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Wikipedia

Gas turbine

A gas turbine, also called a combustion turbine, is a type of continuous flow internal combustion engine. The main parts common to all gas turbine engines form the power-producing part (known as the gas generator or core) and are, in the direction of flow:

Examples of gas turbine configurations: (1) turbojet, (2) turboprop, (3) turboshaft (shown as electric generator), (4) high-bypass turbofan, (5) low-bypass afterburning turbofan

Additional components have to be added to the gas generator to suit its application. Common to all is an air inlet but with different configurations to suit the requirements of marine use, land use or flight at speeds varying from stationary to supersonic. A propelling nozzle is added to produce thrust for flight. An extra turbine is added to drive a propeller (turboprop) or ducted fan (turbofan) to reduce fuel consumption (by increasing propulsive efficiency) at subsonic flight speeds. An extra turbine is also required to drive a helicopter rotor or land-vehicle transmission (turboshaft), marine propeller or electrical generator (power turbine). Greater thrust-to-weight ratio for flight is achieved with the addition of an afterburner.

The basic operation of the gas turbine is a Brayton cycle with air as the working fluid: atmospheric air flows through the compressor that brings it to higher pressure; energy is then added by spraying fuel into the air and igniting it so that the combustion generates a high-temperature flow; this high-temperature pressurized gas enters a turbine, producing a shaft work output in the process, used to drive the compressor; the unused energy comes out in the exhaust gases that can be repurposed for external work, such as directly producing thrust in a turbojet engine, or rotating a second, independent turbine (known as a power turbine) that can be connected to a fan, propeller, or electrical generator. The purpose of the gas turbine determines the design so that the most desirable split of energy between the thrust and the shaft work is achieved. The fourth step of the Brayton cycle (cooling of the working fluid) is omitted, as gas turbines are open systems that do not reuse the same air.

Gas turbines are used to power aircraft, trains, ships, electrical generators, pumps, gas compressors, and tanks.[1]

Timeline of development

 
Sketch of John Barber's gas turbine, from his patent
  • 50: Earliest records of Hero's engine (aeolipile). It most likely served no practical purpose, and was rather more of a curiosity; nonetheless, it demonstrated an important principle of physics that all modern turbine engines rely on.
  • 1000: The "Trotting Horse Lamp" (Chinese: 走马灯, zŏumădēng) was used by the Chinese at lantern fairs as early as the Northern Song dynasty. When the lamp is lit, the heated airflow rises and drives an impeller with horse-riding figures attached on it, whose shadows are then projected onto the outer screen of the lantern.[2]
  • 1500: The Smoke jack was drawn by Leonardo da Vinci: Hot air from a fire rises through a single-stage axial turbine rotor mounted in the exhaust duct of the fireplace and turns the roasting spit by gear-chain connection.
  • 1629: Jets of steam rotated an impulse turbine that then drove a working stamping mill by means of a bevel gear, developed by Giovanni Branca.
  • 1678: Ferdinand Verbiest built a model carriage relying on a steam jet for power.
  • 1791: A patent was given to John Barber, an Englishman, for the first true gas turbine. His invention had most of the elements present in the modern day gas turbines. The turbine was designed to power a horseless carriage.[3][4]
  • 1861: British patent no. 1633 was granted to Marc Antoine Francois Mennons for a "Caloric engine". The patent shows that it was a gas turbine and the drawings show it applied to a locomotive.[5]
  • 1872: A gas turbine engine designed by Berlin engineer, Franz Stolze, is thought to be the first attempt at creating a working model, but the engine never ran under its own power.
  • 1894: Sir Charles Parsons patented the idea of propelling a ship with a steam turbine, and built a demonstration vessel, the Turbinia, easily the fastest vessel afloat at the time. This principle of propulsion is still of some use.
  • 1895: Three 4-ton 100 kW Parsons radial flow generators were installed in Cambridge Power Station, and used to power the first electric street lighting scheme in the city.
  • 1899: Charles Gordon Curtis patented the first gas turbine engine in the US ("Apparatus for generating mechanical power", Patent No. US635,919).[6][7][8]
  • 1900: Sanford Alexander Moss submitted a thesis on gas turbines. In 1903, Moss became an engineer for General Electric's Steam Turbine Department in Lynn, Massachusetts.[9] While there, he applied some of his concepts in the development of the turbosupercharger. His design used a small turbine wheel, driven by exhaust gases, to turn a supercharger.[9]
  • 1903: A Norwegian, Ægidius Elling, built the first gas turbine that was able to produce more power than needed to run its own components, which was considered an achievement in a time when knowledge about aerodynamics was limited. Using rotary compressors and turbines it produced 11 hp.[10]
  • 1906: The Armengaud-Lemale turbine engine in France with a water-cooled combustion chamber.
  • 1910: Holzwarth impulse turbine (pulse combustion) achieved 150 kW (200 hp).
  • 1913: Nikola Tesla patents the Tesla turbine based on the boundary layer effect.[11]
  • 1920s The practical theory of gas flow through passages was developed into the more formal (and applicable to turbines) theory of gas flow past airfoils by A. A. Griffith resulting in the publishing in 1926 of An Aerodynamic Theory of Turbine Design. Working testbed designs of axial turbines suitable for driving a propeller were developed by the Royal Aeronautical Establishment, thereby proving the efficiency of aerodynamic shaping of the blades in 1929.[citation needed]
  • 1930: Having found no interest from the RAF for his idea, Frank Whittle patented[12] the design for a centrifugal gas turbine for jet propulsion. The first successful use of his engine occurred in England in April 1937.[13]
  • 1932: BBC Brown, Boveri & Cie of Switzerland starts selling axial compressor and turbine turbosets as part of the turbocharged steam generating Velox boiler. Following the gas turbine principle, the steam evaporation tubes are arranged within the gas turbine combustion chamber; the first Velox plant was erected in Mondeville, Calvados, France.[14]
  • 1934: Raúl Pateras de Pescara patented the free-piston engine as a gas generator for gas turbines.[15]
  • 1936: Whittle with others backed by investment forms Power Jets Ltd[citation needed]
  • 1937: Working proof-of-concept prototype jet engine runs in UK (Frank Whittle's) and Germany (Hans von Ohain's Heinkel HeS 1). Henry Tizard secures UK government funding for further development of Power Jets engine.[16]
  • 1939: First 4 MW utility power generation gas turbine from BBC Brown, Boveri & Cie. for an emergency power station in Neuchâtel, Switzerland.[17]
  • 1944: The Junkers Jumo 004 engine enters full production, powering the first German military jets such as the Messerschmitt Me 262. This marks the beginning of the reign of gas turbines in the sky.
  • 1946: National Gas Turbine Establishment formed from Power Jets and the RAE turbine division to bring together Whittle and Hayne Constant's work.[18] In Beznau, Switzerland the first commercial reheated/recuperated unit generating 27 MW was commissioned.[19]
  • 1947: A Metropolitan Vickers G1 (Gatric) becomes the first marine gas turbine when it completes sea trials on the Royal Navy's M.G.B 2009 vessel. The Gatric was an aeroderivative gas turbine based on the Metropolitan Vickers F2 jet engine.[20][21]
  • 1995: Siemens becomes the first manufacturer of large electricity producing gas turbines to incorporate single crystal turbine blade technology into their production models, allowing higher operating temperatures and greater efficiency.[22]
  • 2011 Mitsubishi Heavy Industries tests the first >60% efficiency combined cycle gas turbine (the M501J) at its Takasago, Hyōgo, works.[23][24]

Theory of operation

In an ideal gas turbine, gases undergo four thermodynamic processes: an isentropic compression, an isobaric (constant pressure) combustion, an isentropic expansion and heat rejection. Together, these make up the Brayton cycle.

In a real gas turbine, mechanical energy is changed irreversibly (due to internal friction and turbulence) into pressure and thermal energy when the gas is compressed (in either a centrifugal or axial compressor). Heat is added in the combustion chamber and the specific volume of the gas increases, accompanied by a slight loss in pressure. During expansion through the stator and rotor passages in the turbine, irreversible energy transformation once again occurs. Fresh air is taken in, in place of the heat rejection.

If the engine has a power turbine added to drive an industrial generator or a helicopter rotor, the exit pressure will be as close to the entry pressure as possible with only enough energy left to overcome the pressure losses in the exhaust ducting and expel the exhaust. For a turboprop engine there will be a particular balance between propeller power and jet thrust which gives the most economical operation. In a turbojet engine only enough pressure and energy is extracted from the flow to drive the compressor and other components. The remaining high-pressure gases are accelerated through a nozzle to provide a jet to propel an aircraft.

The smaller the engine, the higher the rotation rate of the shaft must be to attain the required blade tip speed. Blade-tip speed determines the maximum pressure ratios that can be obtained by the turbine and the compressor. This, in turn, limits the maximum power and efficiency that can be obtained by the engine. In order for tip speed to remain constant, if the diameter of a rotor is reduced by half, the rotational speed must double. For example, large jet engines operate around 10,000–25,000 rpm, while micro turbines spin as fast as 500,000 rpm.[25]

Mechanically, gas turbines can be considerably less complex than internal combustion piston engines. Simple turbines might have one main moving part, the compressor/shaft/turbine rotor assembly, with other moving parts in the fuel system. This, in turn, can translate into price. For instance, costing 10,000 ℛℳ for materials, the Jumo 004 proved cheaper than the Junkers 213 piston engine, which was 35,000 ℛℳ,[26] and needed only 375 hours of lower-skill labor to complete (including manufacture, assembly, and shipping), compared to 1,400 for the BMW 801.[27] This, however, also translated into poor efficiency and reliability. More advanced gas turbines (such as those found in modern jet engines or combined cycle power plants) may have 2 or 3 shafts (spools), hundreds of compressor and turbine blades, movable stator blades, and extensive external tubing for fuel, oil and air systems; they use temperature resistant alloys, and are made with tight specifications requiring precision manufacture. All this often makes the construction of a simple gas turbine more complicated than a piston engine.

Moreover, to reach optimum performance in modern gas turbine power plants the gas needs to be prepared to exact fuel specifications. Fuel gas conditioning systems treat the natural gas to reach the exact fuel specification prior to entering the turbine in terms of pressure, temperature, gas composition, and the related wobbe-index.

The primary advantage of a gas turbine engine is its power to weight ratio.[citation needed] Since significant useful work can be generated by a relatively lightweight engine, gas turbines are perfectly suited for aircraft propulsion.

Thrust bearings and journal bearings are a critical part of a design. They are hydrodynamic oil bearings or oil-cooled rolling-element bearings. Foil bearings are used in some small machines such as micro turbines[28] and also have strong potential for use in small gas turbines/auxiliary power units[29]

Creep

A major challenge facing turbine design, especially turbine blades, is reducing the creep that is induced by the high temperatures and stresses that are experienced during operation. Higher operating temperatures are continuously sought in order to increase efficiency, but come at the cost of higher creep rates. Several methods have therefore been employed in an attempt to achieve optimal performance while limiting creep, with the most successful ones being high performance coatings and single crystal superalloys.[30] These technologies work by limiting deformation that occurs by mechanisms that can be broadly classified as dislocation glide, dislocation climb and diffusional flow.

Protective coatings provide thermal insulation of the blade and offer oxidation and corrosion resistance. Thermal barrier coatings (TBCs) are often stabilized zirconium dioxide-based ceramics and oxidation/corrosion resistant coatings (bond coats) typically consist of aluminides or MCrAlY (where M is typically Fe and/or Cr) alloys. Using TBCs limits the temperature exposure of the superalloy substrate, thereby decreasing the diffusivity of the active species (typically vacancies) within the alloy and reducing dislocation and vacancy creep. It has been found that a coating of 1–200 μm can decrease blade temperatures by up to 200 °C (392 °F).[31] Bond coats are directly applied onto the surface of the substrate using pack carburization and serve the dual purpose of providing improved adherence for the TBC and oxidation resistance for the substrate. The Al from the bond coats forms Al2O3 on the TBC-bond coat interface which provides the oxidation resistance, but also results in the formation of an undesirable interdiffusion (ID) zone between itself and the substrate.[32] The oxidation resistance outweighs the drawbacks associated with the ID zone as it increases the lifetime of the blade and limits the efficiency losses caused by a buildup on the outside of the blades.[33]

Nickel-based superalloys boast improved strength and creep resistance due to their composition and resultant microstructure. The gamma (γ) FCC nickel is alloyed with aluminum and titanium in order to precipitate a uniform dispersion of the coherent Ni3(Al,Ti) gamma-prime (γ') phases. The finely dispersed γ' precipitates impede dislocation motion and introduce a threshold stress, increasing the stress required for the onset of creep. Furthermore, γ' is an ordered L12 phase that makes it harder for dislocations to shear past it.[34] Further Refractory elements such as rhenium and ruthenium can be added in solid solution to improve creep strength. The addition of these elements reduces the diffusion of the gamma prime phase, thus preserving the fatigue resistance, strength, and creep resistance.[35] The development of single crystal superalloys has led to significant improvements in creep resistance as well. Due to the lack of grain boundaries, single crystals eliminate Coble creep and consequently deform by fewer modes – decreasing the creep rate.[36] Although single crystals have lower creep at high temperatures, they have significantly lower yield stresses at room temperature where strength is determined by the Hall-Petch relationship. Care needs to be taken in order to optimize the design parameters to limit high temperature creep while not decreasing low temperature yield strength.

Types

Jet engines

 
typical axial-flow gas turbine turbojet, the J85, sectioned for display. Flow is left to right, multistage compressor on left, combustion chambers center, two-stage turbine on right

Airbreathing jet engines are gas turbines optimized to produce thrust from the exhaust gases, or from ducted fans connected to the gas turbines.[37] Jet engines that produce thrust from the direct impulse of exhaust gases are often called turbojets, whereas those that generate thrust with the addition of a ducted fan are often called turbofans or (rarely) fan-jets.

Gas turbines are also used in many liquid fuel rockets, where gas turbines are used to power a turbopump to permit the use of lightweight, low-pressure tanks, reducing the empty weight of the rocket.

Turboprop engines

A turboprop engine is a turbine engine that drives an aircraft propeller using a reduction gear. Turboprop engines are used on small aircraft such as the general-aviation Cessna 208 Caravan and Embraer EMB 312 Tucano military trainer, medium-sized commuter aircraft such as the Bombardier Dash 8 and large aircraft such as the Airbus A400M transport and the 60-year-old Tupolev Tu-95 strategic bomber.

Aeroderivative gas turbines

 
An LM6000 in an electrical power plant application

Aeroderivative gas turbines are generally based on existing aircraft gas turbine engines, and are smaller and lighter than industrial gas turbines.[38]

Aeroderivatives are used in electrical power generation due to their ability to be shut down and handle load changes more quickly than industrial machines.[citation needed] They are also used in the marine industry to reduce weight. Common types include the General Electric LM2500, General Electric LM6000, and aeroderivative versions of the Pratt & Whitney PW4000 and Rolls-Royce RB211.[38]

Amateur gas turbines

Increasing numbers of gas turbines are being used or even constructed by amateurs.

In its most straightforward form, these are commercial turbines acquired through military surplus or scrapyard sales, then operated for display as part of the hobby of engine collecting.[39][40] In its most extreme form, amateurs have even rebuilt engines beyond professional repair and then used them to compete for the land speed record.

The simplest form of self-constructed gas turbine employs an automotive turbocharger as the core component. A combustion chamber is fabricated and plumbed between the compressor and turbine sections.[41]

More sophisticated turbojets are also built, where their thrust and light weight are sufficient to power large model aircraft.[42] The Schreckling design[42] constructs the entire engine from raw materials, including the fabrication of a centrifugal compressor wheel from plywood, epoxy and wrapped carbon fibre strands.

Several small companies now manufacture small turbines and parts for the amateur. Most turbojet-powered model aircraft are now using these commercial and semi-commercial microturbines, rather than a Schreckling-like home-build.[43]

Auxiliary power units

Small gas turbines are used as auxiliary power units (APUs) to supply auxiliary power to larger, mobile, machines such as an aircraft. They supply:

  • compressed air for air conditioning and ventilation,
  • compressed air start-up power for larger jet engines,
  • mechanical (shaft) power to a gearbox to drive shafted accessories, and
  • electrical, hydraulic and other power-transmission sources to consuming devices remote from the APU.

Industrial gas turbines for power generation

 
Gateway Generating Station, a combined-cycle gas-fired power station in California, uses two GE 7F.04 combustion turbines to burn natural gas.
 
GE H series power generation gas turbine: in combined cycle configuration, its highest thermodynamic efficiency is 62.22%

Industrial gas turbines differ from aeronautical designs in that the frames, bearings, and blading are of heavier construction. They are also much more closely integrated with the devices they power—often an electric generator—and the secondary-energy equipment that is used to recover residual energy (largely heat).

They range in size from portable mobile plants to large, complex systems weighing more than a hundred tonnes housed in purpose-built buildings. When the gas turbine is used solely for shaft power, its thermal efficiency is about 30%. However, it may be cheaper to buy electricity than to generate it. Therefore, many engines are used in CHP (Combined Heat and Power) configurations that can be small enough to be integrated into portable container configurations.

Gas turbines can be particularly efficient when waste heat from the turbine is recovered by a heat recovery steam generator (HRSG) to power a conventional steam turbine in a combined cycle configuration.[44] The 605 MW General Electric 9HA achieved a 62.22% efficiency rate with temperatures as high as 1,540 °C (2,800 °F).[45] For 2018, GE offers its 826 MW HA at over 64% efficiency in combined cycle due to advances in additive manufacturing and combustion breakthroughs, up from 63.7% in 2017 orders and on track to achieve 65% by the early 2020s.[46] In March 2018, GE Power achieved a 63.08% gross efficiency for its 7HA turbine.[47]

Aeroderivative gas turbines can also be used in combined cycles, leading to a higher efficiency, but it will not be as high as a specifically designed industrial gas turbine. They can also be run in a cogeneration configuration: the exhaust is used for space or water heating, or drives an absorption chiller for cooling the inlet air and increase the power output, technology known as turbine inlet air cooling.

Another significant advantage is their ability to be turned on and off within minutes, supplying power during peak, or unscheduled, demand. Since single cycle (gas turbine only) power plants are less efficient than combined cycle plants, they are usually used as peaking power plants, which operate anywhere from several hours per day to a few dozen hours per year—depending on the electricity demand and the generating capacity of the region. In areas with a shortage of base-load and load following power plant capacity or with low fuel costs, a gas turbine powerplant may regularly operate most hours of the day. A large single-cycle gas turbine typically produces 100 to 400 megawatts of electric power and has 35–40% thermodynamic efficiency.[48]

Industrial gas turbines for mechanical drive

Industrial gas turbines that are used solely for mechanical drive or used in collaboration with a recovery steam generator differ from power generating sets in that they are often smaller and feature a dual shaft design as opposed to a single shaft. The power range varies from 1 megawatt up to 50 megawatts.[citation needed] These engines are connected directly or via a gearbox to either a pump or compressor assembly. The majority of installations are used within the oil and gas industries. Mechanical drive applications increase efficiency by around 2%.

Oil and gas platforms require these engines to drive compressors to inject gas into the wells to force oil up via another bore, or to compress the gas for transportation. They are also often used to provide power for the platform. These platforms do not need to use the engine in collaboration with a CHP system due to getting the gas at an extremely reduced cost (often free from burn off gas). The same companies use pump sets to drive the fluids to land and across pipelines in various intervals.

Compressed air energy storage

One modern development seeks to improve efficiency in another way, by separating the compressor and the turbine with a compressed air store. In a conventional turbine, up to half the generated power is used driving the compressor. In a compressed air energy storage configuration, power, perhaps from a wind farm or bought on the open market at a time of low demand and low price, is used to drive the compressor, and the compressed air released to operate the turbine when required.

Turboshaft engines

Turboshaft engines are used to drive compressors in gas pumping stations and natural gas liquefaction plants. They are also used to power all but the smallest modern helicopters. A primary shaft carries the compressor and its turbine which, together with a combustor, is called a Gas Generator. A separately-spinning power-turbine is usually used to drive the rotor on helicopters. Allowing the gas generator and power turbine/rotor to spin at their own speeds allows more flexibility in their design.

Radial gas turbines

Scale jet engines

 
Scale jet engines are scaled down versions of this early full scale engine

Also known as miniature gas turbines or micro-jets.

With this in mind the pioneer of modern Micro-Jets, Kurt Schreckling, produced one of the world's first Micro-Turbines, the FD3/67.[42] This engine can produce up to 22 newtons of thrust, and can be built by most mechanically minded people with basic engineering tools, such as a metal lathe.[42]

Microturbines

Evolved from piston engine turbochargers, aircraft APUs or small jet engines, microturbines are 25 to 500 kilowatt turbines the size of a refrigerator. Microturbines have around 15% efficiencies without a recuperator, 20 to 30% with one and they can reach 85% combined thermal-electrical efficiency in cogeneration.[49]

External combustion

Most gas turbines are internal combustion engines but it is also possible to manufacture an external combustion gas turbine which is, effectively, a turbine version of a hot air engine. Those systems are usually indicated as EFGT (Externally Fired Gas Turbine) or IFGT (Indirectly Fired Gas Turbine).

External combustion has been used for the purpose of using pulverized coal or finely ground biomass (such as sawdust) as a fuel. In the indirect system, a heat exchanger is used and only clean air with no combustion products travels through the power turbine. The thermal efficiency is lower in the indirect type of external combustion; however, the turbine blades are not subjected to combustion products and much lower quality (and therefore cheaper) fuels are able to be used.

When external combustion is used, it is possible to use exhaust air from the turbine as the primary combustion air. This effectively reduces global heat losses, although heat losses associated with the combustion exhaust remain inevitable.

Closed-cycle gas turbines based on helium or supercritical carbon dioxide also hold promise for use with future high temperature solar and nuclear power generation.

In surface vehicles

Gas turbines are often used on ships, locomotives, helicopters, tanks, and to a lesser extent, on cars, buses, and motorcycles.

A key advantage of jets and turboprops for airplane propulsion – their superior performance at high altitude compared to piston engines, particularly naturally aspirated ones – is irrelevant in most automobile applications. Their power-to-weight advantage, though less critical than for aircraft, is still important.

Gas turbines offer a high-powered engine in a very small and light package. However, they are not as responsive and efficient as small piston engines over the wide range of RPMs and powers needed in vehicle applications. In series hybrid vehicles, as the driving electric motors are mechanically detached from the electricity generating engine, the responsiveness, poor performance at low speed and low efficiency at low output problems are much less important. The turbine can be run at optimum speed for its power output, and batteries and ultracapacitors can supply power as needed, with the engine cycled on and off to run it only at high efficiency. The emergence of the continuously variable transmission may also alleviate the responsiveness problem.

Turbines have historically been more expensive to produce than piston engines, though this is partly because piston engines have been mass-produced in huge quantities for decades, while small gas turbine engines are rarities; however, turbines are mass-produced in the closely related form of the turbocharger.

The turbocharger is basically a compact and simple free shaft radial gas turbine which is driven by the piston engine's exhaust gas. The centripetal turbine wheel drives a centrifugal compressor wheel through a common rotating shaft. This wheel supercharges the engine air intake to a degree that can be controlled by means of a wastegate or by dynamically modifying the turbine housing's geometry (as in a variable geometry turbocharger). It mainly serves as a power recovery device which converts a great deal of otherwise wasted thermal and kinetic energy into engine boost.

Turbo-compound engines (actually employed on some semi-trailer trucks) are fitted with blow down turbines which are similar in design and appearance to a turbocharger except for the turbine shaft being mechanically or hydraulically connected to the engine's crankshaft instead of to a centrifugal compressor, thus providing additional power instead of boost. While the turbocharger is a pressure turbine, a power recovery turbine is a velocity one.[citation needed]

Passenger road vehicles (cars, bikes, and buses)

A number of experiments have been conducted with gas turbine powered automobiles, the largest by Chrysler.[50][51] More recently, there has been some interest in the use of turbine engines for hybrid electric cars. For instance, a consortium led by micro gas turbine company Bladon Jets has secured investment from the Technology Strategy Board to develop an Ultra Lightweight Range Extender (ULRE) for next-generation electric vehicles. The objective of the consortium, which includes luxury car maker Jaguar Land Rover and leading electrical machine company SR Drives, is to produce the world's first commercially viable – and environmentally friendly – gas turbine generator designed specifically for automotive applications.[52]

The common turbocharger for gasoline or diesel engines is also a turbine derivative.

Concept cars

 
The 1950 Rover JET1

The first serious investigation of using a gas turbine in cars was in 1946 when two engineers, Robert Kafka and Robert Engerstein of Carney Associates, a New York engineering firm, came up with the concept where a unique compact turbine engine design would provide power for a rear wheel drive car. After an article appeared in Popular Science, there was no further work, beyond the paper stage.[53]

Early concepts (1950s/60s)

In 1950, designer F.R. Bell and Chief Engineer Maurice Wilks from British car manufacturers Rover unveiled the first car powered with a gas turbine engine. The two-seater JET1 had the engine positioned behind the seats, air intake grilles on either side of the car, and exhaust outlets on the top of the tail. During tests, the car reached top speeds of 140 km/h (87 mph), at a turbine speed of 50,000 rpm. After being shown in the United Kingdom and the United States in 1950, JET1 was further developed, and was subjected to speed trials on the Jabbeke highway in Belgium in June 1952, where it exceeded 240 km/h (150 mph).[54] The car ran on petrol, paraffin (kerosene) or diesel oil, but fuel consumption problems proved insurmountable for a production car. JET1 is on display at the London Science Museum.

A French turbine-powered car, the SOCEMA-Grégoire, was displayed at the October 1952 Paris Auto Show. It was designed by the French engineer Jean-Albert Grégoire.[55]

The first turbine-powered car built in the US was the GM Firebird I which began evaluations in 1953. While photos of the Firebird I may suggest that the jet turbine's thrust propelled the car like an aircraft, the turbine actually drove the rear wheels. The Firebird I was never meant as a commercial passenger car and was built solely for testing & evaluation as well as public relation purposes.[56] Additional Firebird concept cars, each powered by gas turbines, were developed for the 1953, 1956 and 1959 Motorama auto shows. The GM Research gas turbine engine also was fitted to a series of transit buses, starting with the Turbo-Cruiser I of 1953.[57]

 
Engine compartment of a Chrysler 1963 Turbine car

Starting in 1954 with a modified Plymouth,[58] the American car manufacturer Chrysler demonstrated several prototype gas turbine-powered cars from the early 1950s through the early 1980s. Chrysler built fifty Chrysler Turbine Cars in 1963 and conducted the only consumer trial of gas turbine-powered cars.[59] Each of their turbines employed a unique rotating recuperator, referred to as a regenerator that increased efficiency.[58]

In 1954 Fiat unveiled a concept car with a turbine engine, called Fiat Turbina. This vehicle, looking like an aircraft with wheels, used a unique combination of both jet thrust and the engine driving the wheels. Speeds of 282 km/h (175 mph) were claimed.[60]

In the 1960s, Ford and GM also were developing gas turbine semi-trucks. Ford displayed the Big Red at the 1964 World's Fair.[61] With the trailer, it was 29 m (96 ft) long, 4.0 m (13 ft) high, and painted crimson red. It contained the Ford-developed gas turbine engine, with output power and torque of 450 kW (600 hp) and 1,160 N⋅m (855 lb⋅ft). The cab boasted a highway map of the continental U.S., a mini-kitchen, bathroom, and a TV for the co-driver. The fate of the truck was unknown for several decades, but it was rediscovered in early 2021 in private hands, having been restored to running order.[62][63] The Chevrolet division of GM built the Turbo Titan series of concept trucks with turbine motors as analogs of the Firebird concepts, including Turbo Titan I (c. 1959, shares GT-304 engine with Firebird II), Turbo Titan II (c. 1962, shares GT-305 engine with Firebird III), and Turbo Titan III (1965, GT-309 engine); in addition, the GM Bison gas turbine truck was shown at the 1964 World's Fair.[64]

Emissions and fuel economy (1970s/80s)

As a result of the U.S. Clean Air Act Amendments of 1970, research was funded into developing automotive gas turbine technology.[65] Design concepts and vehicles were conducted by Chrysler, General Motors, Ford (in collaboration with AiResearch), and American Motors (in conjunction with Williams Research).[66] Long-term tests were conducted to evaluate comparable cost efficiency.[67] Several AMC Hornets were powered by a small Williams regenerative gas turbine weighing 250 lb (113 kg) and producing 80 hp (60 kW; 81 PS) at 4450 rpm.[68][69][70]

In 1982, General Motors used an Oldsmobile Delta 88 powered by a gas turbine using pulverised coal dust. This was considered for the United States and the western world to reduce dependence on middle east oil at the time[71][72][73]

Toyota demonstrated several gas turbine powered concept cars, such as the Century gas turbine hybrid in 1975, the Sports 800 Gas Turbine Hybrid in 1979 and the GTV in 1985. No production vehicles were made. The GT24 engine was exhibited in 1977 without a vehicle.

Later development

In the early 1990s, Volvo introduced the Volvo ECC which was a gas turbine powered hybrid electric vehicle.[74]

In 1993 General Motors introduced the first commercial gas turbine powered hybrid vehicle—as a limited production run of the EV-1 series hybrid. A Williams International 40 kW turbine drove an alternator which powered the battery-electric powertrain. The turbine design included a recuperator. In 2006, GM went into the EcoJet concept car project with Jay Leno.

At the 2010 Paris Motor Show Jaguar demonstrated its Jaguar C-X75 concept car. This electrically powered supercar has a top speed of 204 mph (328 km/h) and can go from 0 to 62 mph (0 to 100 km/h) in 3.4 seconds. It uses Lithium-ion batteries to power four electric motors which combine to produce 780 bhp. It will travel 68 miles (109 km) on a single charge of the batteries, and uses a pair of Bladon Micro Gas Turbines to re-charge the batteries extending the range to 560 miles (900 km).[75]

Racing cars

 
The 1967 STP Oil Treatment Special on display at the Indianapolis Motor Speedway Hall of Fame Museum, with the Pratt & Whitney gas turbine shown
 
A 1968 Howmet TX, the only turbine-powered race car to have won a race

The first race car (in concept only) fitted with a turbine was in 1955 by a US Air Force group as a hobby project with a turbine loaned them by Boeing and a race car owned by Firestone Tire & Rubber company.[76] The first race car fitted with a turbine for the goal of actual racing was by Rover and the BRM Formula One team joined forces to produce the Rover-BRM, a gas turbine powered coupe, which entered the 1963 24 Hours of Le Mans, driven by Graham Hill and Richie Ginther. It averaged 107.8 mph (173.5 km/h) and had a top speed of 142 mph (229 km/h). American Ray Heppenstall joined Howmet Corporation and McKee Engineering together to develop their own gas turbine sports car in 1968, the Howmet TX, which ran several American and European events, including two wins, and also participated in the 1968 24 Hours of Le Mans. The cars used Continental gas turbines, which eventually set six FIA land speed records for turbine-powered cars.[77]

For open wheel racing, 1967's revolutionary STP-Paxton Turbocar fielded by racing and entrepreneurial legend Andy Granatelli and driven by Parnelli Jones nearly won the Indianapolis 500; the Pratt & Whitney ST6B-62 powered turbine car was almost a lap ahead of the second place car when a gearbox bearing failed just three laps from the finish line. The next year the STP Lotus 56 turbine car won the Indianapolis 500 pole position even though new rules restricted the air intake dramatically. In 1971 Team Lotus principal Colin Chapman introduced the Lotus 56B F1 car, powered by a Pratt & Whitney STN 6/76 gas turbine. Chapman had a reputation of building radical championship-winning cars, but had to abandon the project because there were too many problems with turbo lag.

Buses

General Motors fitted the GT-30x series of gas turbines (branded "Whirlfire") to several prototype buses in the 1950s and 1960s, including Turbo-Cruiser I (1953, GT-300); Turbo-Cruiser II (1964, GT-309); Turbo-Cruiser III (1968, GT-309); RTX (1968, GT-309); and RTS 3T (1972).[78]

The arrival of the Capstone Turbine has led to several hybrid bus designs, starting with HEV-1 by AVS of Chattanooga, Tennessee in 1999, and closely followed by Ebus and ISE Research in California, and DesignLine Corporation in New Zealand (and later the United States). AVS turbine hybrids were plagued with reliability and quality control problems, resulting in liquidation of AVS in 2003. The most successful design by Designline is now operated in 5 cities in 6 countries, with over 30 buses in operation worldwide, and order for several hundred being delivered to Baltimore, and New York City.

Brescia Italy is using serial hybrid buses powered by microturbines on routes through the historical sections of the city.[79]

Motorcycles

The MTT Turbine Superbike appeared in 2000 (hence the designation of Y2K Superbike by MTT) and is the first production motorcycle powered by a turbine engine – specifically, a Rolls-Royce Allison model 250 turboshaft engine, producing about 283 kW (380 bhp). Speed-tested to 365 km/h or 227 mph (according to some stories, the testing team ran out of road during the test), it holds the Guinness World Record for most powerful production motorcycle and most expensive production motorcycle, with a price tag of US$185,000.

Trains

Several locomotive classes have been powered by gas turbines, the most recent incarnation being Bombardier's JetTrain.

Tanks

 
Marines from 1st Tank Battalion load a Honeywell AGT1500 multi-fuel turbine back into an M1 Abrams tank at Camp Coyote, Kuwait, February 2003

The Third Reich Wehrmacht Heer's development division, the Heereswaffenamt (Army Ordnance Board), studied a number of gas turbine engine designs for use in tanks starting in mid-1944. The first gas turbine engine design intended for use in armored fighting vehicle propulsion, the BMW 003-based GT 101, was meant for installation in the Panther tank.[80]

The second use of a gas turbine in an armored fighting vehicle was in 1954 when a unit, PU2979, specifically developed for tanks by C. A. Parsons and Company, was installed and trialed in a British Conqueror tank.[81] The Stridsvagn 103 was developed in the 1950s and was the first mass-produced main battle tank to use a turbine engine, the Boeing T50. Since then, gas turbine engines have been used as auxiliary power units in some tanks and as main powerplants in Soviet/Russian T-80s and U.S. M1 Abrams tanks, among others. They are lighter and smaller than diesel engines at the same sustained power output but the models installed to date are less fuel efficient than the equivalent diesel, especially at idle, requiring more fuel to achieve the same combat range. Successive models of M1 have addressed this problem with battery packs or secondary generators to power the tank's systems while stationary, saving fuel by reducing the need to idle the main turbine. T-80s can mount three large external fuel drums to extend their range. Russia has stopped production of the T-80 in favor of the diesel-powered T-90 (based on the T-72), while Ukraine has developed the diesel-powered T-80UD and T-84 with nearly the power of the gas-turbine tank. The French Leclerc tank's diesel powerplant features the "Hyperbar" hybrid supercharging system, where the engine's turbocharger is completely replaced with a small gas turbine which also works as an assisted diesel exhaust turbocharger, enabling engine RPM-independent boost level control and a higher peak boost pressure to be reached (than with ordinary turbochargers). This system allows a smaller displacement and lighter engine to be used as the tank's power plant and effectively removes turbo lag. This special gas turbine/turbocharger can also work independently from the main engine as an ordinary APU.

A turbine is theoretically more reliable and easier to maintain than a piston engine since it has a simpler construction with fewer moving parts, but in practice, turbine parts experience a higher wear rate due to their higher working speeds. The turbine blades are highly sensitive to dust and fine sand so that in desert operations air filters have to be fitted and changed several times daily. An improperly fitted filter, or a bullet or shell fragment that punctures the filter, can damage the engine. Piston engines (especially if turbocharged) also need well-maintained filters, but they are more resilient if the filter does fail.

Like most modern diesel engines used in tanks, gas turbines are usually multi-fuel engines.

Marine applications

Naval

 
The Gas turbine from MGB 2009

Gas turbines are used in many naval vessels, where they are valued for their high power-to-weight ratio and their ships' resulting acceleration and ability to get underway quickly.

The first gas-turbine-powered naval vessel was the Royal Navy's Motor Gun Boat MGB 2009 (formerly MGB 509) converted in 1947. Metropolitan-Vickers fitted their F2/3 jet engine with a power turbine. The Steam Gun Boat Grey Goose was converted to Rolls-Royce gas turbines in 1952 and operated as such from 1953.[82] The Bold class Fast Patrol Boats Bold Pioneer and Bold Pathfinder built in 1953 were the first ships created specifically for gas turbine propulsion.[83]

The first large-scale, partially gas-turbine powered ships were the Royal Navy's Type 81 (Tribal class) frigates with combined steam and gas powerplants. The first, HMS Ashanti was commissioned in 1961.

The German Navy launched the first Köln-class frigate in 1961 with 2 Brown, Boveri & Cie gas turbines in the world's first combined diesel and gas propulsion system.

The Soviet Navy commissioned in 1962 the first of 25 Kashin-class destroyer with 4 gas turbines in Combined gas and gas propulsion system. Those vessels used 4 M8E gas turbines, which generated 54,000–72,000 kW (72,000–96,000 hp). Those ships were the first large ships in the world to be powered solely by gas turbines.

 
Project 61 large ASW ship, Kashin-class destroyer

The Danish Navy had 6 Søløven-class torpedo boats (the export version of the British Brave class fast patrol boat) in service from 1965 to 1990, which had 3 Bristol Proteus (later RR Proteus) Marine Gas Turbines rated at 9,510 kW (12,750 shp) combined, plus two General Motors Diesel engines, rated at 340 kW (460 shp), for better fuel economy at slower speeds.[84] And they also produced 10 Willemoes Class Torpedo / Guided Missile boats (in service from 1974 to 2000) which had 3 Rolls-Royce Marine Proteus Gas Turbines also rated at 9,510 kW (12,750 shp), same as the Søløven-class boats, and 2 General Motors Diesel Engines, rated at 600 kW (800 shp), also for improved fuel economy at slow speeds.[85]

The Swedish Navy produced 6 Spica-class torpedo boats between 1966 and 1967 powered by 3 Bristol Siddeley Proteus 1282 turbines, each delivering 3,210 kW (4,300 shp). They were later joined by 12 upgraded Norrköping class ships, still with the same engines. With their aft torpedo tubes replaced by antishipping missiles they served as missile boats until the last was retired in 2005.[86]

The Finnish Navy commissioned two Turunmaa-class corvettes, Turunmaa and Karjala, in 1968. They were equipped with one 16,410 kW (22,000 shp) Rolls-Royce Olympus TM1 gas turbine and three Wärtsilä marine diesels for slower speeds. They were the fastest vessels in the Finnish Navy; they regularly achieved speeds of 35 knots, and 37.3 knots during sea trials. The Turunmaas were decommissioned in 2002. Karjala is today a museum ship in Turku, and Turunmaa serves as a floating machine shop and training ship for Satakunta Polytechnical College.

The next series of major naval vessels were the four Canadian Iroquois-class helicopter carrying destroyers first commissioned in 1972. They used 2 ft-4 main propulsion engines, 2 ft-12 cruise engines and 3 Solar Saturn 750 kW generators.

 
An LM2500 gas turbine on USS Ford

The first U.S. gas-turbine powered ship was the U.S. Coast Guard's Point Thatcher, a cutter commissioned in 1961 that was powered by two 750 kW (1,000 shp) turbines utilizing controllable-pitch propellers.[87] The larger Hamilton-class High Endurance Cutters, was the first class of larger cutters to utilize gas turbines, the first of which (USCGC Hamilton) was commissioned in 1967. Since then, they have powered the U.S. Navy's Oliver Hazard Perry-class frigates, Spruance and Arleigh Burke-class destroyers, and Ticonderoga-class guided missile cruisers. USS Makin Island, a modified Wasp-class amphibious assault ship, is to be the Navy's first amphibious assault ship powered by gas turbines. The marine gas turbine operates in a more corrosive atmosphere due to the presence of sea salt in air and fuel and use of cheaper fuels.

Civilian maritime

Up to the late 1940s, much of the progress on marine gas turbines all over the world took place in design offices and engine builder's workshops and development work was led by the British Royal Navy and other Navies. While interest in the gas turbine for marine purposes, both naval and mercantile, continued to increase, the lack of availability of the results of operating experience on early gas turbine projects limited the number of new ventures on seagoing commercial vessels being embarked upon.

In 1951, the Diesel-electric oil tanker Auris, 12,290 deadweight tonnage (DWT) was used to obtain operating experience with a main propulsion gas turbine under service conditions at sea and so became the first ocean-going merchant ship to be powered by a gas turbine. Built by Hawthorn Leslie at Hebburn-on-Tyne, UK, in accordance with plans and specifications drawn up by the Anglo-Saxon Petroleum Company and launched on the UK's Princess Elizabeth's 21st birthday in 1947, the ship was designed with an engine room layout that would allow for the experimental use of heavy fuel in one of its high-speed engines, as well as the future substitution of one of its diesel engines by a gas turbine.[88] The Auris operated commercially as a tanker for three-and-a-half years with a diesel-electric propulsion unit as originally commissioned, but in 1951 one of its four 824 kW (1,105 bhp) diesel engines – which were known as "Faith", "Hope", "Charity" and "Prudence" – was replaced by the world's first marine gas turbine engine, a 890 kW (1,200 bhp) open-cycle gas turbo-alternator built by British Thompson-Houston Company in Rugby. Following successful sea trials off the Northumbrian coast, the Auris set sail from Hebburn-on-Tyne in October 1951 bound for Port Arthur in the US and then Curacao in the southern Caribbean returning to Avonmouth after 44 days at sea, successfully completing her historic trans-Atlantic crossing. During this time at sea the gas turbine burnt diesel fuel and operated without an involuntary stop or mechanical difficulty of any kind. She subsequently visited Swansea, Hull, Rotterdam, Oslo and Southampton covering a total of 13,211 nautical miles. The Auris then had all of its power plants replaced with a 3,910 kW (5,250 shp) directly coupled gas turbine to become the first civilian ship to operate solely on gas turbine power.

Despite the success of this early experimental voyage the gas turbine did not replace the diesel engine as the propulsion plant for large merchant ships. At constant cruising speeds the diesel engine simply had no peer in the vital area of fuel economy. The gas turbine did have more success in Royal Navy ships and the other naval fleets of the world where sudden and rapid changes of speed are required by warships in action.[89]

The United States Maritime Commission were looking for options to update WWII Liberty ships, and heavy-duty gas turbines were one of those selected. In 1956 the John Sergeant was lengthened and equipped with a General Electric 4,900 kW (6,600 shp) HD gas turbine with exhaust-gas regeneration, reduction gearing and a variable-pitch propeller. It operated for 9,700 hours using residual fuel (Bunker C) for 7,000 hours. Fuel efficiency was on a par with steam propulsion at 0.318 kg/kW (0.523 lb/hp) per hour,[90] and power output was higher than expected at 5,603 kW (7,514 shp) due to the ambient temperature of the North Sea route being lower than the design temperature of the gas turbine. This gave the ship a speed capability of 18 knots, up from 11 knots with the original power plant, and well in excess of the 15 knot targeted. The ship made its first transatlantic crossing with an average speed of 16.8 knots, in spite of some rough weather along the way. Suitable Bunker C fuel was only available at limited ports because the quality of the fuel was of a critical nature. The fuel oil also had to be treated on board to reduce contaminants and this was a labor-intensive process that was not suitable for automation at the time. Ultimately, the variable-pitch propeller, which was of a new and untested design, ended the trial, as three consecutive annual inspections revealed stress-cracking. This did not reflect poorly on the marine-propulsion gas-turbine concept though, and the trial was a success overall. The success of this trial opened the way for more development by GE on the use of HD gas turbines for marine use with heavy fuels.[91] The John Sergeant was scrapped in 1972 at Portsmouth PA.

 
Boeing Jetfoil 929-100-007 Urzela of TurboJET

Boeing launched its first passenger-carrying waterjet-propelled hydrofoil Boeing 929, in April 1974. Those ships were powered by two Allison 501-KF gas turbines.[92]

Between 1971 and 1981, Seatrain Lines operated a scheduled container service between ports on the eastern seaboard of the United States and ports in northwest Europe across the North Atlantic with four container ships of 26,000 tonnes DWT. Those ships were powered by twin Pratt & Whitney gas turbines of the FT 4 series. The four ships in the class were named Euroliner, Eurofreighter, Asialiner and Asiafreighter. Following the dramatic Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) price increases of the mid-1970s, operations were constrained by rising fuel costs. Some modification of the engine systems on those ships was undertaken to permit the burning of a lower grade of fuel (i.e., marine diesel). Reduction of fuel costs was successful using a different untested fuel in a marine gas turbine but maintenance costs increased with the fuel change. After 1981 the ships were sold and refitted with, what at the time, was more economical diesel-fueled engines but the increased engine size reduced cargo space.[citation needed]

The first passenger ferry to use a gas turbine was the GTS Finnjet, built in 1977 and powered by two Pratt & Whitney FT 4C-1 DLF turbines, generating 55,000 kW (74,000 shp) and propelling the ship to a speed of 31 knots. However, the Finnjet also illustrated the shortcomings of gas turbine propulsion in commercial craft, as high fuel prices made operating her unprofitable. After four years of service, additional diesel engines were installed on the ship to reduce running costs during the off-season. The Finnjet was also the first ship with a Combined diesel-electric and gas propulsion. Another example of commercial use of gas turbines in a passenger ship is Stena Line's HSS class fastcraft ferries. HSS 1500-class Stena Explorer, Stena Voyager and Stena Discovery vessels use combined gas and gas setups of twin GE LM2500 plus GE LM1600 power for a total of 68,000 kW (91,000 shp). The slightly smaller HSS 900-class Stena Carisma, uses twin ABBSTAL GT35 turbines rated at 34,000 kW (46,000 shp) gross. The Stena Discovery was withdrawn from service in 2007, another victim of too high fuel costs.[citation needed]

In July 2000 the Millennium became the first cruise ship to be powered by both gas and steam turbines. The ship featured two General Electric LM2500 gas turbine generators whose exhaust heat was used to operate a steam turbine generator in a COGES (combined gas electric and steam) configuration. Propulsion was provided by two electrically driven Rolls-Royce Mermaid azimuth pods. The liner RMS Queen Mary 2 uses a combined diesel and gas configuration.[93]

In marine racing applications the 2010 C5000 Mystic catamaran Miss GEICO uses two Lycoming T-55 turbines for its power system.[citation needed]

Advances in technology

Gas turbine technology has steadily advanced since its inception and continues to evolve. Development is actively producing both smaller gas turbines and more powerful and efficient engines. Aiding in these advances are computer-based design (specifically computational fluid dynamics and finite element analysis) and the development of advanced materials: Base materials with superior high-temperature strength (e.g., single-crystal superalloys that exhibit yield strength anomaly) or thermal barrier coatings that protect the structural material from ever-higher temperatures. These advances allow higher compression ratios and turbine inlet temperatures, more efficient combustion and better cooling of engine parts.

Computational fluid dynamics (CFD) has contributed to substantial improvements in the performance and efficiency of gas turbine engine components through enhanced understanding of the complex viscous flow and heat transfer phenomena involved. For this reason, CFD is one of the key computational tools used in design and development of gas[94][95] turbine engines.

The simple-cycle efficiencies of early gas turbines were practically doubled by incorporating inter-cooling, regeneration (or recuperation), and reheating. These improvements, of course, come at the expense of increased initial and operation costs, and they cannot be justified unless the decrease in fuel costs offsets the increase in other costs. The relatively low fuel prices, the general desire in the industry to minimize installation costs, and the tremendous increase in the simple-cycle efficiency to about 40 percent left little desire for opting for these modifications.[96]

On the emissions side, the challenge is to increase turbine inlet temperatures while at the same time reducing peak flame temperature in order to achieve lower NOx emissions and meet the latest emission regulations. In May 2011, Mitsubishi Heavy Industries achieved a turbine inlet temperature of 1,600 °C on a 320 megawatt gas turbine, and 460 MW in gas turbine combined-cycle power generation applications in which gross thermal efficiency exceeds 60%.[97]

Compliant foil bearings were commercially introduced to gas turbines in the 1990s. These can withstand over a hundred thousand start/stop cycles and have eliminated the need for an oil system. The application of microelectronics and power switching technology have enabled the development of commercially viable electricity generation by microturbines for distribution and vehicle propulsion.

Advantages and disadvantages

The following are advantages and disadvantages of gas-turbine engines:[98]

Advantages include:

  • Very high power-to-weight ratio compared to reciprocating engines.
  • Smaller than most reciprocating engines of the same power rating.
  • Smooth rotation of the main shaft produces far less vibration than a reciprocating engine.
  • Fewer moving parts than reciprocating engines results in lower maintenance cost and higher reliability/availability over its service life.
  • Greater reliability, particularly in applications where sustained high power output is required.
  • Waste heat is dissipated almost entirely in the exhaust. This results in a high-temperature exhaust stream that is very usable for boiling water in a combined cycle, or for cogeneration.
  • Lower peak combustion pressures than reciprocating engines in general.
  • High shaft speeds in smaller "free turbine units", although larger gas turbines employed in power generation operate at synchronous speeds.
  • Low lubricating oil cost and consumption.
  • Can run on a wide variety of fuels.
  • Very low toxic emissions of CO and HC due to excess air, complete combustion and no "quench" of the flame on cold surfaces.

Disadvantages include:

  • Core engine costs can be high due to use of exotic materials.
  • Less efficient than reciprocating engines at idle speed.
  • Longer startup than reciprocating engines.
  • Less responsive to changes in power demand compared with reciprocating engines.
  • Characteristic whine can be hard to suppress.

Major manufacturers

Testing

British, German, other national and international test codes are used to standardize the procedures and definitions used to test gas turbines. Selection of the test code to be used is an agreement between the purchaser and the manufacturer, and has some significance to the design of the turbine and associated systems. In the United States, ASME has produced several performance test codes on gas turbines. This includes ASME PTC 22–2014. These ASME performance test codes have gained international recognition and acceptance for testing gas turbines. The single most important and differentiating characteristic of ASME performance test codes, including PTC 22, is that the test uncertainty of the measurement indicates the quality of the test and is not to be used as a commercial tolerance.

See also

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Further reading

  • "Aircraft Gas Turbine Technology" by Irwin E. Treager, McGraw-Hill, Glencoe Division, 1979, ISBN 0-07-065158-2.
  • "Gas Turbine Theory" by H.I.H. Saravanamuttoo, G.F.C. Rogers and H. Cohen, Pearson Education, 2001, 5th ed., ISBN 0-13-015847-X.
  • Leyes II, Richard A.; William A. Fleming (1999). The History of North American Small Gas Turbine Aircraft Engines. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution. ISBN 978-1-56347-332-6.
  • "Model Jet Engines" by Thomas Kamps ISBN 0-9510589-9-1 Traplet Publications
  • Aircraft Engines and Gas Turbines, Second Edition by Jack L. Kerrebrock, The MIT Press, 1992, ISBN 0-262-11162-4.
  • by John Molloy, M&M Engineering
  • "Gas Turbine Performance, 2nd Edition" by Philip Walsh and Paul Fletcher, Wiley-Blackwell, 2004 ISBN 978-0-632-06434-2
  • National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine (2020). Advanced Technologies for Gas Turbines (Report). Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi:10.17226/25630. ISBN 978-0-309-66422-6.

External links

  • Gas turbine at Curlie
  • Bonnier Corporation (December 1939). "New Era In Power To Turn Wheels". Popular Science. Bonnier Corporation. p. 81.
  • Technology Speed of Civil Jet Engines
  • MIT Gas Turbine Laboratory 21 July 2010 at the Wayback Machine
  • Introduction to how a gas turbine works from "how stuff works.com" 16 June 2008 at the Wayback Machine
  • An online handbook on stationary gas turbine technologies compiled by the US DOE. 1 July 2017 at the Wayback Machine

turbine, turbine, also, called, combustion, turbine, type, continuous, flow, internal, combustion, engine, main, parts, common, turbine, engines, form, power, producing, part, known, generator, core, direction, flow, rotating, compressor, combustor, compressor. A gas turbine also called a combustion turbine is a type of continuous flow internal combustion engine The main parts common to all gas turbine engines form the power producing part known as the gas generator or core and are in the direction of flow a rotating gas compressor a combustor a compressor driving turbine Examples of gas turbine configurations 1 turbojet 2 turboprop 3 turboshaft shown as electric generator 4 high bypass turbofan 5 low bypass afterburning turbofan Additional components have to be added to the gas generator to suit its application Common to all is an air inlet but with different configurations to suit the requirements of marine use land use or flight at speeds varying from stationary to supersonic A propelling nozzle is added to produce thrust for flight An extra turbine is added to drive a propeller turboprop or ducted fan turbofan to reduce fuel consumption by increasing propulsive efficiency at subsonic flight speeds An extra turbine is also required to drive a helicopter rotor or land vehicle transmission turboshaft marine propeller or electrical generator power turbine Greater thrust to weight ratio for flight is achieved with the addition of an afterburner The basic operation of the gas turbine is a Brayton cycle with air as the working fluid atmospheric air flows through the compressor that brings it to higher pressure energy is then added by spraying fuel into the air and igniting it so that the combustion generates a high temperature flow this high temperature pressurized gas enters a turbine producing a shaft work output in the process used to drive the compressor the unused energy comes out in the exhaust gases that can be repurposed for external work such as directly producing thrust in a turbojet engine or rotating a second independent turbine known as a power turbine that can be connected to a fan propeller or electrical generator The purpose of the gas turbine determines the design so that the most desirable split of energy between the thrust and the shaft work is achieved The fourth step of the Brayton cycle cooling of the working fluid is omitted as gas turbines are open systems that do not reuse the same air Gas turbines are used to power aircraft trains ships electrical generators pumps gas compressors and tanks 1 Contents 1 Timeline of development 2 Theory of operation 2 1 Creep 3 Types 3 1 Jet engines 3 2 Turboprop engines 3 3 Aeroderivative gas turbines 3 4 Amateur gas turbines 3 5 Auxiliary power units 3 6 Industrial gas turbines for power generation 3 7 Industrial gas turbines for mechanical drive 3 7 1 Compressed air energy storage 3 8 Turboshaft engines 3 9 Radial gas turbines 3 10 Scale jet engines 3 11 Microturbines 4 External combustion 5 In surface vehicles 5 1 Passenger road vehicles cars bikes and buses 5 1 1 Concept cars 5 1 2 Racing cars 5 1 3 Buses 5 1 4 Motorcycles 5 2 Trains 5 3 Tanks 6 Marine applications 6 1 Naval 6 2 Civilian maritime 7 Advances in technology 8 Advantages and disadvantages 9 Major manufacturers 10 Testing 11 See also 12 References 13 Further reading 14 External linksTimeline of development Edit Sketch of John Barber s gas turbine from his patent 50 Earliest records of Hero s engine aeolipile It most likely served no practical purpose and was rather more of a curiosity nonetheless it demonstrated an important principle of physics that all modern turbine engines rely on 1000 The Trotting Horse Lamp Chinese 走马灯 zŏumădeng was used by the Chinese at lantern fairs as early as the Northern Song dynasty When the lamp is lit the heated airflow rises and drives an impeller with horse riding figures attached on it whose shadows are then projected onto the outer screen of the lantern 2 1500 The Smoke jack was drawn by Leonardo da Vinci Hot air from a fire rises through a single stage axial turbine rotor mounted in the exhaust duct of the fireplace and turns the roasting spit by gear chain connection 1629 Jets of steam rotated an impulse turbine that then drove a working stamping mill by means of a bevel gear developed by Giovanni Branca 1678 Ferdinand Verbiest built a model carriage relying on a steam jet for power 1791 A patent was given to John Barber an Englishman for the first true gas turbine His invention had most of the elements present in the modern day gas turbines The turbine was designed to power a horseless carriage 3 4 1861 British patent no 1633 was granted to Marc Antoine Francois Mennons for a Caloric engine The patent shows that it was a gas turbine and the drawings show it applied to a locomotive 5 1872 A gas turbine engine designed by Berlin engineer Franz Stolze is thought to be the first attempt at creating a working model but the engine never ran under its own power 1894 Sir Charles Parsons patented the idea of propelling a ship with a steam turbine and built a demonstration vessel the Turbinia easily the fastest vessel afloat at the time This principle of propulsion is still of some use 1895 Three 4 ton 100 kW Parsons radial flow generators were installed in Cambridge Power Station and used to power the first electric street lighting scheme in the city 1899 Charles Gordon Curtis patented the first gas turbine engine in the US Apparatus for generating mechanical power Patent No US635 919 6 7 8 1900 Sanford Alexander Moss submitted a thesis on gas turbines In 1903 Moss became an engineer for General Electric s Steam Turbine Department in Lynn Massachusetts 9 While there he applied some of his concepts in the development of the turbosupercharger His design used a small turbine wheel driven by exhaust gases to turn a supercharger 9 1903 A Norwegian AEgidius Elling built the first gas turbine that was able to produce more power than needed to run its own components which was considered an achievement in a time when knowledge about aerodynamics was limited Using rotary compressors and turbines it produced 11 hp 10 1906 The Armengaud Lemale turbine engine in France with a water cooled combustion chamber 1910 Holzwarth impulse turbine pulse combustion achieved 150 kW 200 hp 1913 Nikola Tesla patents the Tesla turbine based on the boundary layer effect 11 1920s The practical theory of gas flow through passages was developed into the more formal and applicable to turbines theory of gas flow past airfoils by A A Griffith resulting in the publishing in 1926 of An Aerodynamic Theory of Turbine Design Working testbed designs of axial turbines suitable for driving a propeller were developed by the Royal Aeronautical Establishment thereby proving the efficiency of aerodynamic shaping of the blades in 1929 citation needed 1930 Having found no interest from the RAF for his idea Frank Whittle patented 12 the design for a centrifugal gas turbine for jet propulsion The first successful use of his engine occurred in England in April 1937 13 1932 BBC Brown Boveri amp Cie of Switzerland starts selling axial compressor and turbine turbosets as part of the turbocharged steam generating Velox boiler Following the gas turbine principle the steam evaporation tubes are arranged within the gas turbine combustion chamber the first Velox plant was erected in Mondeville Calvados France 14 1934 Raul Pateras de Pescara patented the free piston engine as a gas generator for gas turbines 15 1936 Whittle with others backed by investment forms Power Jets Ltd citation needed 1937 Working proof of concept prototype jet engine runs in UK Frank Whittle s and Germany Hans von Ohain s Heinkel HeS 1 Henry Tizard secures UK government funding for further development of Power Jets engine 16 1939 First 4 MW utility power generation gas turbine from BBC Brown Boveri amp Cie for an emergency power station in Neuchatel Switzerland 17 1944 The Junkers Jumo 004 engine enters full production powering the first German military jets such as the Messerschmitt Me 262 This marks the beginning of the reign of gas turbines in the sky 1946 National Gas Turbine Establishment formed from Power Jets and the RAE turbine division to bring together Whittle and Hayne Constant s work 18 In Beznau Switzerland the first commercial reheated recuperated unit generating 27 MW was commissioned 19 1947 A Metropolitan Vickers G1 Gatric becomes the first marine gas turbine when it completes sea trials on the Royal Navy s M G B 2009 vessel The Gatric was an aeroderivative gas turbine based on the Metropolitan Vickers F2 jet engine 20 21 1995 Siemens becomes the first manufacturer of large electricity producing gas turbines to incorporate single crystal turbine blade technology into their production models allowing higher operating temperatures and greater efficiency 22 2011 Mitsubishi Heavy Industries tests the first gt 60 efficiency combined cycle gas turbine the M501J at its Takasago Hyōgo works 23 24 Theory of operation Edit The Brayton cycle In an ideal gas turbine gases undergo four thermodynamic processes an isentropic compression an isobaric constant pressure combustion an isentropic expansion and heat rejection Together these make up the Brayton cycle In a real gas turbine mechanical energy is changed irreversibly due to internal friction and turbulence into pressure and thermal energy when the gas is compressed in either a centrifugal or axial compressor Heat is added in the combustion chamber and the specific volume of the gas increases accompanied by a slight loss in pressure During expansion through the stator and rotor passages in the turbine irreversible energy transformation once again occurs Fresh air is taken in in place of the heat rejection If the engine has a power turbine added to drive an industrial generator or a helicopter rotor the exit pressure will be as close to the entry pressure as possible with only enough energy left to overcome the pressure losses in the exhaust ducting and expel the exhaust For a turboprop engine there will be a particular balance between propeller power and jet thrust which gives the most economical operation In a turbojet engine only enough pressure and energy is extracted from the flow to drive the compressor and other components The remaining high pressure gases are accelerated through a nozzle to provide a jet to propel an aircraft The smaller the engine the higher the rotation rate of the shaft must be to attain the required blade tip speed Blade tip speed determines the maximum pressure ratios that can be obtained by the turbine and the compressor This in turn limits the maximum power and efficiency that can be obtained by the engine In order for tip speed to remain constant if the diameter of a rotor is reduced by half the rotational speed must double For example large jet engines operate around 10 000 25 000 rpm while micro turbines spin as fast as 500 000 rpm 25 Mechanically gas turbines can be considerably less complex than internal combustion piston engines Simple turbines might have one main moving part the compressor shaft turbine rotor assembly with other moving parts in the fuel system This in turn can translate into price For instance costing 10 000 ℛℳ for materials the Jumo 004 proved cheaper than the Junkers 213 piston engine which was 35 000 ℛℳ 26 and needed only 375 hours of lower skill labor to complete including manufacture assembly and shipping compared to 1 400 for the BMW 801 27 This however also translated into poor efficiency and reliability More advanced gas turbines such as those found in modern jet engines or combined cycle power plants may have 2 or 3 shafts spools hundreds of compressor and turbine blades movable stator blades and extensive external tubing for fuel oil and air systems they use temperature resistant alloys and are made with tight specifications requiring precision manufacture All this often makes the construction of a simple gas turbine more complicated than a piston engine Moreover to reach optimum performance in modern gas turbine power plants the gas needs to be prepared to exact fuel specifications Fuel gas conditioning systems treat the natural gas to reach the exact fuel specification prior to entering the turbine in terms of pressure temperature gas composition and the related wobbe index The primary advantage of a gas turbine engine is its power to weight ratio citation needed Since significant useful work can be generated by a relatively lightweight engine gas turbines are perfectly suited for aircraft propulsion Thrust bearings and journal bearings are a critical part of a design They are hydrodynamic oil bearings or oil cooled rolling element bearings Foil bearings are used in some small machines such as micro turbines 28 and also have strong potential for use in small gas turbines auxiliary power units 29 Creep Edit A major challenge facing turbine design especially turbine blades is reducing the creep that is induced by the high temperatures and stresses that are experienced during operation Higher operating temperatures are continuously sought in order to increase efficiency but come at the cost of higher creep rates Several methods have therefore been employed in an attempt to achieve optimal performance while limiting creep with the most successful ones being high performance coatings and single crystal superalloys 30 These technologies work by limiting deformation that occurs by mechanisms that can be broadly classified as dislocation glide dislocation climb and diffusional flow Protective coatings provide thermal insulation of the blade and offer oxidation and corrosion resistance Thermal barrier coatings TBCs are often stabilized zirconium dioxide based ceramics and oxidation corrosion resistant coatings bond coats typically consist of aluminides or MCrAlY where M is typically Fe and or Cr alloys Using TBCs limits the temperature exposure of the superalloy substrate thereby decreasing the diffusivity of the active species typically vacancies within the alloy and reducing dislocation and vacancy creep It has been found that a coating of 1 200 mm can decrease blade temperatures by up to 200 C 392 F 31 Bond coats are directly applied onto the surface of the substrate using pack carburization and serve the dual purpose of providing improved adherence for the TBC and oxidation resistance for the substrate The Al from the bond coats forms Al2O3 on the TBC bond coat interface which provides the oxidation resistance but also results in the formation of an undesirable interdiffusion ID zone between itself and the substrate 32 The oxidation resistance outweighs the drawbacks associated with the ID zone as it increases the lifetime of the blade and limits the efficiency losses caused by a buildup on the outside of the blades 33 Nickel based superalloys boast improved strength and creep resistance due to their composition and resultant microstructure The gamma g FCC nickel is alloyed with aluminum and titanium in order to precipitate a uniform dispersion of the coherent Ni3 Al Ti gamma prime g phases The finely dispersed g precipitates impede dislocation motion and introduce a threshold stress increasing the stress required for the onset of creep Furthermore g is an ordered L12 phase that makes it harder for dislocations to shear past it 34 Further Refractory elements such as rhenium and ruthenium can be added in solid solution to improve creep strength The addition of these elements reduces the diffusion of the gamma prime phase thus preserving the fatigue resistance strength and creep resistance 35 The development of single crystal superalloys has led to significant improvements in creep resistance as well Due to the lack of grain boundaries single crystals eliminate Coble creep and consequently deform by fewer modes decreasing the creep rate 36 Although single crystals have lower creep at high temperatures they have significantly lower yield stresses at room temperature where strength is determined by the Hall Petch relationship Care needs to be taken in order to optimize the design parameters to limit high temperature creep while not decreasing low temperature yield strength Types EditJet engines Edit typical axial flow gas turbine turbojet the J85 sectioned for display Flow is left to right multistage compressor on left combustion chambers center two stage turbine on right Airbreathing jet engines are gas turbines optimized to produce thrust from the exhaust gases or from ducted fans connected to the gas turbines 37 Jet engines that produce thrust from the direct impulse of exhaust gases are often called turbojets whereas those that generate thrust with the addition of a ducted fan are often called turbofans or rarely fan jets Gas turbines are also used in many liquid fuel rockets where gas turbines are used to power a turbopump to permit the use of lightweight low pressure tanks reducing the empty weight of the rocket Turboprop engines Edit A turboprop engine is a turbine engine that drives an aircraft propeller using a reduction gear Turboprop engines are used on small aircraft such as the general aviation Cessna 208 Caravan and Embraer EMB 312 Tucano military trainer medium sized commuter aircraft such as the Bombardier Dash 8 and large aircraft such as the Airbus A400M transport and the 60 year old Tupolev Tu 95 strategic bomber Aeroderivative gas turbines Edit An LM6000 in an electrical power plant application Aeroderivative gas turbines are generally based on existing aircraft gas turbine engines and are smaller and lighter than industrial gas turbines 38 Aeroderivatives are used in electrical power generation due to their ability to be shut down and handle load changes more quickly than industrial machines citation needed They are also used in the marine industry to reduce weight Common types include the General Electric LM2500 General Electric LM6000 and aeroderivative versions of the Pratt amp Whitney PW4000 and Rolls Royce RB211 38 Amateur gas turbines Edit Increasing numbers of gas turbines are being used or even constructed by amateurs In its most straightforward form these are commercial turbines acquired through military surplus or scrapyard sales then operated for display as part of the hobby of engine collecting 39 40 In its most extreme form amateurs have even rebuilt engines beyond professional repair and then used them to compete for the land speed record The simplest form of self constructed gas turbine employs an automotive turbocharger as the core component A combustion chamber is fabricated and plumbed between the compressor and turbine sections 41 More sophisticated turbojets are also built where their thrust and light weight are sufficient to power large model aircraft 42 The Schreckling design 42 constructs the entire engine from raw materials including the fabrication of a centrifugal compressor wheel from plywood epoxy and wrapped carbon fibre strands Several small companies now manufacture small turbines and parts for the amateur Most turbojet powered model aircraft are now using these commercial and semi commercial microturbines rather than a Schreckling like home build 43 Auxiliary power units Edit Small gas turbines are used as auxiliary power units APUs to supply auxiliary power to larger mobile machines such as an aircraft They supply compressed air for air conditioning and ventilation compressed air start up power for larger jet engines mechanical shaft power to a gearbox to drive shafted accessories and electrical hydraulic and other power transmission sources to consuming devices remote from the APU Industrial gas turbines for power generation Edit Gateway Generating Station a combined cycle gas fired power station in California uses two GE 7F 04 combustion turbines to burn natural gas GE H series power generation gas turbine in combined cycle configuration its highest thermodynamic efficiency is 62 22 Industrial gas turbines differ from aeronautical designs in that the frames bearings and blading are of heavier construction They are also much more closely integrated with the devices they power often an electric generator and the secondary energy equipment that is used to recover residual energy largely heat They range in size from portable mobile plants to large complex systems weighing more than a hundred tonnes housed in purpose built buildings When the gas turbine is used solely for shaft power its thermal efficiency is about 30 However it may be cheaper to buy electricity than to generate it Therefore many engines are used in CHP Combined Heat and Power configurations that can be small enough to be integrated into portable container configurations Gas turbines can be particularly efficient when waste heat from the turbine is recovered by a heat recovery steam generator HRSG to power a conventional steam turbine in a combined cycle configuration 44 The 605 MW General Electric 9HA achieved a 62 22 efficiency rate with temperatures as high as 1 540 C 2 800 F 45 For 2018 GE offers its 826 MW HA at over 64 efficiency in combined cycle due to advances in additive manufacturing and combustion breakthroughs up from 63 7 in 2017 orders and on track to achieve 65 by the early 2020s 46 In March 2018 GE Power achieved a 63 08 gross efficiency for its 7HA turbine 47 Aeroderivative gas turbines can also be used in combined cycles leading to a higher efficiency but it will not be as high as a specifically designed industrial gas turbine They can also be run in a cogeneration configuration the exhaust is used for space or water heating or drives an absorption chiller for cooling the inlet air and increase the power output technology known as turbine inlet air cooling Another significant advantage is their ability to be turned on and off within minutes supplying power during peak or unscheduled demand Since single cycle gas turbine only power plants are less efficient than combined cycle plants they are usually used as peaking power plants which operate anywhere from several hours per day to a few dozen hours per year depending on the electricity demand and the generating capacity of the region In areas with a shortage of base load and load following power plant capacity or with low fuel costs a gas turbine powerplant may regularly operate most hours of the day A large single cycle gas turbine typically produces 100 to 400 megawatts of electric power and has 35 40 thermodynamic efficiency 48 Industrial gas turbines for mechanical drive Edit Industrial gas turbines that are used solely for mechanical drive or used in collaboration with a recovery steam generator differ from power generating sets in that they are often smaller and feature a dual shaft design as opposed to a single shaft The power range varies from 1 megawatt up to 50 megawatts citation needed These engines are connected directly or via a gearbox to either a pump or compressor assembly The majority of installations are used within the oil and gas industries Mechanical drive applications increase efficiency by around 2 Oil and gas platforms require these engines to drive compressors to inject gas into the wells to force oil up via another bore or to compress the gas for transportation They are also often used to provide power for the platform These platforms do not need to use the engine in collaboration with a CHP system due to getting the gas at an extremely reduced cost often free from burn off gas The same companies use pump sets to drive the fluids to land and across pipelines in various intervals Compressed air energy storage Edit Main article Compressed air energy storage One modern development seeks to improve efficiency in another way by separating the compressor and the turbine with a compressed air store In a conventional turbine up to half the generated power is used driving the compressor In a compressed air energy storage configuration power perhaps from a wind farm or bought on the open market at a time of low demand and low price is used to drive the compressor and the compressed air released to operate the turbine when required Turboshaft engines Edit Main article Turboshaft Turboshaft engines are used to drive compressors in gas pumping stations and natural gas liquefaction plants They are also used to power all but the smallest modern helicopters A primary shaft carries the compressor and its turbine which together with a combustor is called a Gas Generator A separately spinning power turbine is usually used to drive the rotor on helicopters Allowing the gas generator and power turbine rotor to spin at their own speeds allows more flexibility in their design Radial gas turbines Edit Main article Radial turbine Scale jet engines Edit Scale jet engines are scaled down versions of this early full scale engine Also known as miniature gas turbines or micro jets With this in mind the pioneer of modern Micro Jets Kurt Schreckling produced one of the world s first Micro Turbines the FD3 67 42 This engine can produce up to 22 newtons of thrust and can be built by most mechanically minded people with basic engineering tools such as a metal lathe 42 Microturbines Edit Main article Microturbine Evolved from piston engine turbochargers aircraft APUs or small jet engines microturbines are 25 to 500 kilowatt turbines the size of a refrigerator Microturbines have around 15 efficiencies without a recuperator 20 to 30 with one and they can reach 85 combined thermal electrical efficiency in cogeneration 49 External combustion EditMost gas turbines are internal combustion engines but it is also possible to manufacture an external combustion gas turbine which is effectively a turbine version of a hot air engine Those systems are usually indicated as EFGT Externally Fired Gas Turbine or IFGT Indirectly Fired Gas Turbine External combustion has been used for the purpose of using pulverized coal or finely ground biomass such as sawdust as a fuel In the indirect system a heat exchanger is used and only clean air with no combustion products travels through the power turbine The thermal efficiency is lower in the indirect type of external combustion however the turbine blades are not subjected to combustion products and much lower quality and therefore cheaper fuels are able to be used When external combustion is used it is possible to use exhaust air from the turbine as the primary combustion air This effectively reduces global heat losses although heat losses associated with the combustion exhaust remain inevitable Closed cycle gas turbines based on helium or supercritical carbon dioxide also hold promise for use with future high temperature solar and nuclear power generation In surface vehicles Edit MAZ 7907 a transporter erector launcher with a turbine electric transmission Gas turbines are often used on ships locomotives helicopters tanks and to a lesser extent on cars buses and motorcycles A key advantage of jets and turboprops for airplane propulsion their superior performance at high altitude compared to piston engines particularly naturally aspirated ones is irrelevant in most automobile applications Their power to weight advantage though less critical than for aircraft is still important Gas turbines offer a high powered engine in a very small and light package However they are not as responsive and efficient as small piston engines over the wide range of RPMs and powers needed in vehicle applications In series hybrid vehicles as the driving electric motors are mechanically detached from the electricity generating engine the responsiveness poor performance at low speed and low efficiency at low output problems are much less important The turbine can be run at optimum speed for its power output and batteries and ultracapacitors can supply power as needed with the engine cycled on and off to run it only at high efficiency The emergence of the continuously variable transmission may also alleviate the responsiveness problem Turbines have historically been more expensive to produce than piston engines though this is partly because piston engines have been mass produced in huge quantities for decades while small gas turbine engines are rarities however turbines are mass produced in the closely related form of the turbocharger The turbocharger is basically a compact and simple free shaft radial gas turbine which is driven by the piston engine s exhaust gas The centripetal turbine wheel drives a centrifugal compressor wheel through a common rotating shaft This wheel supercharges the engine air intake to a degree that can be controlled by means of a wastegate or by dynamically modifying the turbine housing s geometry as in a variable geometry turbocharger It mainly serves as a power recovery device which converts a great deal of otherwise wasted thermal and kinetic energy into engine boost Turbo compound engines actually employed on some semi trailer trucks are fitted with blow down turbines which are similar in design and appearance to a turbocharger except for the turbine shaft being mechanically or hydraulically connected to the engine s crankshaft instead of to a centrifugal compressor thus providing additional power instead of boost While the turbocharger is a pressure turbine a power recovery turbine is a velocity one citation needed Passenger road vehicles cars bikes and buses Edit A number of experiments have been conducted with gas turbine powered automobiles the largest by Chrysler 50 51 More recently there has been some interest in the use of turbine engines for hybrid electric cars For instance a consortium led by micro gas turbine company Bladon Jets has secured investment from the Technology Strategy Board to develop an Ultra Lightweight Range Extender ULRE for next generation electric vehicles The objective of the consortium which includes luxury car maker Jaguar Land Rover and leading electrical machine company SR Drives is to produce the world s first commercially viable and environmentally friendly gas turbine generator designed specifically for automotive applications 52 The common turbocharger for gasoline or diesel engines is also a turbine derivative Concept cars Edit The 1950 Rover JET1 The first serious investigation of using a gas turbine in cars was in 1946 when two engineers Robert Kafka and Robert Engerstein of Carney Associates a New York engineering firm came up with the concept where a unique compact turbine engine design would provide power for a rear wheel drive car After an article appeared in Popular Science there was no further work beyond the paper stage 53 Early concepts 1950s 60s In 1950 designer F R Bell and Chief Engineer Maurice Wilks from British car manufacturers Rover unveiled the first car powered with a gas turbine engine The two seater JET1 had the engine positioned behind the seats air intake grilles on either side of the car and exhaust outlets on the top of the tail During tests the car reached top speeds of 140 km h 87 mph at a turbine speed of 50 000 rpm After being shown in the United Kingdom and the United States in 1950 JET1 was further developed and was subjected to speed trials on the Jabbeke highway in Belgium in June 1952 where it exceeded 240 km h 150 mph 54 The car ran on petrol paraffin kerosene or diesel oil but fuel consumption problems proved insurmountable for a production car JET1 is on display at the London Science Museum A French turbine powered car the SOCEMA Gregoire was displayed at the October 1952 Paris Auto Show It was designed by the French engineer Jean Albert Gregoire 55 GM Firebird I The first turbine powered car built in the US was the GM Firebird I which began evaluations in 1953 While photos of the Firebird I may suggest that the jet turbine s thrust propelled the car like an aircraft the turbine actually drove the rear wheels The Firebird I was never meant as a commercial passenger car and was built solely for testing amp evaluation as well as public relation purposes 56 Additional Firebird concept cars each powered by gas turbines were developed for the 1953 1956 and 1959 Motorama auto shows The GM Research gas turbine engine also was fitted to a series of transit buses starting with the Turbo Cruiser I of 1953 57 Engine compartment of a Chrysler 1963 Turbine car Starting in 1954 with a modified Plymouth 58 the American car manufacturer Chrysler demonstrated several prototype gas turbine powered cars from the early 1950s through the early 1980s Chrysler built fifty Chrysler Turbine Cars in 1963 and conducted the only consumer trial of gas turbine powered cars 59 Each of their turbines employed a unique rotating recuperator referred to as a regenerator that increased efficiency 58 In 1954 Fiat unveiled a concept car with a turbine engine called Fiat Turbina This vehicle looking like an aircraft with wheels used a unique combination of both jet thrust and the engine driving the wheels Speeds of 282 km h 175 mph were claimed 60 In the 1960s Ford and GM also were developing gas turbine semi trucks Ford displayed the Big Red at the 1964 World s Fair 61 With the trailer it was 29 m 96 ft long 4 0 m 13 ft high and painted crimson red It contained the Ford developed gas turbine engine with output power and torque of 450 kW 600 hp and 1 160 N m 855 lb ft The cab boasted a highway map of the continental U S a mini kitchen bathroom and a TV for the co driver The fate of the truck was unknown for several decades but it was rediscovered in early 2021 in private hands having been restored to running order 62 63 The Chevrolet division of GM built the Turbo Titan series of concept trucks with turbine motors as analogs of the Firebird concepts including Turbo Titan I c 1959 shares GT 304 engine with Firebird II Turbo Titan II c 1962 shares GT 305 engine with Firebird III and Turbo Titan III 1965 GT 309 engine in addition the GM Bison gas turbine truck was shown at the 1964 World s Fair 64 Emissions and fuel economy 1970s 80s As a result of the U S Clean Air Act Amendments of 1970 research was funded into developing automotive gas turbine technology 65 Design concepts and vehicles were conducted by Chrysler General Motors Ford in collaboration with AiResearch and American Motors in conjunction with Williams Research 66 Long term tests were conducted to evaluate comparable cost efficiency 67 Several AMC Hornets were powered by a small Williams regenerative gas turbine weighing 250 lb 113 kg and producing 80 hp 60 kW 81 PS at 4450 rpm 68 69 70 In 1982 General Motors used an Oldsmobile Delta 88 powered by a gas turbine using pulverised coal dust This was considered for the United States and the western world to reduce dependence on middle east oil at the time 71 72 73 Toyota demonstrated several gas turbine powered concept cars such as the Century gas turbine hybrid in 1975 the Sports 800 Gas Turbine Hybrid in 1979 and the GTV in 1985 No production vehicles were made The GT24 engine was exhibited in 1977 without a vehicle Later developmentIn the early 1990s Volvo introduced the Volvo ECC which was a gas turbine powered hybrid electric vehicle 74 In 1993 General Motors introduced the first commercial gas turbine powered hybrid vehicle as a limited production run of the EV 1 series hybrid A Williams International 40 kW turbine drove an alternator which powered the battery electric powertrain The turbine design included a recuperator In 2006 GM went into the EcoJet concept car project with Jay Leno At the 2010 Paris Motor Show Jaguar demonstrated its Jaguar C X75 concept car This electrically powered supercar has a top speed of 204 mph 328 km h and can go from 0 to 62 mph 0 to 100 km h in 3 4 seconds It uses Lithium ion batteries to power four electric motors which combine to produce 780 bhp It will travel 68 miles 109 km on a single charge of the batteries and uses a pair of Bladon Micro Gas Turbines to re charge the batteries extending the range to 560 miles 900 km 75 Racing cars Edit The 1967 STP Oil Treatment Special on display at the Indianapolis Motor Speedway Hall of Fame Museum with the Pratt amp Whitney gas turbine shown A 1968 Howmet TX the only turbine powered race car to have won a race The first race car in concept only fitted with a turbine was in 1955 by a US Air Force group as a hobby project with a turbine loaned them by Boeing and a race car owned by Firestone Tire amp Rubber company 76 The first race car fitted with a turbine for the goal of actual racing was by Rover and the BRM Formula One team joined forces to produce the Rover BRM a gas turbine powered coupe which entered the 1963 24 Hours of Le Mans driven by Graham Hill and Richie Ginther It averaged 107 8 mph 173 5 km h and had a top speed of 142 mph 229 km h American Ray Heppenstall joined Howmet Corporation and McKee Engineering together to develop their own gas turbine sports car in 1968 the Howmet TX which ran several American and European events including two wins and also participated in the 1968 24 Hours of Le Mans The cars used Continental gas turbines which eventually set six FIA land speed records for turbine powered cars 77 For open wheel racing 1967 s revolutionary STP Paxton Turbocar fielded by racing and entrepreneurial legend Andy Granatelli and driven by Parnelli Jones nearly won the Indianapolis 500 the Pratt amp Whitney ST6B 62 powered turbine car was almost a lap ahead of the second place car when a gearbox bearing failed just three laps from the finish line The next year the STP Lotus 56 turbine car won the Indianapolis 500 pole position even though new rules restricted the air intake dramatically In 1971 Team Lotus principal Colin Chapman introduced the Lotus 56B F1 car powered by a Pratt amp Whitney STN 6 76 gas turbine Chapman had a reputation of building radical championship winning cars but had to abandon the project because there were too many problems with turbo lag Buses Edit General Motors fitted the GT 30x series of gas turbines branded Whirlfire to several prototype buses in the 1950s and 1960s including Turbo Cruiser I 1953 GT 300 Turbo Cruiser II 1964 GT 309 Turbo Cruiser III 1968 GT 309 RTX 1968 GT 309 and RTS 3T 1972 78 The arrival of the Capstone Turbine has led to several hybrid bus designs starting with HEV 1 by AVS of Chattanooga Tennessee in 1999 and closely followed by Ebus and ISE Research in California and DesignLine Corporation in New Zealand and later the United States AVS turbine hybrids were plagued with reliability and quality control problems resulting in liquidation of AVS in 2003 The most successful design by Designline is now operated in 5 cities in 6 countries with over 30 buses in operation worldwide and order for several hundred being delivered to Baltimore and New York City Brescia Italy is using serial hybrid buses powered by microturbines on routes through the historical sections of the city 79 Motorcycles Edit The MTT Turbine Superbike appeared in 2000 hence the designation of Y2K Superbike by MTT and is the first production motorcycle powered by a turbine engine specifically a Rolls Royce Allison model 250 turboshaft engine producing about 283 kW 380 bhp Speed tested to 365 km h or 227 mph according to some stories the testing team ran out of road during the test it holds the Guinness World Record for most powerful production motorcycle and most expensive production motorcycle with a price tag of US 185 000 Trains Edit Main articles Gas turbine locomotive and Gas turbine train Several locomotive classes have been powered by gas turbines the most recent incarnation being Bombardier s JetTrain Tanks Edit Marines from 1st Tank Battalion load a Honeywell AGT1500 multi fuel turbine back into an M1 Abrams tank at Camp Coyote Kuwait February 2003 The Third Reich Wehrmacht Heer s development division the Heereswaffenamt Army Ordnance Board studied a number of gas turbine engine designs for use in tanks starting in mid 1944 The first gas turbine engine design intended for use in armored fighting vehicle propulsion the BMW 003 based GT 101 was meant for installation in the Panther tank 80 The second use of a gas turbine in an armored fighting vehicle was in 1954 when a unit PU2979 specifically developed for tanks by C A Parsons and Company was installed and trialed in a British Conqueror tank 81 The Stridsvagn 103 was developed in the 1950s and was the first mass produced main battle tank to use a turbine engine the Boeing T50 Since then gas turbine engines have been used as auxiliary power units in some tanks and as main powerplants in Soviet Russian T 80s and U S M1 Abrams tanks among others They are lighter and smaller than diesel engines at the same sustained power output but the models installed to date are less fuel efficient than the equivalent diesel especially at idle requiring more fuel to achieve the same combat range Successive models of M1 have addressed this problem with battery packs or secondary generators to power the tank s systems while stationary saving fuel by reducing the need to idle the main turbine T 80s can mount three large external fuel drums to extend their range Russia has stopped production of the T 80 in favor of the diesel powered T 90 based on the T 72 while Ukraine has developed the diesel powered T 80UD and T 84 with nearly the power of the gas turbine tank The French Leclerc tank s diesel powerplant features the Hyperbar hybrid supercharging system where the engine s turbocharger is completely replaced with a small gas turbine which also works as an assisted diesel exhaust turbocharger enabling engine RPM independent boost level control and a higher peak boost pressure to be reached than with ordinary turbochargers This system allows a smaller displacement and lighter engine to be used as the tank s power plant and effectively removes turbo lag This special gas turbine turbocharger can also work independently from the main engine as an ordinary APU A turbine is theoretically more reliable and easier to maintain than a piston engine since it has a simpler construction with fewer moving parts but in practice turbine parts experience a higher wear rate due to their higher working speeds The turbine blades are highly sensitive to dust and fine sand so that in desert operations air filters have to be fitted and changed several times daily An improperly fitted filter or a bullet or shell fragment that punctures the filter can damage the engine Piston engines especially if turbocharged also need well maintained filters but they are more resilient if the filter does fail Like most modern diesel engines used in tanks gas turbines are usually multi fuel engines Marine applications EditMain article Marine propulsion Naval Edit The Gas turbine from MGB 2009 Gas turbines are used in many naval vessels where they are valued for their high power to weight ratio and their ships resulting acceleration and ability to get underway quickly The first gas turbine powered naval vessel was the Royal Navy s Motor Gun Boat MGB 2009 formerly MGB 509 converted in 1947 Metropolitan Vickers fitted their F2 3 jet engine with a power turbine The Steam Gun Boat Grey Goose was converted to Rolls Royce gas turbines in 1952 and operated as such from 1953 82 The Bold class Fast Patrol Boats Bold Pioneer and Bold Pathfinder built in 1953 were the first ships created specifically for gas turbine propulsion 83 The first large scale partially gas turbine powered ships were the Royal Navy s Type 81 Tribal class frigates with combined steam and gas powerplants The first HMS Ashanti was commissioned in 1961 The German Navy launched the first Koln class frigate in 1961 with 2 Brown Boveri amp Cie gas turbines in the world s first combined diesel and gas propulsion system The Soviet Navy commissioned in 1962 the first of 25 Kashin class destroyer with 4 gas turbines in Combined gas and gas propulsion system Those vessels used 4 M8E gas turbines which generated 54 000 72 000 kW 72 000 96 000 hp Those ships were the first large ships in the world to be powered solely by gas turbines Project 61 large ASW ship Kashin class destroyer The Danish Navy had 6 Soloven class torpedo boats the export version of the British Brave class fast patrol boat in service from 1965 to 1990 which had 3 Bristol Proteus later RR Proteus Marine Gas Turbines rated at 9 510 kW 12 750 shp combined plus two General Motors Diesel engines rated at 340 kW 460 shp for better fuel economy at slower speeds 84 And they also produced 10 Willemoes Class Torpedo Guided Missile boats in service from 1974 to 2000 which had 3 Rolls Royce Marine Proteus Gas Turbines also rated at 9 510 kW 12 750 shp same as the Soloven class boats and 2 General Motors Diesel Engines rated at 600 kW 800 shp also for improved fuel economy at slow speeds 85 The Swedish Navy produced 6 Spica class torpedo boats between 1966 and 1967 powered by 3 Bristol Siddeley Proteus 1282 turbines each delivering 3 210 kW 4 300 shp They were later joined by 12 upgraded Norrkoping class ships still with the same engines With their aft torpedo tubes replaced by antishipping missiles they served as missile boats until the last was retired in 2005 86 The Finnish Navy commissioned two Turunmaa class corvettes Turunmaa and Karjala in 1968 They were equipped with one 16 410 kW 22 000 shp Rolls Royce Olympus TM1 gas turbine and three Wartsila marine diesels for slower speeds They were the fastest vessels in the Finnish Navy they regularly achieved speeds of 35 knots and 37 3 knots during sea trials The Turunmaas were decommissioned in 2002 Karjala is today a museum ship in Turku and Turunmaa serves as a floating machine shop and training ship for Satakunta Polytechnical College The next series of major naval vessels were the four Canadian Iroquois class helicopter carrying destroyers first commissioned in 1972 They used 2 ft 4 main propulsion engines 2 ft 12 cruise engines and 3 Solar Saturn 750 kW generators An LM2500 gas turbine on USS Ford The first U S gas turbine powered ship was the U S Coast Guard s Point Thatcher a cutter commissioned in 1961 that was powered by two 750 kW 1 000 shp turbines utilizing controllable pitch propellers 87 The larger Hamilton class High Endurance Cutters was the first class of larger cutters to utilize gas turbines the first of which USCGC Hamilton was commissioned in 1967 Since then they have powered the U S Navy s Oliver Hazard Perry class frigates Spruance and Arleigh Burke class destroyers and Ticonderoga class guided missile cruisers USS Makin Island a modified Wasp class amphibious assault ship is to be the Navy s first amphibious assault ship powered by gas turbines The marine gas turbine operates in a more corrosive atmosphere due to the presence of sea salt in air and fuel and use of cheaper fuels Civilian maritime Edit Up to the late 1940s much of the progress on marine gas turbines all over the world took place in design offices and engine builder s workshops and development work was led by the British Royal Navy and other Navies While interest in the gas turbine for marine purposes both naval and mercantile continued to increase the lack of availability of the results of operating experience on early gas turbine projects limited the number of new ventures on seagoing commercial vessels being embarked upon In 1951 the Diesel electric oil tanker Auris 12 290 deadweight tonnage DWT was used to obtain operating experience with a main propulsion gas turbine under service conditions at sea and so became the first ocean going merchant ship to be powered by a gas turbine Built by Hawthorn Leslie at Hebburn on Tyne UK in accordance with plans and specifications drawn up by the Anglo Saxon Petroleum Company and launched on the UK s Princess Elizabeth s 21st birthday in 1947 the ship was designed with an engine room layout that would allow for the experimental use of heavy fuel in one of its high speed engines as well as the future substitution of one of its diesel engines by a gas turbine 88 The Auris operated commercially as a tanker for three and a half years with a diesel electric propulsion unit as originally commissioned but in 1951 one of its four 824 kW 1 105 bhp diesel engines which were known as Faith Hope Charity and Prudence was replaced by the world s first marine gas turbine engine a 890 kW 1 200 bhp open cycle gas turbo alternator built by British Thompson Houston Company in Rugby Following successful sea trials off the Northumbrian coast the Auris set sail from Hebburn on Tyne in October 1951 bound for Port Arthur in the US and then Curacao in the southern Caribbean returning to Avonmouth after 44 days at sea successfully completing her historic trans Atlantic crossing During this time at sea the gas turbine burnt diesel fuel and operated without an involuntary stop or mechanical difficulty of any kind She subsequently visited Swansea Hull Rotterdam Oslo and Southampton covering a total of 13 211 nautical miles The Auris then had all of its power plants replaced with a 3 910 kW 5 250 shp directly coupled gas turbine to become the first civilian ship to operate solely on gas turbine power Despite the success of this early experimental voyage the gas turbine did not replace the diesel engine as the propulsion plant for large merchant ships At constant cruising speeds the diesel engine simply had no peer in the vital area of fuel economy The gas turbine did have more success in Royal Navy ships and the other naval fleets of the world where sudden and rapid changes of speed are required by warships in action 89 The United States Maritime Commission were looking for options to update WWII Liberty ships and heavy duty gas turbines were one of those selected In 1956 the John Sergeant was lengthened and equipped with a General Electric 4 900 kW 6 600 shp HD gas turbine with exhaust gas regeneration reduction gearing and a variable pitch propeller It operated for 9 700 hours using residual fuel Bunker C for 7 000 hours Fuel efficiency was on a par with steam propulsion at 0 318 kg kW 0 523 lb hp per hour 90 and power output was higher than expected at 5 603 kW 7 514 shp due to the ambient temperature of the North Sea route being lower than the design temperature of the gas turbine This gave the ship a speed capability of 18 knots up from 11 knots with the original power plant and well in excess of the 15 knot targeted The ship made its first transatlantic crossing with an average speed of 16 8 knots in spite of some rough weather along the way Suitable Bunker C fuel was only available at limited ports because the quality of the fuel was of a critical nature The fuel oil also had to be treated on board to reduce contaminants and this was a labor intensive process that was not suitable for automation at the time Ultimately the variable pitch propeller which was of a new and untested design ended the trial as three consecutive annual inspections revealed stress cracking This did not reflect poorly on the marine propulsion gas turbine concept though and the trial was a success overall The success of this trial opened the way for more development by GE on the use of HD gas turbines for marine use with heavy fuels 91 The John Sergeant was scrapped in 1972 at Portsmouth PA Boeing Jetfoil 929 100 007 Urzela of TurboJET Boeing launched its first passenger carrying waterjet propelled hydrofoil Boeing 929 in April 1974 Those ships were powered by two Allison 501 KF gas turbines 92 Between 1971 and 1981 Seatrain Lines operated a scheduled container service between ports on the eastern seaboard of the United States and ports in northwest Europe across the North Atlantic with four container ships of 26 000 tonnes DWT Those ships were powered by twin Pratt amp Whitney gas turbines of the FT 4 series The four ships in the class were named Euroliner Eurofreighter Asialiner and Asiafreighter Following the dramatic Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries OPEC price increases of the mid 1970s operations were constrained by rising fuel costs Some modification of the engine systems on those ships was undertaken to permit the burning of a lower grade of fuel i e marine diesel Reduction of fuel costs was successful using a different untested fuel in a marine gas turbine but maintenance costs increased with the fuel change After 1981 the ships were sold and refitted with what at the time was more economical diesel fueled engines but the increased engine size reduced cargo space citation needed The first passenger ferry to use a gas turbine was the GTS Finnjet built in 1977 and powered by two Pratt amp Whitney FT 4C 1 DLF turbines generating 55 000 kW 74 000 shp and propelling the ship to a speed of 31 knots However the Finnjet also illustrated the shortcomings of gas turbine propulsion in commercial craft as high fuel prices made operating her unprofitable After four years of service additional diesel engines were installed on the ship to reduce running costs during the off season The Finnjet was also the first ship with a Combined diesel electric and gas propulsion Another example of commercial use of gas turbines in a passenger ship is Stena Line s HSS class fastcraft ferries HSS 1500 class Stena Explorer Stena Voyager and Stena Discovery vessels use combined gas and gas setups of twin GE LM2500 plus GE LM1600 power for a total of 68 000 kW 91 000 shp The slightly smaller HSS 900 class Stena Carisma uses twin ABB STAL GT35 turbines rated at 34 000 kW 46 000 shp gross The Stena Discovery was withdrawn from service in 2007 another victim of too high fuel costs citation needed In July 2000 the Millennium became the first cruise ship to be powered by both gas and steam turbines The ship featured two General Electric LM2500 gas turbine generators whose exhaust heat was used to operate a steam turbine generator in a COGES combined gas electric and steam configuration Propulsion was provided by two electrically driven Rolls Royce Mermaid azimuth pods The liner RMS Queen Mary 2 uses a combined diesel and gas configuration 93 In marine racing applications the 2010 C5000 Mystic catamaran Miss GEICO uses two Lycoming T 55 turbines for its power system citation needed Advances in technology EditGas turbine technology has steadily advanced since its inception and continues to evolve Development is actively producing both smaller gas turbines and more powerful and efficient engines Aiding in these advances are computer based design specifically computational fluid dynamics and finite element analysis and the development of advanced materials Base materials with superior high temperature strength e g single crystal superalloys that exhibit yield strength anomaly or thermal barrier coatings that protect the structural material from ever higher temperatures These advances allow higher compression ratios and turbine inlet temperatures more efficient combustion and better cooling of engine parts Computational fluid dynamics CFD has contributed to substantial improvements in the performance and efficiency of gas turbine engine components through enhanced understanding of the complex viscous flow and heat transfer phenomena involved For this reason CFD is one of the key computational tools used in design and development of gas 94 95 turbine engines The simple cycle efficiencies of early gas turbines were practically doubled by incorporating inter cooling regeneration or recuperation and reheating These improvements of course come at the expense of increased initial and operation costs and they cannot be justified unless the decrease in fuel costs offsets the increase in other costs The relatively low fuel prices the general desire in the industry to minimize installation costs and the tremendous increase in the simple cycle efficiency to about 40 percent left little desire for opting for these modifications 96 On the emissions side the challenge is to increase turbine inlet temperatures while at the same time reducing peak flame temperature in order to achieve lower NOx emissions and meet the latest emission regulations In May 2011 Mitsubishi Heavy Industries achieved a turbine inlet temperature of 1 600 C on a 320 megawatt gas turbine and 460 MW in gas turbine combined cycle power generation applications in which gross thermal efficiency exceeds 60 97 Compliant foil bearings were commercially introduced to gas turbines in the 1990s These can withstand over a hundred thousand start stop cycles and have eliminated the need for an oil system The application of microelectronics and power switching technology have enabled the development of commercially viable electricity generation by microturbines for distribution and vehicle propulsion Advantages and disadvantages EditThis section contains a pro and con list which is sometimes inappropriate Please help improve it by integrating both sides into a more neutral presentation if this helps improve article flow June 2022 The following are advantages and disadvantages of gas turbine engines 98 Advantages include Very high power to weight ratio compared to reciprocating engines Smaller than most reciprocating engines of the same power rating Smooth rotation of the main shaft produces far less vibration than a reciprocating engine Fewer moving parts than reciprocating engines results in lower maintenance cost and higher reliability availability over its service life Greater reliability particularly in applications where sustained high power output is required Waste heat is dissipated almost entirely in the exhaust This results in a high temperature exhaust stream that is very usable for boiling water in a combined cycle or for cogeneration Lower peak combustion pressures than reciprocating engines in general High shaft speeds in smaller free turbine units although larger gas turbines employed in power generation operate at synchronous speeds Low lubricating oil cost and consumption Can run on a wide variety of fuels Very low toxic emissions of CO and HC due to excess air complete combustion and no quench of the flame on cold surfaces Disadvantages include Core engine costs can be high due to use of exotic materials Less efficient than reciprocating engines at idle speed Longer startup than reciprocating engines Less responsive to changes in power demand compared with reciprocating engines Characteristic whine can be hard to suppress Major manufacturers EditSiemens Ansaldo Mitsubishi Heavy Rolls Royce General Electric Silmash ODK Pratt amp Whitney P amp W Canada Alstom Zorya Mashproekt MTU Aero Engines MAN Turbo IHI Corporation Kawasaki Heavy HAL BHEL MAPNA Techwin Doosan Heavy Shanghai Electric Harbin Electric AECCTesting EditBritish German other national and international test codes are used to standardize the procedures and definitions used to test gas turbines Selection of the test code to be used is an agreement between the purchaser and the manufacturer and has some significance to the design of the turbine and associated systems In the United States ASME has produced several performance test codes on gas turbines This includes ASME PTC 22 2014 These ASME performance test codes have gained international recognition and acceptance for testing gas turbines The single most important and differentiating characteristic of ASME performance test codes including PTC 22 is that the test uncertainty of the measurement indicates the quality of the test and is not to be used as a commercial tolerance See also EditList of aircraft engines Centrifugal compressor Gas turbine modular helium reactor Pneumatic motor Pulsejet Steam turbine Turbine engine failure Wind turbineReferences Edit Sonntag Richard E Borgnakke Claus 2006 Introduction to engineering thermodynamics Second ed John Wiley ISBN 9780471737599 B Zhang 14 December 2014 Lu Yongxiang ed A History of Chinese Science and Technology Volume 3 Springer Berlin Heidelberg pp 308 310 ISBN 978 3662441626 For trotting horse lamp make paper cut as wheel like objects and the candle will heat the air which will rise and push the paper cut to move and the shadows of paper cut will be cast by the candle light on the 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Theory by H I H Saravanamuttoo G F C Rogers and H Cohen Pearson Education 2001 5th ed ISBN 0 13 015847 X Leyes II Richard A William A Fleming 1999 The History of North American Small Gas Turbine Aircraft Engines Washington DC Smithsonian Institution ISBN 978 1 56347 332 6 R M Fred Klaass and Christopher DellaCorte The Quest for Oil Free Gas Turbine Engines SAE Technical Papers No 2006 01 3055 available at sae org Model Jet Engines by Thomas Kamps ISBN 0 9510589 9 1 Traplet Publications Aircraft Engines and Gas Turbines Second Edition by Jack L Kerrebrock The MIT Press 1992 ISBN 0 262 11162 4 Forensic Investigation of a Gas Turbine Event by John Molloy M amp M Engineering Gas Turbine Performance 2nd Edition by Philip Walsh and Paul Fletcher Wiley Blackwell 2004 ISBN 978 0 632 06434 2 National Academies of Sciences Engineering and Medicine 2020 Advanced Technologies for Gas Turbines Report Washington DC The National Academies Press doi 10 17226 25630 ISBN 978 0 309 66422 6 External links Edit Wikimedia Commons has media related to Gas turbines Gas turbine at Curlie Bonnier Corporation December 1939 New Era In Power To Turn Wheels Popular Science Bonnier Corporation p 81 Technology Speed of Civil Jet Engines MIT Gas Turbine Laboratory Archived 21 July 2010 at the Wayback Machine MIT Microturbine research California Distributed Energy Resource guide Microturbine generators Introduction to how a gas turbine works from how stuff works com Archived 16 June 2008 at the Wayback Machine Aircraft gas turbine simulator for interactive learning An online handbook on stationary gas turbine technologies compiled by the US DOE Archived 1 July 2017 at the Wayback Machine Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Gas turbine amp oldid 1130907938, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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