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Khoemana

April 12, 2024

ǃOrakobab or Khoemana, also known as Korana, ǃOra, or Griqua, is a moribund Khoe language of South Africa.

Khoemana
Griqua, Korana, ǃOra, Kora
ǃOrakobab
Native toSouth Africa, Namibia
EthnicityGriqua people
Native speakers
Korana (kqz): 6 (2008)[1]
Xiri (xii): 187[2]
Khoe–Kwadi
  • Khoe
    • Khoekhoe
      • Khoemana
Language codes
ISO 639-3Either:
kqz – Korana
xii – Xiri
Glottologsout3214
ELPKorana
This article contains IPA phonetic symbols. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of Unicode characters. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see Help:IPA.

Names edit

"Khoemana" (from khoe 'person' + mana 'language') is more commonly known as either Korana /kɒˈrɑːnə/ (also ǃOrakobab, ǃOra, Kora, Koraqua) or Griqua (also Gri [xri], Xri, Xiri, Xirikwa).[3] The name 'Korana' reflects the endonym ǃOra IPA: [ǃoɾa] or ǃGora IPA: [gǃoɾa], referring to the ǃOra people.[4] Sometimes ǃOra is also known as Cape Khoe or Cape Hottentot, though the latter has become considered derogatory. The various names are often treated as different languages (called South Khoekhoe when taken together), but they do not correspond to any actual dialect distinctions, and speakers may use "Korana" and "Griqua" interchangeably. Both names are also used more broadly, for example for the Griqua people. There exist (or existed) several dialects of Khoemana, but the details are unknown.[5]

Phonology edit

Khoemana is closely related to Khoekhoe, and the sound systems are broadly similar. The strongly aspirated Khoekhoe affricates are simply aspirated plosives [tʰ, kʰ] in Khoemana. However, Khoemana has an ejective velar affricate, /kxʼʔ/,[6] which is not found in Khoekhoe, and a corresponding series of clicks, /ǀ͡xʼ ǁ͡xʼ ǃ͡xʼ ǂ͡xʼ/. Beach (1938)[7] reported that the Khoekhoe of the time had a velar lateral ejective affricate, [k͡ʟ̝̊ʼ], a common realisation or allophone of /kxʼ/ in languages with clicks, and it might be expected that this is true for Khoemana as well. In addition, about half of all lexical words in Khoemana began with a click, compared to a quarter in Khoekhoe.

Khoemana vowels
Front Central Back
oral nasal oral oral nasal
Close i ĩ u ũ
Mid e ə o õ
Open a ã

In Korana, [oe] and [oa] can be pronounced as [we] and [wa].

Khoemana non-click consonants
Labial Dental Alveolar Velar Glottal
Nasal m n
Plosive voiceless p t k ʔ
aspirated tʰ kʰ
voiced b d ɡ
Affricate ejective tsʼ kxʼ
Fricative s x h
Trill r
  • The phoneme [k] can be realized as /c/ before [e] or [i].
  • An intervocalic [p] and [b] are sometimes realized as /β/.
  • [s] is stated to be alveolar-postalveolar when not followed by a close front vowel [i], [ĩ], or [e].
  • The aspirated phoneme [tʰ] is realized as an affricate sound /ts/ when followed by a close front vowel [i], [ĩ], or [e].
  • The aspirated sound [kʰ] can sometimes be realized as [kx]. Some Griqua speakers may pronounce [kʰ] as [kʼ].
  • The [tsʼ] sound only seldom occurs.
  • [m] and [n] can occur syllabically as [m̩] and [n̩].
  • The trilled [r] can also be realized as a flapped [ɾ] in some speech.
  • Voicing can be very weak in Khoemana in casual speech, so voiced plosives can be hard to distinguish from voiceless plosives.[5]

There are four tones in Khoemana: high (notated with an acute accent), rising (notated with a caron), mid (no accent), and falling (notated with a circumflex).

Population edit

Reports as to the number of Khoemana speakers are contradictory, but it is clear that it is nearly extinct. It was thought to be extinct until the discovery of four elderly speakers around Bloemfontein and Kimberley.[8] A 2009 report by Don Killian of the University of Helsinki estimated that there were less than 30 speakers at the time.[5] Matthias Brenzinger reported in 2012 that one possible speaker remained, but that she refused to speak the language.[9] The discrepancies could be because the language has multiple dialects and goes by several names, with scholars not always referring to the same population.[5] Khoemana is listed as "critically endangered" in UNESCO's Language Atlas.[10] The loss of this endangered language would have a significant impact on the heritage and culture of Khoemana speakers.[11]

Attestation edit

Robust Khoemana (before more recent language attrition) is principally recorded in an 1879 notebook by Lucy Lloyd, which contains five short stories; some additional work was done in Ponelis (1975).[12] As of 2009, the EuroBABEL project is searching for remaining speakers.

History edit

See also: ǃKora Wars

The people and their language first began to attract scholarly attention in the 1660s, coinciding with Dutch colonial efforts in the Cape of Good Hope and the resulting armed conflicts.[5] At the time, Khoemana was widely spoken throughout the coastal regions of South Africa. After years of attrition during the colonial era to the 1930s, and under apartheid from 1948 to 1994, the language has all but vanished.[5] Currently, speakers of Khoemana are not only scarce but scattered, due to forced migrations during the apartheid era. This has rendered the language particularly vulnerable.[13]

References edit

  1. ^ "Khoemana". UNESCO Atlas of the World's Languages in danger. UNESCO. Retrieved 17 March 2018.
  2. ^ Khoemana at Ethnologue (25th ed., 2022)  
  3. ^ The -kwa is also a grammatical suffix. The letter "g" for the sound [x] reflects Afrikaans orthography
  4. ^ The -na is a grammatical suffix
  5. ^ a b c d e f Killian, D. Khoemana and the Griqua
  6. ^ An ejective velar "scrape" followed by a glottal stop, a bit different from a typical velar ejective affricate
  7. ^ D. Beach, 1938. The Phonetics of the Hottentot Language. Cambridge.
  8. ^ Du Plessis, Menan (2011) "Collection of sound files for inclusion in a dictionary of Korana and eventual integration with a corpus of heritage texts"
  9. ^ Korana at Endangered Languages.com
  10. ^ UNESCO Xiri at UNESCO Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger
  11. ^ Brenzinger, Matthias (2007). Language Endangerment in Southern and Eastern Africa. Berlin, Germany. pp. 179–204. ISBN 9783110170498.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  12. ^ Ponelis, F. A. (1975). "ǃOra Clicks: Problems and Speculations." Bushman and Hottentot Linguistic Studies, pp 51–60. ed. Anthony Traill. Communications from the African Studies Institute, no 2. University of the Witwatersrand. Johannesburg.
  13. ^ Erasmus, P. Dreams and Visions in Koranna and Griqua Revival in Colonial and Post-Apartheid South Africa

Further reading edit

  • Besten, Michael Paul (2006). Transformation and reconstitution of Khoe-San identities: AAS le Fleur I, Griqua identities and post-apartheid Khoe-San revivalism (1894–2004) (PDF) (Thesis). Faculty of Arts, Leiden University.
  • Halford, Samuel James (1949). The Griquas of Griqualand: A Historical Narrative of the Griqua People, Their Rise, Progress and Decline. Juta. OCLC 4379924.
  • Killian, Don (2008). Khoemana and the Griqua (Thesis). hdl:10138/33876.
  • Jenkins, Trefor (1975). "The Griqua of Campbell, Cape Province, South Africa". American Journal of Physical Anthropology. 43 (1). Wiley Online Library: 71–78. doi:10.1002/ajpa.1330430111. PMID 1155593.
  • Robertshaw, PT (1978). "The origin of pastoralism in the Cape". South African Historical Journal. 10. Taylor & Francis: 117–133. doi:10.1080/02582477808671538.
  • The Rosetta Project (2010). The Swadesh List.
  • Waldman, Linda (2006). "Klaar Gesnap As Kleurling: The Attempted Making and Remaking of the Griqua People". African Studies. 65 (2). Routledge: 175–200. doi:10.1080/00020180601035633. S2CID 144687031.
  • Voßen, Rainer (1997). Die Khoe-Sprachen: Ein Beitrag zur Erforschung der Sprachgeschichte Afrikas. (Quellen zur Khoisan-Forschung/Research in Khoisan Studies, 12.). Köln: Cologne: Rüdiger Köppe. pp. 92–94.
  • Maingard, L.F. 1962. Korana Folktales. Grammar and Texts. Johannesburg: Witwatersrand University Press

External links edit

  • at the Wayback Machine (archive index)
  • ǃKorana basic lexicon at the Global Lexicostatistical Database
  • ELAR archive of Dictionary of Korana ('Ora)
  • Rosetta Project: Xiri Swadesh List

April 12, 2024
khoemana, ǃorakobab, also, known, korana, ǃora, griqua, moribund, khoe, language, south, africa, griqua, korana, ǃora, koraǃorakobabnative, tosouth, africa, namibiaethnicitygriqua, peoplenative, speakerskorana, 2008, xiri, language, familykhoe, kwadi, khoekhoe. ǃOrakobab or Khoemana also known as Korana ǃOra or Griqua is a moribund Khoe language of South Africa KhoemanaGriqua Korana ǃOra KoraǃOrakobabNative toSouth Africa NamibiaEthnicityGriqua peopleNative speakersKorana kqz 6 2008 1 Xiri xii 187 2 Language familyKhoe Kwadi KhoeKhoekhoeKhoemanaLanguage codesISO 639 3Either a href https iso639 3 sil org code kqz class extiw title iso639 3 kqz kqz a Korana a href https iso639 3 sil org code xii class extiw title iso639 3 xii xii a XiriGlottologsout3214ELPKoranaThis article contains IPA phonetic symbols Without proper rendering support you may see question marks boxes or other symbols instead of Unicode characters For an introductory guide on IPA symbols see Help IPA Contents 1 Names 2 Phonology 3 Population 4 Attestation 5 History 6 References 7 Further reading 8 External linksNames edit Khoemana from khoe person mana language is more commonly known as either Korana k ɒ ˈ r ɑː n e also ǃOrakobab ǃOra Kora Koraqua or Griqua also Gri xri Xri Xiri Xirikwa 3 The name Korana reflects the endonym ǃOra IPA ǃoɾa or ǃGora IPA gǃoɾa referring to the ǃOra people 4 Sometimes ǃOra is also known as Cape Khoe or Cape Hottentot though the latter has become considered derogatory The various names are often treated as different languages called South Khoekhoe when taken together but they do not correspond to any actual dialect distinctions and speakers may use Korana and Griqua interchangeably Both names are also used more broadly for example for the Griqua people There exist or existed several dialects of Khoemana but the details are unknown 5 Phonology editKhoemana is closely related to Khoekhoe and the sound systems are broadly similar The strongly aspirated Khoekhoe affricates are simply aspirated plosives tʰ kʰ in Khoemana However Khoemana has an ejective velar affricate kxʼʔ 6 which is not found in Khoekhoe and a corresponding series of clicks ǀ xʼ ǁ xʼ ǃ xʼ ǂ xʼ Beach 1938 7 reported that the Khoekhoe of the time had a velar lateral ejective affricate k ʟ ʼ a common realisation or allophone of kxʼ in languages with clicks and it might be expected that this is true for Khoemana as well In addition about half of all lexical words in Khoemana began with a click compared to a quarter in Khoekhoe Khoemana vowels Front Central Backoral nasal oral oral nasalClose i ĩ u ũMid e e o oOpen a aIn Korana oe and oa can be pronounced as we and wa Khoemana non click consonants Labial Dental Alveolar Velar GlottalNasal m nPlosive voiceless p t k ʔaspirated tʰ kʰvoiced b d ɡAffricate ejective tsʼ kxʼFricative s x hTrill rThe phoneme k can be realized as c before e or i An intervocalic p and b are sometimes realized as b s is stated to be alveolar postalveolar when not followed by a close front vowel i ĩ or e The aspirated phoneme tʰ is realized as an affricate sound ts when followed by a close front vowel i ĩ or e The aspirated sound kʰ can sometimes be realized as kx Some Griqua speakers may pronounce kʰ as kʼ The tsʼ sound only seldom occurs m and n can occur syllabically as m and n The trilled r can also be realized as a flapped ɾ in some speech Voicing can be very weak in Khoemana in casual speech so voiced plosives can be hard to distinguish from voiceless plosives 5 Khoemana clicks dental alveolar lateral palatalplain velar stop ǀ k ǃ k ǁ k ǂ k nasal ᵑǀ ᵑǃ ᵑǁ ᵑǂglottalized ǀˀ ǃˀ ǁˀ ǂˀaspirated ǀʰ ǃʰ ǁʰ ǂʰvoiced ǀᶢ ǃᶢ ǁᶢ ǂᶢaspirated k ǀᵏʰ ǃᵏʰ ǁᵏʰ ǂᵏʰvelar affricate ǀkx ǃkx ǁkx ǂkxvelar ejective affricate ǀkxʼ ǃkxʼ ǁkxʼ ǂkxʼvelar fricative ǀx ǃx ǁx ǂxThere are four tones in Khoemana high notated with an acute accent rising notated with a caron mid no accent and falling notated with a circumflex Population editReports as to the number of Khoemana speakers are contradictory but it is clear that it is nearly extinct It was thought to be extinct until the discovery of four elderly speakers around Bloemfontein and Kimberley 8 A 2009 report by Don Killian of the University of Helsinki estimated that there were less than 30 speakers at the time 5 Matthias Brenzinger reported in 2012 that one possible speaker remained but that she refused to speak the language 9 The discrepancies could be because the language has multiple dialects and goes by several names with scholars not always referring to the same population 5 Khoemana is listed as critically endangered in UNESCO s Language Atlas 10 The loss of this endangered language would have a significant impact on the heritage and culture of Khoemana speakers 11 Attestation editRobust Khoemana before more recent language attrition is principally recorded in an 1879 notebook by Lucy Lloyd which contains five short stories some additional work was done in Ponelis 1975 12 As of 2009 the EuroBABEL project is searching for remaining speakers History editSee also ǃKora Wars The people and their language first began to attract scholarly attention in the 1660s coinciding with Dutch colonial efforts in the Cape of Good Hope and the resulting armed conflicts 5 At the time Khoemana was widely spoken throughout the coastal regions of South Africa After years of attrition during the colonial era to the 1930s and under apartheid from 1948 to 1994 the language has all but vanished 5 Currently speakers of Khoemana are not only scarce but scattered due to forced migrations during the apartheid era This has rendered the language particularly vulnerable 13 References edit Khoemana UNESCO Atlas of the World s Languages in danger UNESCO Retrieved 17 March 2018 Khoemana at Ethnologue 25th ed 2022 nbsp The kwa is also a grammatical suffix The letter g for the sound x reflects Afrikaans orthography The na is a grammatical suffix a b c d e f Killian D Khoemana and the Griqua An ejective velar scrape followed by a glottal stop a bit different from a typical velar ejective affricate D Beach 1938 The Phonetics of the Hottentot Language Cambridge Du Plessis Menan 2011 Collection of sound files for inclusion in a dictionary of Korana and eventual integration with a corpus of heritage texts Korana at Endangered Languages com UNESCO Xiri at UNESCO Atlas of the World s Languages in Danger Brenzinger Matthias 2007 Language Endangerment in Southern and Eastern Africa Berlin Germany pp 179 204 ISBN 9783110170498 a href Template Cite book html title Template Cite book cite book a CS1 maint location missing publisher link Ponelis F A 1975 ǃOra Clicks Problems and Speculations Bushman and Hottentot Linguistic Studies pp 51 60 ed Anthony Traill Communications from the African Studies Institute no 2 University of the Witwatersrand Johannesburg Erasmus P Dreams and Visions in Koranna and Griqua Revival in Colonial and Post Apartheid South AfricaFurther reading editBesten Michael Paul 2006 Transformation and reconstitution of Khoe San identities AAS le Fleur I Griqua identities and post apartheid Khoe San revivalism 1894 2004 PDF Thesis Faculty of Arts Leiden University Halford Samuel James 1949 The Griquas of Griqualand A Historical Narrative of the Griqua People Their Rise Progress and Decline Juta OCLC 4379924 Killian Don 2008 Khoemana and the Griqua Thesis hdl 10138 33876 Jenkins Trefor 1975 The Griqua of Campbell Cape Province South Africa American Journal of Physical Anthropology 43 1 Wiley Online Library 71 78 doi 10 1002 ajpa 1330430111 PMID 1155593 Robertshaw PT 1978 The origin of pastoralism in the Cape South African Historical Journal 10 Taylor amp Francis 117 133 doi 10 1080 02582477808671538 The Rosetta Project 2010 The Swadesh List Waldman Linda 2006 Klaar Gesnap As Kleurling The Attempted Making and Remaking of the Griqua People African Studies 65 2 Routledge 175 200 doi 10 1080 00020180601035633 S2CID 144687031 Vossen Rainer 1997 Die Khoe Sprachen Ein Beitrag zur Erforschung der Sprachgeschichte Afrikas Quellen zur Khoisan Forschung Research in Khoisan Studies 12 Koln Cologne Rudiger Koppe pp 92 94 Maingard L F 1962 Korana Folktales Grammar and Texts Johannesburg Witwatersrand University PressExternal links editǃKorana grammar at Cornell at the Wayback Machine archive index ǃKorana basic lexicon at the Global Lexicostatistical Database ELAR archive of Dictionary of Korana Ora Rosetta Project Xiri Swadesh List Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Khoemana amp oldid 1214683996, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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