flexible fuel vehicle FFV or dual fuel vehicle DFF is an alternative fuel automobile or light duty truck with a multifuel engine that can use more than one fuel usually mixed in the same tank and the blend is burned in the combustion chamber together These vehicles are colloquially called flex fuel or flexifuel in Europe or just flex in Brazil FFVs are distinguished from bi fuel vehicles where two fuels are stored in separate tanks The most common commercially available FFV in the world market is the ethanol flexible fuel vehicle with the major markets concentrated in the United States Brazil Sweden and some other European countries In addition to flex fuel vehicles running with ethanol in the US and Europe there were successful test programs with methanol flex fuel vehicles known as M85 FFVs and more recently there have been also successful tests using p series fuels with E85 flex fuel vehicles but as of June 2008 this fuel is not yet available to the general public Ethanol flexible fuel vehicles have standard gasoline engines that are capable of running with ethanol and gasoline mixed in the same tank These mixtures have E numbers which describe the percentage of ethanol in the mixture for example E85 is 85 ethanol and 15 gasoline See common ethanol fuel mixtures for more information Though technology exists to allow ethanol FFVs to run on any mixture up to E100 58 115 in the U S and Europe flex fuel vehicles are optimized to run on E85 This limit is set to avoid cold starting problems during very cold weather The alcohol content might be reduced during the winter to E70 in the U S or to E75 in Sweden Brazil with a warmer climate developed vehicles that can run on any mix up to E100 though E20 E25 is the mandatory minimum blend and no pure gasoline is sold in the country About 48 million automobiles motorcycles and light duty trucks manufactured and sold worldwide by mid 2015 and concentrated in four markets 116 Brazil 29 5 million by mid 2015 7 8 the United States 17 4 million by the end of 2014 9 Canada 1 6 million by 2014 10 and Sweden 243 100 through December 2014 11 12 13 The Brazilian flex fuel fleet includes over 4 million flexible fuel motorcycles produced since 2009 through March 2015 8 In Brazil 65 of flex fuel car owners were using ethanol fuel regularly in 2009 117 while the actual number of American FFVs being run on E85 is much lower surveys conducted in the U S have found that 68 of American flex fuel car owners were not aware they owned an E85 flex 58 This is thought to be due to a number of factors including Typical labeling used in the US to identify E85 vehicles Top left a small sticker in the back of the fuel filler door Bottom left the bright yellow gas cap used in newer models E85 Flexfuel badging used in newer models from Chrysler top right Ford middle right and GM bottom right The appearance of flex fuel and non flex fuel vehicles is identical There is no price difference between a pure gasoline vehicle and its flex fuel variant The lack of consumer awareness of flex fuel vehicles The lack of promotion of flex fuel vehicles by American automakers who often do not label the cars or market them in the same way they do to hybrid carsBy contrast automakers selling FFVs in Brazil commonly affix badges advertising the car as a flex fuel vehicle As of 2007 new FFV models sold in the U S were required to feature a yellow gas cap emblazoned with the label E85 gasoline in order to remind drivers of the cars flex fuel capabilities 118 119 Use of E85 in the U S is also affected by the relatively low number of E85 filling stations in operation across the country with just over 1 750 in August 2008 120 most of which are concentrated in the Corn Belt states led by Minnesota with 353 stations followed by Illinois with 181 and Wisconsin with 114 121 By comparison there are some 120 000 stations providing regular non ethanol gasoline in the United States alone 122 US E85FlexFuel Chevrolet Impala LT 2009 There have been claims that American automakers are motivated to produce flex fuel vehicles due to a loophole in the Corporate Average Fuel Economy CAFE requirements which gives the automaker a fuel economy credit for every flex fuel vehicle sold whether or not the vehicle is actually fueled with E85 in regular use 75 This loophole allegedly allows the U S auto industry to meet CAFE fuel economy targets not by developing more fuel efficient models but by spending between US 100 and US 200 extra per vehicle to produce a certain number of flex fuel models enabling them to continue selling less fuel efficient vehicles such as SUVs which netted higher profit margins than smaller more fuel efficient cars 123 124 In the United States E85 FFVs are equipped with sensor that automatically detect the fuel mixture signaling the ECU to tune spark timing and fuel injection so that fuel will burn cleanly in the vehicle s internal combustion engine Originally the sensors were mounted in the fuel line and exhaust system more recent models do away with the fuel line sensor Another feature of older flex fuel cars is a small separate gasoline storage tank that was used for starting the car on cold days when the ethanol mixture made ignition more difficult The Honda CG 150 Titan Mix was the first flex fuel motorcycle launched to the market in the world Modern Brazilian flex fuel technology enables FFVs to run an any blend between E20 E25 gasohol and E100 ethanol fuel using a lambda probe to measure the quality of combustion which informs the engine control unit as to the exact composition of the gasoline alcohol mixture This technology developed by the Brazilian subsidiary of Bosch in 1994 and further improved and commercially implemented in 2003 by the Italian subsidiary of Magneti Marelli is known as Software Fuel Sensor The Brazilian subsidiary of Delphi Automotive Systems developed a similar technology known as Multifuel based on research conducted at its facility in Piracicaba Sao Paulo 125 This technology allows the controller to regulate the amount of fuel injected and spark time as fuel flow needs to be decreased to avoid detonation due to the high compression ratio around 12 1 used by flex fuel engines The first flex motorcycle was launched by Honda in March 2009 Produced by its Brazilian subsidiary Moto Honda da Amazonia the CG 150 Titan Mix is sold for around US 2 700 126 127 128 129 Because the motorcycle does not have a secondary gas tank for a cold start like the Brazilian flex cars do the tank must have at least 20 of gasoline to avoid start up problems at temperatures below 15 C 59 F The motorcycle s panel includes a gauge to warn the driver about the actual ethanol gasoline mix in the storage tank 129 130 Hybrids Edit Hybrid electric vehicle Edit Main articles Hybrid vehicle and Hybrid electric vehicle A hybrid vehicle uses multiple propulsion systems to provide motive power The most common type of hybrid vehicle is the gasoline electric hybrid vehicles which use gasoline petrol and electric batteries for the energy used to power internal combustion engines ICEs and electric motors These motors are usually relatively small and would be considered underpowered by themselves but they can provide a normal driving experience when used in combination during acceleration and other maneuvers that require greater power The Toyota Prius is the world s best selling hybrid electric vehicle with global sales of almost 4 million units through January 2017 1 The Toyota Prius first went on sale in Japan in 1997 and it is sold worldwide since 2000 By 2017 the Prius is sold in more than 90 countries and regions with Japan and the United States as its largest markets 1 131 In May 2008 global cumulative Prius sales reached the 1 million units and by September 2010 the Prius reached worldwide cumulative sales of 2 million units 131 and 3 million units by June 2013 132 As of January 2017 update global hybrid sales are led by the Prius family with cumulative sales of 6 0361 million units excluding its plug in hybrid variant 1 The Toyota Prius liftback is the leading model of the Toyota brand with cumulative sales of 3 985 million units followed by the Toyota Aqua Prius c with global sales of 1 380 million units the Prius v a with 671 200 the Camry Hybrid with 614 700 units the Toyota Auris with 378 000 units and the Toyota Yaris Hybrid with 302 700 1 The best selling Lexus model is the Lexus RX 400h RX 450h with global sales of 363 000 units The Honda Insight is a two seater hatchback hybrid automobile manufactured by Honda It was the first mass produced hybrid automobile sold in the United States introduced in 1999 and produced until 2006 133 134 Honda introduced the second generation Insight in Japan in February 2009 and the new Insight went on sale in the United States on April 22 2009 135 136 Honda also offers the Honda Civic Hybrid since 2002 As of January 2017 update there are over 50 models of hybrid electric cars available in several world markets with more than 12 million hybrid electric vehicles sold worldwide since their inception in 1997 1 16 As of April 2016 update Japan ranked as the market leader with more than 5 million hybrids sold followed by the United States with cumulative sales of over 4 million units since 1999 and Europe with about 1 5 million hybrids delivered since 2000 16 Japan has the world s highest hybrid market penetration By 2013 the hybrid market share accounted for more than 30 of new standard passenger car sold and about 20 new passenger vehicle sales including kei cars 137 The Netherlands ranks second with a hybrid market share of 4 5 of new car sales in 2012 138 As of January 2017 update global sales are by Toyota Motor Company with more than 10 million Lexus and Toyota hybrids sold 1 followed by Honda Motor Co Ltd with cumulative global sales of more than 1 35 million hybrids as of June 2014 update 17 18 19 Ford Motor Corporation with over 424 thousand hybrids sold in the United States through June 2015 of which around 10 are plug in hybrids 139 140 141 142 143 Hyundai Group with cumulative global sales of 200 thousand hybrids as of March 2014 update including both Hyundai Motors and Kia Motors hybrid models 144 and PSA Peugeot Citroen with over 50 000 diesel powered hybrids sold in Europe through December 2013 145 The Elantra LPI Hybrid launched in the South Korean domestic market in July 2009 is a hybrid vehicle powered by an internal combustion engine built to run on liquefied petroleum gas LPG as a fuel The Elantra PLI is a mild hybrid and the first hybrid to adopt advanced lithium polymer Li Poly batteries 96 97 Plug in hybrid electric vehicle Edit Main article Plug in hybrid Until 2010 most plug in hybrids on the road in the U S were conversions of conventional hybrid electric vehicles 146 and the most prominent PHEVs were conversions of 2004 or later Toyota Prius which have had plug in charging and more batteries added and their electric only range extended 147 Chinese battery manufacturer and automaker BYD Auto released the F3DM to the Chinese fleet market in December 2008 148 149 150 and began sales to the general public in Shenzhen in March 2010 151 152 General Motors began deliveries of the Chevrolet Volt in the U S in December 2010 153 Deliveries to retail customers of the Fisker Karma began in the U S in November 2011 The Mitsubishi Outlander P HEV is the world s all time best selling plug in hybrid with 270 000 units sold through December 2020 28 During 2012 the Toyota Prius Plug in Hybrid Ford C Max Energi and Volvo V60 Plug in Hybrid were released The following models were launched during 2013 and 2015 Honda Accord Plug in Hybrid Mitsubishi Outlander P HEV Ford Fusion Energi McLaren P1 limited edition Porsche Panamera S E Hybrid BYD Qin Cadillac ELR BMW i3 REx BMW i8 Porsche 918 Spyder limited production Volkswagen XL1 limited production Audi A3 Sportback e tron Volkswagen Golf GTE Mercedes Benz S 500 e Porsche Cayenne S E Hybrid Mercedes Benz C 350 e BYD Tang Volkswagen Passat GTE Volvo XC90 T8 BMW X5 xDrive40e Hyundai Sonata PHEV and Volvo S60L PHEV As of December 2015 update about 500 000 highway capable plug in hybrid electric cars had been sold worldwide since December 2008 out of total cumulative global sales of 1 2 million light duty plug in electric vehicles 154 As of December 2016 update the Volt Ampera family of plug in hybrids with combined sales of about 134 500 units is the top selling plug in hybrid in the world Ranking next are the Mitsubishi Outlander P HEV with about 119 500 and the Toyota Prius Plug in Hybrid with almost 78 000 2 Pedal assisted electric hybrid vehicle Edit In very small vehicles the power demand decreases so human power can be employed to make a significant improvement in battery life Three such commercially made vehicles are the Sinclair C5 ELF and TWIKE Comparative assessment of fossil and alternative fuels Edit Different fuel pathways require different amounts of energy to drive 100 km From left to right Coal to electricity to electrical car Renewable energy e g wind or photovoltaics to electrical car Renewable energy to hydrogen to hydrogen powered car Petroleum to diesel to internal combustion engine According to a recent comparative energy and environmental analysis of the vehicle fuel end use petroleum and natural gas derivatives amp hydrogen biofuels like ethanol or biodiesel and their mixtures as well as electricity intended to be used in plug in electric vehicles the renewable and non renewable unit energy costs and CO2 emission cost are suitable indicators for assessing the renewable energy consumption intensity and the environmental impact and for quantifying the thermodynamic performance of the transportation sector This analysis allows ranking the energy conversion processes along the vehicle fuels production routes and their end use so that the best options for the transportation sector can be determined and better energy policies may be issued Thus if a drastic CO2 emissions abatement of the transportation sector is pursued a more intensive utilization of ethanol in the Brazilian transportation sector mix is advisable However as the overall exergy conversion efficiency of the sugar cane industry is still very low which increases the unit energy cost of ethanol better production and end use technologies are required Nonetheless with the current scenario of a predominantly renewable Brazilian electricity mix based on more than 80 of renewable sources this source consolidates as the most promising energy source to reduce the large amount of greenhouse gas emissions which transportation sector is responsible for 155 See also Edit Energy portalAlternative Fuels Training Consortium Alternatives to the automobile Bi fuel vehicle Butanol fuel Carbon neutral fuel Clean Cities Engine control unit altering to optimize running on different fuels Green vehicle Fuel gas powered scooter Hydrogen vehicle List of hybrid vehicles Phase out of fossil fuel vehicles Renewable energy Solar vehicle The Hype about Hydrogen Vehicle classification by propulsion system Water fuelled car Wind powered vehicleReferences Edit a b c d e f g h i j k Worldwide Sales of Toyota Hybrids Surpass 10 Million Units Press release Toyota City Japan Toyota 2017 01 14 Retrieved 2017 01 15 This latest milestone of 10 million units was achieved just nine months after total sales reached 9 million units at the end of April 2016 a b Cobb Jeff 2017 01 31 Tesla Model S Is World s Best Selling Plug in Car For Second Year In A Row HybridCars com Retrieved 2017 01 31 See also detailed 2016 sales and cumulative global sales in the two graphs Revealed how the hybrid car works Claverton Group Claverton energy com 2009 02 24 Retrieved 2010 12 12 Strategies for Managing Impacts from Automobiles US EPA Region 10 archived from the original on March 4 2016 retrieved May 22 2012 European Union s End of life Vehicle ELV Directive End of Life Vehicles EU archived from the original on January 29 2015 retrieved May 22 2012 Stacy C Davis amp Robert G Boundy April 2020 Transportation Energy Data Book Edition 38 1 PDF Oak Ridge National Laboratory Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy U S Department of Energy Retrieved 2020 05 23 See Tables 3 2 and 3 3 a b c Giovanna Riato 2015 07 07 Motores flex precisam de mais eficiencia Flex engines require more efficiency in Portuguese Automotive Business Retrieved 2015 08 26 a b c d Staff 2015 03 09 Honda chega a 4 milhoes de Motos Flex Produzidas no Brasil Honda reaches 4 million flexible fuel motorcycles produced in Brazil in Portuguese Revista Auto Esporte Retrieved 2015 08 26 a b Brian Milne 2014 12 07 Chicago Ethanol Stubbornly Holding Premium to Gasoline Schneider Electric Retrieved 2015 08 26 a b Flavelle Dana 2015 06 19 Why hybrid car sales are stalling Toronto Star Retrieved 2016 06 14 a b BAFF Bought ethanol cars BioAlcohol Fuel Foundation Archived from the original on 21 July 2011 Retrieved 2013 11 17 As of September 2013 see Graph Bought flexifuel vehicles a b Bil Sweden Definitiva nyregistreringar 2012 Final registrations in 2012 in Swedish Bil Sweden Retrieved 2015 08 26 Download file Definitiva nyregistreringar 2012 see table Nyregistrerade miljobilar per typ december 2012 with summary of E85 passenger car registrations for 2012 and 2011 a b Bil Sweden 2015 01 02 Nyregistreringar december 2014 prel New registrations in December 2014 preliminar in Swedish Bil Sweden Archived from the original on 2015 01 04 Retrieved 2015 08 26 Download file Nyregistreringar december 2014 prel see table Nyregistrerade miljobilar per typ december 2014 with summary of E85 passenger car registrations for 2014 and 2013 a b Worldwide NGV Statistics NGV Journal Retrieved 2013 11 17 a b WLPGA The Autogas Market World LP Gas Association Archived from the original on 2013 04 19 Retrieved 2012 02 23 See table Largest autogas markets 2010 a b c d Cobb Jeff 2016 06 06 Americans Buy Their Four Millionth Hybrid Car HybridCars com Retrieved 2016 06 12 a b Honda Press Release 2012 10 15 Cumulative worldwide sales of Honda hybrids passes 1 million units Green Car Congress Retrieved 2012 10 16 a b Roger Schreffler 2014 07 14 Toyota Strengthens Grip on Japan EV Hybrid Market Ward s AutoWorld Archived from the original on 2014 05 02 Retrieved 2014 04 30 Honda sold 187 851 hybrids in 2013 a b Roger Schreffler 2014 08 20 Toyota Remains Unchallenged Global Hybrid Leader Ward s AutoWorld Archived from the original on 2014 10 09 Retrieved 2014 10 04 Honda sold 158 696 hybrids during the first six months of 2014 a b Anuario da Industria Automobilistica Brasileira 2011 Tabela 2 3 Producao por combustivel 1957 2010 in Portuguese ANFAVEA Associacao Nacional dos Fabricantes de Veiculos Automotores Brasil Archived from the original on 2013 05 31 Retrieved 2012 01 22 pp 62 63 Alfred Szwarc Abstract Use of Bio fuels in Brazil PDF United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change Archived PDF from the original on 11 November 2009 Retrieved 2009 10 24 Luiz A Horta Nogueira 2004 03 22 Perspectivas de un Programa de Biocombustibles en America Central Proyecto Uso Sustentable de Hidrocarburos PDF in Spanish Comision Economica para America Latina y el Caribe CEPAL Archived from the original PDF on 28 May 2008 Retrieved 2008 05 09 UNICA Brazil October 2012 Frota brasileira de autoveiculos leves ciclo Otto Brazilian fleet of light vehicles Otto cycle in Portuguese UNICA Data Retrieved 2012 10 31 Shanahan Jess 2021 01 21 There are now more than 10 million electric vehicles on the road Zap Map Retrieved 2021 01 21 there are now more than 10 million of these vehicles on the road around the world According to EV Volumes the total is now 10 8 million worldwide a b Holland Maximilian 2020 02 10 Tesla Passes 1 Million EV Milestone amp Model 3 Becomes All Time Best Seller CleanTechnica Archived from the original on April 12 2020 Retrieved 2020 05 15 Tesla s quarterly reports meanwhile had put the Model 3 s cumulative sales at 447 980 at the end of 2019 Jose Pontes 2021 02 02 Global Top 20 December 2020 EVSales com Retrieved 2021 02 03 Global sales totaled 3 124 793 plug in passenger cars in 2020 with a BEV to PHEV ratio of 69 31 and a global market share of 4 The world s top selling plug in car was the Tesla Model 3 with 365 240 units delivered and Tesla was the top selling manufacturer of plug in passenger cars in 2019 with 499 535 units followed by VW with 220 220 Nissan 2020 12 03 Nissan marks 10 years of LEAF sales with over 500 000 sold worldwide Automotive World Retrieved 2021 01 07 Nissan today celebrated the 10th anniversary of the Nissan LEAF and the delivery of 500 000 LEAF vehicles since the model was first introduced More than 148 000 have been sold in the United States a b OUTLANDER PHEV Became Europe s Best selling Plug in Hybrid SUV in 2020 Press release Tokyo Mitsubishi Motors 2021 02 18 Retrieved 2021 02 19 The OUTLANDER PHEV is sold in more than 60 countries since the launch in 2013 and its global cumulative sales volume has reached 270 000 units as of December 2020 a b International Energy Agency IEA Clean Energy Ministerial and Electric Vehicles Initiative EVI June 2020 Global EV Outlook 2020 Enterign the decade of electric drive IEA Publications Retrieved 2021 01 10 a href Template Cite web html title Template Cite web cite web a CS1 maint multiple names authors list link See Statistical annex pp 247 252 See Tables A 1 and A 12 China Association of Automobile Manufacturers CAAM 2021 01 14 Sales of New Energy Vehicles in December 2020 CAAM Retrieved 2021 02 08 NEV sales in China totaled 1 637 million in 2020 consisting of 1 246 million passenger cars and 121 000 commercial vehicles European Alternative Fuels Observatory EAFO March 2021 Vehicles and fleet passenger cars M1 EAFO Retrieved 2021 03 07 Filters Elecricity EU UK EFTA Turkey 2020 YTD See grahp AF Fleet M1 Electricity 2020 Total number AF passenger cars in the fleet BEV 1 722 003 and 1 394 915 PHEVs Total 3 116 918 plug in passenger cars on the road European Alternative Fuels Observatory EAFO March 2021 Vehicles and fleet Light commercial vehicles N1 EAFO Retrieved 2021 03 07 Filters Elecricity EU UK EFTA Turkey 2020 YTD See grahp AF Fleet Electricity 2020 BEV 146 611 total number AF light commercial vehicles and AF New Registrations Electricity 2020 BEV 37 535 newly registered AF light commercial vehicles VELOZ 2021 02 01 Electric Car Sales in California and the U S PDF Veloz org Retrieved 2021 02 02 National sales 2020 322 442 cumulative sales 1 786 258 California sales 2020 145 099 cumulative sales 803 816 a b International Energy Agency IEA Clean Energy Ministerial and Electric Vehicles Initiative EVI 2021 04 29 Global EV Outlook 2021 Accelerating ambitions despite the pandemic International Energy Agency Retrieved 2021 05 17 a href Template Cite web html title Template Cite web cite web a CS1 maint multiple names authors list link Go to the Global EV Data Explorer tool and choose EV Stock Cars and World for global stock and Country for the country stock Fredi Giulia Jeschke Steffen Boulaoued Athmane Wallenstein Joachim Rashidi Masoud Liu Fang Harnden Ross Zenkert Dan Hagberg Johan Lindbergh Goran Johansson Patrik 2018 08 28 Graphitic microstructure and performance of carbon fibre Li ion structural battery electrodes Multifunctional Materials 1 1 015003 Bibcode 2018MuMat 1a5003F doi 10 1088 2399 7532 aab707 ISSN 2399 7532 S2CID 206111106 Plug in Vehicle Tracker What s Coming When Plug In America Retrieved 2012 01 15 a b Cobb Jeff 2017 01 09 Nissan s Quarter Millionth Leaf Means It s The Best Selling Plug in Car In History HybridCars com Retrieved 2017 01 10 As of December 2016 update the Nissan Leaf is the world s best selling plug in car in history with more than 250 000 units delivered followed by the Tesla Model S with over 158 000 sales which may soon replace the Nissan Leaf in most EV sales the Volt Ampera family of vehicles with 134 500 vehicles sold and the Mitsubishi Outlander PHEV with about 116 500 units sold through November 2016 These are the only plug in electric cars so far with over 100 000 global sales Groupe Renault January 2017 Ventes Mensuelles Monthly Sales in French Renault com Retrieved 2017 01 18 Includes passenger and light utility variants Click on decembre 2016 to download the file XLSX 239 Ko for CYTD sales in 2016 and open the tab Sales by Model Click on Voir plus See more to download the files Ventes mensuelles du groupe decembre 2011 xls 183 Ko Ventes mensuelles decembre 2012 xls 289 Ko Ventes mensuelles decembre 2013 xlsx 227 Ko XLSX 220 Ko Ventes mensuelles decembre 2014 Ventes mensuelles decembre 2015 to download the file XLSX 227 Ko for 2011 2012 2013 2014 and 2015 sales Sales figures for 2013 were revised in the 2014 report nycomb se Nycomb Chemicals company Archived from the original on 3 June 2008 Retrieved 26 July 2017 Haldor Topsoe Products amp Services Technologies DME 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