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Werner Heisenberg

February 01, 2024

"Heisenberg" redirects here. For other uses, see Heisenberg (disambiguation).

Werner Karl Heisenberg (pronounced [ˈvɛʁnɐ kaʁl ˈhaɪzn̩bɛʁk] ⓘ; 5 December 1901 – 1 February 1976)[2] was a German theoretical physicist and one of the main pioneers of the theory of quantum mechanics. He published his work in 1925 in a major breakthrough paper. In the subsequent series of papers with Max Born and Pascual Jordan, during the same year, his matrix formulation of quantum mechanics was substantially elaborated. He is known for the uncertainty principle, which he published in 1927. Heisenberg was awarded the 1932 Nobel Prize in Physics "for the creation of quantum mechanics".[3][a]

Werner Heisenberg
Heisenberg in 1933
Born
Werner Karl Heisenberg

(1901-12-05)5 December 1901
Würzburg, Kingdom of Bavaria, German Empire
Died1 February 1976(1976-02-01) (aged 74)
Munich, Bavaria, West Germany
Resting placeMunich Waldfriedhof
Alma mater
Known for
List
Spouse
Elisabeth Schumacher
​
​
(m. 1937)​
Children7 (incl. Jochen and Martin)
Awards
Scientific career
FieldsTheoretical physics
Institutions
ThesisÜber Stabilität und Turbulenz von Flüssigkeitsströmen (On stability and turbulence of liquid flows) (1923)
Doctoral advisorArnold Sommerfeld
Other academic advisors
Doctoral students
Other notable students
Signature

Heisenberg also made contributions to the theories of the hydrodynamics of turbulent flows, the atomic nucleus, ferromagnetism, cosmic rays, and subatomic particles. He was a principal scientist in the Nazi nuclear weapons program during World War II. He was also instrumental in planning the first West German nuclear reactor at Karlsruhe, together with a research reactor in Munich, in 1957.

Following World War II, he was appointed director of the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Physics, which soon thereafter was renamed the Max Planck Institute for Physics. He was director of the institute until it was moved to Munich in 1958. He then became director of the Max Planck Institute for Physics and Astrophysics from 1960 to 1970.

Heisenberg was also president of the German Research Council,[4] chairman of the Commission for Atomic Physics, chairman of the Nuclear Physics Working Group, and president of the Alexander von Humboldt Foundation.[1]

Early life and education edit

Early years edit

Werner Karl Heisenberg was born in Würzburg, Germany, to Kaspar Ernst August Heisenberg,[5] and his wife, Annie Wecklein. His father was a secondary school teacher of classical languages who became Germany's only ordentlicher Professor (ordinarius professor) of medieval and modern Greek studies in the university system.[6]

Heisenberg was raised and lived as a Lutheran Christian.[7] In his late teenage years, Heisenberg read Plato's Timaeus while hiking in the Bavarian Alps. He recounted philosophical conversations with his fellow students and teachers about understanding the atom while receiving his scientific training in Munich, Göttingen and Copenhagen.[8] Heisenberg later stated that "My mind was formed by studying philosophy, Plato and that sort of thing"[9] and that "Modern physics has definitely decided in favor of Plato. In fact the smallest units of matter are not physical objects in the ordinary sense; they are forms, ideas which can be expressed unambiguously only in mathematical language".[10]

In 1919 Heisenberg arrived in Munich as a member of the Freikorps to fight the Bavarian Soviet Republic established a year earlier. Five decades later he recalled those days as youthful fun, like "playing cops and robbers and so on; it was nothing serious at all;"[11] his duties were restricted to "seizing bicycles or typewriters from 'red' administrative buildings", and guarding suspected "red" prisoners.[12]

University studies edit

 
Heisenberg in 1924

From 1920 to 1923, he studied physics and mathematics at the Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich under Arnold Sommerfeld and Wilhelm Wien and at the Georg-August University of Göttingen with Max Born and James Franck and mathematics with David Hilbert. He received his doctorate in 1923 at Munich under Sommerfeld.

At Göttingen, under Born, he completed his habilitation in 1924 with a Habilitationsschrift (habilitation thesis) on the anomalous Zeeman effect.[13][2][14][15]

In June 1922, Sommerfeld took Heisenberg to Göttingen to attend the Bohr Festival, because Sommerfeld had a sincere interest in his students and knew of Heisenberg's interest in Niels Bohr's theories on atomic physics. At the event, Bohr was a guest lecturer and gave a series of comprehensive lectures on quantum atomic physics and Heisenberg met Bohr for the first time, which had a lasting effect on him.[16][17][18]

Heisenberg's doctoral thesis, the topic of which was suggested by Sommerfeld, was on turbulence;[19] the thesis discussed both the stability of laminar flow and the nature of turbulent flow. The problem of stability was investigated by the use of the Orr–Sommerfeld equation, a fourth-order linear differential equation for small disturbances from laminar flow. He briefly returned to this topic after World War II.[20]

In his youth he was a member and Scoutleader of the Neupfadfinder, a German Scout association and part of the German Youth Movement.[21][22][23] In August 1923 Robert Honsell and Heisenberg organized a trip to Finland with a Scout group of this association from Munich.[24]

Personal life edit

Heisenberg enjoyed classical music and was an accomplished pianist.[2] His interest in music led to meeting his future wife. In January 1937, Heisenberg met Elisabeth Schumacher (1914–1998) at a private music recital. Elisabeth was the daughter of a well-known Berlin economics professor, and her brother was the economist E. F. Schumacher, author of Small Is Beautiful. Heisenberg married her on 29 April. Fraternal twins Maria and Wolfgang were born in January 1938, whereupon Wolfgang Pauli congratulated Heisenberg on his "pair creation"—a wordplay on a process from elementary particle physics, pair production. They had five more children over the next 12 years: Barbara, Christine, Jochen, Martin and Verena.[25][26] In 1939 he bought a summer home for his family in Urfeld am Walchensee, in southern Germany.

One of Heisenberg's sons, Martin Heisenberg, became a neurobiologist at the University of Würzburg, while another son, Jochen Heisenberg, became a physics professor at the University of New Hampshire.[27]

Academic career edit

Göttingen, Copenhagen and Leipzig edit

From 1924 to 1927, Heisenberg was a Privatdozent at Göttingen, meaning he was qualified to teach and examine independently, without having a chair. From 17 September 1924 to 1 May 1925, under an International Education Board Rockefeller Foundation fellowship, Heisenberg went to do research with Niels Bohr, director of the Institute of Theoretical Physics at the University of Copenhagen. His seminal paper, "Über quantentheoretische Umdeutung kinematischer und mechanischer Beziehungen" ("Quantum theoretical re-interpretation of kinematic and mechanical relations"), was published in September 1925.[28] He returned to Göttingen and, with Max Born and Pascual Jordan over a period of about six months, developed the matrix mechanics formulation of quantum mechanics. On 1 May 1926, Heisenberg began his appointment as a university lecturer and assistant to Bohr in Copenhagen. It was in Copenhagen, in 1927, that Heisenberg developed his uncertainty principle, while working on the mathematical foundations of quantum mechanics. On 23 February, Heisenberg wrote a letter to fellow physicist Wolfgang Pauli, in which he first described his new principle.[29] In his paper on the principle,[30] Heisenberg used the word "Ungenauigkeit" (imprecision), not uncertainty, to describe it.[2][31][32]

In 1927, Heisenberg was appointed ordentlicher Professor (professor ordinarius) of theoretical physics and head of the department of physics at the University of Leipzig; he gave his inaugural lecture there on 1 February 1928. In his first paper published from Leipzig,[33] Heisenberg used the Pauli exclusion principle to solve the mystery of ferromagnetism.[2][14][31][34]

During Heisenberg's tenure at Leipzig, the high quality of the doctoral students and post-graduate and research associates who studied and worked with him is clear from the acclaim many later earned. At various times they included Erich Bagge, Felix Bloch, Ugo Fano, Siegfried Flügge, William Vermillion Houston, Friedrich Hund, Robert S. Mulliken, Rudolf Peierls, George Placzek, Isidor Isaac Rabi, Fritz Sauter, John C. Slater, Edward Teller, John Hasbrouck van Vleck, Victor Frederick Weisskopf, Carl Friedrich von Weizsäcker, Gregor Wentzel, and Clarence Zener.[35]

In early 1929, Heisenberg and Pauli submitted the first of two papers laying the foundation for relativistic quantum field theory.[36] Also in 1929, Heisenberg went on a lecture tour of China, Japan, India, and the United States.[31][35] In the spring of 1929, he was a visiting lecturer at the University of Chicago, where he lectured on quantum mechanics.[37]

In 1928, the British mathematical physicist Paul Dirac had derived his relativistic wave equation of quantum mechanics, which implied the existence of positive electrons, later to be named positrons. In 1932, from a cloud chamber photograph of cosmic rays, the American physicist Carl David Anderson identified a track as having been made by a positron. In mid-1933, Heisenberg presented his theory of the positron. His thinking on Dirac's theory and further development of the theory were set forth in two papers. The first, "Bemerkungen zur Diracschen Theorie des Positrons" ("Remarks on Dirac's theory of the positron") was published in 1934,[38] and the second, "Folgerungen aus der Diracschen Theorie des Positrons" ("Consequences of Dirac's Theory of the Positron"), was published in 1936.[31][39][40] In these papers Heisenberg was the first to reinterpret the Dirac equation as a "classical" field equation for any point particle of spin ħ/2, itself subject to quantization conditions involving anti-commutators. Thus reinterpreting it as a (quantum[clarification needed]) field equation accurately describing electrons, Heisenberg put matter on the same footing as electromagnetism: as being described by relativistic quantum field equations which allowed the possibility of particle creation and destruction. (Hermann Weyl had already described this in a 1929 letter to Albert Einstein.)

Matrix mechanics and the Nobel Prize edit

Heisenberg's paper establishing quantum mechanics[41][a] has puzzled physicists and historians. His methods assume that the reader is familiar with Kramers-Heisenberg transition probability calculations. The main new idea, non-commuting matrices, is justified only by a rejection of unobservable quantities. It introduces the non-commutative multiplication of matrices by physical reasoning, based on the correspondence principle, despite the fact that Heisenberg was not then familiar with the mathematical theory of matrices. The path leading to these results has been reconstructed by MacKinnon,[42] and the detailed calculations are worked out by Aitchison and coauthors.[43]

In Copenhagen, Heisenberg and Hans Kramers collaborated on a paper on dispersion, or the scattering from atoms of radiation whose wavelength is larger than the atoms. They showed that the successful formula Kramers had developed earlier could not be based on Bohr orbits, because the transition frequencies are based on level spacings which are not constant. The frequencies which occur in the Fourier transform of the classical sharp series orbits, by contrast, are equally spaced. But these results could be explained by a semi-classical virtual state model: the incoming radiation excites the valence, or outer, electron to a virtual state from which it decays. In a subsequent paper, Heisenberg showed that this virtual oscillator model could also explain the polarization of fluorescent radiation.

These two successes, and the continuing failure of the Bohr–Sommerfeld model to explain the outstanding problem of the anomalous Zeeman effect, led Heisenberg to use the virtual oscillator model to try to calculate spectral frequencies. The method proved too difficult to immediately apply to realistic problems, so Heisenberg turned to a simpler example, the anharmonic oscillator.

The dipole oscillator consists of a simple harmonic oscillator, which is thought of as a charged particle on a spring, perturbed by an external force, like an external charge. The motion of the oscillating charge can be expressed as a Fourier series in the frequency of the oscillator. Heisenberg solved for the quantum behavior by two different methods. First, he treated the system with the virtual oscillator method, calculating the transitions between the levels that would be produced by the external source.

He then solved the same problem by treating the anharmonic potential term as a perturbation to the harmonic oscillator and using the perturbation methods that he and Born had developed. Both methods led to the same results for the first and the very complicated second-order correction terms. This suggested that behind the very complicated calculations lay a consistent scheme.

So Heisenberg set out to formulate these results without any explicit dependence on the virtual oscillator model. To do this, he replaced the Fourier expansions for the spatial coordinates with matrices, matrices which corresponded to the transition coefficients in the virtual oscillator method. He justified this replacement by an appeal to Bohr's correspondence principle and the Pauli doctrine that quantum mechanics must be limited to observables.

On 9 July, Heisenberg gave Born this paper to review and submit for publication. When Born read the paper, he recognized the formulation as one which could be transcribed and extended to the systematic language of matrices,[44] which he had learned from his study under Jakob Rosanes[45] at Breslau University. Born, with the help of his assistant and former student Pascual Jordan, began immediately to make the transcription and extension, and they submitted their results for publication; the paper was received for publication just 60 days after Heisenberg's paper.[46] A follow-on paper was submitted for publication before the end of the year by all three authors.[47]

Up until this time, matrices were seldom used by physicists; they were considered to belong to the realm of pure mathematics. Gustav Mie had used them in a paper on electrodynamics in 1912 and Born had used them in his work on the lattice theory of crystals in 1921. While matrices were used in these cases, the algebra of matrices with their multiplication did not enter the picture as they did in the matrix formulation of quantum mechanics.[48]

In 1928, Albert Einstein nominated Heisenberg, Born, and Jordan for the Nobel Prize in Physics,[49] The announcement of the Nobel Prize in Physics for 1932 was delayed until November 1933.[50] It was at that time announced that Heisenberg had won the Prize for 1932 "for the creation of quantum mechanics, the application of which has, inter alia, led to the discovery of the allotropic forms of hydrogen".[51][52]

Interpretation of quantum theory edit

The development of quantum mechanics, and the apparently contradictory implications in regard to what is "real" had profound philosophical implications, including what scientific observations truly mean. In contrast to Albert Einstein and Louis de Broglie, who were realists who believed that particles had an objectively true momentum and position at all times (even if both could not be measured), Heisenberg was an anti-realist, arguing that direct knowledge of what is "real" was beyond the scope of science.[53] Writing in his book The Physicist's Conception of Nature,[54] Heisenberg argued that ultimately we only can speak of the knowledge (numbers in tables) which describe something about particles but we can never have any "true" access to the particles themselves:[53]

We can no longer speak of the behaviour of the particle independently of the process of observation. As a final consequence, the natural laws formulated mathematically in quantum theory no longer deal with the elementary particles themselves but with our knowledge of them. Nor is it any longer possible to ask whether or not these particles exist in space and time objectively ... When we speak of the picture of nature in the exact science of our age, we do not mean a picture of nature so much as a picture of our relationships with nature. ...Science no longer confronts nature as an objective observer, but sees itself as an actor in this interplay between man and nature. The scientific method of analysing, explaining and classifying has become conscious of its limitations, which arise out of the fact that by its intervention science alters and refashions the object of investigation. In other words, method and object can no longer be separated.[53][54]

SS investigation edit

Shortly after the discovery of the neutron by James Chadwick in 1932, Heisenberg submitted the first of three papers[55] on his neutron-proton model of the nucleus.[31][56] After Adolf Hitler came to power in 1933, Heisenberg was attacked in the press as a "White Jew" (i.e. an Aryan who acts like a Jew).[57] Supporters of Deutsche Physik, or German Physics (also known as Aryan Physics), launched vicious attacks against leading theoretical physicists, including Arnold Sommerfeld and Heisenberg.[31] From the early 1930s onward, the anti-Semitic and anti-theoretical physics movement Deutsche Physik had concerned itself with quantum mechanics and the theory of relativity. As applied in the university environment, political factors took priority over scholarly ability,[58] even though its two most prominent supporters were the Nobel Laureates in Physics Philipp Lenard[59] and Johannes Stark.[60][61]

There had been many failed attempts to have Heisenberg appointed as a professor at a number of German universities. His attempt to be appointed as successor to Arnold Sommerfeld failed because of opposition by the Deutsche Physik movement.[62] On 1 April 1935, the eminent theoretical physicist Sommerfeld, Heisenberg's doctoral advisor at the Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München, achieved emeritus status. However, Sommerfeld stayed in his chair during the selection process for his successor, which took until 1 December 1939. The process was lengthy due to academic and political differences between the Munich Faculty's selection and that of the Reich Education Ministry and the supporters of Deutsche Physik.

In 1935, the Munich Faculty drew up a list of candidates to replace Sommerfeld as ordinarius professor of theoretical physics and head of the Institute for Theoretical Physics at the University of Munich. The three candidates had all been former students of Sommerfeld: Heisenberg, who had received the Nobel Prize in Physics; Peter Debye, who had received the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1936; and Richard Becker. The Munich Faculty was firmly behind these candidates, with Heisenberg as their first choice. However, supporters of Deutsche Physik and elements in the REM had their own list of candidates, and the battle dragged on for over four years. During this time, Heisenberg came under vicious attack by the Deutsche Physik supporters. One attack was published in Das Schwarze Korps, the newspaper of the SS, headed by Heinrich Himmler. In this, Heisenberg was called a "White Jew" who should be made to "disappear".[63] These attacks were taken seriously, as Jews were violently attacked and incarcerated. Heisenberg fought back with an editorial and a letter to Himmler, in an attempt to resolve the matter and regain his honour.

At one point, Heisenberg's mother visited Himmler's mother. The two women knew each other, as Heisenberg's maternal grandfather and Himmler's father were rectors and members of a Bavarian hiking club. Eventually, Himmler settled the Heisenberg affair by sending two letters, one to SS Gruppenführer Reinhard Heydrich and one to Heisenberg, both on 21 July 1938. In the letter to Heydrich, Himmler said Germany could not afford to lose or silence Heisenberg, as he would be useful for teaching a generation of scientists. To Heisenberg, Himmler said the letter came on the recommendation of his family and he cautioned Heisenberg to make a distinction between professional physics research results and the personal and political attitudes of the involved scientists.[64]

Wilhelm Müller replaced Sommerfeld at the Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich. Müller was not a theoretical physicist, had not published in a physics journal, and was not a member of the German Physical Society. His appointment was considered a travesty and detrimental to educating theoretical physicists.[64][65][66][67][68]

The three investigators who led the SS investigation of Heisenberg had training in physics. Indeed, Heisenberg had participated in the doctoral examination of one of them at the Universität Leipzig. The most influential of the three was Johannes Juilfs. During their investigation, they became supporters of Heisenberg as well as his position against the ideological policies of the Deutsche Physik movement in theoretical physics and academia.[69]

German nuclear weapons program edit

Main article: German nuclear weapons program

Pre-war work on physics edit

In mid-1936, Heisenberg presented his theory of cosmic-ray showers in two papers.[70] Four more papers[71][72][73][74] appeared in the next two years.[31][75]

In December 1938, the German chemists Otto Hahn and Fritz Strassmann sent a manuscript to The Natural Sciences reporting they had detected the element barium after bombarding uranium with neutrons, leading Hahn to conclude that a bursting of the uranium nucleus had occurred;[76] simultaneously, Hahn communicated these results to his friend Lise Meitner, who had in July of that year fled, first to the Netherlands, then to Sweden.[77] Meitner, and her nephew Otto Robert Frisch, correctly interpreted Hahn's and Strassmann's results as being nuclear fission.[78] Frisch confirmed this experimentally on 13 January 1939.[79]

In June and July 1939, Heisenberg traveled to the United States visiting Samuel Abraham Goudsmit at the University of Michigan in Ann Arbor. However, Heisenberg refused an invitation to emigrate to the United States. He did not see Goudsmit again until six years later, when Goudsmit was the chief scientific advisor to the American Operation Alsos at the close of World War II.[31][80][81]

Membership in the Uranverein edit

The German nuclear weapons program, known as Uranverein, was formed on 1 September 1939, the day World War II began in Europe. The Heereswaffenamt (HWA, Army Ordnance Office) had squeezed the Reichsforschungsrat (RFR, Reich Research Council) out of the Reichserziehungsministerium (REM, Reich Ministry of Education) and started the formal German nuclear energy project under military auspices. The project had its first meeting on 16 September 1939. The meeting was organized by Kurt Diebner, advisor to the HWA, and held in Berlin. The invitees included Walther Bothe, Siegfried Flügge, Hans Geiger, Otto Hahn, Paul Harteck, Gerhard Hoffmann, Josef Mattauch and Georg Stetter. A second meeting was held soon thereafter and included Heisenberg, Klaus Clusius, Robert Döpel and Carl Friedrich von Weizsäcker. The Kaiser-Wilhelm Institut für Physik (KWIP, Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Physics) in Berlin-Dahlem, was placed under HWA authority, with Diebner as the administrative director, and the military control of the nuclear research commenced.[82][83][84] During the period when Diebner administered the KWIP under the HWA program, considerable personal and professional animosity developed between Diebner and Heisenberg's inner circle, which included Karl Wirtz and Carl Friedrich von Weizsäcker.[31][85]

 
A visual representation of an induced nuclear fission event where a slow-moving neutron is absorbed by the nucleus of a uranium-235 atom, which fissions into two fast-moving lighter elements (fission products) and additional neutrons. Most of the energy released is in the form of the kinetic velocities of the fission products and the neutrons.

At a scientific conference on 26–28 February 1942 at the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Physics, called by the Army Weapons Office, Heisenberg presented a lecture to Reichs officials on energy acquisition from nuclear fission.[86] The lecture, entitled "Die theoretischen Grundlagen für die Energiegewinnung aus der Uranspaltung" ("The theoretical basis for energy generation from uranium fission") was, as Heisenberg confessed after the Second World War in a letter to Samuel Goudsmit, "adapted to the intellectual level of a Reichs Minister".[87] Heisenberg lectured on the enormous energy potential of nuclear fission, stating that 250 million electron volts could be released through the fission of an atomic nucleus. Heisenberg stressed that pure U-235 had to be obtained to achieve a chain reaction. He explored various ways of obtaining isotope 235
92U
 in its pure form, including uranium enrichment and an alternative layered method of normal uranium and a moderator in a machine. This machine, he noted, could be used in practical ways to fuel vehicles, ships and submarines. Heisenberg stressed the importance of the Army Weapons Office's financial and material support for this scientific endeavour. A second scientific conference followed. Lectures were heard on problems of modern physics with decisive importance for the national defense and economy. The conference was attended by Bernhard Rust, the Reichs Minister of Science, Education and National Culture. At the conference, Reichs Minister Rust decided to take the nuclear project away from the Kaiser Wilhelm Society. The Reichs Research Council was to take on the project.[88] In April 1942 the army returned the Physics Institute to the Kaiser Wilhelm Society, naming Heisenberg as Director at the Institute. With this appointment at the KWIP, Heisenberg obtained his first professorship.[62] Peter Debye was still director of the institute, but had gone on leave to the United States after he had refused to become a German citizen when the HWA took administrative control of the KWIP. Heisenberg still also had his department of physics at the University of Leipzig where work had been done for the Uranverein by Robert Döpel and his wife Klara Döpel.[31][85]

On 4 June 1942, Heisenberg was summoned to report to Albert Speer, Germany's Minister of Armaments, on the prospects for converting the Uranverein's research toward developing nuclear weapons. During the meeting, Heisenberg told Speer that a bomb could not be built before 1945, because it would require significant monetary resources and number of personnel.[89][90]

After the Uranverein project was placed under the leadership of the Reichs Research Council, it focused on nuclear power production and thus maintained its kriegswichtig (importance for the war) status; funding therefore continued from the military. The nuclear power project was broken down into the following main areas: uranium and heavy water production, uranium isotope separation and the Uranmaschine (uranium machine, i.e., nuclear reactor). The project was then essentially split up between a number of institutes, where the directors dominated the research and set their own research agendas.[82][91][92] The point in 1942, when the army relinquished its control of the German nuclear weapons program, was the zenith of the project relative to the number of personnel. About 70 scientists worked for the program, with about 40 devoting more than half their time to nuclear fission research. After 1942, the number of scientists working on applied nuclear fission diminished dramatically. Many of the scientists not working with the main institutes stopped working on nuclear fission and devoted their efforts to more pressing war-related work.[93]

In September 1942, Heisenberg submitted his first paper of a three-part series on the scattering matrix, or S-matrix, in elementary particle physics. The first two papers were published in 1943[94][95] and the third in 1944.[96] The S-matrix described only the states of incident particles in a collision process, the states of those emerging from the collision, and stable bound states; there would be no reference to the intervening states. This was the same precedent as he followed in 1925 in what turned out to be the foundation of the matrix formulation of quantum mechanics through only the use of observables.[31][75]

In February 1943, Heisenberg was appointed to the Chair for Theoretical Physics at the Friedrich-Wilhelms-Universität (today, the Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin). In April, his election to the Preußische Akademie der Wissenschaften (Prussian Academy of Sciences) was approved. That same month, he moved his family to their retreat in Urfeld as Allied bombing increased in Berlin. In the summer, he dispatched the first of his staff at the Kaiser-Wilhelm Institut für Physik to Hechingen and its neighboring town of Haigerloch, on the edge of the Black Forest, for the same reasons. From 18–26 October, he travelled to German-occupied Netherlands. In December 1943, Heisenberg visited German-occupied Poland.[31][97]

From 24 January to 4 February 1944, Heisenberg travelled to occupied Copenhagen, after the German army confiscated Bohr's Institute of Theoretical Physics. He made a short return trip in April. In December, Heisenberg lectured in neutral Switzerland.[31] The United States Office of Strategic Services sent agent Moe Berg to attend the lecture carrying a pistol, with orders to shoot Heisenberg if his lecture indicated that Germany was close to completing an atomic bomb.[98]

In January 1945, Heisenberg, with most of the rest of his staff, moved from the Kaiser-Wilhelm Institut für Physik to the facilities in the Black Forest.[31]

Post-Second World War edit

1945: Alsos Mission edit

 
Replica of the German experimental nuclear reactor captured and dismantled at Haigerloch
Main article: Alsos Mission

The Alsos Mission was an Allied effort to determine if the Germans had an atomic bomb program and to exploit German atomic-related facilities, research, material resources, and scientific personnel for the benefit of the US. Personnel on this operation generally swept into areas which had just come under control of the Allied military forces, but sometimes they operated in areas still under control by German forces.[99][100][101] Berlin had been a location of many German scientific research facilities. To limit casualties and loss of equipment, many of these facilities were dispersed to other locations in the latter years of the war. The Kaiser-Wilhelm-Institut für Physik (KWIP, Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Physics) had been bombed so it had mostly been moved in 1943 and 1944 to Hechingen and its neighbouring town of Haigerloch, on the edge of the Black Forest, which eventually became included in the French occupation zone. This allowed the American task force of the Alsos Mission to take into custody a large number of German scientists associated with nuclear research.[102][103]

On 30 March, the Alsos Mission reached Heidelberg,[104] where important scientists were captured including Walther Bothe, Richard Kuhn, Philipp Lenard, and Wolfgang Gentner.[105] Their interrogation revealed that Otto Hahn was at his laboratory in Tailfingen, while Heisenberg and Max von Laue were at Heisenberg's laboratory in Hechingen, and that the experimental natural uranium reactor that Heisenberg's team had built in Berlin had been moved to Haigerloch. Thereafter, the main focus of the Alsos Mission was on these nuclear facilities in the Württemberg area.[106] Heisenberg was smuggled out from Urfeld, on 3 May 1945, in an alpine operation in territory still under control by elite German forces. He was taken to Heidelberg, where, on 5 May, he met Goudsmit for the first time since the Ann Arbor visit in 1939. Germany surrendered just two days later. Heisenberg would not see his family again for eight months, as he was moved across France and Belgium and flown to England on 3 July 1945.[107][108][100]

1945: Reaction to Hiroshima edit

Nine of the prominent German scientists who published reports in Nuclear Physics Research Reports as members of the Uranverein[109] were captured by Operation Alsos and incarcerated in England under Operation Epsilon.[110] Ten German scientists, including Heisenberg, were held at Farm Hall in England. The facility had been a safe house of the British foreign intelligence MI6. During their detention, their conversations were recorded. Conversations thought to be of intelligence value were transcribed and translated into English. The transcripts were released in 1992.[111][112] On 6 August 1945, the scientists at Farm Hall learned from media reports that the USA had dropped an atomic bomb in Hiroshima, Japan. At first, there was disbelief that a bomb had been built and dropped. In the weeks that followed, the German scientists discussed how the United States might have built the bomb.[113]

The Farm Hall transcripts reveal that Heisenberg, along with other physicists interned at Farm Hall including Otto Hahn and Carl Friedrich von Weizsäcker, were glad the Allies had won World War II.[114] Heisenberg told other scientists that he had never contemplated a bomb, only an atomic pile to produce energy. The morality of creating a bomb for the Nazis was also discussed. Only a few of the scientists expressed genuine horror at the prospect of nuclear weapons, and Heisenberg himself was cautious in discussing the matter.[115][116] On the failure of the German nuclear weapons program to build an atomic bomb, Heisenberg remarked, "We wouldn't have had the moral courage to recommend to the government in the spring of 1942 that they should employ 120,000 men just for building the thing up."[117]

When in 1992 the transcripts were declassified, German physicist Manfred Popp analyzed the transcripts, as well as the documentation of Uranverein. When the German scientists heard about the Hiroshima bomb, Heisenberg admitted that he had never calculated the critical mass of an atomic bomb before. When he subsequently attempted to calculate the mass, he made serious calculation errors. Edward Teller and Hans Bethe saw the transcript, and drew the conclusion that Heisenberg did it for the first time as he made similar errors as them. Only a week later Heisenberg gave an impressive lecture about the physics of the bomb. He correctly recognized many essential aspects, including the efficiency of the bomb, although he still underestimated it. For Popp, this is proof that Heisenberg did not spend time on a nuclear weapon during the war; on the contrary, he avoided even thinking about it.[118][119]

Post-war research career edit

 
Bust of Heisenberg in his old age, on display at the Max Planck Society campus in Garching bei München

Executive positions at German research institutions edit

On 3 January 1946, the ten Operation Epsilon detainees were transported to Alswede in Germany. Heisenberg settled in Göttingen, which was in the British zone of Allied-occupied Germany.[120] Heisenberg immediately began to promote scientific research in Germany. Following the Kaiser Wilhelm Society's obliteration by the Allied Control Council and the establishment of the Max Planck Society in the British zone, Heisenberg became the director of the Max Planck Institute for Physics. Max von Laue was appointed vice director, while Karl Wirtz, Carl Friedrich von Weizsäcker and Ludwig Biermann joined to help Heisenberg establish the institute. Heinz Billing joined in 1950 to promote the development of electronic computing. The core research focus of the institute was cosmic radiation. The institute held a colloquium every Saturday morning.[121]

Heisenberg together with Hermann Rein [de] was instrumental in the establishment of the Forschungsrat (research council). Heisenberg envisaged this council to promote the dialogue between the newly founded Federal Republic of Germany and the scientific community, based in Germany.[121] Heisenberg was appointed president of the Forschungsrat. In 1951, the organization was fused with the Notgemeinschaft der Deutschen Wissenschaft (Emergency Association of German Science) and that same year renamed the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (German Research Foundation). Following the merger, Heisenberg was appointed to the presidium.[31]

In 1958, the Max-Planck-Institut für Physik was moved to Munich, expanded, and renamed Max-Planck-Institut für Physik und Astrophysik (MPIFA). In the interim, Heisenberg and the astrophysicist Ludwig Biermann were co-directors of MPIFA. Heisenberg also became an ordentlicher Professor (ordinarius professor) at the Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München. Heisenberg was the sole director of MPIFA from 1960 to 1970. Heisenberg resigned his directorship of the MPIFA on 31 December 1970.[14][31]

Promotion of international scientific cooperation edit

In 1951, Heisenberg agreed to become the scientific representative of the Federal Republic of Germany at the UNESCO conference, with the aim of establishing a European laboratory for nuclear physics. Heisenberg's aim was to build a large particle accelerator, drawing on the resources and technical skills of scientists across the Western Bloc. On 1 July 1953 Heisenberg signed the convention that established CERN on behalf of the Federal Republic of Germany. Although he was asked to become CERN's founding scientific director, he declined. Instead, he was appointed chair of CERN's science policy committee and went on to determine the scientific program at CERN.[122]

In December 1953, Heisenberg became the president of the Alexander von Humboldt Foundation.[122] During his tenure as president 550 Humboldt scholars from 78 nations received scientific research grants. Heisenberg resigned as president shortly before his death.[123]

Research interests edit

In 1946, the German scientist Heinz Pose, head of Laboratory V in Obninsk, wrote a letter to Heisenberg inviting him to work in the USSR. The letter lauded the working conditions in the USSR and the available resources, as well as the favorable attitude of the Soviets towards German scientists. A courier hand delivered the recruitment letter, dated 18 July 1946, to Heisenberg; Heisenberg politely declined.[124][125] In 1947, Heisenberg presented lectures in Cambridge, Edinburgh and Bristol. Heisenberg contributed to the understanding of the phenomenon of superconductivity with a paper in 1947[126] and two papers in 1948,[127][128] one of them with Max von Laue.[31][129]

In the period shortly after World War II, Heisenberg briefly returned to the subject of his doctoral thesis, turbulence. Three papers were published in 1948[130][131][132] and one in 1950.[20][133] In the post-war period Heisenberg continued his interests in cosmic-ray showers with considerations on multiple production of mesons. He published three papers[134][135][136] in 1949, two[137][138] in 1952, and one[139] in 1955.[140]

In late 1955 to early 1956, Heisenberg gave the Gifford Lectures at St Andrews University, in Scotland, on the intellectual history of physics. The lectures were later published as Physics and Philosophy: The Revolution in Modern Science.[141] During 1956 and 1957, Heisenberg was the chairman of the Arbeitskreis Kernphysik (Nuclear Physics Working Group) of the Fachkommission II "Forschung und Nachwuchs" (Commission II "Research and Growth") of the Deutsche Atomkommission (DAtK, German Atomic Energy Commission). Other members of the Nuclear Physics Working Group in both 1956 and 1957 were: Walther Bothe, Hans Kopfermann (vice-chairman), Fritz Bopp, Wolfgang Gentner, Otto Haxel, Willibald Jentschke, Heinz Maier-Leibnitz, Josef Mattauch, Wolfgang Riezler [de], Wilhelm Walcher and Carl Friedrich von Weizsäcker. Wolfgang Paul was also a member of the group during 1957.[142]

In 1957, Heisenberg was a signatory of the Göttinger Manifest, taking a public stand against the Federal Republic of Germany arming itself with nuclear weapons. Heisenberg, like Pascual Jordan, thought politicians would ignore this statement by nuclear scientists. But Heisenberg believed that the Göttinger Manifest would "influence public opinion" which politicians would have to take into account. He wrote to Walther Gerlach: "We will probably have to keep coming back to this question in public for a long time because of the danger that public opinion will slacken."[143] In 1961 Heisenberg signed the Memorandum of Tübingen alongside a group of scientists who had been brought together by Carl Friedrich von Weizsäcker and Ludwig Raiser.[144] A public discussion between scientists and politicians ensued.[145] As prominent politicians, authors and socialites joined the debate on nuclear weapons, the signatories of the memorandum took a stand against "the full-time intellectual nonconformists".[146]

From 1957 onwards, Heisenberg was interested in plasma physics and the process of nuclear fusion. He also collaborated with the International Institute of Atomic Physics in Geneva. He was a member of the Institute's scientific policy committee, and for several years was the Committee's chair.[2] He was one of the eight signatories of the Memorandum of Tübingen which called for the recognition of the Oder–Neiße line as the official border between Germany and Poland and spoke against a possible nuclear armament of West Germany.[147]

In 1973, Heisenberg gave a lecture at Harvard University on the historical development of the concepts of quantum theory.[148] On 24 March 1973 Heisenberg gave a speech before the Catholic Academy of Bavaria, accepting the Romano Guardini Prize. An English translation of his speech was published under the title "Scientific and Religious Truth", a quotation from which appears in a later section of this article.[149]

Philosophy and worldview edit

Heisenberg admired Eastern philosophy and saw parallels between it and quantum mechanics, describing himself as in "complete agreement" with the book The Tao of Physics. Heisenberg even went as far to state that after conversations with Rabindranath Tagore about Indian philosophy "some of the ideas that seemed so crazy suddenly made much more sense".[150]

Regarding the philosophy of Ludwig Wittgenstein, Heisenberg disliked Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus but he liked "very much the later ideas of Wittgenstein and his philosophy about language."[151]

Heisenberg, a devout Christian,[152][153] wrote: "We can console ourselves that the good Lord God would know the position of the [subatomic] particles, thus He would let the causality principle continue to have validity", in his last letter to Albert Einstein.[154] Einstein continued to maintain that quantum physics must be incomplete because it implies that the universe is indeterminate at a fundamental level.[155]

In lectures given in the 1950s and later published as Physics and Philosophy, Heisenberg contended that scientific advances were leading to cultural conflicts. He stated that modern physics is "part of a general historical process that tends toward a unification and a widening of our present world".[156]

When Heisenberg accepted the Romano Guardini Prize [de] in 1974, he gave a speech, which he later published under the title Scientific and Religious Truth. He mused:

In the history of science, ever since the famous trial of Galileo, it has repeatedly been claimed that scientific truth cannot be reconciled with the religious interpretation of the world. Although I am now convinced that scientific truth is unassailable in its own field, I have never found it possible to dismiss the content of religious thinking as simply part of an outmoded phase in the consciousness of mankind, a part we shall have to give up from now on. Thus in the course of my life I have repeatedly been compelled to ponder on the relationship of these two regions of thought, for I have never been able to doubt the reality of that to which they point.

— Heisenberg 1974, 213[157]

Autobiography and death edit

In his late sixties, Heisenberg penned his autobiography for the mass market. In 1969 the book was published in Germany, in early 1971 it was published in English and in the years thereafter in a string of other languages.[158] Heisenberg initiated the project in 1966, when his public lectures increasingly turned to the subjects of philosophy and religion. Heisenberg had sent the manuscript for a textbook on the unified field theory to the Hirzel Verlag and John Wiley & Sons for publication. This manuscript, he wrote to one of his publishers, was the preparatory work for his autobiography. He structured his autobiography in themes, covering: 1) The goal of exact science, 2) The problematic of language in atomic physics, 3) Abstraction in mathematics and science, 4) The divisibility of matter or Kant's antinomy, 5) The basic symmetry and its substantiation, and 6) Science and religion.[159]

Heisenberg wrote his memoirs as a chain of conversations, covering the course of his life. The book became a popular success, but was regarded as troublesome by historians of science. In the preface Heisenberg wrote that he had abridged historical events, to make them more concise. At the time of publication, it was reviewed by Paul Forman in the journal Science with the comment "Now here is a memoir in the form of rationally reconstructed dialogue. And the dialogue as Galileo well knew, is itself a most insidious literary device: lively, entertaining, and especially suited for insinuating opinions while yet evading responsibility for them."[160] Few scientific memoirs had been published, but Konrad Lorenz and Adolf Portmann had penned popular books that conveyed scholarship to a wide audience. Heisenberg worked on his autobiography and published it with the Piper Verlag in Munich. Heisenberg initially proposed the title Gespräche im Umkreis der Atomphysik (Conversations on atomic physics). The autobiography was published eventually under the title Der Teil und das Ganze (The part and the whole).[161] The 1971 English translation was published under the title Physics and Beyond: Encounters and Conversations.

Heisenberg died of kidney cancer at his home, on 1 February 1976.[162] The next evening, his colleagues and friends walked in remembrance from the Institute of Physics to his home, lit a candle and placed it in front of his door.[163] Heisenberg is buried in Munich Waldfriedhof.

In 1980 his widow, Elisabeth Heisenberg, published The Political Life of an Apolitical Person (de, Das politische Leben eines Unpolitischen). In it she characterized Heisenberg as "first and foremost, a spontaneous person, thereafter a brilliant scientist, next a highly talented artist, and only in the fourth place, from a sense of duty, homo politicus."[164]

Honors and awards edit

Heisenberg was awarded a number of honors:[2]

Research reports on nuclear physics edit

The following reports were published in Kernphysikalische Forschungsberichte (Research Reports in Nuclear Physics), an internal publication of the German Uranverein. The reports were classified Top Secret, they had very limited distribution, and the authors were not allowed to keep copies. The reports were confiscated under the Allied Operation Alsos and sent to the United States Atomic Energy Commission for evaluation. In 1971, the reports were declassified and returned to Germany. The reports are available at the Karlsruhe Nuclear Research Center and the American Institute of Physics.[169][170]

  • Werner Heisenberg Die Möglichkeit der technischer Energiegewinnung aus der Uranspaltung G-39 (6 December 1939)
  • Werner Heisenberg Bericht über die Möglichkeit technischer Energiegewinnung aus der Uranspaltung (II) G-40 (29 February 1940)
  • Robert Döpel, K. Döpel, and Werner Heisenberg Bestimmung der Diffusionslänge thermischer Neutronen in schwerem Wasser G-23 (7 August 1940)
  • Robert Döpel, K. Döpel, and Werner Heisenberg Bestimmung der Diffusionslänge thermischer Neutronen in Präparat 38[171] G-22 (5 December 1940)
  • Robert Döpel, K. Döpel, and Werner Heisenberg Versuche mit Schichtenanordnungen von D2O und 38 G-75 (28 October 1941)
  • Werner Heisenberg Über die Möglichkeit der Energieerzeugung mit Hilfe des Isotops 238 G-92 (1941)
  • Werner Heisenberg Bericht über Versuche mit Schichtenanordnungen von Präparat 38 und Paraffin am Kaiser Wilhelm Institut für Physik in Berlin-Dahlem G-93 (May 1941)
  • Fritz Bopp, Erich Fischer, Werner Heisenberg, Carl-Friedrich von Weizsäcker, and Karl Wirtz Untersuchungen mit neuen Schichtenanordnungen aus U-metall und Paraffin G-127 (March 1942)
  • Robert Döpel Bericht über Unfälle beim Umgang mit Uranmetall G-135 (9 July 1942)
  • Werner Heisenberg Bemerkungen zu dem geplanten halbtechnischen Versuch mit 1,5 to D2O und 3 to 38-Metall G-161 (31 July 1942)
  • Werner Heisenberg, Fritz Bopp, Erich Fischer, Carl-Friedrich von Weizsäcker, and Karl Wirtz Messungen an Schichtenanordnungen aus 38-Metall und Paraffin G-162 (30 October 1942)
  • Robert Döpel, K. Döpel, and Werner Heisenberg Der experimentelle Nachweis der effektiven Neutronenvermehrung in einem Kugel-Schichten-System aus D2O und Uran-Metall G-136 (July 1942)
  • Werner Heisenberg Die Energiegewinnung aus der Atomkernspaltung G-217 (6 May 1943)
  • Fritz Bopp, Walther Bothe, Erich Fischer, Erwin Fünfer, Werner Heisenberg, O. Ritter, and Karl Wirtz Bericht über einen Versuch mit 1.5 to D2O und U und 40 cm Kohlerückstreumantel (B7) G-300 (3 January 1945)
  • Robert Döpel, K. Döpel, and Werner Heisenberg Die Neutronenvermehrung in einem D2O-38-Metallschichtensystem G-373 (March 1942)

Other research publications edit

  • Sommerfeld, A.; Heisenberg, W. (1922). "Eine Bemerkung über relativistische Röntgendubletts und Linienschärfe". Z. Phys. 10 (1): 393–398. Bibcode:1922ZPhy...10..393S. doi:10.1007/BF01332582. S2CID 123083509.
  • Sommerfeld, A.; Heisenberg, W. (1922). "Die Intensität der Mehrfachlinien und ihrer Zeeman-Komponenten". Z. Phys. 11 (1): 131–154. Bibcode:1922ZPhy...11..131S. doi:10.1007/BF01328408. S2CID 186227343.
  • Born, M.; Heisenberg, W. (1923). "Über Phasenbeziehungen bei den Bohrschen Modellen von Atomen und Molekeln". Z. Phys. 14 (1): 44–55. Bibcode:1923ZPhy...14...44B. doi:10.1007/BF01340032. S2CID 186228402.
  • Born, M.; Heisenberg, W. (1923). "Die Elektronenbahnen im angeregten Heliumatom". Z. Phys. 16 (9): 229–243. Bibcode:1924AnP...379....1B. doi:10.1002/andp.19243790902.
  • Born, M.; Heisenberg, W. (1924). "Zur Quantentheorie der Molekeln". Annalen der Physik. 74 (4): 1–31. Bibcode:1924AnP...379....1B. doi:10.1002/andp.19243790902.
  • Born, M.; Heisenberg, W. (1924). "Über den Einfluss der Deformierbarkeit der Ionen auf optische und chemische Konstanten. I". Z. Phys. 23 (1): 388–410. Bibcode:1924ZPhy...23..388B. doi:10.1007/BF01327603. S2CID 186220818.
  • — (1924). "Über Stabilität und Turbulenz von Flüssigkeitsströmmen (Diss.)". Annalen der Physik. 74 (4): 577–627. Bibcode:1924AnP...379..577H. doi:10.1002/andp.19243791502.
  • — (1924). "Über eine Abänderung der formalin Regeln der Quantentheorie beim Problem der anomalen Zeeman-Effekte". Z. Phys. 26 (1): 291–307. Bibcode:1924ZPhy...26..291H. doi:10.1007/BF01327336. S2CID 186215582.
  • — (1925). "Über quantentheoretische Umdeutung kinematischer und mechanischer Beziehungen". Zeitschrift für Physik. 33 (1): 879–893. Bibcode:1925ZPhy...33..879H. doi:10.1007/BF01328377. S2CID 186238950. The paper was received on 29 July 1925. [English translation in: van der Waerden 1968, 12 "Quantum-Theoretical Re-interpretation of Kinematic and Mechanical Relations"] This is the first paper in the famous trilogy which launched the matrix mechanics formulation of quantum mechanics.
  • Born, M.; Jordan, P. (1925). "Zur Quantenmechanik". Zeitschrift für Physik. 34 (1): 858–888. Bibcode:1925ZPhy...34..858B. doi:10.1007/BF01328531. S2CID 186114542. The paper was received on 27 September 1925. [English translation in: van der Waerden 1968, "On Quantum Mechanics"] This is the second paper in the famous trilogy which launched the matrix mechanics formulation of quantum mechanics.
  • Born, M.; Heisenberg, W.; Jordan, P. (1926). "Zur Quantenmechanik II". Zeitschrift für Physik. 35 (8–9): 557–615. Bibcode:1926ZPhy...35..557B. doi:10.1007/BF01379806. S2CID 186237037. The paper was received on 16 November 1925. [English translation in: van der Waerden 1968, 15 "On Quantum Mechanics II"] This is the third paper in the famous trilogy which launched the matrix mechanics formulation of quantum mechanics.
  • — (1927). "Über den anschaulichen Inhalt der quantentheoretischen Kinematik und Mechanik". Z. Phys. 43 (3–4): 172–198. Bibcode:1927ZPhy...43..172H. doi:10.1007/BF01397280. S2CID 122763326.
  • — (1928). "Zur Theorie des Ferromagnetismus". Z. Phys. 49 (9–10): 619–636. Bibcode:1928ZPhy...49..619H. doi:10.1007/BF01328601. S2CID 122524239.
  • —; Pauli, W. (1929). "Zur Quantendynamik der Wellenfelder". Z. Phys. 56 (1): 1–61. Bibcode:1929ZPhy...56....1H. doi:10.1007/BF01340129. S2CID 121928597.
  • —; Pauli, W. (1930). "Zur Quantentheorie der Wellenfelder. II". Z. Phys. 59 (3–4): 168–190. Bibcode:1930ZPhy...59..168H. doi:10.1007/BF01341423. S2CID 186219228.
  • — (1932). "Über den Bau der Atomkerne. I". Z. Phys. 77 (1–2): 1–11. Bibcode:1932ZPhy...77....1H. doi:10.1007/BF01342433. S2CID 186218053.
  • — (1932). "Über den Bau der Atomkerne. II". Z. Phys. 78 (3–4): 156–164. Bibcode:1932ZPhy...78..156H. doi:10.1007/BF01337585. S2CID 186221789.
  • — (1933). "Über den Bau der Atomkerne. III". Z. Phys. 80 (9–10): 587–596. Bibcode:1933ZPhy...80..587H. doi:10.1007/BF01335696. S2CID 126422047.
  • — (1934). "Bemerkungen zur Diracschen Theorie des Positrons". Zeitschrift für Physik. 90 (3–4): 209–231. Bibcode:1934ZPhy...90..209H. doi:10.1007/BF01333516. S2CID 186232913. The author was cited as being at Leipzig. The paper was received on 21 June 1934.
  • — (1936). "Über die 'Schauer' in der Kosmischen Strahlung". Forsch. Fortscher. 12: 341–342.
  • —; Euler, H. (1936). "Folgerungen aus der Diracschen Theorie des Positrons". Z. Phys. 98 (11–12): 714–732. Bibcode:1936ZPhy...98..714H. doi:10.1007/BF01343663. S2CID 120354480. The authors were cited as being at Leipzig. The paper was received on 22 December 1935. A translation of this paper has been done by W. Korolevski and H. Kleinert: arXiv:physics/0605038v1.
  • — (1936). "Zur Theorie der 'Schauer' in der Höhenstrahlung". Z. Phys. 101 (9–10): 533–540. Bibcode:1936ZPhy..101..533H. doi:10.1007/BF01349603. S2CID 186215469.
  • — (1937). "Der Durchgang sehr energiereicher Korpuskeln durch den Atomkern". Die Naturwissenschaften. 25 (46): 749–750. Bibcode:1937NW.....25..749H. doi:10.1007/BF01789574. S2CID 39613897.
  • — (1937). "Theoretische Untersuchungen zur Ultrastrahlung". Verh. Dtsch. Phys. Ges. 18: 50.
  • — (1938). "Die Absorption der durchdringenden Komponente der Höhenstrahlung". Annalen der Physik. 425 (7): 594–599. Bibcode:1938AnP...425..594H. doi:10.1002/andp.19384250705.
  • — (1938). "Der Durchgang sehr energiereicher Korpuskeln durch den Atomkern". Nuovo Cimento. 15 (1): 31–34. Bibcode:1938NCim...15...31H. doi:10.1007/BF02958314. S2CID 123209538. — (1938). "Der Durchgang sehr energiereicher Korpuskeln durch den Atomkern". Verh. Dtsch. Phys. Ges. 19 (2).
  • — (1943). "Die beobachtbaren Grössen in der Theorie der Elementarteilchen. I". Z. Phys. 120 (7–10): 513–538. Bibcode:1943ZPhy..120..513H. doi:10.1007/BF01329800. S2CID 120706757.
  • — (1943). "Die beobachtbaren Grössen in der Theorie der Elementarteilchen. II". Z. Phys. 120 (11–12): 673–702. Bibcode:1943ZPhy..120..673H. doi:10.1007/BF01336936. S2CID 124531901.
  • — (1944). "Die beobachtbaren Grössen in der Theorie der Elementarteilchen. III". Z. Phys. 123 (1–2): 93–112. Bibcode:1944ZPhy..123...93H. doi:10.1007/BF01375146. S2CID 123698415.
  • — (1947). "Zur Theorie der Supraleitung". Forsch. Fortschr. 21/23: 243–244. — (1947). "Zur Theorie der Supraleitung". Z. Naturforsch. 2a (4): 185–201. Bibcode:1947ZNatA...2..185H. doi:10.1515/zna-1947-0401.
  • — (1948). "Das elektrodynamische Verhalten der Supraleiter". Z. Naturforsch. 3a (2): 65–75. Bibcode:1948ZNatA...3...65H. doi:10.1515/zna-1948-0201.
  • —; von Laue, M. (1948). "Das Barlowsche Rad aus supraleitendem Material". Z. Phys. 124 (7–12): 514–518. Bibcode:1948ZPhy..124..514H. doi:10.1007/BF01668888. S2CID 121271077.
  • — (1948). "Zur statistischen Theorie der Tubulenz". Z. Phys. 124 (7–12): 628–657. Bibcode:1948ZPhy..124..628H. doi:10.1007/BF01668899. S2CID 186223726.
  • — (1948). "On the theory of statistical and isotropic turbulence". Proceedings of the Royal Society A. 195 (1042): 402–406. Bibcode:1948RSPSA.195..402H. doi:10.1098/rspa.1948.0127.
  • — (1948). "Bemerkungen um Turbulenzproblem". Z. Naturforsch. 3a (8–11): 434–7. Bibcode:1948ZNatA...3..434H. doi:10.1515/zna-1948-8-1103. S2CID 202047340.
  • — (1949). "Production of mesons showers". Nature. 164 (4158): 65–67. Bibcode:1949Natur.164...65H. doi:10.1038/164065c0. PMID 18228928. S2CID 4043099.
  • — (1949). "Die Erzeugung von Mesonen in Vielfachprozessen". Nuovo Cimento. 6 (Suppl): 493–7. Bibcode:1949NCim....6S.493H. doi:10.1007/BF02822044. S2CID 122006877.
  • — (1949). "Über die Entstehung von Mesonen in Vielfachprozessen". Z. Phys. 126 (6): 569–582. Bibcode:1949ZPhy..126..569H. doi:10.1007/BF01330108. S2CID 120410676.
  • — (1950). "On the stability of laminar flow". Proc. International Congress Mathematicians. II: 292–296.
  • — (1952). "Bermerkungen zur Theorie der Vielfacherzeugung von Mesonen". Die Naturwissenschaften. 39 (3): 69. Bibcode:1952NW.....39...69H. doi:10.1007/BF00596818. S2CID 41323295.
  • — (1952). "Mesonenerzeugung als Stosswellenproblem". Z. Phys. 133 (1–2): 65–79. Bibcode:1952ZPhy..133...65H. doi:10.1007/BF01948683. S2CID 124271377.
  • — (1955). "The production of mesons in very high energy collisions". Nuovo Cimento. 12 (Suppl): 96–103. Bibcode:1955NCim....2S..96H. doi:10.1007/BF02746079. S2CID 121970196.
  • — (1975). "Development of concepts in the history of quantum theory". American Journal of Physics. 43 (5): 389–394. Bibcode:1975AmJPh..43..389H. doi:10.1119/1.9833. The substance of this article was presented by Heisenberg in a lecture at Harvard University.

Published books edit

  • — (1949) [1930]. The Physical Principles of the Quantum Theory. Translators Eckart, Carl; Hoyt, F.C. Dover. ISBN 978-0-486-60113-7.
  • — (1955). Das Naturbild der heutigen Physik. Rowohlts Enzyklopädie. Vol. 8. Rowohlt.
  • — (1966). Philosophic Problems of Nuclear Science. Fawcett.
  • — (1971). Physics and Beyond: Encounters and Conversations. Harper & Row. ISBN 9780061316227.
  • — (1971). Physics and Beyond: Encounters and Conversations.
  • — (1977). Tradition in der Wissenschaft. Reden und Aufsätze. Munich: Piper.
  • —; Busche, Jürgen (1979). Quantentheorie und Philosophie: Vorlesungen und Aufsätze. Reclam. ISBN 978-3-15-009948-3.
  • — (1979). Philosophical problems of quantum physics. Ox Bow. ISBN 978-0-918024-14-5.
  • — (1983). Tradition in Science. Seabury Press.
  • — (1988). Physik und Philosophie: Weltperspektiven. Ullstein Taschenbuchvlg.
  • — (1989). Encounters with Einstein: And Other Essays on People, Places, and Particles. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-02433-2.
  • —; Northrop, Filmer (1999). Physics and Philosophy: The Revolution in Modern Science (Great Minds Series). Prometheus.
  • — (2002). Der Teil und das Ganze: Gespräche im Umkreis der Atomphysik. Piper. ISBN 978-3-492-22297-6.
  • — (1992). Rechenberg, Helmut (ed.). Deutsche und Jüdische Physik. Piper. ISBN 978-3-492-11676-3.
  • — (2007). Physik und Philosophie: Weltperspektiven. Hirzel.
  • — (2007). Physics and Philosophy: The Revolution in Modern Science. Harper Perennial Modern Classics (reprint ed.). HarperCollins. ISBN 978-0-06-120919-2. (full text of 1958 version)

In popular culture edit

Heisenberg's surname is used as the primary alias for Walter White (played by Bryan Cranston), the lead character in AMC's crime drama series Breaking Bad, throughout White's transformation from a high-school chemistry teacher into a meth cook and a drug kingpin. In the spin-off prequel series Better Call Saul, a German character named Werner directs the construction of the meth lab belonging to antagonist Gus Fring that Walt cooks in for much of Breaking Bad.

Heisenberg was the target of an assassination by spy Moe Berg in the film The Catcher Was a Spy, based on real events. Heisenberg is also credited with building the atomic bomb used by the Axis in the Amazon Prime TV series adaptation of the novel The Man in the High Castle by Philip K. Dick. Atomic bombs in this universe are referred to as Heisenberg Devices.

Daniel Craig portrayed Heisenberg in the 2002 film Copenhagen, an adaptation of Michael Frayn's play of the name. Heisenberg is the namesake of Resident Evil Village secondary antagonist Karl Heisenberg. Heisenberg's research on ferromagnetism served as inspiration for the character's magnetic abilities.

Matthias Schweighöfer portrays Heisenberg in the 2023 epic biopic film Oppenheimer.

In the television series Star Trek: The Next Generation, the "Heisenberg compensator" is an essential component of transporter technology to ensure the integrity of transported matter. The compensator counteracts effects of the applied characteristics identified in Heisenberg's uncertainty principle. To accurately isolate matter prior to its entry into the transporter buffer, all particles must be located, their velocity observed, and tracked; the compensators allow this to happen

See also edit

References edit

Footnotes

  1. ^ a b Heisenberg's work on quantum physics was preceded by a quarter century of research by other authors on the old quantum theory.

Citations

  1. ^ a b c Mott & Peierls 1977, pp. 212–251
  2. ^ a b c d e f g Werner Heisenberg Biography 7 August 2011 at the Wayback Machine, Nobel Prize in Physics 1932 Nobelprize.org.
  3. ^ Werner Heisenberg on Nobelprize.org   This source explains that Heisenberg actually received his Nobel Prize for 1932 one year later, in 1933.
  4. ^ "Reviving German Science". American Institute of Physics.
  5. ^ Cassidy 2009, p. 12
  6. ^ Cassidy 1992, p. 3
  7. ^ [usurped]. Adherents.com. Retrieved on 1 February 2012.
  8. ^ Carson 2010, p. 149
  9. ^ De Haro, Sebastian (2020). "Science and Philosophy: A Love–Hate Relationship". Foundations of Science. 25 (2): 297–314. arXiv:1307.1244. doi:10.1007/s10699-019-09619-2. S2CID 118408281.
  10. ^ Wilber, Ken (10 April 2001). Quantum Questions: Mystical Writings of the World's Great Physicists. Shambhala Publications. ISBN 978-0-8348-2283-2.
  11. ^ Miller, Arthur (2009). 137: Jung, Pauli and the pursuit of a scientific obsession. New York: Norton & Company. p. 31. ISBN 978-0-393-33864-5
  12. ^ Rechenberg, Helmut (2010). Werner Heisenberg – Die Sprache der Atome. Leben und Wirken. Springer. p. 36. ISBN 978-3-540-69221-8.
  13. ^ Heisenberg, W. (1924). "Über eine Abänderung der formalen Regeln der Quantentheorie beim Problem der anomalen Zeeman-Effekte". Z. Phys. 26 (1): 291–307. Bibcode:1924ZPhy...26..291H. doi:10.1007/BF01327336. S2CID 186215582. as cited in Mott & Peierls 1977, p. 243
  14. ^ a b c Hentschel & Hentschel 1996, Appendix F; see the entry for Heisenberg.
  15. ^ Mott & Peierls 1977, p. 219
  16. ^ Cassidy 1992, pp. 127, Appendix A
  17. ^ Powers 1993, p. 23
  18. ^ van der Waerden 1968, p. 21
  19. ^ Heisenberg, W. (1924). "Über Stabilität und Turbulenz von Flüssigkeitsströmmen". Annalen der Physik. 379 (15): 577–627. Bibcode:1924AnP...379..577H. doi:10.1002/andp.19243791502. as cited in Mott & Peierls 1977, p. 245
  20. ^ a b Mott & Peierls 1977, p. 217
  21. ^ Maringer, Daniel. (in German). Archived from the original on 18 October 2009. Retrieved 5 February 2009.
  22. ^ (in German). Archived from the original on 19 July 2011. Retrieved 5 February 2009.
  23. ^ (PDF). Rundbrief der Regionen Donau und München (in German). Gemeinschaft Katholischer Männer und Frauen im Bund Neudeutschland-ND. 2: 12. March 2005. Archived from the original (PDF) on 5 March 2009.
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  • Heisenberg, W.; Euler, H. (1936). "Folgerungen aus der Diracschen Theorie des Positrons". Z. Phys. 98 (11–12): 714–732. Bibcode:1936ZPhy...98..714H. doi:10.1007/BF01343663. S2CID 120354480. The authors were cited as being at Leipzig. The paper was received on 22 December 1935. A translation of this paper has been done by W. Korolevski and H. Kleinert: arXiv:physics/0605038v1.
  • Hentschel, Klaus; Hentschel, Ann M., eds. (1996). Physics and National Socialism: An Anthology of Primary Sources. Birkhäuser. ISBN 978-0-8176-5312-5. [This book is a collection of 121 primary German documents relating to physics under National Socialism. The documents have been translated and annotated, and there is a lengthy introduction to put them into perspective.]
  • Macrakis, Kristie (1993). Surviving the Swastika: Scientific Research in Nazi Germany. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-507010-1.
  • Mott, N.; Peierls, R. (November 1977). "Werner Heisenberg". Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society. 23: 213–251. doi:10.1098/rsbm.1977.0009. S2CID 73128582.
  • Powers, Thomas (1993). Heisenberg's War: The Secret History of the German Bomb. Knopf. ISBN 9780394514116.
  • van der Waerden, B.L., ed. (1968). Sources of Quantum Mechanics. Dover. ISBN 978-0-486-61881-4.
  • Walker, Mark (1993). German National Socialism and the Quest for Nuclear Power 1939–1949. Cambridge. ISBN 978-0-521-43804-9.

External links edit

 
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Werner Heisenberg.
 
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  • Annotated Bibliography for Werner Heisenberg from the Alsos Digital Library for Nuclear Issues
  • MacTutor Biography: Werner Karl Heisenberg
  • Heisenberg/Uncertainty 16 October 2012 at the Wayback Machine biographical exhibit by American Institute of Physics.
  • Key Participants: Werner Heisenberg – Linus Pauling and the Nature of the Chemical Bond: A Documentary History
  • Nobelprize.org biography
  • Werner Heisenberg: Atomic Physics Mentorees
  • "Oral history interview transcript with Werner Heisenberg". American Institute of Physics, Niels Bohr Library & Archives. 16 June 1970.
  • "Oral history interview transcript with Werner Heisenberg". American Institute of Physics, Niels Bohr Library & Archives. 30 November 1962.
  • Newspaper clippings about Werner Heisenberg in the 20th Century Press Archives of the ZBW

February 01, 2024
werner, heisenberg, heisenberg, redirects, here, other, uses, heisenberg, disambiguation, werner, karl, heisenberg, pronounced, ˈvɛʁnɐ, kaʁl, ˈhaɪzn, bɛʁk, december, 1901, february, 1976, german, theoretical, physicist, main, pioneers, theory, quantum, mechani. Heisenberg redirects here For other uses see Heisenberg disambiguation Werner Karl Heisenberg pronounced ˈvɛʁnɐ kaʁl ˈhaɪzn bɛʁk 5 December 1901 1 February 1976 2 was a German theoretical physicist and one of the main pioneers of the theory of quantum mechanics He published his work in 1925 in a major breakthrough paper In the subsequent series of papers with Max Born and Pascual Jordan during the same year his matrix formulation of quantum mechanics was substantially elaborated He is known for the uncertainty principle which he published in 1927 Heisenberg was awarded the 1932 Nobel Prize in Physics for the creation of quantum mechanics 3 a Werner HeisenbergHeisenberg in 1933BornWerner Karl Heisenberg 1901 12 05 5 December 1901Wurzburg Kingdom of Bavaria German EmpireDied1 February 1976 1976 02 01 aged 74 Munich Bavaria West GermanyResting placeMunich WaldfriedhofAlma materUniversity of Munich University of GottingenKnown forList Copenhagen interpretationHeisenberg s uncertainty principleHeisenberg commutation relationHeisenberg cutHeisenberg s entryway to matrix mechanicsHeisenberg ferromagnetHeisenberg groupHeisenberg limitHeisenberg s microscopeHeisenberg model classical Heisenberg model quantum Heisenberg pictureHeisenberg Langevin equationsEuler Heisenberg LagrangianKramers Heisenberg formulaIsospinMatrix mechanicsC algebraExchange interactionElectron hole theoryMott problemGeneralized optical theoremQuantum field theoryQuantum fluctuationQuantum spacetimeResonance chemistry S matrixS matrix theorySpin isomers of hydrogenProton neutron model of the nucleusVacuum polarizationWave function collapseUranprojektSpouseElisabeth Schumacher m 1937 wbr Children7 incl Jochen and Martin AwardsMatteucci Medal 1929 Barnard Medal 1930 Nobel Prize in Physics 1932 Max Planck Medal 1933 ForMemRS 1955 1 Pour le Merite for Sciences and Arts 1957 Foreign Associate of the National Academy of Sciences 1961 Niels Bohr International Gold Medal 1970 Scientific careerFieldsTheoretical physicsInstitutionsUniversity of Gottingen University of Copenhagen University of Leipzig University of Berlin University of Munich University of ChicagoThesisUber Stabilitat und Turbulenz von Flussigkeitsstromen On stability and turbulence of liquid flows 1923 Doctoral advisorArnold SommerfeldOther academic advisorsNiels Bohr Max BornDoctoral studentsFelix Bloch Edward Teller Rudolf E Peierls Reinhard Oehme Friedwardt Winterberg Șerban Țițeica Ivan Supek Erich Bagge Hermann Arthur Jahn Hans Heinrich Euler Edwin GoraOther notable studentsWilliam Vermillion Houston Guido Beck Ugo Fano Ettore Majorana Herbert WagnerSignatureHeisenberg also made contributions to the theories of the hydrodynamics of turbulent flows the atomic nucleus ferromagnetism cosmic rays and subatomic particles He was a principal scientist in the Nazi nuclear weapons program during World War II He was also instrumental in planning the first West German nuclear reactor at Karlsruhe together with a research reactor in Munich in 1957 Following World War II he was appointed director of the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Physics which soon thereafter was renamed the Max Planck Institute for Physics He was director of the institute until it was moved to Munich in 1958 He then became director of the Max Planck Institute for Physics and Astrophysics from 1960 to 1970 Heisenberg was also president of the German Research Council 4 chairman of the Commission for Atomic Physics chairman of the Nuclear Physics Working Group and president of the Alexander von Humboldt Foundation 1 Contents 1 Early life and education 1 1 Early years 1 2 University studies 1 3 Personal life 2 Academic career 2 1 Gottingen Copenhagen and Leipzig 2 2 Matrix mechanics and the Nobel Prize 2 3 Interpretation of quantum theory 2 4 SS investigation 3 German nuclear weapons program 3 1 Pre war work on physics 3 2 Membership in the Uranverein 4 Post Second World War 4 1 1945 Alsos Mission 4 2 1945 Reaction to Hiroshima 5 Post war research career 5 1 Executive positions at German research institutions 5 2 Promotion of international scientific cooperation 5 3 Research interests 6 Philosophy and worldview 7 Autobiography and death 8 Honors and awards 9 Research reports on nuclear physics 10 Other research publications 11 Published books 12 In popular culture 13 See also 14 References 14 1 Bibliography 15 External linksEarly life and education editEarly years edit Werner Karl Heisenberg was born in Wurzburg Germany to Kaspar Ernst August Heisenberg 5 and his wife Annie Wecklein His father was a secondary school teacher of classical languages who became Germany s only ordentlicher Professor ordinarius professor of medieval and modern Greek studies in the university system 6 Heisenberg was raised and lived as a Lutheran Christian 7 In his late teenage years Heisenberg read Plato s Timaeus while hiking in the Bavarian Alps He recounted philosophical conversations with his fellow students and teachers about understanding the atom while receiving his scientific training in Munich Gottingen and Copenhagen 8 Heisenberg later stated that My mind was formed by studying philosophy Plato and that sort of thing 9 and that Modern physics has definitely decided in favor of Plato In fact the smallest units of matter are not physical objects in the ordinary sense they are forms ideas which can be expressed unambiguously only in mathematical language 10 In 1919 Heisenberg arrived in Munich as a member of the Freikorps to fight the Bavarian Soviet Republic established a year earlier Five decades later he recalled those days as youthful fun like playing cops and robbers and so on it was nothing serious at all 11 his duties were restricted to seizing bicycles or typewriters from red administrative buildings and guarding suspected red prisoners 12 University studies edit nbsp Heisenberg in 1924From 1920 to 1923 he studied physics and mathematics at the Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich under Arnold Sommerfeld and Wilhelm Wien and at the Georg August University of Gottingen with Max Born and James Franck and mathematics with David Hilbert He received his doctorate in 1923 at Munich under Sommerfeld At Gottingen under Born he completed his habilitation in 1924 with a Habilitationsschrift habilitation thesis on the anomalous Zeeman effect 13 2 14 15 In June 1922 Sommerfeld took Heisenberg to Gottingen to attend the Bohr Festival because Sommerfeld had a sincere interest in his students and knew of Heisenberg s interest in Niels Bohr s theories on atomic physics At the event Bohr was a guest lecturer and gave a series of comprehensive lectures on quantum atomic physics and Heisenberg met Bohr for the first time which had a lasting effect on him 16 17 18 Heisenberg s doctoral thesis the topic of which was suggested by Sommerfeld was on turbulence 19 the thesis discussed both the stability of laminar flow and the nature of turbulent flow The problem of stability was investigated by the use of the Orr Sommerfeld equation a fourth order linear differential equation for small disturbances from laminar flow He briefly returned to this topic after World War II 20 In his youth he was a member and Scoutleader of the Neupfadfinder a German Scout association and part of the German Youth Movement 21 22 23 In August 1923 Robert Honsell and Heisenberg organized a trip to Finland with a Scout group of this association from Munich 24 Personal life edit Heisenberg enjoyed classical music and was an accomplished pianist 2 His interest in music led to meeting his future wife In January 1937 Heisenberg met Elisabeth Schumacher 1914 1998 at a private music recital Elisabeth was the daughter of a well known Berlin economics professor and her brother was the economist E F Schumacher author of Small Is Beautiful Heisenberg married her on 29 April Fraternal twins Maria and Wolfgang were born in January 1938 whereupon Wolfgang Pauli congratulated Heisenberg on his pair creation a wordplay on a process from elementary particle physics pair production They had five more children over the next 12 years Barbara Christine Jochen Martin and Verena 25 26 In 1939 he bought a summer home for his family in Urfeld am Walchensee in southern Germany One of Heisenberg s sons Martin Heisenberg became a neurobiologist at the University of Wurzburg while another son Jochen Heisenberg became a physics professor at the University of New Hampshire 27 Academic career editGottingen Copenhagen and Leipzig edit From 1924 to 1927 Heisenberg was a Privatdozent at Gottingen meaning he was qualified to teach and examine independently without having a chair From 17 September 1924 to 1 May 1925 under an International Education Board Rockefeller Foundation fellowship Heisenberg went to do research with Niels Bohr director of the Institute of Theoretical Physics at the University of Copenhagen His seminal paper Uber quantentheoretische Umdeutung kinematischer und mechanischer Beziehungen Quantum theoretical re interpretation of kinematic and mechanical relations was published in September 1925 28 He returned to Gottingen and with Max Born and Pascual Jordan over a period of about six months developed the matrix mechanics formulation of quantum mechanics On 1 May 1926 Heisenberg began his appointment as a university lecturer and assistant to Bohr in Copenhagen It was in Copenhagen in 1927 that Heisenberg developed his uncertainty principle while working on the mathematical foundations of quantum mechanics On 23 February Heisenberg wrote a letter to fellow physicist Wolfgang Pauli in which he first described his new principle 29 In his paper on the principle 30 Heisenberg used the word Ungenauigkeit imprecision not uncertainty to describe it 2 31 32 In 1927 Heisenberg was appointed ordentlicher Professor professor ordinarius of theoretical physics and head of the department of physics at the University of Leipzig he gave his inaugural lecture there on 1 February 1928 In his first paper published from Leipzig 33 Heisenberg used the Pauli exclusion principle to solve the mystery of ferromagnetism 2 14 31 34 During Heisenberg s tenure at Leipzig the high quality of the doctoral students and post graduate and research associates who studied and worked with him is clear from the acclaim many later earned At various times they included Erich Bagge Felix Bloch Ugo Fano Siegfried Flugge William Vermillion Houston Friedrich Hund Robert S Mulliken Rudolf Peierls George Placzek Isidor Isaac Rabi Fritz Sauter John C Slater Edward Teller John Hasbrouck van Vleck Victor Frederick Weisskopf Carl Friedrich von Weizsacker Gregor Wentzel and Clarence Zener 35 In early 1929 Heisenberg and Pauli submitted the first of two papers laying the foundation for relativistic quantum field theory 36 Also in 1929 Heisenberg went on a lecture tour of China Japan India and the United States 31 35 In the spring of 1929 he was a visiting lecturer at the University of Chicago where he lectured on quantum mechanics 37 In 1928 the British mathematical physicist Paul Dirac had derived his relativistic wave equation of quantum mechanics which implied the existence of positive electrons later to be named positrons In 1932 from a cloud chamber photograph of cosmic rays the American physicist Carl David Anderson identified a track as having been made by a positron In mid 1933 Heisenberg presented his theory of the positron His thinking on Dirac s theory and further development of the theory were set forth in two papers The first Bemerkungen zur Diracschen Theorie des Positrons Remarks on Dirac s theory of the positron was published in 1934 38 and the second Folgerungen aus der Diracschen Theorie des Positrons Consequences of Dirac s Theory of the Positron was published in 1936 31 39 40 In these papers Heisenberg was the first to reinterpret the Dirac equation as a classical field equation for any point particle of spin ħ 2 itself subject to quantization conditions involving anti commutators Thus reinterpreting it as a quantum clarification needed field equation accurately describing electrons Heisenberg put matter on the same footing as electromagnetism as being described by relativistic quantum field equations which allowed the possibility of particle creation and destruction Hermann Weyl had already described this in a 1929 letter to Albert Einstein Matrix mechanics and the Nobel Prize edit This section needs additional citations for verification Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources in this section Unsourced material may be challenged and removed Find sources Werner Heisenberg news newspapers books scholar JSTOR February 2017 Learn how and when to remove this template message Heisenberg s paper establishing quantum mechanics 41 a has puzzled physicists and historians His methods assume that the reader is familiar with Kramers Heisenberg transition probability calculations The main new idea non commuting matrices is justified only by a rejection of unobservable quantities It introduces the non commutative multiplication of matrices by physical reasoning based on the correspondence principle despite the fact that Heisenberg was not then familiar with the mathematical theory of matrices The path leading to these results has been reconstructed by MacKinnon 42 and the detailed calculations are worked out by Aitchison and coauthors 43 In Copenhagen Heisenberg and Hans Kramers collaborated on a paper on dispersion or the scattering from atoms of radiation whose wavelength is larger than the atoms They showed that the successful formula Kramers had developed earlier could not be based on Bohr orbits because the transition frequencies are based on level spacings which are not constant The frequencies which occur in the Fourier transform of the classical sharp series orbits by contrast are equally spaced But these results could be explained by a semi classical virtual state model the incoming radiation excites the valence or outer electron to a virtual state from which it decays In a subsequent paper Heisenberg showed that this virtual oscillator model could also explain the polarization of fluorescent radiation These two successes and the continuing failure of the Bohr Sommerfeld model to explain the outstanding problem of the anomalous Zeeman effect led Heisenberg to use the virtual oscillator model to try to calculate spectral frequencies The method proved too difficult to immediately apply to realistic problems so Heisenberg turned to a simpler example the anharmonic oscillator The dipole oscillator consists of a simple harmonic oscillator which is thought of as a charged particle on a spring perturbed by an external force like an external charge The motion of the oscillating charge can be expressed as a Fourier series in the frequency of the oscillator Heisenberg solved for the quantum behavior by two different methods First he treated the system with the virtual oscillator method calculating the transitions between the levels that would be produced by the external source He then solved the same problem by treating the anharmonic potential term as a perturbation to the harmonic oscillator and using the perturbation methods that he and Born had developed Both methods led to the same results for the first and the very complicated second order correction terms This suggested that behind the very complicated calculations lay a consistent scheme So Heisenberg set out to formulate these results without any explicit dependence on the virtual oscillator model To do this he replaced the Fourier expansions for the spatial coordinates with matrices matrices which corresponded to the transition coefficients in the virtual oscillator method He justified this replacement by an appeal to Bohr s correspondence principle and the Pauli doctrine that quantum mechanics must be limited to observables On 9 July Heisenberg gave Born this paper to review and submit for publication When Born read the paper he recognized the formulation as one which could be transcribed and extended to the systematic language of matrices 44 which he had learned from his study under Jakob Rosanes 45 at Breslau University Born with the help of his assistant and former student Pascual Jordan began immediately to make the transcription and extension and they submitted their results for publication the paper was received for publication just 60 days after Heisenberg s paper 46 A follow on paper was submitted for publication before the end of the year by all three authors 47 Up until this time matrices were seldom used by physicists they were considered to belong to the realm of pure mathematics Gustav Mie had used them in a paper on electrodynamics in 1912 and Born had used them in his work on the lattice theory of crystals in 1921 While matrices were used in these cases the algebra of matrices with their multiplication did not enter the picture as they did in the matrix formulation of quantum mechanics 48 In 1928 Albert Einstein nominated Heisenberg Born and Jordan for the Nobel Prize in Physics 49 The announcement of the Nobel Prize in Physics for 1932 was delayed until November 1933 50 It was at that time announced that Heisenberg had won the Prize for 1932 for the creation of quantum mechanics the application of which has inter alia led to the discovery of the allotropic forms of hydrogen 51 52 Interpretation of quantum theory editThe development of quantum mechanics and the apparently contradictory implications in regard to what is real had profound philosophical implications including what scientific observations truly mean In contrast to Albert Einstein and Louis de Broglie who were realists who believed that particles had an objectively true momentum and position at all times even if both could not be measured Heisenberg was an anti realist arguing that direct knowledge of what is real was beyond the scope of science 53 Writing in his book The Physicist s Conception of Nature 54 Heisenberg argued that ultimately we only can speak of the knowledge numbers in tables which describe something about particles but we can never have any true access to the particles themselves 53 We can no longer speak of the behaviour of the particle independently of the process of observation As a final consequence the natural laws formulated mathematically in quantum theory no longer deal with the elementary particles themselves but with our knowledge of them Nor is it any longer possible to ask whether or not these particles exist in space and time objectively When we speak of the picture of nature in the exact science of our age we do not mean a picture of nature so much as a picture of our relationships with nature Science no longer confronts nature as an objective observer but sees itself as an actor in this interplay between man and nature The scientific method of analysing explaining and classifying has become conscious of its limitations which arise out of the fact that by its intervention science alters and refashions the object of investigation In other words method and object can no longer be separated 53 54 SS investigation edit Shortly after the discovery of the neutron by James Chadwick in 1932 Heisenberg submitted the first of three papers 55 on his neutron proton model of the nucleus 31 56 After Adolf Hitler came to power in 1933 Heisenberg was attacked in the press as a White Jew i e an Aryan who acts like a Jew 57 Supporters of Deutsche Physik or German Physics also known as Aryan Physics launched vicious attacks against leading theoretical physicists including Arnold Sommerfeld and Heisenberg 31 From the early 1930s onward the anti Semitic and anti theoretical physics movement Deutsche Physik had concerned itself with quantum mechanics and the theory of relativity As applied in the university environment political factors took priority over scholarly ability 58 even though its two most prominent supporters were the Nobel Laureates in Physics Philipp Lenard 59 and Johannes Stark 60 61 There had been many failed attempts to have Heisenberg appointed as a professor at a number of German universities His attempt to be appointed as successor to Arnold Sommerfeld failed because of opposition by the Deutsche Physik movement 62 On 1 April 1935 the eminent theoretical physicist Sommerfeld Heisenberg s doctoral advisor at the Ludwig Maximilians Universitat Munchen achieved emeritus status However Sommerfeld stayed in his chair during the selection process for his successor which took until 1 December 1939 The process was lengthy due to academic and political differences between the Munich Faculty s selection and that of the Reich Education Ministry and the supporters of Deutsche Physik In 1935 the Munich Faculty drew up a list of candidates to replace Sommerfeld as ordinarius professor of theoretical physics and head of the Institute for Theoretical Physics at the University of Munich The three candidates had all been former students of Sommerfeld Heisenberg who had received the Nobel Prize in Physics Peter Debye who had received the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1936 and Richard Becker The Munich Faculty was firmly behind these candidates with Heisenberg as their first choice However supporters of Deutsche Physik and elements in the REM had their own list of candidates and the battle dragged on for over four years During this time Heisenberg came under vicious attack by the Deutsche Physik supporters One attack was published in Das Schwarze Korps the newspaper of the SS headed by Heinrich Himmler In this Heisenberg was called a White Jew who should be made to disappear 63 These attacks were taken seriously as Jews were violently attacked and incarcerated Heisenberg fought back with an editorial and a letter to Himmler in an attempt to resolve the matter and regain his honour At one point Heisenberg s mother visited Himmler s mother The two women knew each other as Heisenberg s maternal grandfather and Himmler s father were rectors and members of a Bavarian hiking club Eventually Himmler settled the Heisenberg affair by sending two letters one to SS Gruppenfuhrer Reinhard Heydrich and one to Heisenberg both on 21 July 1938 In the letter to Heydrich Himmler said Germany could not afford to lose or silence Heisenberg as he would be useful for teaching a generation of scientists To Heisenberg Himmler said the letter came on the recommendation of his family and he cautioned Heisenberg to make a distinction between professional physics research results and the personal and political attitudes of the involved scientists 64 Wilhelm Muller replaced Sommerfeld at the Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich Muller was not a theoretical physicist had not published in a physics journal and was not a member of the German Physical Society His appointment was considered a travesty and detrimental to educating theoretical physicists 64 65 66 67 68 The three investigators who led the SS investigation of Heisenberg had training in physics Indeed Heisenberg had participated in the doctoral examination of one of them at the Universitat Leipzig The most influential of the three was Johannes Juilfs During their investigation they became supporters of Heisenberg as well as his position against the ideological policies of the Deutsche Physik movement in theoretical physics and academia 69 German nuclear weapons program editMain article German nuclear weapons program Pre war work on physics edit In mid 1936 Heisenberg presented his theory of cosmic ray showers in two papers 70 Four more papers 71 72 73 74 appeared in the next two years 31 75 In December 1938 the German chemists Otto Hahn and Fritz Strassmann sent a manuscript to The Natural Sciences reporting they had detected the element barium after bombarding uranium with neutrons leading Hahn to conclude that a bursting of the uranium nucleus had occurred 76 simultaneously Hahn communicated these results to his friend Lise Meitner who had in July of that year fled first to the Netherlands then to Sweden 77 Meitner and her nephew Otto Robert Frisch correctly interpreted Hahn s and Strassmann s results as being nuclear fission 78 Frisch confirmed this experimentally on 13 January 1939 79 In June and July 1939 Heisenberg traveled to the United States visiting Samuel Abraham Goudsmit at the University of Michigan in Ann Arbor However Heisenberg refused an invitation to emigrate to the United States He did not see Goudsmit again until six years later when Goudsmit was the chief scientific advisor to the American Operation Alsos at the close of World War II 31 80 81 Membership in the Uranverein edit The German nuclear weapons program known as Uranverein was formed on 1 September 1939 the day World War II began in Europe The Heereswaffenamt HWA Army Ordnance Office had squeezed the Reichsforschungsrat RFR Reich Research Council out of the Reichserziehungsministerium REM Reich Ministry of Education and started the formal German nuclear energy project under military auspices The project had its first meeting on 16 September 1939 The meeting was organized by Kurt Diebner advisor to the HWA and held in Berlin The invitees included Walther Bothe Siegfried Flugge Hans Geiger Otto Hahn Paul Harteck Gerhard Hoffmann Josef Mattauch and Georg Stetter A second meeting was held soon thereafter and included Heisenberg Klaus Clusius Robert Dopel and Carl Friedrich von Weizsacker The Kaiser Wilhelm Institut fur Physik KWIP Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Physics in Berlin Dahlem was placed under HWA authority with Diebner as the administrative director and the military control of the nuclear research commenced 82 83 84 During the period when Diebner administered the KWIP under the HWA program considerable personal and professional animosity developed between Diebner and Heisenberg s inner circle which included Karl Wirtz and Carl Friedrich von Weizsacker 31 85 nbsp A visual representation of an induced nuclear fission event where a slow moving neutron is absorbed by the nucleus of a uranium 235 atom which fissions into two fast moving lighter elements fission products and additional neutrons Most of the energy released is in the form of the kinetic velocities of the fission products and the neutrons At a scientific conference on 26 28 February 1942 at the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Physics called by the Army Weapons Office Heisenberg presented a lecture to Reichs officials on energy acquisition from nuclear fission 86 The lecture entitled Die theoretischen Grundlagen fur die Energiegewinnung aus der Uranspaltung The theoretical basis for energy generation from uranium fission was as Heisenberg confessed after the Second World War in a letter to Samuel Goudsmit adapted to the intellectual level of a Reichs Minister 87 Heisenberg lectured on the enormous energy potential of nuclear fission stating that 250 million electron volts could be released through the fission of an atomic nucleus Heisenberg stressed that pure U 235 had to be obtained to achieve a chain reaction He explored various ways of obtaining isotope 23592 U in its pure form including uranium enrichment and an alternative layered method of normal uranium and a moderator in a machine This machine he noted could be used in practical ways to fuel vehicles ships and submarines Heisenberg stressed the importance of the Army Weapons Office s financial and material support for this scientific endeavour A second scientific conference followed Lectures were heard on problems of modern physics with decisive importance for the national defense and economy The conference was attended by Bernhard Rust the Reichs Minister of Science Education and National Culture At the conference Reichs Minister Rust decided to take the nuclear project away from the Kaiser Wilhelm Society The Reichs Research Council was to take on the project 88 In April 1942 the army returned the Physics Institute to the Kaiser Wilhelm Society naming Heisenberg as Director at the Institute With this appointment at the KWIP Heisenberg obtained his first professorship 62 Peter Debye was still director of the institute but had gone on leave to the United States after he had refused to become a German citizen when the HWA took administrative control of the KWIP Heisenberg still also had his department of physics at the University of Leipzig where work had been done for the Uranverein by Robert Dopel and his wife Klara Dopel 31 85 On 4 June 1942 Heisenberg was summoned to report to Albert Speer Germany s Minister of Armaments on the prospects for converting the Uranverein s research toward developing nuclear weapons During the meeting Heisenberg told Speer that a bomb could not be built before 1945 because it would require significant monetary resources and number of personnel 89 90 After the Uranverein project was placed under the leadership of the Reichs Research Council it focused on nuclear power production and thus maintained its kriegswichtig importance for the war status funding therefore continued from the military The nuclear power project was broken down into the following main areas uranium and heavy water production uranium isotope separation and the Uranmaschine uranium machine i e nuclear reactor The project was then essentially split up between a number of institutes where the directors dominated the research and set their own research agendas 82 91 92 The point in 1942 when the army relinquished its control of the German nuclear weapons program was the zenith of the project relative to the number of personnel About 70 scientists worked for the program with about 40 devoting more than half their time to nuclear fission research After 1942 the number of scientists working on applied nuclear fission diminished dramatically Many of the scientists not working with the main institutes stopped working on nuclear fission and devoted their efforts to more pressing war related work 93 In September 1942 Heisenberg submitted his first paper of a three part series on the scattering matrix or S matrix in elementary particle physics The first two papers were published in 1943 94 95 and the third in 1944 96 The S matrix described only the states of incident particles in a collision process the states of those emerging from the collision and stable bound states there would be no reference to the intervening states This was the same precedent as he followed in 1925 in what turned out to be the foundation of the matrix formulation of quantum mechanics through only the use of observables 31 75 In February 1943 Heisenberg was appointed to the Chair for Theoretical Physics at the Friedrich Wilhelms Universitat today the Humboldt Universitat zu Berlin In April his election to the Preussische Akademie der Wissenschaften Prussian Academy of Sciences was approved That same month he moved his family to their retreat in Urfeld as Allied bombing increased in Berlin In the summer he dispatched the first of his staff at the Kaiser Wilhelm Institut fur Physik to Hechingen and its neighboring town of Haigerloch on the edge of the Black Forest for the same reasons From 18 26 October he travelled to German occupied Netherlands In December 1943 Heisenberg visited German occupied Poland 31 97 From 24 January to 4 February 1944 Heisenberg travelled to occupied Copenhagen after the German army confiscated Bohr s Institute of Theoretical Physics He made a short return trip in April In December Heisenberg lectured in neutral Switzerland 31 The United States Office of Strategic Services sent agent Moe Berg to attend the lecture carrying a pistol with orders to shoot Heisenberg if his lecture indicated that Germany was close to completing an atomic bomb 98 In January 1945 Heisenberg with most of the rest of his staff moved from the Kaiser Wilhelm Institut fur Physik to the facilities in the Black Forest 31 Post Second World War edit1945 Alsos Mission edit nbsp Replica of the German experimental nuclear reactor captured and dismantled at HaigerlochMain article Alsos Mission The Alsos Mission was an Allied effort to determine if the Germans had an atomic bomb program and to exploit German atomic related facilities research material resources and scientific personnel for the benefit of the US Personnel on this operation generally swept into areas which had just come under control of the Allied military forces but sometimes they operated in areas still under control by German forces 99 100 101 Berlin had been a location of many German scientific research facilities To limit casualties and loss of equipment many of these facilities were dispersed to other locations in the latter years of the war The Kaiser Wilhelm Institut fur Physik KWIP Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Physics had been bombed so it had mostly been moved in 1943 and 1944 to Hechingen and its neighbouring town of Haigerloch on the edge of the Black Forest which eventually became included in the French occupation zone This allowed the American task force of the Alsos Mission to take into custody a large number of German scientists associated with nuclear research 102 103 On 30 March the Alsos Mission reached Heidelberg 104 where important scientists were captured including Walther Bothe Richard Kuhn Philipp Lenard and Wolfgang Gentner 105 Their interrogation revealed that Otto Hahn was at his laboratory in Tailfingen while Heisenberg and Max von Laue were at Heisenberg s laboratory in Hechingen and that the experimental natural uranium reactor that Heisenberg s team had built in Berlin had been moved to Haigerloch Thereafter the main focus of the Alsos Mission was on these nuclear facilities in the Wurttemberg area 106 Heisenberg was smuggled out from Urfeld on 3 May 1945 in an alpine operation in territory still under control by elite German forces He was taken to Heidelberg where on 5 May he met Goudsmit for the first time since the Ann Arbor visit in 1939 Germany surrendered just two days later Heisenberg would not see his family again for eight months as he was moved across France and Belgium and flown to England on 3 July 1945 107 108 100 1945 Reaction to Hiroshima edit Nine of the prominent German scientists who published reports in Nuclear Physics Research Reports as members of the Uranverein 109 were captured by Operation Alsos and incarcerated in England under Operation Epsilon 110 Ten German scientists including Heisenberg were held at Farm Hall in England The facility had been a safe house of the British foreign intelligence MI6 During their detention their conversations were recorded Conversations thought to be of intelligence value were transcribed and translated into English The transcripts were released in 1992 111 112 On 6 August 1945 the scientists at Farm Hall learned from media reports that the USA had dropped an atomic bomb in Hiroshima Japan At first there was disbelief that a bomb had been built and dropped In the weeks that followed the German scientists discussed how the United States might have built the bomb 113 The Farm Hall transcripts reveal that Heisenberg along with other physicists interned at Farm Hall including Otto Hahn and Carl Friedrich von Weizsacker were glad the Allies had won World War II 114 Heisenberg told other scientists that he had never contemplated a bomb only an atomic pile to produce energy The morality of creating a bomb for the Nazis was also discussed Only a few of the scientists expressed genuine horror at the prospect of nuclear weapons and Heisenberg himself was cautious in discussing the matter 115 116 On the failure of the German nuclear weapons program to build an atomic bomb Heisenberg remarked We wouldn t have had the moral courage to recommend to the government in the spring of 1942 that they should employ 120 000 men just for building the thing up 117 When in 1992 the transcripts were declassified German physicist Manfred Popp analyzed the transcripts as well as the documentation of Uranverein When the German scientists heard about the Hiroshima bomb Heisenberg admitted that he had never calculated the critical mass of an atomic bomb before When he subsequently attempted to calculate the mass he made serious calculation errors Edward Teller and Hans Bethe saw the transcript and drew the conclusion that Heisenberg did it for the first time as he made similar errors as them Only a week later Heisenberg gave an impressive lecture about the physics of the bomb He correctly recognized many essential aspects including the efficiency of the bomb although he still underestimated it For Popp this is proof that Heisenberg did not spend time on a nuclear weapon during the war on the contrary he avoided even thinking about it 118 119 Post war research career edit nbsp Bust of Heisenberg in his old age on display at the Max Planck Society campus in Garching bei MunchenExecutive positions at German research institutions edit On 3 January 1946 the ten Operation Epsilon detainees were transported to Alswede in Germany Heisenberg settled in Gottingen which was in the British zone of Allied occupied Germany 120 Heisenberg immediately began to promote scientific research in Germany Following the Kaiser Wilhelm Society s obliteration by the Allied Control Council and the establishment of the Max Planck Society in the British zone Heisenberg became the director of the Max Planck Institute for Physics Max von Laue was appointed vice director while Karl Wirtz Carl Friedrich von Weizsacker and Ludwig Biermann joined to help Heisenberg establish the institute Heinz Billing joined in 1950 to promote the development of electronic computing The core research focus of the institute was cosmic radiation The institute held a colloquium every Saturday morning 121 Heisenberg together with Hermann Rein de was instrumental in the establishment of the Forschungsrat research council Heisenberg envisaged this council to promote the dialogue between the newly founded Federal Republic of Germany and the scientific community based in Germany 121 Heisenberg was appointed president of the Forschungsrat In 1951 the organization was fused with the Notgemeinschaft der Deutschen Wissenschaft Emergency Association of German Science and that same year renamed the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft German Research Foundation Following the merger Heisenberg was appointed to the presidium 31 In 1958 the Max Planck Institut fur Physik was moved to Munich expanded and renamed Max Planck Institut fur Physik und Astrophysik MPIFA In the interim Heisenberg and the astrophysicist Ludwig Biermann were co directors of MPIFA Heisenberg also became an ordentlicher Professor ordinarius professor at the Ludwig Maximilians Universitat Munchen Heisenberg was the sole director of MPIFA from 1960 to 1970 Heisenberg resigned his directorship of the MPIFA on 31 December 1970 14 31 Promotion of international scientific cooperation edit In 1951 Heisenberg agreed to become the scientific representative of the Federal Republic of Germany at the UNESCO conference with the aim of establishing a European laboratory for nuclear physics Heisenberg s aim was to build a large particle accelerator drawing on the resources and technical skills of scientists across the Western Bloc On 1 July 1953 Heisenberg signed the convention that established CERN on behalf of the Federal Republic of Germany Although he was asked to become CERN s founding scientific director he declined Instead he was appointed chair of CERN s science policy committee and went on to determine the scientific program at CERN 122 In December 1953 Heisenberg became the president of the Alexander von Humboldt Foundation 122 During his tenure as president 550 Humboldt scholars from 78 nations received scientific research grants Heisenberg resigned as president shortly before his death 123 Research interests edit In 1946 the German scientist Heinz Pose head of Laboratory V in Obninsk wrote a letter to Heisenberg inviting him to work in the USSR The letter lauded the working conditions in the USSR and the available resources as well as the favorable attitude of the Soviets towards German scientists A courier hand delivered the recruitment letter dated 18 July 1946 to Heisenberg Heisenberg politely declined 124 125 In 1947 Heisenberg presented lectures in Cambridge Edinburgh and Bristol Heisenberg contributed to the understanding of the phenomenon of superconductivity with a paper in 1947 126 and two papers in 1948 127 128 one of them with Max von Laue 31 129 In the period shortly after World War II Heisenberg briefly returned to the subject of his doctoral thesis turbulence Three papers were published in 1948 130 131 132 and one in 1950 20 133 In the post war period Heisenberg continued his interests in cosmic ray showers with considerations on multiple production of mesons He published three papers 134 135 136 in 1949 two 137 138 in 1952 and one 139 in 1955 140 In late 1955 to early 1956 Heisenberg gave the Gifford Lectures at St Andrews University in Scotland on the intellectual history of physics The lectures were later published as Physics and Philosophy The Revolution in Modern Science 141 During 1956 and 1957 Heisenberg was the chairman of the Arbeitskreis Kernphysik Nuclear Physics Working Group of the Fachkommission II Forschung und Nachwuchs Commission II Research and Growth of the Deutsche Atomkommission DAtK German Atomic Energy Commission Other members of the Nuclear Physics Working Group in both 1956 and 1957 were Walther Bothe Hans Kopfermann vice chairman Fritz Bopp Wolfgang Gentner Otto Haxel Willibald Jentschke Heinz Maier Leibnitz Josef Mattauch Wolfgang Riezler de Wilhelm Walcher and Carl Friedrich von Weizsacker Wolfgang Paul was also a member of the group during 1957 142 In 1957 Heisenberg was a signatory of the Gottinger Manifest taking a public stand against the Federal Republic of Germany arming itself with nuclear weapons Heisenberg like Pascual Jordan thought politicians would ignore this statement by nuclear scientists But Heisenberg believed that the Gottinger Manifest would influence public opinion which politicians would have to take into account He wrote to Walther Gerlach We will probably have to keep coming back to this question in public for a long time because of the danger that public opinion will slacken 143 In 1961 Heisenberg signed the Memorandum of Tubingen alongside a group of scientists who had been brought together by Carl Friedrich von Weizsacker and Ludwig Raiser 144 A public discussion between scientists and politicians ensued 145 As prominent politicians authors and socialites joined the debate on nuclear weapons the signatories of the memorandum took a stand against the full time intellectual nonconformists 146 From 1957 onwards Heisenberg was interested in plasma physics and the process of nuclear fusion He also collaborated with the International Institute of Atomic Physics in Geneva He was a member of the Institute s scientific policy committee and for several years was the Committee s chair 2 He was one of the eight signatories of the Memorandum of Tubingen which called for the recognition of the Oder Neisse line as the official border between Germany and Poland and spoke against a possible nuclear armament of West Germany 147 In 1973 Heisenberg gave a lecture at Harvard University on the historical development of the concepts of quantum theory 148 On 24 March 1973 Heisenberg gave a speech before the Catholic Academy of Bavaria accepting the Romano Guardini Prize An English translation of his speech was published under the title Scientific and Religious Truth a quotation from which appears in a later section of this article 149 Philosophy and worldview editHeisenberg admired Eastern philosophy and saw parallels between it and quantum mechanics describing himself as in complete agreement with the book The Tao of Physics Heisenberg even went as far to state that after conversations with Rabindranath Tagore about Indian philosophy some of the ideas that seemed so crazy suddenly made much more sense 150 Regarding the philosophy of Ludwig Wittgenstein Heisenberg disliked Tractatus Logico Philosophicus but he liked very much the later ideas of Wittgenstein and his philosophy about language 151 Heisenberg a devout Christian 152 153 wrote We can console ourselves that the good Lord God would know the position of the subatomic particles thus He would let the causality principle continue to have validity in his last letter to Albert Einstein 154 Einstein continued to maintain that quantum physics must be incomplete because it implies that the universe is indeterminate at a fundamental level 155 In lectures given in the 1950s and later published as Physics and Philosophy Heisenberg contended that scientific advances were leading to cultural conflicts He stated that modern physics is part of a general historical process that tends toward a unification and a widening of our present world 156 When Heisenberg accepted the Romano Guardini Prize de in 1974 he gave a speech which he later published under the title Scientific and Religious Truth He mused In the history of science ever since the famous trial of Galileo it has repeatedly been claimed that scientific truth cannot be reconciled with the religious interpretation of the world Although I am now convinced that scientific truth is unassailable in its own field I have never found it possible to dismiss the content of religious thinking as simply part of an outmoded phase in the consciousness of mankind a part we shall have to give up from now on Thus in the course of my life I have repeatedly been compelled to ponder on the relationship of these two regions of thought for I have never been able to doubt the reality of that to which they point Heisenberg 1974 213 157 Autobiography and death editIn his late sixties Heisenberg penned his autobiography for the mass market In 1969 the book was published in Germany in early 1971 it was published in English and in the years thereafter in a string of other languages 158 Heisenberg initiated the project in 1966 when his public lectures increasingly turned to the subjects of philosophy and religion Heisenberg had sent the manuscript for a textbook on the unified field theory to the Hirzel Verlag and John Wiley amp Sons for publication This manuscript he wrote to one of his publishers was the preparatory work for his autobiography He structured his autobiography in themes covering 1 The goal of exact science 2 The problematic of language in atomic physics 3 Abstraction in mathematics and science 4 The divisibility of matter or Kant s antinomy 5 The basic symmetry and its substantiation and 6 Science and religion 159 Heisenberg wrote his memoirs as a chain of conversations covering the course of his life The book became a popular success but was regarded as troublesome by historians of science In the preface Heisenberg wrote that he had abridged historical events to make them more concise At the time of publication it was reviewed by Paul Forman in the journal Science with the comment Now here is a memoir in the form of rationally reconstructed dialogue And the dialogue as Galileo well knew is itself a most insidious literary device lively entertaining and especially suited for insinuating opinions while yet evading responsibility for them 160 Few scientific memoirs had been published but Konrad Lorenz and Adolf Portmann had penned popular books that conveyed scholarship to a wide audience Heisenberg worked on his autobiography and published it with the Piper Verlag in Munich Heisenberg initially proposed the title Gesprache im Umkreis der Atomphysik Conversations on atomic physics The autobiography was published eventually under the title Der Teil und das Ganze The part and the whole 161 The 1971 English translation was published under the title Physics and Beyond Encounters and Conversations Heisenberg died of kidney cancer at his home on 1 February 1976 162 The next evening his colleagues and friends walked in remembrance from the Institute of Physics to his home lit a candle and placed it in front of his door 163 Heisenberg is buried in Munich Waldfriedhof In 1980 his widow Elisabeth Heisenberg published The Political Life of an Apolitical Person de Das politische Leben eines Unpolitischen In it she characterized Heisenberg as first and foremost a spontaneous person thereafter a brilliant scientist next a highly talented artist and only in the fourth place from a sense of duty homo politicus 164 Honors and awards editHeisenberg was awarded a number of honors 2 Honorary doctorates from the University of Brussels the Technological University of Karlsruhe and Eotvos Lorand University Bavarian Order of Merit Romano Guardini Prize 149 Grand Cross for Federal Service with Star Knight of the Order of Merit Civil Class Elected an International Member of the American Philosophical Society in 1937 165 a Foreign Member of the Royal Society ForMemRS in 1955 1 and an International Honorary Member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1958 166 Member of the Academies of Sciences of Gottingen Bavaria Saxony Prussia Sweden Romania Norway Spain The Netherlands 1939 167 Rome Pontifical the Deutsche Akademie der Naturforscher Leopoldina Halle the Accademia dei Lincei Rome and the American Academy of Sciences 168 1932 Nobel Prize in Physics for the creation of quantum mechanics the application of which has inter alia led to the discovery of the allotropic forms of hydrogen 51 1933 Max Planck Medaille of the Deutsche Physikalische GesellschaftResearch reports on nuclear physics editThe following reports were published in Kernphysikalische Forschungsberichte Research Reports in Nuclear Physics an internal publication of the German Uranverein The reports were classified Top Secret they had very limited distribution and the authors were not allowed to keep copies The reports were confiscated under the Allied Operation Alsos and sent to the United States Atomic Energy Commission for evaluation In 1971 the reports were declassified and returned to Germany The reports are available at the Karlsruhe Nuclear Research Center and the American Institute of Physics 169 170 Werner Heisenberg Die Moglichkeit der technischer Energiegewinnung aus der Uranspaltung G 39 6 December 1939 Werner Heisenberg Bericht uber die Moglichkeit technischer Energiegewinnung aus der Uranspaltung II G 40 29 February 1940 Robert Dopel K Dopel and Werner Heisenberg Bestimmung der Diffusionslange thermischer Neutronen in schwerem Wasser G 23 7 August 1940 Robert Dopel K Dopel and Werner Heisenberg Bestimmung der Diffusionslange thermischer Neutronen in Praparat 38 171 G 22 5 December 1940 Robert Dopel K Dopel and Werner Heisenberg Versuche mit Schichtenanordnungen von D2O und 38 G 75 28 October 1941 Werner Heisenberg Uber die Moglichkeit der Energieerzeugung mit Hilfe des Isotops 238 G 92 1941 Werner Heisenberg Bericht uber Versuche mit Schichtenanordnungen von Praparat 38 und Paraffin am Kaiser Wilhelm Institut fur Physik in Berlin Dahlem G 93 May 1941 Fritz Bopp Erich Fischer Werner Heisenberg Carl Friedrich von Weizsacker and Karl Wirtz Untersuchungen mit neuen Schichtenanordnungen aus U metall und Paraffin G 127 March 1942 Robert Dopel Bericht uber Unfalle beim Umgang mit Uranmetall G 135 9 July 1942 Werner Heisenberg Bemerkungen zu dem geplanten halbtechnischen Versuch mit 1 5 to D2O und 3 to 38 Metall G 161 31 July 1942 Werner Heisenberg Fritz Bopp Erich Fischer Carl Friedrich von Weizsacker and Karl Wirtz Messungen an Schichtenanordnungen aus 38 Metall und Paraffin G 162 30 October 1942 Robert Dopel K Dopel and Werner Heisenberg Der experimentelle Nachweis der effektiven Neutronenvermehrung in einem Kugel Schichten System aus D2O und Uran Metall G 136 July 1942 Werner Heisenberg Die Energiegewinnung aus der Atomkernspaltung G 217 6 May 1943 Fritz Bopp Walther Bothe Erich Fischer Erwin Funfer Werner Heisenberg O Ritter and Karl Wirtz Bericht uber einen Versuch mit 1 5 to D2O und U und 40 cm Kohleruckstreumantel B7 G 300 3 January 1945 Robert Dopel K Dopel and Werner Heisenberg Die Neutronenvermehrung in einem D2O 38 Metallschichtensystem G 373 March 1942 Other research publications editSommerfeld A Heisenberg W 1922 Eine Bemerkung uber relativistische Rontgendubletts und Linienscharfe Z Phys 10 1 393 398 Bibcode 1922ZPhy 10 393S doi 10 1007 BF01332582 S2CID 123083509 Sommerfeld A Heisenberg W 1922 Die Intensitat der Mehrfachlinien und ihrer Zeeman Komponenten Z Phys 11 1 131 154 Bibcode 1922ZPhy 11 131S doi 10 1007 BF01328408 S2CID 186227343 Born M Heisenberg W 1923 Uber Phasenbeziehungen bei den Bohrschen Modellen von Atomen und Molekeln Z Phys 14 1 44 55 Bibcode 1923ZPhy 14 44B doi 10 1007 BF01340032 S2CID 186228402 Born M Heisenberg W 1923 Die Elektronenbahnen im angeregten Heliumatom Z Phys 16 9 229 243 Bibcode 1924AnP 379 1B doi 10 1002 andp 19243790902 Born M Heisenberg W 1924 Zur Quantentheorie der Molekeln Annalen der Physik 74 4 1 31 Bibcode 1924AnP 379 1B doi 10 1002 andp 19243790902 Born M Heisenberg W 1924 Uber den Einfluss der Deformierbarkeit der Ionen auf optische und chemische Konstanten I Z Phys 23 1 388 410 Bibcode 1924ZPhy 23 388B doi 10 1007 BF01327603 S2CID 186220818 1924 Uber Stabilitat und Turbulenz von Flussigkeitsstrommen Diss Annalen der Physik 74 4 577 627 Bibcode 1924AnP 379 577H doi 10 1002 andp 19243791502 1924 Uber eine Abanderung der formalin Regeln der Quantentheorie beim Problem der anomalen Zeeman Effekte Z Phys 26 1 291 307 Bibcode 1924ZPhy 26 291H doi 10 1007 BF01327336 S2CID 186215582 1925 Uber quantentheoretische Umdeutung kinematischer und mechanischer Beziehungen Zeitschrift fur Physik 33 1 879 893 Bibcode 1925ZPhy 33 879H doi 10 1007 BF01328377 S2CID 186238950 The paper was received on 29 July 1925 English translation in van der Waerden 1968 12 Quantum Theoretical Re interpretation of Kinematic and Mechanical Relations This is the first paper in the famous trilogy which launched the matrix mechanics formulation of quantum mechanics Born M Jordan P 1925 Zur Quantenmechanik Zeitschrift fur Physik 34 1 858 888 Bibcode 1925ZPhy 34 858B doi 10 1007 BF01328531 S2CID 186114542 The paper was received on 27 September 1925 English translation in van der Waerden 1968 On Quantum Mechanics This is the second paper in the famous trilogy which launched the matrix mechanics formulation of quantum mechanics Born M Heisenberg W Jordan P 1926 Zur Quantenmechanik II Zeitschrift fur Physik 35 8 9 557 615 Bibcode 1926ZPhy 35 557B doi 10 1007 BF01379806 S2CID 186237037 The paper was received on 16 November 1925 English translation in van der Waerden 1968 15 On Quantum Mechanics II This is the third paper in the famous trilogy which launched the matrix mechanics formulation of quantum mechanics 1927 Uber den anschaulichen Inhalt der quantentheoretischen Kinematik und Mechanik Z Phys 43 3 4 172 198 Bibcode 1927ZPhy 43 172H doi 10 1007 BF01397280 S2CID 122763326 1928 Zur Theorie des Ferromagnetismus Z Phys 49 9 10 619 636 Bibcode 1928ZPhy 49 619H doi 10 1007 BF01328601 S2CID 122524239 Pauli W 1929 Zur Quantendynamik der Wellenfelder Z Phys 56 1 1 61 Bibcode 1929ZPhy 56 1H doi 10 1007 BF01340129 S2CID 121928597 Pauli W 1930 Zur Quantentheorie der Wellenfelder II Z Phys 59 3 4 168 190 Bibcode 1930ZPhy 59 168H doi 10 1007 BF01341423 S2CID 186219228 1932 Uber den Bau der Atomkerne I Z Phys 77 1 2 1 11 Bibcode 1932ZPhy 77 1H doi 10 1007 BF01342433 S2CID 186218053 1932 Uber den Bau der Atomkerne II Z Phys 78 3 4 156 164 Bibcode 1932ZPhy 78 156H doi 10 1007 BF01337585 S2CID 186221789 1933 Uber den Bau der Atomkerne III Z Phys 80 9 10 587 596 Bibcode 1933ZPhy 80 587H doi 10 1007 BF01335696 S2CID 126422047 1934 Bemerkungen zur Diracschen Theorie des Positrons Zeitschrift fur Physik 90 3 4 209 231 Bibcode 1934ZPhy 90 209H doi 10 1007 BF01333516 S2CID 186232913 The author was cited as being at Leipzig The paper was received on 21 June 1934 1936 Uber die Schauer in der Kosmischen Strahlung Forsch Fortscher 12 341 342 Euler H 1936 Folgerungen aus der Diracschen Theorie des Positrons Z Phys 98 11 12 714 732 Bibcode 1936ZPhy 98 714H doi 10 1007 BF01343663 S2CID 120354480 The authors were cited as being at Leipzig The paper was received on 22 December 1935 A translation of this paper has been done by W Korolevski and H Kleinert arXiv physics 0605038v1 1936 Zur Theorie der Schauer in der Hohenstrahlung Z Phys 101 9 10 533 540 Bibcode 1936ZPhy 101 533H doi 10 1007 BF01349603 S2CID 186215469 1937 Der Durchgang sehr energiereicher Korpuskeln durch den Atomkern Die Naturwissenschaften 25 46 749 750 Bibcode 1937NW 25 749H doi 10 1007 BF01789574 S2CID 39613897 1937 Theoretische Untersuchungen zur Ultrastrahlung Verh Dtsch Phys Ges 18 50 1938 Die Absorption der durchdringenden Komponente der Hohenstrahlung Annalen der Physik 425 7 594 599 Bibcode 1938AnP 425 594H doi 10 1002 andp 19384250705 1938 Der Durchgang sehr energiereicher Korpuskeln durch den Atomkern Nuovo Cimento 15 1 31 34 Bibcode 1938NCim 15 31H doi 10 1007 BF02958314 S2CID 123209538 1938 Der Durchgang sehr energiereicher Korpuskeln durch den Atomkern Verh Dtsch Phys Ges 19 2 1943 Die beobachtbaren Grossen in der Theorie der Elementarteilchen I Z Phys 120 7 10 513 538 Bibcode 1943ZPhy 120 513H doi 10 1007 BF01329800 S2CID 120706757 1943 Die beobachtbaren Grossen in der Theorie der Elementarteilchen II Z Phys 120 11 12 673 702 Bibcode 1943ZPhy 120 673H doi 10 1007 BF01336936 S2CID 124531901 1944 Die beobachtbaren Grossen in der Theorie der Elementarteilchen III Z Phys 123 1 2 93 112 Bibcode 1944ZPhy 123 93H doi 10 1007 BF01375146 S2CID 123698415 1947 Zur Theorie der Supraleitung Forsch Fortschr 21 23 243 244 1947 Zur Theorie der Supraleitung Z Naturforsch 2a 4 185 201 Bibcode 1947ZNatA 2 185H doi 10 1515 zna 1947 0401 1948 Das elektrodynamische Verhalten der Supraleiter Z Naturforsch 3a 2 65 75 Bibcode 1948ZNatA 3 65H doi 10 1515 zna 1948 0201 von Laue M 1948 Das Barlowsche Rad aus supraleitendem Material Z Phys 124 7 12 514 518 Bibcode 1948ZPhy 124 514H doi 10 1007 BF01668888 S2CID 121271077 1948 Zur statistischen Theorie der Tubulenz Z Phys 124 7 12 628 657 Bibcode 1948ZPhy 124 628H doi 10 1007 BF01668899 S2CID 186223726 1948 On the theory of statistical and isotropic turbulence Proceedings of the Royal Society A 195 1042 402 406 Bibcode 1948RSPSA 195 402H doi 10 1098 rspa 1948 0127 1948 Bemerkungen um Turbulenzproblem Z Naturforsch 3a 8 11 434 7 Bibcode 1948ZNatA 3 434H doi 10 1515 zna 1948 8 1103 S2CID 202047340 1949 Production of mesons showers Nature 164 4158 65 67 Bibcode 1949Natur 164 65H doi 10 1038 164065c0 PMID 18228928 S2CID 4043099 1949 Die Erzeugung von Mesonen in Vielfachprozessen Nuovo Cimento 6 Suppl 493 7 Bibcode 1949NCim 6S 493H doi 10 1007 BF02822044 S2CID 122006877 1949 Uber die Entstehung von Mesonen in Vielfachprozessen Z Phys 126 6 569 582 Bibcode 1949ZPhy 126 569H doi 10 1007 BF01330108 S2CID 120410676 1950 On the stability of laminar flow Proc International Congress Mathematicians II 292 296 1952 Bermerkungen zur Theorie der Vielfacherzeugung von Mesonen Die Naturwissenschaften 39 3 69 Bibcode 1952NW 39 69H doi 10 1007 BF00596818 S2CID 41323295 1952 Mesonenerzeugung als Stosswellenproblem Z Phys 133 1 2 65 79 Bibcode 1952ZPhy 133 65H doi 10 1007 BF01948683 S2CID 124271377 1955 The production of mesons in very high energy collisions Nuovo Cimento 12 Suppl 96 103 Bibcode 1955NCim 2S 96H doi 10 1007 BF02746079 S2CID 121970196 1975 Development of concepts in the history of quantum theory American Journal of Physics 43 5 389 394 Bibcode 1975AmJPh 43 389H doi 10 1119 1 9833 The substance of this article was presented by Heisenberg in a lecture at Harvard University Published books edit 1949 1930 The Physical Principles of the Quantum Theory Translators Eckart Carl Hoyt F C Dover ISBN 978 0 486 60113 7 1955 Das Naturbild der heutigen Physik Rowohlts Enzyklopadie Vol 8 Rowohlt 1966 Philosophic Problems of Nuclear Science Fawcett 1971 Physics and Beyond Encounters and Conversations Harper amp Row ISBN 9780061316227 1971 Physics and Beyond Encounters and Conversations 1977 Tradition in der Wissenschaft Reden und Aufsatze Munich Piper Busche Jurgen 1979 Quantentheorie und Philosophie Vorlesungen und Aufsatze Reclam ISBN 978 3 15 009948 3 1979 Philosophical problems of quantum physics Ox Bow ISBN 978 0 918024 14 5 1983 Tradition in Science Seabury Press 1988 Physik und Philosophie Weltperspektiven Ullstein Taschenbuchvlg 1989 Encounters with Einstein And Other Essays on People Places and Particles Princeton University Press ISBN 978 0 691 02433 2 Northrop Filmer 1999 Physics and Philosophy The Revolution in Modern Science Great Minds Series Prometheus 2002 Der Teil und das Ganze Gesprache im Umkreis der Atomphysik Piper ISBN 978 3 492 22297 6 1992 Rechenberg Helmut ed Deutsche und Judische Physik Piper ISBN 978 3 492 11676 3 2007 Physik und Philosophie Weltperspektiven Hirzel 2007 Physics and Philosophy The Revolution in Modern Science Harper Perennial Modern Classics reprint ed HarperCollins ISBN 978 0 06 120919 2 full text of 1958 version In popular culture editHeisenberg s surname is used as the primary alias for Walter White played by Bryan Cranston the lead character in AMC s crime drama series Breaking Bad throughout White s transformation from a high school chemistry teacher into a meth cook and a drug kingpin In the spin off prequel series Better Call Saul a German character named Werner directs the construction of the meth lab belonging to antagonist Gus Fring that Walt cooks in for much of Breaking Bad Heisenberg was the target of an assassination by spy Moe Berg in the film The Catcher Was a Spy based on real events Heisenberg is also credited with building the atomic bomb used by the Axis in the Amazon Prime TV series adaptation of the novel The Man in the High Castle by Philip K Dick Atomic bombs in this universe are referred to as Heisenberg Devices Daniel Craig portrayed Heisenberg in the 2002 film Copenhagen an adaptation of Michael Frayn s play of the name Heisenberg is the namesake of Resident Evil Village secondary antagonist Karl Heisenberg Heisenberg s research on ferromagnetism served as inspiration for the character s magnetic abilities Matthias Schweighofer portrays Heisenberg in the 2023 epic biopic film Oppenheimer In the television series Star Trek The Next Generation the Heisenberg compensator is an essential component of transporter technology to ensure the integrity of transported matter The compensator counteracts effects of the applied characteristics identified in Heisenberg s uncertainty principle To accurately isolate matter prior to its entry into the transporter buffer all particles must be located their velocity observed and tracked the compensators allow this to happenSee also edit nbsp Physics portal nbsp Biography portalList of things named after Werner Heisenberg List of German inventors and discoverers The Physical Principles of the Quantum TheoryReferences editFootnotes a b Heisenberg s work on quantum physics was preceded by a quarter century of research by other authors on the old quantum theory Citations a b c Mott amp Peierls 1977 pp 212 251 a b c d e f g Werner Heisenberg Biography Archived 7 August 2011 at the Wayback Machine Nobel Prize in Physics 1932 Nobelprize org Werner Heisenberg on Nobelprize org nbsp This source explains that Heisenberg actually received his Nobel Prize for 1932 one year later in 1933 Reviving German Science American Institute of Physics Cassidy 2009 p 12 Cassidy 1992 p 3 The religion of Werner Heisenberg physicist usurped Adherents com Retrieved on 1 February 2012 Carson 2010 p 149 De Haro Sebastian 2020 Science and Philosophy A Love Hate Relationship Foundations of Science 25 2 297 314 arXiv 1307 1244 doi 10 1007 s10699 019 09619 2 S2CID 118408281 Wilber Ken 10 April 2001 Quantum Questions Mystical Writings of the World s Great Physicists Shambhala Publications ISBN 978 0 8348 2283 2 Miller Arthur 2009 137 Jung Pauli and the pursuit of a scientific obsession New York Norton amp Company p 31 ISBN 978 0 393 33864 5 Rechenberg Helmut 2010 Werner Heisenberg Die Sprache der Atome Leben und Wirken Springer p 36 ISBN 978 3 540 69221 8 Heisenberg W 1924 Uber eine Abanderung der formalen Regeln der Quantentheorie beim Problem der anomalen Zeeman Effekte Z Phys 26 1 291 307 Bibcode 1924ZPhy 26 291H doi 10 1007 BF01327336 S2CID 186215582 as cited in Mott amp Peierls 1977 p 243 a b c Hentschel amp Hentschel 1996 Appendix F see the entry for Heisenberg Mott amp Peierls 1977 p 219 Cassidy 1992 pp 127 Appendix A Powers 1993 p 23 van der Waerden 1968 p 21 Heisenberg W 1924 Uber Stabilitat und Turbulenz von Flussigkeitsstrommen Annalen der Physik 379 15 577 627 Bibcode 1924AnP 379 577H doi 10 1002 andp 19243791502 as cited in Mott amp Peierls 1977 p 245 a b Mott amp Peierls 1977 p 217 Maringer Daniel Beruhmte Physiker Werner Heisenberg eine Biographie Pfadfinderzeit in German Archived from the original on 18 October 2009 Retrieved 5 February 2009 Heisenberg Werner in German Archived from the original on 19 July 2011 Retrieved 5 February 2009 Ein Leben fur die Jugendbewegung und Jugendseelsorger 100 Jahre Gottfried Simmerding PDF Rundbrief der Regionen Donau und Munchen in German Gemeinschaft Katholischer Manner und Frauen im Bund Neudeutschland ND 2 12 March 2005 Archived from the original PDF on 5 March 2009 Raum Helmut 2008 Die Pfadfinderbewegung im Freistaat Bayern Teil 53 PDF Der Bundschuh in German Pfadfinderforderkreis Nordbayern e V 2 23 24 Archived from the original PDF on 5 March 2009 Cassidy 2009 p 372 and Appendix A David Cassidy and the American Institute of Physics The Difficult Years Archived 15 September 2008 at the Wayback Machine Cassidy 2009 p 372 Kragh H 2004 Dirac Paul Adrien Maurice 1902 1984 Oxford Dictionary of National Biography Oxford University Press doi 10 1093 ref odnb 31032 February 1927 Heisenberg s Uncertainty Principle APS News American Physics Society 17 2 February 2008 Archived from the original on 30 January 2011 Retrieved 23 February 2011 Heisenberg 1927 cited in Mott amp Peierls 1977 p 243 a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q Cassidy 1992 Appendix A Mott amp Peierls 1977 p 224 Heisenberg 1928 as cited in Mott amp Peierls 1977 p 243 Mott amp Peierls 1977 pp 226 227 a b Mott amp Peierls 1977 p 227 Heisenberg amp Pauli 1929 Heisenberg amp Pauli 1930 as cited in Mott amp Peierls 1977 p 243 Kursunoglu Behram N Wigner Eugene P 26 April 1990 Paul Adrien Maurice Dirac Reminiscences about a Great Physicist Cambridge University Press p 132 ISBN 978 0 521 38688 3 Heisenberg 1934 Heisenberg amp Euler 1936 Segre Emilio G 1980 From X rays to Quarks Modern Physicists and Their Discoveries W H Freeman ISBN 978 0 7167 1146 9 Heisenberg W 1925 Uber quantentheoretishe Umdeutung kinematisher und mechanischer Beziehungen Zeitschrift fur Physik 33 1 879 893 Bibcode 1925ZPhy 33 879H doi 10 1007 BF01328377 S2CID 186238950 received 29 July 1925 English translation in B L van der Waerden editor Sources of Quantum Mechanics Dover Publications 1968 ISBN 978 0 486 61881 4 English title Quantum Theoretical Re interpretation of Kinematic and Mechanical Relations MacKinnon Edward 1977 Heisenberg Models and the Rise of Quantum Mechanics Historical Studies in the Physical Sciences 8 137 188 doi 10 2307 27757370 JSTOR 27757370 Aitchison Ian J R MacManus David A Snyder Thomas M November 2004 Understanding Heisenberg s magical paper of July 1925 A new look at the calculational details American Journal of Physics 72 11 1370 1379 arXiv quant ph 0404009v1 Bibcode 2004AmJPh 72 1370A doi 10 1119 1 1775243 S2CID 53118117 Pais Abraham 1991 Niels Bohr s Times in Physics Philosophy and Polity Clarendon Press pp 275 279 ISBN 978 0 19 852049 8 Max Born Archived 19 October 2012 at the Wayback Machine The Statistical Interpretation of Quantum Mechanics Nobel Lecture 1954 Born M Jordan P 1925 Zur Quantenmechanik Zeitschrift fur Physik 34 1 858 888 Bibcode 1925ZPhy 34 858B doi 10 1007 BF01328531 S2CID 186114542 received 27 September 1925 English translation in van der Waerden 1968 On Quantum Mechanics Born M Heisenberg W Jordan P 1925 Zur Quantenmechanik II Zeitschrift fur Physik 35 8 9 557 615 Bibcode 1926ZPhy 35 557B doi 10 1007 BF01379806 S2CID 186237037 The paper was received on 16 November 1925 English translation in van der Waerden 1968 15 On Quantum Mechanics II Jammer Max 1966 The Conceptual Development of Quantum Mechanics McGraw Hill pp 206 207 Bernstein 2004 p 1004 Greenspan Nancy Thorndike 2005 The End of the Certain World The Life and Science of Max Born Basic Books p 190 ISBN 978 0 7382 0693 6 a b The Nobel Prize in Physics 1932 Archived 16 July 2008 at the Wayback Machine Nobelprize org Retrieved on 1 February 2012 Nobel Prize in Physics and 1933 Archived 15 July 2008 at the Wayback Machine Nobel Prize Presentation Speech a b c Smolin Lee 9 April 2019 Einstein s unfinished revolution the search for what lies beyond the quantum London pp 92 93 ISBN 978 0 241 00448 7 OCLC 1048948576 a href Template Cite book html title Template Cite book cite book a CS1 maint location missing publisher link a b Heisenberg Werner 1958 The Physicist s Conception of Nature Harcourt Brace pp 15 28 29 Heisenberg 1932a Heisenberg 1932b Heisenberg 1933 as cited by Mott amp Peierls 1977 p 244 Mott amp Peierls 1977 p 228 Heisenberg The Difficult Years Professor in Leipzig 1927 1942 American Institute of Physics Archived from the original on 15 September 2008 Retrieved 20 July 2008 Beyerchen 1977 pp 141 167 Beyerchen 1977 pp 79 102 Beyerchen 1977 pp 103 140 Holton Gerald 12 January 2007 Werner Heisenberg and Albert Einstein Physics Today 53 7 38 42 Bibcode 2000PhT 53g 38H doi 10 1063 1 1292474 a b Macrakis 1993 p 172 Hentschel amp Hentschel 1996 pp 152 157 Document 55 White Jews in Science 15 July 1937 a b Goudsmit 1986 pp 117 119 Beyerchen 1977 pp 153 167 Cassidy 1992 pp 383 387 Powers 1993 pp 40 43 Hentschel amp Hentschel 1996 pp 152 157 Document 55 White Jews in Science 15 July 1937 Archived 1 January 2016 at the Wayback Machinepp 175 176 Document 63 Heinrich Himmler Letter to Reinhard Heydrich 21 July 1938 Archived 21 May 2016 at the Wayback Machinepp 176 177 Document 64 Heinrich Himmler Letter to Werner Heisenberg 21 July 1938 Archived 3 June 2016 at the Wayback Machinepp 261 266 Document 85 Ludwig Prandtl Attachment to the letter to Reich Marschal sic Hermann Goring 28 April 1941 pp 290 292 Document 93 Carl Ramsauer The Munich Conciliation and Pacification Attempt 20 January 1942 Cassidy 1992 pp 390 391 Please note that Cassidy uses the alias Mathias Jules for Johannes Juilfs Heisenberg 1936a Heisenberg 1936b as cited by Mott amp Peierls 1977 p 244 Heisenberg W 1937 Der Durchgang sehr energiereicher Korpuskeln durch den Atomkern Die Naturwissenschaften 25 46 749 750 Bibcode 1937NW 25 749H doi 10 1007 BF01789574 S2CID 39613897 as cited by Mott amp Peierls 1977 p 244 Heisenberg W 1937 Theoretische Untersuchungen zur Ultrastrahlung Verh Dtsch Phys Ges Volume 18 50 as cited by Mott amp Peierls 1977 p 244 Heisenberg W 1938 Die Absorption der durchdringenden Komponente der Hohenstrahlung Annalen der Physik 425 7 594 599 Bibcode 1938AnP 425 594H doi 10 1002 andp 19384250705 as cited by Mott amp Peierls 1977 p 244 Heisenberg W 1938 Der Durchgang sehr energiereicher Korpuskeln durch den Atomkern Nuovo Cimento Volume 15 31 34 Verh Dtsch Phys Ges Volume 19 2 as cited by Mott amp Peierls 1977 p 244 a b Mott amp Peierls 1977 p 231 Hahn O Strassmann F 1939 Uber den Nachweis und das Verhalten der bei der Bestrahlung des Urans mittels Neutronen entstehenden Erdalkalimetalle On the detection and characteristics of the alkaline earth metals formed by irradiation of uranium with neutrons Naturwissenschaften 27 1 11 15 Bibcode 1939NW 27 11H doi 10 1007 BF01488241 S2CID 5920336 The authors were identified as being at the Kaiser Wilhelm Institut fur Chemie Berlin Dahlem Received 22 December 1938 Sime Ruth Lewin March 1990 Lise Meitner s Escape from Germany American Journal of Physics 58 3 263 267 Bibcode 1990AmJPh 58 262S doi 10 1119 1 16196 Meitner Lise 11 February 1939 Disintegration of Uranium by Neutrons a New Type of Nuclear Reaction Nature 143 3615 239 240 Bibcode 1939Natur 143 239M doi 10 1038 143239a0 S2CID 4113262 The paper is dated 16 January 1939 Meitner is identified as being at the Physical Institute Academy of Sciences Stockholm Frisch is identified as being at the Institute of Theoretical Physics University of Copenhagen Frisch O R 18 February 1939 Physical Evidence for the Division of Heavy Nuclei under Neutron Bombardment Nature 143 3616 276 Bibcode 1939Natur 143 276F doi 10 1038 143276a0 S2CID 4076376 The paper Archived 23 January 2009 at the Wayback Machine is dated 17 January 1939 The experiment for this letter to the editor was conducted on 13 January 1939 see Richard Rhodes The Making of the Atomic Bomb 263 and 268 Simon and Schuster 1986 Hentschel amp Hentschel 1996 p 387 Goudsmit 1986 p picture facing p 124 a b Macrakis 1993 pp 164 169 Mehra Jagdish Rechenberg Helmut 2001 Volume 6 The Completion of Quantum Mechanics 1926 1941 Part 2 The Conceptual Completion and Extension of Quantum Mechanics 1932 1941 Epilogue Aspects of the Further Development of Quantum Theory 1942 1999 The Historical Development of Quantum Theory Springer pp 1010 1011 ISBN 978 0 387 95086 0 Hentschel amp Hentschel 1996 pp 363 364 Appendix F see the entries for Diebner and Dopel See also the entry for the KWIP in Appendix A and the entry for the HWA in Appendix B a b Walker 1993 pp 19 94 95 American Institute for Physics Center for History of Physics Archived 17 September 2008 at the Wayback Machine Macrakis 1993 p 244 Macrakis 1993 p 171 Albert Speer Inside the Third Reich Macmillan 1970 pp 225ff Prof Werner Carl Heisenberg I662 Archived 15 June 2008 at the Wayback Machine Stanford edu Hentschel amp Hentschel 1996 see the entry for the KWIP in Appendix A and the entries for the HWA and the RFR in Appendix B Also see p 372 and footnote 50 on p 372 Walker 1993 pp 49 53 Walker 1993 pp 52 Reference 40 on p 262 Heisenberg W 1943 Die beobachtbaren Grossen in der Theorie der Elementarteilchen I Z Phys 120 7 10 513 538 Bibcode 1943ZPhy 120 513H doi 10 1007 BF01329800 S2CID 120706757 as cited in Mott amp Peierls 1977 p 245 Heisenberg W 1943 Die beobachtbaren Grossen in der Theorie der Elementarteilchen II Z Phys 120 11 12 673 702 Bibcode 1943ZPhy 120 673H doi 10 1007 BF01336936 S2CID 124531901 as cited in Mott amp Peierls 1977 p 245 Heisenberg W 1944 Die beobachtbaren Grossen in der Theorie der Elementarteilchen III Z Phys 123 1 2 93 112 Bibcode 1944ZPhy 123 93H doi 10 1007 BF01375146 S2CID 123698415 as cited in Mott amp Peierls 1977 p 245 Bernstein 2004 pp 300 304 Tobey William January February 2012 Nuclear scientists as assassination targets Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists 68 1 63 64 Bibcode 2012BuAtS 68a 61T doi 10 1177 0096340211433019 S2CID 145583391 archived from the original on 23 July 2014 retrieved 18 August 2014 citing Thomas Powers 1993 book Heisenberg s War Goudsmit 1986 p x a b Pash Boris T 1969 The Alsos Mission Award pp 219 241 Cassidy 1992 pp 491 500 Naimark Norman M 1995 The Russians in Germany A History of the Soviet Zone of Occupation 1945 1949 Belkanp pp 208 209 ISBN 978 0 674 78406 2 Bernstein 2001 pp 49 52 Mahoney Leo J 1981 A History of the War Department Scientific Intelligence Mission ALSOS 1943 1945 Ph D thesis Kent State University p 298 OCLC 223804966 Goudsmit 1986 pp 77 84 Groves Leslie 1962 Now it Can be Told The Story of the Manhattan Project New York Harper amp Row pp 231 ISBN 978 0 306 70738 4 OCLC 537684 Cassidy 1992 pp 491 510 Bernstein 2001 p 60 Walker 1993 pp 268 274 Reference 40 on p 262 Bernstein 2001 pp 50 363 365 Franck Charles 1993 Operation Epsilon The Farm Hall Transcripts University of California Press Bernstein 2001 pp xvii xix Macrakis 1993 p 143 Bernstein Jeremy 1996 Hitler s Uranium Club Woodbury NY AIP Press p 139 Transcript of Surreptitiously Taped Conversations among German Nuclear Physicists at Farm Hall August 6 7 1945 PDF German History in Documents and Images Archived PDF from the original on 19 May 2017 Retrieved 26 April 2017 Sartori Leo Reviews American Physical Society Archived from the original on 15 September 2015 Retrieved 26 April 2017 Macrakis 1993 p 144 POPP Manfred 4 January 2017 Darum hatte Hitler keine Atombombe Die Zeit Teller Edward Heisenberg Bohr and the atomic bomb retrieved 2 August 2023 Bernstein 2004 p 326 a b Gerd W Buschhorn Julius Wess eds 2012 Fundamental Physics Heisenberg and Beyond Werner Heisenberg Centennial Symposium Developments in Modern Physics Springer Science amp Business Media p 18 ISBN 978 3 642 18623 3 a b Gerd W Buschhorn Julius Wess eds 2012 Fundamental Physics Heisenberg and Beyond Werner Heisenberg Centennial Symposium Developments in Modern Physics Springer Science amp Business Media p 21 ISBN 978 3 642 18623 3 Gerd W Buschhorn Julius Wess eds 2012 Fundamental Physics Heisenberg and Beyond Werner Heisenberg Centennial Symposium Developments in Modern Physics Springer Science amp Business Media p 22 ISBN 978 3 642 18623 3 Walker 1993 pp 184 185 Oleynikov Pavel V 2000 German Scientists in the Soviet Atomic Project PDF The Nonproliferation Review 7 2 1 30 14 doi 10 1080 10736700008436807 S2CID 144392252 Werner Heisenberg 1947 Zur Theorie der Supraleitung Forsch Fortschr 21 23 243 244 Heisenberg W 1947 Zur Theorie der Supraleitung Z Naturforsch 2a 4 185 201 Bibcode 1947ZNatA 2 185H doi 10 1515 zna 1947 0401 S2CID 93679759 cited in Mott amp Peierls 1977 p 245 Heisenberg W 1948 Das elektrodynamische Verhalten der Supraleiter Z Naturforsch 3a 2 65 75 Bibcode 1948ZNatA 3 65H doi 10 1515 zna 1948 0201 cited in Mott amp Peierls 1977 p 245 Heisenberg W M V Laue 1948 Das Barlowsche Rad aus supraleitendem Material Z Phys 124 7 12 514 518 Bibcode 1948ZPhy 124 514H doi 10 1007 BF01668888 S2CID 121271077 cited in Mott amp Peierls 1977 p 245 Mott amp Peierls 1977 pp 238 239 Heisenberg W 1948 Zur statistischen Theorie der Tubulenz Z Phys 124 7 12 628 657 Bibcode 1948ZPhy 124 628H doi 10 1007 BF01668899 S2CID 186223726 as cited in Mott amp Peierls 1977 p 245 Heisenberg W 1948 On the theory of statistical and isotropic turbulence Proceedings of the Royal Society A 195 1042 402 406 Bibcode 1948RSPSA 195 402H doi 10 1098 rspa 1948 0127 as cited in Mott amp Peierls 1977 p 245 Heisenberg W 1948 Bemerkungen um Turbulenzproblem Z Naturforsch 3a 8 11 434 437 Bibcode 1948ZNatA 3 434H doi 10 1515 zna 1948 8 1103 S2CID 202047340 as cited in Mott amp Peierls 1977 p 245 Heisenberg w 1950 On the stability of laminar flow Proc International Congress Mathematicians II 292 296 as cited in Mott amp Peierls 1977 p 245 Heisenberg W 1949 Production of mesons showers Nature 164 4158 65 67 Bibcode 1949Natur 164 65H doi 10 1038 164065c0 PMID 18228928 S2CID 4043099 as cited in Mott amp Peierls 1977 p 245 Heisenberg W 1949 Die Erzeugung von Mesonen in Vielfachprozessen Nuovo Cimento 6 Suppl 493 497 Bibcode 1949NCim 6S 493H doi 10 1007 BF02822044 S2CID 122006877 as cited in Mott amp Peierls 1977 p 245 Heisenberg W 1949 Uber die Entstehung von Mesonen in Vielfachprozessen Z Phys 126 6 569 582 Bibcode 1949ZPhy 126 569H doi 10 1007 BF01330108 S2CID 120410676 as cited in Mott amp Peierls 1977 p 245 Heisenberg W 1952 Bermerkungen zur Theorie der Vielfacherzeugung von Mesonen Die Naturwissenschaften 39 3 69 Bibcode 1952NW 39 69H doi 10 1007 BF00596818 S2CID 41323295 as cited in Mott amp Peierls 1977 p 246 Heisenberg W 1952 Mesonenerzeugung als Stosswellenproblem Z Phys 133 1 2 65 79 Bibcode 1952ZPhy 133 65H doi 10 1007 BF01948683 S2CID 124271377 as cited in Mott amp Peierls 1977 p 246 Heisenberg W 1955 The production of mesons in very high energy collisions Nuovo Cimento 12 Suppl 96 103 Bibcode 1955NCim 2S 96H doi 10 1007 BF02746079 S2CID 121970196 as cited in Mott amp Peierls 1977 p 246 Mott amp Peierls 1977 p 238 Cassidy 2009 p 262 Horst Kant Werner Heisenberg and the German Uranium Project Otto Hahn and the Declarations of Mainau and Gottingen Preprint 203 Max Planck Institut fur Wissenschaftsgeschichte 2002 Archived 5 February 2012 at the Wayback Machine Carson 2010 p 329 Carson 2010 p 334 Carson 2010 pp 335 336 Carson 2010 p 339 Donhoff Marion 2 March 1962 Lobbyisten der Vernunft Lobbyists of reason Die Zeit in German Archived from the original on 18 November 2018 Retrieved 17 November 2018 Heisenberg Werner 1975 Development of concepts in the history of quantum theory American Journal of Physics 43 5 389 394 Bibcode 1975AmJPh 43 389H doi 10 1119 1 9833 a b Heizenberg W 1974 Ch 16 Scientific and Religious Truth Across the Frontiers Harper amp Row pp 213 229 Capra Fritjof 11 January 1989 Uncommon wisdom conversations with remarkable people Toronto New York Bantam Books ISBN 9780553346107 via Internet Archive Interview with Werner Heisenberg F David Peat www fdavidpeat com Moore Lance 2019 A God Beyond Belief Reclaiming Faith in a Quantum Age John Hunt Publishing UK Marganau Henry 1985 Why am I a Christian Truth Journal Vol I Holton Gerald 2005 Victory and Vexation in Science Einstein Bohr Heisenberg and Others Harvard University Press London p 32 ISBN 978 0 674 01519 7 Pais Abraham October 1979 Einstein and the quantum theory PDF Reviews of Modern Physics 51 4 863 914 Bibcode 1979RvMP 51 863P doi 10 1103 RevModPhys 51 863 Heisenberg Werner 8 May 2007 Physics and Philosophy The Revolution in Modern Science Werner Heisenberg HarperCollins ISBN 9780061209192 Retrieved 19 February 2022 Werner Heisenberg 1970 Erste Gesprache uber das Verhaltnis von Naturwissenschaft und Religion in ed Werner Trutwin Religion Wissenschaft Weltbild Duesseldorf Patmos Verlag pages 23 31 Carson 2010 p 145 Carson 2010 p 147 Carson 2010 pp 145 146 Carson 2010 p 148 Cassidy 2009 pp 262 545 Cassidy 2009 p 545 Gerd W Buschhorn Julius Wess eds 2012 Fundamental Physics Heisenberg and Beyond Werner Heisenberg Centennial Symposium Developments in Modern Physics Springer Science amp Business Media p 16 ISBN 978 3 642 18623 3 APS Member History search amphilsoc org Retrieved 23 May 2023 Werner Karl Heisenberg American Academy of Arts amp Sciences 9 February 2023 Retrieved 23 May 2023 W K Heisenberg 1901 1976 Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences Archived from the original on 31 January 2016 Retrieved 24 January 2016 Werner Heisenberg www nasonline org Retrieved 23 May 2023 Hentschel amp Hentschel 1996 Appendix E see the entry for Kernphysikalische Forschungsberichte Walker 1993 pp 268 274 Praparat 38 was the cover name for uranium oxide see Deutsches Museum Archived 4 September 2015 at the Wayback Machine Bibliography edit Bernstein Jeremy 2001 Hitler s Uranium Club The Secret Recordings at Farm Hall Copernicus ISBN 978 0 387 95089 1 Bernstein Jeremy March 2004 Heisenberg in Poland Am J Phys 72 3 300 304 Bibcode 2004AmJPh 72 300B doi 10 1119 1 1630333 See also Gottstein Klaus 2004 Comment on Heisenberg in Poland by Jeremy Bernstein Am J Phys 72 3 300 304 2004 PDF LETTER TO THE EDITOR Am J Phys 72 9 1143 1145 arXiv physics 0503167 Bibcode 2004AmJPh 72 1143G doi 10 1119 1 1778397 S2CID 119446738and a reply by Jeremy Bernstein a href Template Cite journal html title Template Cite journal cite journal a CS1 maint postscript link Beyerchen Alan D 1977 Scientists Under Hitler Politics and the Physics Community in the Third Reich Yale ISBN 978 0 300 01830 1 Carson Cathryn 2010 Heisenberg in the Atomic Age Science and the Public Sphere Cambridge University Press ISBN 978 0 521 82170 4 Cassidy David C 1992 Uncertainty The Life and Science of Werner Heisenberg Freeman Cassidy David C 1992a Heisenberg German Science and the Third Reich Social Research 59 3 643 661 Cassidy David C 2009 Beyond Uncertainty Heisenberg Quantum Physics and the Bomb Bellevue Literary Press ISBN 978 1 934137 28 4 Goudsmit Samuel A 1986 Alsos Tomash Publishers ISBN 978 0 938228 09 7 Heisenberg W 1927 Uber den anschaulichen Inhalt der quantentheoretischen Kinematik und Mechanik Z Phys 43 3 4 172 198 Bibcode 1927ZPhy 43 172H doi 10 1007 BF01397280 S2CID 122763326 Heisenberg W 1928 Zur Theorie des Ferromagnetismus Z Phys 49 9 10 619 636 Bibcode 1928ZPhy 49 619H doi 10 1007 BF01328601 S2CID 122524239 Heisenberg W Pauli W 1929 Zur Quantendynamik der Wellenfelder Z Phys 56 1 1 61 Bibcode 1929ZPhy 56 1H doi 10 1007 BF01340129 S2CID 121928597 Heisenberg W Pauli W 1930 Zur Quantentheorie der Wellenfelder II Z Phys 59 3 4 168 190 Bibcode 1930ZPhy 59 168H doi 10 1007 BF01341423 S2CID 186219228 Heisenberg W 1932a Uber den Bau der Atomkerne I Z Phys 77 1 2 1 11 Bibcode 1932ZPhy 77 1H doi 10 1007 BF01342433 S2CID 186218053 Heisenberg W 1932b Uber den Bau der Atomkerne II Z Phys 78 3 4 156 164 Bibcode 1932ZPhy 78 156H doi 10 1007 BF01337585 S2CID 186221789 Heisenberg W 1933 Uber den Bau der Atomkerne III Z Phys 80 9 10 587 596 Bibcode 1933ZPhy 80 587H doi 10 1007 BF01335696 S2CID 126422047 Heisenberg W 1934 Bemerkungen zur Diracschen Theorie des Positrons Zeitschrift fur Physik 90 3 4 209 231 Bibcode 1934ZPhy 90 209H doi 10 1007 BF01333516 S2CID 186232913 The author was cited as being at Leipzig The paper was received on 21 June 1934 Heisenberg W 1936a Uber die Schauer in der Kosmischen Strahlung Forsch Fortscher 12 341 342 Heisenberg W 1936b Zur Theorie der Schauer in der Hohenstrahlung Z Phys 101 9 10 533 540 Bibcode 1936ZPhy 101 533H doi 10 1007 BF01349603 S2CID 186215469 Heisenberg W Euler H 1936 Folgerungen aus der Diracschen Theorie des Positrons Z Phys 98 11 12 714 732 Bibcode 1936ZPhy 98 714H doi 10 1007 BF01343663 S2CID 120354480 The authors were cited as being at Leipzig The paper was received on 22 December 1935 A translation of this paper has been done by W Korolevski and H Kleinert arXiv physics 0605038v1 Hentschel Klaus Hentschel Ann M eds 1996 Physics and National Socialism An Anthology of Primary Sources Birkhauser ISBN 978 0 8176 5312 5 This book is a collection of 121 primary German documents relating to physics under National Socialism The documents have been translated and annotated and there is a lengthy introduction to put them into perspective Macrakis Kristie 1993 Surviving the Swastika Scientific Research in Nazi Germany Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0 19 507010 1 Mott N Peierls R November 1977 Werner Heisenberg Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society 23 213 251 doi 10 1098 rsbm 1977 0009 S2CID 73128582 Powers Thomas 1993 Heisenberg s War The Secret History of the German Bomb Knopf ISBN 9780394514116 van der Waerden B L ed 1968 Sources of Quantum Mechanics Dover ISBN 978 0 486 61881 4 Walker Mark 1993 German National Socialism and the Quest for Nuclear Power 1939 1949 Cambridge ISBN 978 0 521 43804 9 External links edit nbsp Wikimedia Commons has media related to Werner Heisenberg nbsp Wikiquote has quotations related to Werner Heisenberg Annotated Bibliography for Werner Heisenberg from the Alsos Digital Library for Nuclear Issues MacTutor Biography Werner Karl Heisenberg Heisenberg Uncertainty Archived 16 October 2012 at the Wayback Machine biographical exhibit by American Institute of Physics Key Participants Werner Heisenberg Linus Pauling and the Nature of the Chemical Bond A Documentary History Nobelprize org biography Werner Heisenberg Atomic Physics Mentorees Oral history interview transcript with Werner Heisenberg American Institute of Physics Niels Bohr Library amp Archives 16 June 1970 Oral history interview transcript with Werner Heisenberg American Institute of Physics Niels Bohr Library amp Archives 30 November 1962 Newspaper clippings about Werner Heisenberg in the 20th Century Press Archives of the ZBW Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w 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