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Yugoslav Wars

January 09, 2023

This article is about the military conflicts which were related to the dissolution of Yugoslavia. For an account of the events which entailed the destruction of the Yugoslav state, see Breakup of Yugoslavia.

The Yugoslav Wars were a series of separate but related[9][10][11] ethnic conflicts, wars of independence, and insurgencies that took place in the SFR Yugoslavia from 1991 to 2001.[A 2] The conflicts both led up to and resulted from the breakup of Yugoslavia, which began in mid-1991, into six independent countries matching the six entities known as republics which previously composed Yugoslavia: Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Montenegro, Serbia, and North Macedonia (previously named Macedonia). Yugoslavia's constituent republics declared independence due to unresolved tensions between ethnic minorities in the new countries, which fuelled the wars. While most of the conflicts ended through peace accords that involved full international recognition of new states, they resulted in a massive number of deaths as well as severe economic damage to the region.

Yugoslav Wars
Part of the Revolutions of 1989, post-Soviet conflicts and the post–Cold War era

Clockwise from top-left:
Officers of the Slovenian National Police Force escort captured soldiers of the Yugoslav People's Army back to their unit during the Slovenian War of Independence; a destroyed M-84 during the Battle of Vukovar; anti-tank missile installations of the Serbia-controlled Yugoslav People's Army during the siege of Dubrovnik; reburial of victims of the 1995 Srebrenica massacre in 2010; an armoured vehicle of the United Nations Protection Force during the siege of Sarajevo.
Date31 March 1991 – 12 November 2001
(10 years, 7 months, 1 week and 5 days)
Slovenian War of Independence:
27 June – 7 July 1991
(1 week and 3 days)
Croatian War of Independence:
31 March 1991 – 12 November 1995[A 1]
(4 years, 7 months, 1 week and 5 days)
Bosnian War:
6 April 1992 – 14 December 1995
(3 years, 8 months, 1 week and 6 days)
Insurgency in Kosovo:
27 May 1995 – 27 February 1998
(2 years and 9 months)
Kosovo War:
28 February 1998 – 11 June 1999
(1 year, 3 months and 2 weeks)
Insurgency in the Preševo Valley:
12 June 1999 – 1 June 2001[5]
(1 year, 11 months, 2 weeks and 6 days)
Insurgency in Macedonia:
22 January – 12 November 2001
(9 months and 3 weeks)
Location
Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Serbia, Montenegro, Kosovo, and Republic of Macedonia
Result Breakup of Yugoslavia and the formation of independent successor states
Total deaths: c. 130,000–140,000+[6][7]
Displaced: c. 4,000,000[8]

During the initial stages of the breakup of Yugoslavia, the Yugoslav People's Army (JNA) sought to preserve the unity of the Yugoslav nation by crushing all secessionist governments. However, it increasingly came under the influence of Slobodan Milošević, whose government invoked Serbian nationalism as an ideological replacement for the weakening communist system. As a result, the JNA began to lose Slovenes, Croats, Kosovar Albanians, Bosniaks, and Macedonians, and effectively became a fighting force of only Serbs and Montenegrins.[13] According to a 1994 report by the United Nations (UN), the Serb side did not aim to restore Yugoslavia; instead, it aimed to create a "Greater Serbia" from parts of Croatia and Bosnia.[14] Other irredentist movements have also been brought into connection with the Yugoslav Wars, such as "Greater Albania" (from Kosovo, abandoned following international diplomacy)[15][16][17][18][19] and "Greater Croatia" (from parts of Herzegovina, abandoned in 1994 with the Washington Agreement).[20][21][22][23][24]

Often described as Europe's deadliest armed conflict since World War II, the Yugoslav Wars were marked by many war crimes, including genocide, crimes against humanity, ethnic cleansing, and mass wartime rape. The Bosnian genocide was the first European wartime event to be formally classified as genocidal in character since the military campaigns of Nazi Germany, and many key ex-Yugoslav individuals who perpetrated it were subsequently charged with war crimes;[25] the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY) was established by the UN in The Hague, Netherlands, to prosecute all individuals who had committed war crimes during the conflicts.[26] According to the International Center for Transitional Justice, the Yugoslav Wars resulted in the deaths of 140,000 people,[6] while the Humanitarian Law Center estimates at least 130,000 casualties.[7] Over their decade-long duration, the conflicts resulted in major refugee and humanitarian crises.[27][28][29]

Naming

The Yugoslav Wars have alternatively been referred to as:

  • "Wars in the Balkans"
  • "Wars/conflicts in the former Yugoslavia"[6][30]
  • "Wars of Yugoslav Secession/Succession"
  • "Third Balkan War": a term which was suggested in a book which was written by British journalist Misha Glenny, the title of his book alludes to the two previous Balkan Wars which were waged from 1912 to 1913.[31] In fact, some contemporary historians have applied this term to World War I, because they believe it is a direct sequel to the 1912–13 Balkan wars.[32]
  • "Yugoslavia Civil War"/"Yugoslav Civil War"/"Yugoslavian Civil War"/"Civil War in Yugoslavia"

Background

Main articles: Creation of Yugoslavia and Breakup of Yugoslavia
 
A map of the six Yugoslav republics and the two autonomous provinces between 1945 and 1992[33]

The nation of Yugoslavia was created in the aftermath of World War I, and its population was mostly composed of South Slavic Christians, though the nation also had a substantial Muslim minority. Clear ethnic conflict between the Yugoslav peoples only became prominent in the 20th century, beginning with tensions over the constitution of the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes in the early 1920s and escalating into violence between Serbs and Croats in the late 1920s after the assassination of Croatian politician Stjepan Radić. This nation lasted from 1918 to 1941, when it was invaded by the Axis powers during World War II, which provided support to the Croatian fascist Ustaše (founded in 1929), whose regime carried out the genocide of Serbs, Jews and Roma by executing people in concentration camps and committing other systematic and mass crimes inside its territory.[9]

The predominantly Serb Chetniks, a Yugoslav Royalist and Serbian nationalist movement and guerrilla force, committed mass crimes against Muslims and Croats which are considered a genocide by several authors, and they also supported the instatement of a Serbian monarchy and the establishment of a Yugoslav federation.[34][35] The Communist-led Yugoslav Partisans were able to appeal to all groups, including Serbs, Croats, and Bosniaks, and also engaged in mass killings.[36] In 1945, the Federal People's Republic of Yugoslavia (FPRY) was established under Josip Broz Tito,[9] who maintained a strongly authoritarian leadership that suppressed nationalism.[37]

After Tito's death in 1980, relations between the six republics of the federation deteriorated. Slovenia, Croatia and Kosovo desired greater autonomy within the Yugoslav confederation, while Serbia sought to strengthen federal authority. As it became clear that there was no solution which was agreeable to all parties, Slovenia and Croatia moved towards secession. Although tensions in Yugoslavia had been mounting since the early 1980s, events in 1990 proved to be decisive. In the midst of economic hardship, Yugoslavia was facing rising nationalism among its various ethnic groups. By the early 1990s, there was no effective authority at the federal level. The Federal Presidency consisted of the representatives of the six republics, two provinces and the Yugoslav People's Army, and the communist leadership was divided along national lines.[38]

 
The distribution of Serbs and Montenegrins in Croatia, Bosnia, Montenegro and Serbia in 1981.

The representatives of Vojvodina, Kosovo and Montenegro were replaced with loyalists of the President of Serbia, Slobodan Milošević. Serbia secured four out of eight federal presidency votes[39] and was able to heavily influence decision-making at the federal level, since all the other Yugoslav republics only had one vote. While Slovenia and Croatia wanted to allow a multi-party system, Serbia, led by Milošević, demanded an even more centralized federation and Serbia's dominant role in it.[38]

At the 14th Extraordinary Congress of the League of Communists of Yugoslavia in January 1990, the Serbian-dominated assembly agreed to abolish the single-party system. However, Slobodan Milošević, the head of the Serbian Party branch (League of Communists of Serbia) used his influence to block and vote-down all other proposals from the Croatian and Slovene party delegates. This prompted the Croatian and Slovene delegations to walk out and thus the break-up of the party,[40] a symbolic event representing the end of "brotherhood and unity".

The survey of Yugoslav citizens which was conducted in 1990 showed that ethnic animosity existed on a small scale.[41] Compared to the results from 25 years before, there was significant increase of ethnic distance among Serbs and Montenegrins toward Croats and Slovenes and vice versa.[41]

Upon Croatia and Slovenia's declarations of independence in 1991, the Yugoslav federal government attempted to forcibly halt the impending breakup of the country, with Yugoslav Prime Minister Ante Marković declaring that the secessions of Slovenia and Croatia were both illegal and contrary to the constitution of Yugoslavia, and he also expressed his support for the Yugoslav People's Army in order to secure the integral unity of Yugoslavia.[42]

According to Stephen A. Hart, author of Partisans: War in the Balkans 1941–1945, the ethnically mixed region of Dalmatia held close and amicable relations between the Croats and Serbs who lived there in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Many early proponents of a united Yugoslavia came from this region, such as Ante Trumbić, a Croat from Dalmatia. However, by the time of the outbreak of the Yugoslav Wars, any hospitable relations between Croats and Serbs in Dalmatia had broken down, with Dalmatian Serbs fighting on the side of the self-declared proto-state Republic of Serbian Krajina.

Even though the policies throughout the entire socialist period of Yugoslavia seemed to have been the same (namely that all Serbs should live in one state), political scientist Dejan Guzina argues that "different contexts in each of the subperiods of socialist Serbia and Yugoslavia yielded entirely different results (e.g., in favour of Yugoslavia, or in favour of a Greater Serbia)". He assumes that the Serbian policy changed from conservative–socialist at the beginning to xenophobic nationalist in the late 1980s and 1990s.[43]

In Serbia and Serb-dominated territories, violent confrontations occurred, particularly between nationalists and non-nationalists who criticized the Serbian government and the Serb political entities in Bosnia and Croatia.[44] Serbs who publicly opposed the nationalist political climate during the Yugoslav wars were reportedly harassed, threatened, or killed.[44] However, following Milošević's rise to power and the outbreak of the Yugoslav Wars, numerous anti-war movements developed in Serbia.[45][46] Protests were held against the actions of the Yugoslav People's Army, while protesters demanded the referendum on a declaration of war and disruption of military conscription, resulting in numerous desertions and emigrations.[47][48][49]

With the escalation of the Yugoslav crisis, JNA became heavily dominated by Serbs. According to former commander of the fifth army in Zagreb Martin Špegelj, 50% of the command positions were held by Croats, whilst a few years later at the beginning of the war all key positions were held by Serbs.[50]

Conflicts

Slovenian War of Independence (1991)

Main article: Ten-Day War
 
Ambushed JNA tanks near Nova Gorica, on the border with Italy

The first of the conflicts, known as the Ten-Day War, was initiated by the JNA (Yugoslav People's Army) on 26 June 1991 after the secession of Slovenia from the federation on 25 June 1991.[51][52]

Initially, the federal government ordered the Yugoslav People's Army to secure border crossings in Slovenia. Slovenian police and Slovenian Territorial Defence blockaded barracks and roads, leading to stand-offs and limited skirmishes around the republic. After several dozen casualties, the limited conflict was stopped through negotiation at Brioni on 7 July 1991, when Slovenia and Croatia agreed to a three-month moratorium on secession. The Federal army completely withdrew from Slovenia by 26 October 1991.

Croatian War of Independence (1991–1995)

Main article: Croatian War of Independence
 
Damage after the bombing of Dubrovnik
 
A JNA M-84 tank disabled by a mine laid by Croat soldiers in Vukovar, November 1991

Fighting in Croatia had begun weeks prior to the Ten-Day War in Slovenia. The Croatian War of Independence began when Serbs in Croatia, who were opposed to Croatian independence, announced their secession from Croatia.

In the 1990 parliamentary elections in Croatia, Franjo Tuđman became the first President of Croatia. He promoted nationalist policies and had a primary goal of the establishment of an independent Croatia. The new government proposed constitutional changes, reinstated the traditional Croatian flag and coat of arms, and removed the term "Socialist" from the title of the republic.[53] The new Croatian government implemented policies that were seen as openly nationalistic and anti-Serbian in nature, such as the removal of the Serbian Cyrillic script from correspondence in public offices.[54][55] In an attempt to counter changes made to the constitution, local Serb politicians organized a referendum on "Serb sovereignty and autonomy" in August 1990. Their boycott escalated into an insurrection in areas populated by ethnic Serbs, mostly around Knin, known as the Log Revolution.[56]

Local police in Knin sided with the growing Serbian insurgency, while many government employees, mostly police where commanding positions were mainly held by Serbs and Communists, lost their jobs.[57] The new Croatian constitution was ratified in December 1990, and the Serb National Council formed SAO Krajina, a self-proclaimed Serbian autonomous region.[58]

Ethnic tensions rose, fueled by propaganda in both Croatia and Serbia. On 2 May 1991, one of the first armed clashes between Serb paramilitaries and Croatian police occurred in the Battle of Borovo Selo.[59] On 19 May an independence referendum was held, which was largely boycotted by Croatian Serbs, and the majority voted in favour of the independence of Croatia.[60][58] Croatia declared independence and dissolved its association with Yugoslavia on 25 June 1991. Due to the Brioni Agreement, a three-month moratorium was placed on the implementation of the decision that ended on 8 October.[61]

The armed incidents of early 1991 escalated into an all-out war during the summer, with fronts being formed around the areas of the breakaway SAO Krajina. The JNA had disarmed the Territorial Units of Slovenia and Croatia prior to the declaration of independence, at the behest of Serbian President Slobodan Milošević.[62][63] This was greatly aggravated by an arms embargo, imposed by the UN on Yugoslavia. The JNA was ostensibly ideologically unitarian, but its officer corps was predominantly staffed by Serbs or Montenegrins (70 percent).[64]

As a result, the JNA opposed Croatian independence and sided with the Croatian Serb rebels. The Croatian Serb rebels were unaffected by the embargo because they were supported and supplied by the JNA. By mid-July 1991, the JNA moved an estimated 70,000 troops to Croatia. The fighting rapidly escalated, eventually spanning hundreds of square kilometers from western Slavonia through Banija to Dalmatia.[65]

 
A destroyed Serbian house in Sunja, Croatia. Most Serbs fled during Operation Storm in 1995.

Border regions faced direct attacks from forces within Serbia and Montenegro. In August 1991, the Battle of Vukovar began, where fierce fighting took place with around 1,800 Croat fighters blocking the JNA's advance into Slavonia. By the end of October, the town was almost completely devastated as a result of land shelling and air bombardment.[66] The Siege of Dubrovnik started in October with the shelling of UNESCO World Heritage Site Dubrovnik, where the international press was criticised for focusing on the city's architectural heritage, instead of reporting the destruction of Vukovar in which many civilians were killed.[67]

On 18 November 1991, the battle of Vukovar ended after the city ran out of ammunition. The Ovčara massacre occurred shortly after Vukovar's capture by the JNA.[68] Meanwhile, control over central Croatia was seized by Croatian Serb forces in conjunction with the JNA Corps from Bosnia and Herzegovina, under the leadership of Ratko Mladić.[69]

In January 1992, the Vance Plan established UN controlled (UNPA) zones for Serbs in the territory which was claimed by the Serbian rebels as the self-proclaimed proto-state Republic of Serbian Krajina (RSK) and brought an end to major military operations, but sporadic artillery attacks on Croatian cities and occasional intrusions into UNPA zones by Croatian forces continued until 1995. The fighting in Croatia ended in mid-1995, after Operation Flash and Operation Storm. At the end of these operations, Croatia had reclaimed all of its territory except the UNPA Sector East portion of Slavonia, bordering Serbia. Most of the Serb population in the reclaimed areas became refugees. The areas of "Sector East", unaffected by the Croatian military operations, came under UN administration (UNTAES), and were reintegrated to Croatia in 1998 under the terms of the Erdut Agreement.[70]

Bosnian War (1992–1995)

Main article: Bosnian War

In early 1992, a conflict engulfed Bosnia and Herzegovina as it also declared independence from rump Yugoslavia. The war was predominantly a territorial conflict between the Bosniaks, who wanted to preserve the territorial integrity of the newly independent Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina, and the self-proclaimed Bosnian Serb proto-state Republika Srpska and the self-proclaimed Croat Herzeg-Bosnia, which were led and supplied by Serbia and Croatia respectively, reportedly with a goal of the partition of Bosnia, which would leave only a small part of land for the Bosniaks.[71] On 18 December 1992, the United Nations General Assembly issued resolution 47/121 in which it condemned Serbian and Montenegrin forces for trying to acquire more territories by force.[72]

 
People waiting in line to gather water during the Siege of Sarajevo, 1992

The Yugoslav armed forces had disintegrated into a largely Serb-dominated military force. The JNA opposed the Bosnian-majority led government's agenda for independence, and along with other armed nationalist Serb militant forces attempted to prevent Bosnian citizens from voting in the 1992 referendum on independence.[73] They failed to persuade people not to vote, and instead the intimidating atmosphere combined with a Serb boycott of the vote resulted in a resounding 99% vote in support for independence.[73]

On 19 June 1992, the war in Bosnia broke out, though the Siege of Sarajevo had already begun in April after Bosnia and Herzegovina had declared independence. The conflict, typified by the years-long Sarajevo siege and the Srebrenica massacre, was by far the bloodiest and most widely covered of the Yugoslav wars. The Bosnian Serb faction led by ultra-nationalist Radovan Karadžić promised independence for all Serb areas of Bosnia from the majority-Bosniak government of Bosnia. To link the disjointed parts of territories populated by Serbs and areas claimed by Serbs, Karadžić pursued an agenda of systematic ethnic cleansing primarily against Bosnians through massacre and forced removal of Bosniak populations.[74] Prijedor ethnic cleansing, Višegrad massacres, Foča ethnic cleansing, Doboj massacre, Zvornik massacre, siege of Goražde and others were reported.

 
A Serb woman mourns at a grave at the Lion's cemetery in Sarajevo, 1992

At the end of 1992, tensions between Bosnian Croats and Bosniaks rose and their collaboration fell apart. In January 1993, the two former allies engaged in open conflict, resulting in the Croat–Bosniak War.[75] In 1994 the US brokered peace between Croatian forces and the Bosnian Army of the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina with the Washington Agreement. After the successful Flash and Storm operations, the Croatian Army and the combined Bosnian and Croat forces of Bosnia and Herzegovina, conducted an operation codenamed Operation Mistral in September 1995 to push back Bosnian Serb military gains.[76]

The advances on the ground along with NATO air strikes put pressure on the Bosnian Serbs to come to the negotiating table. Pressure was put on all sides to stick to the cease-fire and negotiate an end to the war in Bosnia. The war ended with the signing of the Dayton Agreement on 14 December 1995, with the formation of Republika Srpska as an entity within Bosnia and Herzegovina.[77]

The Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) in the United States reported in April 1995 that 90 percent of all the atrocities in the Yugoslav wars up to that point had been committed by Serb militants.[78] Most of these atrocities occurred in Bosnia.

Insurgency in Kosovo (1995-1998)

Main article: Insurgency in Kosovo (1995–1998)

In the 1990's, the Kosovo Liberation Army (KLA) was formed. They started carrying out attacks on Serb civilians. By the early 1990s, there were attacks on Serbian police forces, and secret-service officials in retaliation for the abuse and murder of Albanian civilians.[79] A Serbian policeman was killed in 1995, allegedly by the KLA.[80] The KLA sought to destabilize the region, hoping the United States and NATO would intervene.[81] Serbian patrols were ambushed and policemen were killed.[81] It was only in the next year that the organization of KLA took responsibility for attacks.[82]

The KLA, originally composed of a few hundred Albanians, attacked several police stations and wounded many police officers in 1996–1997.[83] In February 1996 the KLA undertook a series of attacks against police stations and Yugoslav government employees, saying that the Yugoslav authorities had killed Albanian civilians as part of an ethnic cleansing campaign.[84] On 22 April 1996, four attacks on Serbian security personnel were carried out almost simultaneously in several parts of Kosovo.

In January 1997, Serbian security forces assassinated KLA commander Zahir Pajaziti and two other leaders in a highway attack between Pristina and Mitrovica, and arrested more than 100 Albanian militants.[85]Jashari, as one of the originators and leaders of the KLA, was convicted of terrorism in absentia by a Yugoslav court on 11 July 1997. Human Rights Watch subsequently described the trial, in which fourteen other Kosovo Albanians were also convicted, as "[failing] to conform to international standards."[86]

The NATO North Atlantic Council said that KLA was "the main initiator of the violence" and that it had "launched what appears to be a deliberate campaign of provocation".[87] Pursuing Adem Jashari for the murder of a Serb policeman, the Serbian forces again attempted to assault the Jashari compound in Prekaz on the 22nd of January, 1998.[88] Between 1991 and 1997, mostly in 1996–97, 39 persons were killed by the KLA.[89] Attacks between 1996 and February of 1998 led to the deaths of 10 policemen and 24 civilians.[90]

Kosovo War (1998–1999)

Main article: Kosovo War
 
A Tomahawk cruise missile launches from the aft missile deck of the US warship USS Gonzalez on March 31, 1999
 
Smoke rising in Novi Sad, Serbia after NATO bombardment in 1999

After September 1990 when the 1974 Yugoslav Constitution had been unilaterally repealed by the Socialist Republic of Serbia, Kosovo's autonomy suffered and so the region was faced with state organized oppression: from the early 1990s, Albanian language radio and television were restricted and newspapers shut down. Kosovar Albanians were fired in large numbers from public enterprises and institutions, including banks, hospitals, the post office and schools.[91] In June 1991, the University of Priština assembly and several faculty councils were dissolved and replaced by Serbs. Kosovar Albanian teachers were prevented from entering school premises for the new school year beginning in September 1991, forcing students to study at home.[91]

A NATO-facilitated ceasefire was signed on 15 October, but both sides broke it two months later and fighting resumed. When the killing of 45 Kosovar Albanians in the Račak massacre was reported in January 1999, NATO decided that the conflict could only be settled by introducing a military peacekeeping force to forcibly restrain the two sides.[92] Yugoslavia refused to sign the Rambouillet Accords, which among other things called for 30,000 NATO peacekeeping troops in Kosovo; an unhindered right of passage for NATO troops on Yugoslav territory; and immunity for NATO and its agents to Yugoslav law; the right to use local roads, ports, railways, and airports without payment and requisition public facilities for its use free of cost.[93][94] NATO then prepared to install the peacekeepers by force, using this refusal to justify the bombings.

The NATO bombing of Yugoslavia followed, an intervention against Serbian forces with a mainly bombing campaign, under the command of General Wesley Clark. Hostilities ended 2½ months later with the Kumanovo Agreement. Kosovo was placed under the governmental control of the United Nations Interim Administration Mission in Kosovo and the military protection of Kosovo Force (KFOR). The 15-month war had left thousands of civilians killed on both sides and over a million displaced.[92]

Insurgency in the Preševo Valley (1999–2001)

Main article: Insurgency in the Preševo Valley

The Insurgency in the Preševo Valley was an armed conflict between the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia and ethnic-Albanian insurgents[95][96] of the Liberation Army of Preševo, Medveđa and Bujanovac (UÇPMB), beginning in June 1999.[97] There were instances during the conflict in which the Yugoslav government requested KFOR support in suppressing UÇPMB attacks, since the government could only use lightly armed military forces as part of the Kumanovo Treaty, which created a buffer zone so the bulk of the Yugoslav armed forces could not enter.[98] Yugoslav president Vojislav Koštunica warned that fresh fighting would erupt if KFOR units did not act to prevent the attacks that were coming from the UÇPMB.[99]

Insurgency in the Republic of Macedonia (2001)

Main article: 2001 insurgency in the Republic of Macedonia

The insurgency in the Republic of Macedonia was an armed conflict in Tetovo which began when the ethnic Albanian National Liberation Army (NLA) militant group began attacking the security forces of the Republic of Macedonia at the beginning of February 2001, and ended with the Ohrid Agreement. The goal of the NLA was to give greater rights and autonomy to the country's Albanian minority, who made up 25.2% of the population of the Republic of Macedonia (54.7% in Tetovo).[100][101] There were also claims that the group ultimately wished to see Albanian-majority areas secede from the country,[102] although high-ranking NLA members have denied this.[100]

Arms embargo

The United Nations Security Council had imposed an arms embargo in September 1991.[103] Nevertheless, various states had been engaged in, or facilitated, arms sales to the warring factions.[104] In 2012, Chile convicted nine people, including two retired generals, for their part in arms sales.[105]

War crimes

Further information: Serbian war crimes in the Yugoslav Wars, Croatian war crimes in the Yugoslav Wars, and War crimes in the Kosovo War

Genocide

Main articles: Bosnian genocide and Bosnian genocide case
 
The skull of a victim of the July 1995 Srebrenica massacre in an exhumed mass grave outside Potočari, 2007

It is widely believed that mass murders against Bosniaks in Bosnia and Herzegovina escalated into genocide. On 18 December 1992, the United Nations General Assembly issued resolution 47/121 condemning "aggressive acts by the Serbian and Montenegrin forces to acquire more territories by force" and called such ethnic cleansing "a form of genocide".[72] In its report published on 1 January 1993, Helsinki Watch was one of the first civil rights organisations that warned that "the extent of the violence and its selective nature along ethnic and religious lines suggest crimes of genocidal character against Muslim and, to a lesser extent, Croatian populations in Bosnia-Hercegovina".[106]

A telegram sent to the White House on 8 February 1994 by U.S. Ambassador to Croatia, Peter W. Galbraith, stated that genocide was occurring. The telegram cited "constant and indiscriminate shelling and gunfire" of Sarajevo by Karadzic's Yugoslav People Army; the harassment of minority groups in Northern Bosnia "in an attempt to force them to leave"; and the use of detainees "to do dangerous work on the front lines" as evidence that genocide was being committed.[107] In 2005, the United States Congress passed a resolution declaring that "the Serbian policies of aggression and ethnic cleansing meet the terms defining genocide".[108]

A trial took place before the International Court of Justice, following a 1993 suit by Bosnia and Herzegovina against Serbia and Montenegro alleging genocide. The ICJ ruling of 26 February 2007 indirectly determined the war's nature to be international, though clearing Serbia of direct responsibility for the genocide committed by the forces of Republika Srpska in Srebrenica. The ICJ concluded, however, that Serbia failed to prevent genocide committed by Serb forces in Srebrenica and failed to punish those responsible, and bring them to justice.[109]

War crimes were conducted simultaneously by different Serb forces in different parts of Bosnia and Herzegovina, especially in Bijeljina, Sarajevo, Prijedor, Zvornik, Višegrad and Foča. The judges however ruled that the criteria for genocide with the specific intent (dolus specialis) to destroy Bosnian Muslims were met only in Srebrenica in 1995.[109] The court concluded that other crimes, outside Srebrenica, committed during the 1992–1995 war, may amount to crimes against humanity according to the international law, but that these acts did not, in themselves, constitute genocide per se.[110]

The crime of genocide in the Srebrenica enclave was confirmed in several guilty verdicts handed down by the ICTY, most notably in the conviction of the Bosnian Serb leader Radovan Karadžić.[111]

Ethnic cleansing

Main article: Ethnic cleansing in the Bosnian War
 
Detainees in the Manjača camp, near Banja Luka, 1992

Ethnic cleansing was a common phenomenon in the wars in Croatia, Kosovo and Bosnia and Herzegovina. This entailed intimidation, forced expulsion, or killing of the unwanted ethnic group as well as the destruction of the places of worship, cemeteries and cultural and historical buildings of that ethnic group in order to alter the population composition of an area in the favour of another ethnic group which would become the majority. These examples of territorial nationalism and territorial aspirations are part of the goal of an ethno-state.[112] Detention camps such as Omarska and Trnopolje were also designated as an integral part of the overall ethnic cleansing strategy of the authorities.[113]

According to numerous ICTY verdicts and indictments, Serb[114][115][116] and Croat[117] forces performed ethnic cleansing of their territories planned by their political leadership to create ethnically pure states (Republika Srpska and Republic of Serbian Krajina by the Serbs; and Herzeg-Bosnia by the Croats).

According to the ICTY, Serb forces from the SAO Krajina deported at least 80–100,000 Croats and other non-Serb civilians in 1991–92[118] and at least 700,000 Albanians in Kosovo in 1999.[119] Further hundreds of thousands of Muslims were forced out of their homes by the Serb forces in Bosnia and Herzegovina.[120] By one estimate, the Serb forces drove at least 700,000 Bosnian Muslims from the area of Bosnia under their control.[121]

Survivors of the ethnic cleansing were left severely traumatized as a consequence of this campaign.[122]

Wartime sexual violence and rape

Main articles: Rape in the Bosnian War and Wartime sexual violence § Former Yugoslavia

War rape occurred as a matter of official orders as part of ethnic cleansing, to displace the targeted ethnic group.[123] According to the Trešnjevka Women's Group, more than 35,000 women and children were held in such Serb-run "rape camps".[124][125][126] Dragoljub Kunarac, Radomir Kovač, and Zoran Vuković were convicted of crimes against humanity for rape, torture, and enslavement committed during the Foča massacres.[127]

The evidence of the magnitude of rape in Bosnia and Herzegovina prompted the ICTY to openly deal with these abuses.[128] Reports of sexual violence during the Bosnian War (1992–1995) and Kosovo War (1998–1999) perpetrated by the Serbian regular and irregular forces have been described as "especially alarming".[124] The NATO-led Kosovo Force documented rapes of Albanian, Roma and Serbian women by both Serbs and members of the Kosovo Liberation Army.[129]

Others have estimated that during the Bosnian War, between 20,000 and 50,000 women, mostly Bosniak, were raped.[130][131] There are few reports of rape and sexual assault between members of the same ethnic group.[132]

War rape in the Yugoslav Wars has often been characterized as a crime against humanity. Rapes which were perpetrated by Serb forces served to destroy the cultural and social ties which existed between the victims and their communities.[133] Serbian policies allegedly urged soldiers to rape Bosniak women until they became pregnant as an attempt towards ethnic cleansing. Serbian soldiers hoped to force Bosniak women to carry Serbian children through repeated rape.[134] Often Bosniak women were held in captivity for an extended period of time and only released slightly before the birth of a child conceived of rape. The systematic rape of Bosniak women may have carried further-reaching repercussions than the initial displacement of rape victims. Stress, caused by the trauma of rape, coupled with the lack of access to reproductive health care often experienced by displaced peoples, led to serious health risks for victimized women.[135]

During the Kosovo War, thousands of Kosovo Albanian women and girls became victims of sexual violence. War rape was used as a weapon of war and it was also used as an instrument of systematic ethnic cleansing; rape was used to terrorize the civilian population, extort money from families, and force people to flee their homes. According to a report by the Human Rights Watch group in 2000, rape in the Kosovo War can generally be subdivided into three categories: rapes in women's homes, rapes during flight, and rapes in detention.[136][137] The majority of the perpetrators were Serbian paramilitaries, but also included Serbian special police or Yugoslav army soldiers. Virtually all of the sexual assaults Human Rights Watch documented were gang rapes involving at least two perpetrators.[136][137] Since the end of the war, rapes of Serbian, Albanian, and Roma women by ethnic Albanians — sometimes by members of the Kosovo Liberation Army (KLA) – have been documented, but they have not occurred on a similar scale.[136][137] Rapes frequently occurred in the presence, and with the acquiescence, of military officers. Soldiers, police, and paramilitaries often raped their victims in the full view of numerous witnesses.[123]

A 2013 report by the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) in Croatia entitled 'Assessment of the Number of Sexual Violence Victims during the Homeland War on the Territory of the Republic of Croatia and Optimal Forms of Compensation and Support of Victims', determined the estimated victims (male and female) of rape and other forms of sexual assault on both sides to number between approximately 1,470 and 2,205 or 1,501 and 2,437 victims.[138] Most victims were non-Serbs assaulted by Serbs.[138] By region, the largest number of rapes and acts of sexual violence occurred in Eastern Slavonia, with an estimated 380-570 victims.[138] According to the UNDP report, between 300 and 600 men (4.4%-6.6% of those imprisoned) and between 279 and 466 women (or 30%-50% of those imprisoned) suffered from various forms of sexual abuse while being held in Serbian detention camps and prisons (including those in Serbia proper).[138] Between 412 and 611 Croat women were raped in the Serb-occupied territories, outside of detention camps, from 1991 to 1995.[138] Croat forces were also known to have committed rapes and acts of sexual violence against Serb women during Operations Flash and Storm, with an estimated 94-140 victims.[138] Sexual abuse of Serb prisoners also occurred in the Croat-run Lora and Kerestinec camps.[138]

Consequences

Casualties

 
UN peacekeepers collecting corpses after the Ahmići massacre

Some estimates put the number of killed in the Yugoslav Wars at 140,000.[6] The Humanitarian Law Center estimates that in the conflicts in former Yugoslav republics at least 130,000 people lost their lives.[7] Slovenia's involvement in the conflicts was brief, thus avoiding higher casualties, and around 70 people were killed in its ten-day conflict. The War in Croatia left an estimated 22,000 people dead, of which 15,000 were Croats and 7,000 Serbs.[139]

Bosnia and Herzegovina suffered the heaviest burden of the fighting: between 97,207 and 102,622 people were killed in the war, including 64,036 Bosniaks, 24,905 Serbs, and 7,788 Croats.[140] By share, 65% of the killed were Bosniaks, 25% Serbs, and 8% Croats.[141] In the Kosovo conflict, 13,535 people were killed, including 10,812 Albanians (80%) and 2,197 Serbs (16%).[142] The highest death toll was in Sarajevo: with around 14,000 killed during the siege,[143] the city lost almost as many people as the entire war in Kosovo.

In relative and absolute numbers, Bosniaks suffered the heaviest losses: 64,036 of their people were killed in Bosnia, which represents a death toll of over 3% of their entire ethnic group.[140] They experienced the worst plight in the Srebrenica massacre, where the mortality rate of the Bosniak men (irrespective of their age or civilian status) reached 33% in July 1995.[144] The share of Bosniaks among all the civilian fatalities during the Bosnian War was around 83%, rising to almost 95% in Eastern Bosnia.[145]

During the War in Croatia, 43.4% of the killed on the Croatian side were civilians.[146]

Internally displaced persons and refugees

 
Bosnian refugees in 1993
 
Kosovo Albanian refugees in 1999
 
Kosovo Serb refugees in 1999

The Yugoslav Wars caused one of the largest refugee crises in European history. It is estimated that the wars in Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina and Kosovo produced about 2.4 million refugees and an additional 2 million internally displaced persons.[147]

The war in Bosnia and Herzegovina caused 2.2 million refugees or displaced, of which over half were Bosniaks.[148] Up until 2001, there were still 650,000 displaced Bosniaks, while 200,000 left the country permanently.[148]

The Kosovo War caused 862,979 Albanian refugees who were either expelled from the Serb forces or fled from the battle front.[149] In addition, 500,000 to 600,000 were internally displaced,[150] which means that, according to the OSCE, almost 90% of all Albanians were displaced from their homes in Kosovo by June 1999.[151] After the end of the war, Albanians returned, but over 200,000 Serbs, Romani and other non-Albanians fled Kosovo. By the end of 2000, Serbia thus became the host of 700,000 Serb refugees or internally displaced from Kosovo, Croatia and Bosnia.[152]

From the perspective of asylum for internally displaced or refugees, Croatia took the brunt of the crisis. According to some sources, in 1992 Croatia was the host to almost 750,000 refugees or internally displaced, which represents a quota of almost 16% of its population of 4.7 million inhabitants: these figures included 420 to 450,000 Bosnian refugees, 35,000 refugees from Serbia (mostly from Vojvodina and Kosovo) while a further 265,000 persons from other parts of Croatia itself were internally displaced. This would be equivalent of Germany being a host to 10 million displaced people or France to 8 million people.[153]

Official UNHCR data indicate that Croatia was the host to 287,000 refugees and 344,000 internally displaced in 1993. This is a ratio of 64.7 refugees per 1000 inhabitants.[154] In its 1992 report, UNHCR placed Croatia #7 on its list of 50 most refugee burdened countries: it registered 316 thousand refugees, which is a ratio of 15:1 relative to its total population.[155] Together with those internally displaced, Croatia was the host to at least 648,000 people in need of an accommodation in 1992.[156] In comparison, Macedonia had 10.5 refugees per 1000 inhabitants in 1999.[157]

Slovenia was the host to 45,000 refugees in 1993, which is 22.7 refugees per 1000 inhabitants.[158] Serbia and Montenegro were the host to 479,111 refugees in 1993, which is a ratio of 45.5 refugees per 1000 inhabitants. By 1998 this grew to 502,037 refugees (or 47.7 refugees per 1000 inhabitants). By 2000 the number of refugees fell to 484,391 persons, but the number of internally displaced grew to 267,500, or a combined total of 751,891 persons who were displaced and in need of an accommodation.[159]

Number of refugees or internally displaced in 1991–2000
Country, region Albanians Bosniaks Croats Serbs Others (Hungarians, Gorani, Romani)
Croatia — — 247,000[160] 300,000[161] —
Bosnia and Herzegovina — 1,270,000[162] 490,000[162] 540,000[162] —
Kosovo 1,200,000[163]–1,450,000[151] — 35,000[153]–40,000[164] 143,000[165] 67,000[165]
Vojvodina, Sandžak — 30,000–40,000[166] — 60,000[164]
Total ~1,200,000–1,450,000 ~1,300,000–1,310,000 ~772,000–777,000 ~983,000 ~127,000

Material damage

 
War damage on a Sarajevo building

Material and economic damages brought by the conflicts were catastrophic. Bosnia and Herzegovina had a GDP of between $8–9 billion before the war. The government estimated the overall war damages at $50–$70 billion. It also registered a GDP decline of 75% after the war.[167] Some 60% of the housing in the country has been either damaged or destroyed, which proved a problem when trying to bring all the refugees back home.[168] Bosnia also became the most landmine contaminated country of Europe: 1820 km2 of its territory were contaminated with these explosives, which represent 3.6% of its land surface. Between 3 and 6 million landmines were scattered throughout Bosnia. Five thousand people died from them, of which 1,520 were killed after the war.[169]

In 1999, the Croatian Parliament passed a bill estimating war damages of the country at $37 billion.[170] The government alleges that between 1991 and April 1993 an estimated total of 210,000 buildings in Croatia (including schools, hospitals and refugee camps) were either damaged or destroyed from shelling by the Republic of Serbian Krajina and the JNA forces. Cities affected by the shelling were Karlovac, Gospić, Ogulin, Zadar, Biograd and others.[171] The Croatian government also acknowledged that 7,489 buildings belonging to Croatian Serbs were damaged or destroyed by explosives, arson or other deliberate means by the end of 1992. From January to March 1993 another 220 buildings were also damaged or destroyed. Criminal charges were brought against 126 Croats for such acts.[172]

Sanctions against FR Yugoslavia created a hyperinflation of 300 million percent of the Yugoslav dinar. By 1995, almost 1 million workers lost their jobs while the gross domestic product had fallen 55 percent since 1989.[173] The 1999 NATO bombing of Serbia resulted in additional damages. One of the most severe was the bombing of the Pančevo petrochemical factory, which caused the release of 80,000 tonnes of burning fuel into the environment.[174] Approximately 31,000 rounds of depleted Uranium ammunition were used during this bombing.[175]

ICTY/IRMCT

Main articles: International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia and International Residual Mechanism for Criminal Tribunals
 
 
 
 
Several people were convicted by the ICTY for crimes during the Yugoslav wars, including (from left) Radovan Karadžić, Ratko Mladić, Milan Lukić and Slobodan Praljak

The International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia (ICTY) was a body of the United Nations established to prosecute serious crimes committed during the Yugoslav Wars, and to try their perpetrators. The tribunal was an ad hoc court located in The Hague, Netherlands. One of the most prominent trials involved ex-Serbian President Slobodan Milošević, who was in 2002 indicted on 66 counts of crimes against humanity, war crimes and genocide allegedly committed in wars in Kosovo, Bosnia and Croatia.[176] His trial remained incomplete since he died in 2006, before a verdict was reached.[177] Nonetheless, ICTY's trial "helped to delegitimize Milosevic's leadership", as one scholar put it.[178]

Several convictions were handed over by the ICTY and its successor, the International Residual Mechanism for Criminal Tribunals (IRMCT). The first notable verdict confirming genocide in Srebrenica was the case against Serb General Radislav Krstić: he was sentenced in 2001, while the Appeals Chamber confirmed the verdict in 2004.[179] Another verdict was against ex-Bosnian Serb leader, Radovan Karadžić, who was also convicted for genocide.[180] On 22 November 2017, general Ratko Mladić was sentenced to a life in prison.[181]

Other important convictions included those of ultranationalist Vojislav Šešelj,[182][183] paramilitary leader Milan Lukić,[184] Bosnian Serb politician Momčilo Krajišnik,[185] Bosnian Serb general Stanislav Galić, who was convicted for the siege of Sarajevo,[186] the former Assistant Minister of the Serbian Ministry of Internal Affairs and Chief of its Public Security Department, Vlastimir Đorđević, who was convicted for crimes in Kosovo,[187] ex-JNA commander Mile Mrkšić[188][189] as well as both of Republic of Serbian Krajina ex-Presidents Milan Martić[190] and Milan Babić.[191]

Several Croats, Bosniaks and Albanians were convicted for crimes, as well, including ex-Herzegovina Croat leader Jadranko Prlić and commander Slobodan Praljak,[192] Bosnian Croat military commander Mladen Naletilić,[193] ex-Bosnian Army commander Enver Hadžihasanović[194] and ex-Kosovo commander Haradin Bala.[195]

In the Trial of Gotovina et al, Croatian Generals Ante Gotovina and Mladen Markač were ultimately acquitted on appeal in 2012.[196]

By 2019, based on its statute,[197] the ICTY found that the Serb officials were found guilty of persecutions, deportation and/or forcible transfer (crimes against humanity, Article 5) in Croatia,[198] Bosnia and Herzegovina,[180] Kosovo[199] and Vojvodina.[182] They were also found guilty of murder (crimes against humanity, Article 5) in Croatia,[198] Bosnia and Herzegovina[180] and Kosovo;[199] as well as terror (violations of the laws or customs of war, Article 3)[186] and genocide (Article 4)[179][180] in Bosnia and Herzegovina. The Croat forces were not found guilty of anything in Croatia, but were found guilty of deportation, other inhumane acts (forcible transfer), murder and persecutions (crimes against humanity, Article 5) in Bosnia and Herzegovina.[192] The Bosniak forces were found guilty of inhuman treatment (grave breaches of the Geneva Conventions, Article 2), murder; cruel treatment (violations of the laws or customs of war, Article 3) in Bosnia and Herzegovina.[200] One Albanian official was found guilty of torture, cruel treatment, murder (violations of the laws or customs of war, Article 3) in Kosovo.[201]

Gunrunning

After the fighting ended, millions of weapons were left with civilians who held on to them in case violence should resurface. These weapons later turned up on the arms black market of Europe.[202]

In 2018 there were no exact official figures on how many firearms are missing; in Serbia authorities have given estimates ranging from 250,000 to 900,000 of different kinds are in circulation. In Bosnia, public reports state a figure of 750,000. At the end of 2017, a man entered a bus in Banja Luka carrying two bags with 36 hand grenades, three assault rifles, seven handguns, a mine and hundreds of cartridges with Gothenburg as the destination. He was stopped in the neighbouring country of Slovenia. A 26-year-old woman was stopped at the border to Croatia with three antitank weapons and a hand grenade. Police found four machine guns, three battle rifles, three assault rifles and a large quantity of explosives at the home of a 79-year-old man. According to a UNDP official, getting civilians to give up their arms to state authorities is complicated as people are then forced to trust that authorities will protect them. Instead, criminals collect the weapons.[203] Some of the missing weapons were used in the November 2015 Paris attacks during which 130 people were killed by jihadists. Other arms were assault rifles used in the 2015 Gothenburg pub shooting.[203]

Successor-state government efforts to reduce the prevalence of illegally held arms are co-ordinated through a Regional Approach to Stockpile Reduction (RASR) focused on reducing stockpiles, arms diversion and unexplained explosions in South-east Europe. Partners include the European Union, the US Office of Weapons Removal and Abatement, the US Defense Threat Reduction Agency (DTRA) and NATO's Support and Procurement Agency.[204] Funded by the US Government, activities include annual workshops attended by US government officials from the Departments of State and Defense and defense ministry representatives from the Yugoslav successor states .[205]

Drug trafficking

Since the beginning of hostilities between warring factions in the former Yugoslavia, the Kosovo Liberation Army as well as the Serbian mafia have been involved in the illegal drug trade, particularly with West Asian heroin entering Central and Western Europe. In the early 1990's, 2,000 Albanians from Kosovo were held in Swiss jails on charges of arms and drug smuggling. Over the course of the war, a total of several tons of heroin were confiscated by Interpol and local law enforcement. Illegal drug smuggling operations also led to additional crimes all across Western Europe, which included bank robberies and extortion committed by criminal gangs operating out of Eastern Europe. The intensification of heroin consumption in Western Europe led to the expansion of open air drug markets, particularly in Switzerland. Bosnian criminal gangs continue to have a significant impact on global drug trafficking, through entering the lucrative cocaine trade.[206][207][208]

Timeline

Main article: Timeline of the Yugoslav Wars

1990

1991

 
People observing new death notifications on a wall in Dubrovnik during the siege, December 1991
  • Slovenia and Croatia declare independence in June, North Macedonia in September. War in Slovenia lasts ten days, and results in dozens of fatalities. The Yugoslav army leaves Slovenia after intervention of the UN which insisted that Slovenia be allowed to leave, but supports rebel Serb forces in Croatia. The Croatian War of Independence begins in Croatia. Serb areas in Croatia declare independence, but are recognized only by Belgrade.
  • Vukovar is devastated by bombardments and shelling, and other cities such as Dubrovnik, Karlovac and Osijek sustain extensive damage.[209] Refugees from war zones overwhelm Croatia, while Europe is slow to accept refugees.
  • In Croatia, about 250,000 Croats and other non-Serbs forced from their homes or fled the violence.[210]

1992

 
Besieged residents collect firewood in the bitter winter of 1992 during the Siege of Sarajevo.

1993

 
Two Croatian Defense Council (HVO) T-55 Main Battle Tanks pull into firing position during a three-day exercise held at the Barbara Range in Glamoč, Bosnia and Herzegovina.

1994

1995

  • Srebrenica massacre reported. 8,000 Bosniaks killed by Serb forces.[111]
  • Croatia launches Operation Flash, recapturing a part of its territory, but tens of thousands of Serb civilians flee from the area. The RSK responds with the Zagreb rocket attack.
  • Croatia launches Operation Storm, reclaiming all UNPA zones except Eastern Slavonia, and resulting in exodus of 150,000–200,000 Serbs from the zones. Yugoslav forces do not intervene. War in Croatia ends.
  • NATO launches a series of air strikes on Bosnian Serb artillery and other military targets. Croatian and Bosnian army start a joint offensive against Republika Srpska.
  • Dayton Agreement signed in Paris. War in Bosnia and Herzegovina ends. Aftermath of war is over 100,000 killed and missing and two million people internally displaced or refugees.[218]

1996

  • FR Yugoslavia recognizes Croatia and Bosnia & Herzegovina.
  • Fighting breaks out in Kosovo between Albanians rebels and FR Yugoslav authorities.
  • Following allegations of fraud in local elections, tens of thousands of Serbs demonstrate in Belgrade against the Milošević government for three months.[219]

1998

  • Eastern Slavonia peacefully reintegrated into Croatia, following a gradual three-year handover of power.
  • Fighting in Kosovo gradually escalates between Albanians demanding independence and the state.

1999

  • Račak massacre, Rambouillet talks fail. NATO starts a military campaign in Kosovo and bombards FR Yugoslavia in Operation Allied Force.[220]
  • Following Milošević's signing of an agreement, control of Kosovo is handed to the United Nations, but still remains a part of Yugoslavia's federation. After losing wars in Croatia, Bosnia and Kosovo, numerous Serbs leave those regions to find refuge in remainder of Serbia. In 1999, Serbia was host to some 700,000 Serb refugees or internally displaced.[152]
  • Fresh fighting erupts between Albanians and Yugoslav security forces in Albanian populated areas outside of Kosovo, with the intent of joining three municipalities to Kosovo (Preševo, Bujanovac and Medveđa).
  • Franjo Tuđman dies. Shortly after, his party loses the elections.
 
Yugoslav Ministry of Defence building in Belgrade, destroyed during the 1999 NATO bombing

2000

  • Slobodan Milošević is voted out of office, and Vojislav Koštunica becomes the new president of Yugoslavia. With Milošević ousted and a new government in place, FR Yugoslavia restores ties with the west. The political and economic sanctions are suspended in total, and FRY is reinstated in many political and economic organizations, as well as becoming a candidate for other collaborative efforts.

2001

Notes

  1. ^ There was no formal declaration of war. The first armed clash of the war was the Pakrac clash on 1 March 1991,[1] followed by the Plitvice Lakes incident on 31 March 1991, when the first fatalities occurred.[2] The last major combat operation was Operation Storm, from 5–8 August 1995.[3] Formally, hostilities ceased when the Erdut Agreement was signed on 12 November 1995.[4]
  2. ^ Some historians only narrow the conflicts to Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, and Kosovo in the 1990s.[12] Others also include the Preševo Valley insurgency and 2001 Macedonian insurgency.

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  3. ^ Dean E. Murphy (8 August 1995). "Croats Declare Victory, End Blitz". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved 18 December 2010.
  4. ^ Chris Hedges (12 November 1995). "Serbs in Croatia Resolve Key Issue by Giving up Land". The New York Times. Retrieved 18 December 2010.
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  65. ^ Annex III – Forces operating in Croatia
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General and cited sources

Books

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  • Brown, Cynthia; Karim, Farhad (1995). Playing the "Communal Card": Communal Violence and Human Rights. New York, NY: Human Rights Watch. ISBN 978-1-56432-152-7.
  • Brouwer, Anne-Marie de (2005). Supranational Criminal Prosecution of Sexual Violence. Intersentia. ISBN 978-90-5095-533-1.
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  • Jha, U. C. (2014). Armed Conflict and Environmental Damage. Vij Books India Pvt Ltd. ISBN 978-93-82652-81-6.
  • Krieger, Heike (2001). Heike Krieger (ed.). The Kosovo Conflict and International Law: An Analytical Documentation 1974-1999. Cambridge University Press. p. 90. ISBN 978-0-521-80071-6.
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  • Marsden, Chris (16 March 2000). "British documentary substantiates US-KLA collusion in provoking war with Serbia". WSWS.
  • Meštrović, Stjepan Gabriel (1996). Genocide After Emotion: The Postemotional Balkan War. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-12294-8.
  • Meyers, Eytan (2004). International Immigration Policy: A Theoretical and Comparative Analysis. Springer. ISBN 978-1-4039-7837-0.
  • Naimark, Norman; Case, Holly M. (2003). Yugoslavia and Its Historians: Understanding the Balkan Wars of the 1990s. Stanford University Press. ISBN 978-0-8047-4594-9. Retrieved 22 April 2012.
  • Off, Carol (2010). The Lion, the Fox and the Eagle. Random House of Canada. p. 218. ISBN 978-0-307-37077-8.
  • Ramet, Sabrina P. (2010). Central and Southeast European Politics Since 1989. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-139-48750-4.
  • Rogel, Carole (2004). The Breakup of Yugoslavia and Its Aftermath. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 91. ISBN 978-0-313-32357-7. Retrieved 22 April 2012.
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  • Smajić, Aid (2013). "Bosnia and Herzegovina". In Nielsen, Jørgen; Akgönül, Samim; Alibašić, Ahmet; Racius, Egdunas (eds.). Yearbook of Muslims in Europe. Vol. 5. BRILL. ISBN 978-90-04-25586-9.
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  • Aleksandar, Bosković; Dević, Ana; Gavrilović, Darko; Hašimbegović, Elma; Ljubojević, Ana; Perica, Vjekoslav; Velikonja, Mitja, eds. (2011). Political Myths in the Former Yugoslavia and Successor States: A Shared Narrative. Institute for Historical Justice and Reconciliation. ISBN 978-90-8979-067-5.
  • Central Intelligence Agency, Office of Russian and European Analysis (2002). Balkan Battlegrounds: A Military History of the Yugoslav Conflict, 1990–1995. Washington, D.C.: Central Intelligence Agency. ISBN 978-0-16-066472-4.
  • Council of Europe (1993). Documents (working Papers) 1993. p. 9. ISBN 978-92-871-2332-9.
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  • Visoka, Gëzim (2020). "Kosovo: a hybrid negative peace". In Williams, Paul R.; Sterio, Milena (eds.). Research Handbook on Post-Conflict State Building. Edward Elgar Publishing. ISBN 978-1-78897-164-5. OCLC 1149742525.
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  • Udovicki, Jasminka; Ridgeway, James (2000). Burn This House: The Making and Unmaking of Yugoslavia. Durham, North Carolina: Duke University Press. ISBN 978-1-136-76482-0.
  • Powers, Roger S. (1997). Protest, Power, and Change: An Encyclopedia of Nonviolent Action from ACT-UP to Women's Suffrage. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-136-76482-0.

Scholarly journal articles

  • Akhavan, Payam (2001). "Beyond Impunity: Can International Criminal Justice Prevent Future Atrocities?". American Journal of International Law. 95 (1): 7–31. doi:10.2307/2642034. JSTOR 2642034. S2CID 144769396.
  • Bicanic, Ivo (2008). "Croatia". Southeast European and Black Sea Studies. 1 (1): 158–173. doi:10.1080/14683850108454628. S2CID 219697768.
  • Brunborg, Helge; Lyngstad, Torkild Hovde; Urdal, Henrik (2003). "Accounting for Genocide: How Many Were Killed in Srebrenica?". European Journal of Population / Revue Européenne de Démographie. 19 (3): 229–248. doi:10.1023/A:1024949307841. JSTOR 20164231. S2CID 150727427.
  • Campbell, David (2002). "Atrocity, memory, photography: Imaging the concentration camps of Bosnia--the case of ITN versus Living Marxism , Part 1". Journal of Human Rights. 1 (1): 1–33. doi:10.1080/14754830110111544. S2CID 56360692.
  • Card, Claudia (1996). "Rape as a Weapon of War". Hypatia. 11 (4): 5–18. doi:10.1111/j.1527-2001.1996.tb01031.x. ISSN 0887-5367. JSTOR 3810388. S2CID 144640806.
  • Guzina, Dejan (2003). "Socialist Serbia's Narratives: From Yugoslavia to a Greater Serbia". International Journal of Politics, Culture, and Society. 17 (1): 91–111. doi:10.1023/a:1025341010886. S2CID 140426711.
  • Iacopino, Vincent; Frank, Martina; Bauer, Heidi M.; Keller, Allen S. (2001). "A Population-Based Assessment of Human Rights Abuses Committed Against Ethnic Albanian Refugees From Kosovo". Am J Public Health. 91 (12): 2013–2018. doi:10.2105/ajph.91.12.2013. PMC 1446925. PMID 11726386.
  • Magliveras, Konstantinos D. (2002). "The Interplay Between the Transfer of Slobodan Milosevic to the ICTY and Yugoslav Constitutional Law". European Journal of International Law. 13 (3): 661–677. doi:10.1093/ejil/13.3.661.
  • McGinn, Therese (2000). . International Family Planning Perspectives. 26 (4): 174–180. doi:10.2307/2648255. ISSN 0190-3187. JSTOR 2648255. Archived from the original on 22 January 2022. Retrieved 3 June 2022.
  • Pearson, Joseph (2010). "Dubrovnik's Artistic Patrimony, and its Role in War Reporting (1991)". European History Quarterly. 40 (2): 197–216. doi:10.1177/0265691410358937. S2CID 144872875.
  • Salzman, Todd A. (1998). "Rape Camps as a Means of Ethnic Cleansing: Religious, Cultural, and Ethical Responses to Rape Victims in the Former Yugoslavia". Human Rights Quarterly. 20 (2): 348–378. doi:10.1353/hrq.1998.0019. S2CID 143807616.
  • Weine, Stevan M.; Becker, Daniel F.; Vojvoda, Dolores; Hodzic, Emir (1998). "Individual change after genocide in Bosnian survivors of "ethnic cleansing": Assessing personality dysfunction". Journal of Traumatic Stress. 11 (1): 147–153. doi:10.1023/A:1024469418811. PMID 9479683. S2CID 31419500.
  • Wood, William B. (2001). "Geographic Aspects of Genocide: A Comparison of Bosnia and Rwanda". Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers. 26 (1): 57–75. doi:10.1111/1475-5661.00006. JSTOR 623145.
  • Zaknic, Ivan (1992). "The Pain of Ruins: Croatian Architecture under Siege". Journal of Architectural Education. 46 (2): 115–124. doi:10.1080/10464883.1992.10734547.
  • Fridman, Orli (2010). "'It was like fighting a war with our own people': anti-war activism in Serbia during the 1990s". The Journal of Nationalism and Ethnicity. 39 (4): 507–522. doi:10.1080/00905992.2011.579953. S2CID 153467930.
  • Perunovic, Sreca (2015). "Animosities in Yugoslavia before its demise: Revelations of an opinion poll survey". Ethnicities. 16 (6): 819–841. doi:10.1177/1468796815576059. S2CID 147068505.

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  • Human Rights Watch (1994). "Human Rights Abuses of Non-Serbs In Kosovo, Sandñak and Vojvodina" (PDF).
  • Human Rights Watch (29 October 2001). "Milosevic: Important New Charges on Croatia".
  • OHCHR (1993). "Fifth periodic report on the situation of human rights in the territory of the former Yugoslavia submitted by Mr. Tadeusz Mazowiecki". Retrieved 19 August 2017.
  • OSCE (1999). "KOSOVO / KOSOVA: As Seen, As Told". p. 13.
  • UNHCR (1993). "The State of the World's Refugees 1993" (PDF).
  • UNHCR (1997). "U.S. Committee for Refugees World Refugee Survey 1997 – Yugoslavia".
  • "2002 UNHCR Statistical Yearbook: Croatia" (PDF). UNHCR. 2002.
  • 2002 UNHCR Statistical Yearbook: Macedonia. UNHCR. 2000. ISBN 978-0-19-924104-0.
  • "2002 UNHCR Statistical Yearbook: Slovenia" (PDF). UNHCR. 2002.
  • "2002 UNHCR Statistical Yearbook: Serbia" (PDF). UNHCR. 2002.
  • UNHCR (2003). "Bosnian refugees in Australia: identity, community and labour market integration" (PDF).

External links

 
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Yugoslav wars.
  • Di Lellio, Anna (2009). "The Missing Democratic Revolution and Serbia's Anti-European Choice 1989-2009". International Journal of Politics, Culture, and Society. 22 (3): 373–384. JSTOR 25621931.
  • Bogoeva, Julija (2017). "The War in Yugoslavia in ICTY Judgements: The Goals of the Warring Parties and Nature of the Conflict". Brussels: Torkel Opsahl Academic EPublisher.
  • from the Dean Peter Krogh Foreign Affairs Digital Archives
  • Information and links on the Third Balkan War (1991–2001)
  • Nation, R. Craig. "War in the Balkans 1991–2002"
  • Radović, Bora, (PDF) (in Serbian), RS: IAN, archived from the original (PDF) on 4 March 2016, retrieved 8 February 2016
  • Bitter Land, a multilingual database of mass graves in the Yugoslav Wars by Balkan Investigative Reporting Network

January 09, 2023
yugoslav, wars, this, article, about, military, conflicts, which, were, related, dissolution, yugoslavia, account, events, which, entailed, destruction, yugoslav, state, breakup, yugoslavia, were, series, separate, related, ethnic, conflicts, wars, independenc. This article is about the military conflicts which were related to the dissolution of Yugoslavia For an account of the events which entailed the destruction of the Yugoslav state see Breakup of Yugoslavia The Yugoslav Wars were a series of separate but related 9 10 11 ethnic conflicts wars of independence and insurgencies that took place in the SFR Yugoslavia from 1991 to 2001 A 2 The conflicts both led up to and resulted from the breakup of Yugoslavia which began in mid 1991 into six independent countries matching the six entities known as republics which previously composed Yugoslavia Slovenia Croatia Bosnia and Herzegovina Montenegro Serbia and North Macedonia previously named Macedonia Yugoslavia s constituent republics declared independence due to unresolved tensions between ethnic minorities in the new countries which fuelled the wars While most of the conflicts ended through peace accords that involved full international recognition of new states they resulted in a massive number of deaths as well as severe economic damage to the region Yugoslav WarsPart of the Revolutions of 1989 post Soviet conflicts and the post Cold War eraClockwise from top left Officers of the Slovenian National Police Force escort captured soldiers of the Yugoslav People s Army back to their unit during the Slovenian War of Independence a destroyed M 84 during the Battle of Vukovar anti tank missile installations of the Serbia controlled Yugoslav People s Army during the siege of Dubrovnik reburial of victims of the 1995 Srebrenica massacre in 2010 an armoured vehicle of the United Nations Protection Force during the siege of Sarajevo Date31 March 1991 12 November 2001 10 years 7 months 1 week and 5 days Slovenian War of Independence 27 June 7 July 1991 1 week and 3 days Croatian War of Independence 31 March 1991 12 November 1995 A 1 4 years 7 months 1 week and 5 days Bosnian War 6 April 1992 14 December 1995 3 years 8 months 1 week and 6 days Insurgency in Kosovo 27 May 1995 27 February 1998 2 years and 9 months Kosovo War 28 February 1998 11 June 1999 1 year 3 months and 2 weeks Insurgency in the Presevo Valley 12 June 1999 1 June 2001 5 1 year 11 months 2 weeks and 6 days Insurgency in Macedonia 22 January 12 November 2001 9 months and 3 weeks LocationSlovenia Croatia Bosnia and Herzegovina Serbia Montenegro Kosovo and Republic of MacedoniaResultBreakup of Yugoslavia and the formation of independent successor statesTotal deaths c 130 000 140 000 6 7 Displaced c 4 000 000 8 During the initial stages of the breakup of Yugoslavia the Yugoslav People s Army JNA sought to preserve the unity of the Yugoslav nation by crushing all secessionist governments However it increasingly came under the influence of Slobodan Milosevic whose government invoked Serbian nationalism as an ideological replacement for the weakening communist system As a result the JNA began to lose Slovenes Croats Kosovar Albanians Bosniaks and Macedonians and effectively became a fighting force of only Serbs and Montenegrins 13 According to a 1994 report by the United Nations UN the Serb side did not aim to restore Yugoslavia instead it aimed to create a Greater Serbia from parts of Croatia and Bosnia 14 Other irredentist movements have also been brought into connection with the Yugoslav Wars such as Greater Albania from Kosovo abandoned following international diplomacy 15 16 17 18 19 and Greater Croatia from parts of Herzegovina abandoned in 1994 with the Washington Agreement 20 21 22 23 24 Often described as Europe s deadliest armed conflict since World War II the Yugoslav Wars were marked by many war crimes including genocide crimes against humanity ethnic cleansing and mass wartime rape The Bosnian genocide was the first European wartime event to be formally classified as genocidal in character since the military campaigns of Nazi Germany and many key ex Yugoslav individuals who perpetrated it were subsequently charged with war crimes 25 the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia ICTY was established by the UN in The Hague Netherlands to prosecute all individuals who had committed war crimes during the conflicts 26 According to the International Center for Transitional Justice the Yugoslav Wars resulted in the deaths of 140 000 people 6 while the Humanitarian Law Center estimates at least 130 000 casualties 7 Over their decade long duration the conflicts resulted in major refugee and humanitarian crises 27 28 29 Contents 1 Naming 2 Background 3 Conflicts 3 1 Slovenian War of Independence 1991 3 2 Croatian War of Independence 1991 1995 3 3 Bosnian War 1992 1995 3 4 Insurgency in Kosovo 1995 1998 3 5 Kosovo War 1998 1999 3 6 Insurgency in the Presevo Valley 1999 2001 3 7 Insurgency in the Republic of Macedonia 2001 4 Arms embargo 5 War crimes 5 1 Genocide 5 2 Ethnic cleansing 5 3 Wartime sexual violence and rape 6 Consequences 6 1 Casualties 6 2 Internally displaced persons and refugees 6 3 Material damage 6 4 ICTY IRMCT 6 5 Gunrunning 6 6 Drug trafficking 7 Timeline 8 Notes 9 References 9 1 Citations 9 2 General and cited sources 9 2 1 Books 9 2 2 Scholarly journal articles 9 2 3 Other sources 10 External linksNaming EditThe Yugoslav Wars have alternatively been referred to as Wars in the Balkans Wars conflicts in the former Yugoslavia 6 30 Wars of Yugoslav Secession Succession Third Balkan War a term which was suggested in a book which was written by British journalist Misha Glenny the title of his book alludes to the two previous Balkan Wars which were waged from 1912 to 1913 31 In fact some contemporary historians have applied this term to World War I because they believe it is a direct sequel to the 1912 13 Balkan wars 32 Yugoslavia Civil War Yugoslav Civil War Yugoslavian Civil War Civil War in Yugoslavia Background EditMain articles Creation of Yugoslavia and Breakup of Yugoslavia A map of the six Yugoslav republics and the two autonomous provinces between 1945 and 1992 33 The nation of Yugoslavia was created in the aftermath of World War I and its population was mostly composed of South Slavic Christians though the nation also had a substantial Muslim minority Clear ethnic conflict between the Yugoslav peoples only became prominent in the 20th century beginning with tensions over the constitution of the Kingdom of Serbs Croats and Slovenes in the early 1920s and escalating into violence between Serbs and Croats in the late 1920s after the assassination of Croatian politician Stjepan Radic This nation lasted from 1918 to 1941 when it was invaded by the Axis powers during World War II which provided support to the Croatian fascist Ustase founded in 1929 whose regime carried out the genocide of Serbs Jews and Roma by executing people in concentration camps and committing other systematic and mass crimes inside its territory 9 The predominantly Serb Chetniks a Yugoslav Royalist and Serbian nationalist movement and guerrilla force committed mass crimes against Muslims and Croats which are considered a genocide by several authors and they also supported the instatement of a Serbian monarchy and the establishment of a Yugoslav federation 34 35 The Communist led Yugoslav Partisans were able to appeal to all groups including Serbs Croats and Bosniaks and also engaged in mass killings 36 In 1945 the Federal People s Republic of Yugoslavia FPRY was established under Josip Broz Tito 9 who maintained a strongly authoritarian leadership that suppressed nationalism 37 After Tito s death in 1980 relations between the six republics of the federation deteriorated Slovenia Croatia and Kosovo desired greater autonomy within the Yugoslav confederation while Serbia sought to strengthen federal authority As it became clear that there was no solution which was agreeable to all parties Slovenia and Croatia moved towards secession Although tensions in Yugoslavia had been mounting since the early 1980s events in 1990 proved to be decisive In the midst of economic hardship Yugoslavia was facing rising nationalism among its various ethnic groups By the early 1990s there was no effective authority at the federal level The Federal Presidency consisted of the representatives of the six republics two provinces and the Yugoslav People s Army and the communist leadership was divided along national lines 38 The distribution of Serbs and Montenegrins in Croatia Bosnia Montenegro and Serbia in 1981 The representatives of Vojvodina Kosovo and Montenegro were replaced with loyalists of the President of Serbia Slobodan Milosevic Serbia secured four out of eight federal presidency votes 39 and was able to heavily influence decision making at the federal level since all the other Yugoslav republics only had one vote While Slovenia and Croatia wanted to allow a multi party system Serbia led by Milosevic demanded an even more centralized federation and Serbia s dominant role in it 38 At the 14th Extraordinary Congress of the League of Communists of Yugoslavia in January 1990 the Serbian dominated assembly agreed to abolish the single party system However Slobodan Milosevic the head of the Serbian Party branch League of Communists of Serbia used his influence to block and vote down all other proposals from the Croatian and Slovene party delegates This prompted the Croatian and Slovene delegations to walk out and thus the break up of the party 40 a symbolic event representing the end of brotherhood and unity The survey of Yugoslav citizens which was conducted in 1990 showed that ethnic animosity existed on a small scale 41 Compared to the results from 25 years before there was significant increase of ethnic distance among Serbs and Montenegrins toward Croats and Slovenes and vice versa 41 Upon Croatia and Slovenia s declarations of independence in 1991 the Yugoslav federal government attempted to forcibly halt the impending breakup of the country with Yugoslav Prime Minister Ante Markovic declaring that the secessions of Slovenia and Croatia were both illegal and contrary to the constitution of Yugoslavia and he also expressed his support for the Yugoslav People s Army in order to secure the integral unity of Yugoslavia 42 According to Stephen A Hart author of Partisans War in the Balkans 1941 1945 the ethnically mixed region of Dalmatia held close and amicable relations between the Croats and Serbs who lived there in the late 19th and early 20th centuries Many early proponents of a united Yugoslavia came from this region such as Ante Trumbic a Croat from Dalmatia However by the time of the outbreak of the Yugoslav Wars any hospitable relations between Croats and Serbs in Dalmatia had broken down with Dalmatian Serbs fighting on the side of the self declared proto state Republic of Serbian Krajina Even though the policies throughout the entire socialist period of Yugoslavia seemed to have been the same namely that all Serbs should live in one state political scientist Dejan Guzina argues that different contexts in each of the subperiods of socialist Serbia and Yugoslavia yielded entirely different results e g in favour of Yugoslavia or in favour of a Greater Serbia He assumes that the Serbian policy changed from conservative socialist at the beginning to xenophobic nationalist in the late 1980s and 1990s 43 In Serbia and Serb dominated territories violent confrontations occurred particularly between nationalists and non nationalists who criticized the Serbian government and the Serb political entities in Bosnia and Croatia 44 Serbs who publicly opposed the nationalist political climate during the Yugoslav wars were reportedly harassed threatened or killed 44 However following Milosevic s rise to power and the outbreak of the Yugoslav Wars numerous anti war movements developed in Serbia 45 46 Protests were held against the actions of the Yugoslav People s Army while protesters demanded the referendum on a declaration of war and disruption of military conscription resulting in numerous desertions and emigrations 47 48 49 With the escalation of the Yugoslav crisis JNA became heavily dominated by Serbs According to former commander of the fifth army in Zagreb Martin Spegelj 50 of the command positions were held by Croats whilst a few years later at the beginning of the war all key positions were held by Serbs 50 Conflicts EditSlovenian War of Independence 1991 Edit Main article Ten Day War Ambushed JNA tanks near Nova Gorica on the border with Italy The first of the conflicts known as the Ten Day War was initiated by the JNA Yugoslav People s Army on 26 June 1991 after the secession of Slovenia from the federation on 25 June 1991 51 52 Initially the federal government ordered the Yugoslav People s Army to secure border crossings in Slovenia Slovenian police and Slovenian Territorial Defence blockaded barracks and roads leading to stand offs and limited skirmishes around the republic After several dozen casualties the limited conflict was stopped through negotiation at Brioni on 7 July 1991 when Slovenia and Croatia agreed to a three month moratorium on secession The Federal army completely withdrew from Slovenia by 26 October 1991 Croatian War of Independence 1991 1995 Edit Main article Croatian War of Independence Damage after the bombing of Dubrovnik A JNA M 84 tank disabled by a mine laid by Croat soldiers in Vukovar November 1991 Fighting in Croatia had begun weeks prior to the Ten Day War in Slovenia The Croatian War of Independence began when Serbs in Croatia who were opposed to Croatian independence announced their secession from Croatia In the 1990 parliamentary elections in Croatia Franjo Tuđman became the first President of Croatia He promoted nationalist policies and had a primary goal of the establishment of an independent Croatia The new government proposed constitutional changes reinstated the traditional Croatian flag and coat of arms and removed the term Socialist from the title of the republic 53 The new Croatian government implemented policies that were seen as openly nationalistic and anti Serbian in nature such as the removal of the Serbian Cyrillic script from correspondence in public offices 54 55 In an attempt to counter changes made to the constitution local Serb politicians organized a referendum on Serb sovereignty and autonomy in August 1990 Their boycott escalated into an insurrection in areas populated by ethnic Serbs mostly around Knin known as the Log Revolution 56 Local police in Knin sided with the growing Serbian insurgency while many government employees mostly police where commanding positions were mainly held by Serbs and Communists lost their jobs 57 The new Croatian constitution was ratified in December 1990 and the Serb National Council formed SAO Krajina a self proclaimed Serbian autonomous region 58 Ethnic tensions rose fueled by propaganda in both Croatia and Serbia On 2 May 1991 one of the first armed clashes between Serb paramilitaries and Croatian police occurred in the Battle of Borovo Selo 59 On 19 May an independence referendum was held which was largely boycotted by Croatian Serbs and the majority voted in favour of the independence of Croatia 60 58 Croatia declared independence and dissolved its association with Yugoslavia on 25 June 1991 Due to the Brioni Agreement a three month moratorium was placed on the implementation of the decision that ended on 8 October 61 The armed incidents of early 1991 escalated into an all out war during the summer with fronts being formed around the areas of the breakaway SAO Krajina The JNA had disarmed the Territorial Units of Slovenia and Croatia prior to the declaration of independence at the behest of Serbian President Slobodan Milosevic 62 63 This was greatly aggravated by an arms embargo imposed by the UN on Yugoslavia The JNA was ostensibly ideologically unitarian but its officer corps was predominantly staffed by Serbs or Montenegrins 70 percent 64 As a result the JNA opposed Croatian independence and sided with the Croatian Serb rebels The Croatian Serb rebels were unaffected by the embargo because they were supported and supplied by the JNA By mid July 1991 the JNA moved an estimated 70 000 troops to Croatia The fighting rapidly escalated eventually spanning hundreds of square kilometers from western Slavonia through Banija to Dalmatia 65 A destroyed Serbian house in Sunja Croatia Most Serbs fled during Operation Storm in 1995 Border regions faced direct attacks from forces within Serbia and Montenegro In August 1991 the Battle of Vukovar began where fierce fighting took place with around 1 800 Croat fighters blocking the JNA s advance into Slavonia By the end of October the town was almost completely devastated as a result of land shelling and air bombardment 66 The Siege of Dubrovnik started in October with the shelling of UNESCO World Heritage Site Dubrovnik where the international press was criticised for focusing on the city s architectural heritage instead of reporting the destruction of Vukovar in which many civilians were killed 67 On 18 November 1991 the battle of Vukovar ended after the city ran out of ammunition The Ovcara massacre occurred shortly after Vukovar s capture by the JNA 68 Meanwhile control over central Croatia was seized by Croatian Serb forces in conjunction with the JNA Corps from Bosnia and Herzegovina under the leadership of Ratko Mladic 69 In January 1992 the Vance Plan established UN controlled UNPA zones for Serbs in the territory which was claimed by the Serbian rebels as the self proclaimed proto state Republic of Serbian Krajina RSK and brought an end to major military operations but sporadic artillery attacks on Croatian cities and occasional intrusions into UNPA zones by Croatian forces continued until 1995 The fighting in Croatia ended in mid 1995 after Operation Flash and Operation Storm At the end of these operations Croatia had reclaimed all of its territory except the UNPA Sector East portion of Slavonia bordering Serbia Most of the Serb population in the reclaimed areas became refugees The areas of Sector East unaffected by the Croatian military operations came under UN administration UNTAES and were reintegrated to Croatia in 1998 under the terms of the Erdut Agreement 70 Bosnian War 1992 1995 Edit Main article Bosnian War In early 1992 a conflict engulfed Bosnia and Herzegovina as it also declared independence from rump Yugoslavia The war was predominantly a territorial conflict between the Bosniaks who wanted to preserve the territorial integrity of the newly independent Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina and the self proclaimed Bosnian Serb proto state Republika Srpska and the self proclaimed Croat Herzeg Bosnia which were led and supplied by Serbia and Croatia respectively reportedly with a goal of the partition of Bosnia which would leave only a small part of land for the Bosniaks 71 On 18 December 1992 the United Nations General Assembly issued resolution 47 121 in which it condemned Serbian and Montenegrin forces for trying to acquire more territories by force 72 People waiting in line to gather water during the Siege of Sarajevo 1992 The Yugoslav armed forces had disintegrated into a largely Serb dominated military force The JNA opposed the Bosnian majority led government s agenda for independence and along with other armed nationalist Serb militant forces attempted to prevent Bosnian citizens from voting in the 1992 referendum on independence 73 They failed to persuade people not to vote and instead the intimidating atmosphere combined with a Serb boycott of the vote resulted in a resounding 99 vote in support for independence 73 On 19 June 1992 the war in Bosnia broke out though the Siege of Sarajevo had already begun in April after Bosnia and Herzegovina had declared independence The conflict typified by the years long Sarajevo siege and the Srebrenica massacre was by far the bloodiest and most widely covered of the Yugoslav wars The Bosnian Serb faction led by ultra nationalist Radovan Karadzic promised independence for all Serb areas of Bosnia from the majority Bosniak government of Bosnia To link the disjointed parts of territories populated by Serbs and areas claimed by Serbs Karadzic pursued an agenda of systematic ethnic cleansing primarily against Bosnians through massacre and forced removal of Bosniak populations 74 Prijedor ethnic cleansing Visegrad massacres Foca ethnic cleansing Doboj massacre Zvornik massacre siege of Gorazde and others were reported A Serb woman mourns at a grave at the Lion s cemetery in Sarajevo 1992 At the end of 1992 tensions between Bosnian Croats and Bosniaks rose and their collaboration fell apart In January 1993 the two former allies engaged in open conflict resulting in the Croat Bosniak War 75 In 1994 the US brokered peace between Croatian forces and the Bosnian Army of the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina with the Washington Agreement After the successful Flash and Storm operations the Croatian Army and the combined Bosnian and Croat forces of Bosnia and Herzegovina conducted an operation codenamed Operation Mistral in September 1995 to push back Bosnian Serb military gains 76 The advances on the ground along with NATO air strikes put pressure on the Bosnian Serbs to come to the negotiating table Pressure was put on all sides to stick to the cease fire and negotiate an end to the war in Bosnia The war ended with the signing of the Dayton Agreement on 14 December 1995 with the formation of Republika Srpska as an entity within Bosnia and Herzegovina 77 The Central Intelligence Agency CIA in the United States reported in April 1995 that 90 percent of all the atrocities in the Yugoslav wars up to that point had been committed by Serb militants 78 Most of these atrocities occurred in Bosnia Insurgency in Kosovo 1995 1998 Edit Main article Insurgency in Kosovo 1995 1998 In the 1990 s the Kosovo Liberation Army KLA was formed They started carrying out attacks on Serb civilians By the early 1990s there were attacks on Serbian police forces and secret service officials in retaliation for the abuse and murder of Albanian civilians 79 A Serbian policeman was killed in 1995 allegedly by the KLA 80 The KLA sought to destabilize the region hoping the United States and NATO would intervene 81 Serbian patrols were ambushed and policemen were killed 81 It was only in the next year that the organization of KLA took responsibility for attacks 82 The KLA originally composed of a few hundred Albanians attacked several police stations and wounded many police officers in 1996 1997 83 In February 1996 the KLA undertook a series of attacks against police stations and Yugoslav government employees saying that the Yugoslav authorities had killed Albanian civilians as part of an ethnic cleansing campaign 84 On 22 April 1996 four attacks on Serbian security personnel were carried out almost simultaneously in several parts of Kosovo In January 1997 Serbian security forces assassinated KLA commander Zahir Pajaziti and two other leaders in a highway attack between Pristina and Mitrovica and arrested more than 100 Albanian militants 85 Jashari as one of the originators and leaders of the KLA was convicted of terrorism in absentia by a Yugoslav court on 11 July 1997 Human Rights Watch subsequently described the trial in which fourteen other Kosovo Albanians were also convicted as failing to conform to international standards 86 The NATO North Atlantic Council said that KLA was the main initiator of the violence and that it had launched what appears to be a deliberate campaign of provocation 87 Pursuing Adem Jashari for the murder of a Serb policeman the Serbian forces again attempted to assault the Jashari compound in Prekaz on the 22nd of January 1998 88 Between 1991 and 1997 mostly in 1996 97 39 persons were killed by the KLA 89 Attacks between 1996 and February of 1998 led to the deaths of 10 policemen and 24 civilians 90 Kosovo War 1998 1999 Edit Main article Kosovo War A Tomahawk cruise missile launches from the aft missile deck of the US warship USS Gonzalez on March 31 1999 Smoke rising in Novi Sad Serbia after NATO bombardment in 1999 After September 1990 when the 1974 Yugoslav Constitution had been unilaterally repealed by the Socialist Republic of Serbia Kosovo s autonomy suffered and so the region was faced with state organized oppression from the early 1990s Albanian language radio and television were restricted and newspapers shut down Kosovar Albanians were fired in large numbers from public enterprises and institutions including banks hospitals the post office and schools 91 In June 1991 the University of Pristina assembly and several faculty councils were dissolved and replaced by Serbs Kosovar Albanian teachers were prevented from entering school premises for the new school year beginning in September 1991 forcing students to study at home 91 A NATO facilitated ceasefire was signed on 15 October but both sides broke it two months later and fighting resumed When the killing of 45 Kosovar Albanians in the Racak massacre was reported in January 1999 NATO decided that the conflict could only be settled by introducing a military peacekeeping force to forcibly restrain the two sides 92 Yugoslavia refused to sign the Rambouillet Accords which among other things called for 30 000 NATO peacekeeping troops in Kosovo an unhindered right of passage for NATO troops on Yugoslav territory and immunity for NATO and its agents to Yugoslav law the right to use local roads ports railways and airports without payment and requisition public facilities for its use free of cost 93 94 NATO then prepared to install the peacekeepers by force using this refusal to justify the bombings The NATO bombing of Yugoslavia followed an intervention against Serbian forces with a mainly bombing campaign under the command of General Wesley Clark Hostilities ended 2 months later with the Kumanovo Agreement Kosovo was placed under the governmental control of the United Nations Interim Administration Mission in Kosovo and the military protection of Kosovo Force KFOR The 15 month war had left thousands of civilians killed on both sides and over a million displaced 92 Insurgency in the Presevo Valley 1999 2001 Edit Main article Insurgency in the Presevo Valley The Insurgency in the Presevo Valley was an armed conflict between the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia and ethnic Albanian insurgents 95 96 of the Liberation Army of Presevo Medveđa and Bujanovac UCPMB beginning in June 1999 97 There were instances during the conflict in which the Yugoslav government requested KFOR support in suppressing UCPMB attacks since the government could only use lightly armed military forces as part of the Kumanovo Treaty which created a buffer zone so the bulk of the Yugoslav armed forces could not enter 98 Yugoslav president Vojislav Kostunica warned that fresh fighting would erupt if KFOR units did not act to prevent the attacks that were coming from the UCPMB 99 Insurgency in the Republic of Macedonia 2001 Edit Main article 2001 insurgency in the Republic of Macedonia The insurgency in the Republic of Macedonia was an armed conflict in Tetovo which began when the ethnic Albanian National Liberation Army NLA militant group began attacking the security forces of the Republic of Macedonia at the beginning of February 2001 and ended with the Ohrid Agreement The goal of the NLA was to give greater rights and autonomy to the country s Albanian minority who made up 25 2 of the population of the Republic of Macedonia 54 7 in Tetovo 100 101 There were also claims that the group ultimately wished to see Albanian majority areas secede from the country 102 although high ranking NLA members have denied this 100 Arms embargo EditThe United Nations Security Council had imposed an arms embargo in September 1991 103 Nevertheless various states had been engaged in or facilitated arms sales to the warring factions 104 In 2012 Chile convicted nine people including two retired generals for their part in arms sales 105 War crimes EditFurther information Serbian war crimes in the Yugoslav Wars Croatian war crimes in the Yugoslav Wars and War crimes in the Kosovo War Genocide Edit Main articles Bosnian genocide and Bosnian genocide case The skull of a victim of the July 1995 Srebrenica massacre in an exhumed mass grave outside Potocari 2007 It is widely believed that mass murders against Bosniaks in Bosnia and Herzegovina escalated into genocide On 18 December 1992 the United Nations General Assembly issued resolution 47 121 condemning aggressive acts by the Serbian and Montenegrin forces to acquire more territories by force and called such ethnic cleansing a form of genocide 72 In its report published on 1 January 1993 Helsinki Watch was one of the first civil rights organisations that warned that the extent of the violence and its selective nature along ethnic and religious lines suggest crimes of genocidal character against Muslim and to a lesser extent Croatian populations in Bosnia Hercegovina 106 A telegram sent to the White House on 8 February 1994 by U S Ambassador to Croatia Peter W Galbraith stated that genocide was occurring The telegram cited constant and indiscriminate shelling and gunfire of Sarajevo by Karadzic s Yugoslav People Army the harassment of minority groups in Northern Bosnia in an attempt to force them to leave and the use of detainees to do dangerous work on the front lines as evidence that genocide was being committed 107 In 2005 the United States Congress passed a resolution declaring that the Serbian policies of aggression and ethnic cleansing meet the terms defining genocide 108 A trial took place before the International Court of Justice following a 1993 suit by Bosnia and Herzegovina against Serbia and Montenegro alleging genocide The ICJ ruling of 26 February 2007 indirectly determined the war s nature to be international though clearing Serbia of direct responsibility for the genocide committed by the forces of Republika Srpska in Srebrenica The ICJ concluded however that Serbia failed to prevent genocide committed by Serb forces in Srebrenica and failed to punish those responsible and bring them to justice 109 War crimes were conducted simultaneously by different Serb forces in different parts of Bosnia and Herzegovina especially in Bijeljina Sarajevo Prijedor Zvornik Visegrad and Foca The judges however ruled that the criteria for genocide with the specific intent dolus specialis to destroy Bosnian Muslims were met only in Srebrenica in 1995 109 The court concluded that other crimes outside Srebrenica committed during the 1992 1995 war may amount to crimes against humanity according to the international law but that these acts did not in themselves constitute genocide per se 110 The crime of genocide in the Srebrenica enclave was confirmed in several guilty verdicts handed down by the ICTY most notably in the conviction of the Bosnian Serb leader Radovan Karadzic 111 Ethnic cleansing Edit Main article Ethnic cleansing in the Bosnian War Detainees in the Manjaca camp near Banja Luka 1992 Ethnic cleansing was a common phenomenon in the wars in Croatia Kosovo and Bosnia and Herzegovina This entailed intimidation forced expulsion or killing of the unwanted ethnic group as well as the destruction of the places of worship cemeteries and cultural and historical buildings of that ethnic group in order to alter the population composition of an area in the favour of another ethnic group which would become the majority These examples of territorial nationalism and territorial aspirations are part of the goal of an ethno state 112 Detention camps such as Omarska and Trnopolje were also designated as an integral part of the overall ethnic cleansing strategy of the authorities 113 According to numerous ICTY verdicts and indictments Serb 114 115 116 and Croat 117 forces performed ethnic cleansing of their territories planned by their political leadership to create ethnically pure states Republika Srpska and Republic of Serbian Krajina by the Serbs and Herzeg Bosnia by the Croats According to the ICTY Serb forces from the SAO Krajina deported at least 80 100 000 Croats and other non Serb civilians in 1991 92 118 and at least 700 000 Albanians in Kosovo in 1999 119 Further hundreds of thousands of Muslims were forced out of their homes by the Serb forces in Bosnia and Herzegovina 120 By one estimate the Serb forces drove at least 700 000 Bosnian Muslims from the area of Bosnia under their control 121 Survivors of the ethnic cleansing were left severely traumatized as a consequence of this campaign 122 Wartime sexual violence and rape Edit Main articles Rape in the Bosnian War and Wartime sexual violence Former Yugoslavia War rape occurred as a matter of official orders as part of ethnic cleansing to displace the targeted ethnic group 123 According to the Tresnjevka Women s Group more than 35 000 women and children were held in such Serb run rape camps 124 125 126 Dragoljub Kunarac Radomir Kovac and Zoran Vukovic were convicted of crimes against humanity for rape torture and enslavement committed during the Foca massacres 127 The evidence of the magnitude of rape in Bosnia and Herzegovina prompted the ICTY to openly deal with these abuses 128 Reports of sexual violence during the Bosnian War 1992 1995 and Kosovo War 1998 1999 perpetrated by the Serbian regular and irregular forces have been described as especially alarming 124 The NATO led Kosovo Force documented rapes of Albanian Roma and Serbian women by both Serbs and members of the Kosovo Liberation Army 129 Others have estimated that during the Bosnian War between 20 000 and 50 000 women mostly Bosniak were raped 130 131 There are few reports of rape and sexual assault between members of the same ethnic group 132 War rape in the Yugoslav Wars has often been characterized as a crime against humanity Rapes which were perpetrated by Serb forces served to destroy the cultural and social ties which existed between the victims and their communities 133 Serbian policies allegedly urged soldiers to rape Bosniak women until they became pregnant as an attempt towards ethnic cleansing Serbian soldiers hoped to force Bosniak women to carry Serbian children through repeated rape 134 Often Bosniak women were held in captivity for an extended period of time and only released slightly before the birth of a child conceived of rape The systematic rape of Bosniak women may have carried further reaching repercussions than the initial displacement of rape victims Stress caused by the trauma of rape coupled with the lack of access to reproductive health care often experienced by displaced peoples led to serious health risks for victimized women 135 During the Kosovo War thousands of Kosovo Albanian women and girls became victims of sexual violence War rape was used as a weapon of war and it was also used as an instrument of systematic ethnic cleansing rape was used to terrorize the civilian population extort money from families and force people to flee their homes According to a report by the Human Rights Watch group in 2000 rape in the Kosovo War can generally be subdivided into three categories rapes in women s homes rapes during flight and rapes in detention 136 137 The majority of the perpetrators were Serbian paramilitaries but also included Serbian special police or Yugoslav army soldiers Virtually all of the sexual assaults Human Rights Watch documented were gang rapes involving at least two perpetrators 136 137 Since the end of the war rapes of Serbian Albanian and Roma women by ethnic Albanians sometimes by members of the Kosovo Liberation Army KLA have been documented but they have not occurred on a similar scale 136 137 Rapes frequently occurred in the presence and with the acquiescence of military officers Soldiers police and paramilitaries often raped their victims in the full view of numerous witnesses 123 A 2013 report by the United Nations Development Programme UNDP in Croatia entitled Assessment of the Number of Sexual Violence Victims during the Homeland War on the Territory of the Republic of Croatia and Optimal Forms of Compensation and Support of Victims determined the estimated victims male and female of rape and other forms of sexual assault on both sides to number between approximately 1 470 and 2 205 or 1 501 and 2 437 victims 138 Most victims were non Serbs assaulted by Serbs 138 By region the largest number of rapes and acts of sexual violence occurred in Eastern Slavonia with an estimated 380 570 victims 138 According to the UNDP report between 300 and 600 men 4 4 6 6 of those imprisoned and between 279 and 466 women or 30 50 of those imprisoned suffered from various forms of sexual abuse while being held in Serbian detention camps and prisons including those in Serbia proper 138 Between 412 and 611 Croat women were raped in the Serb occupied territories outside of detention camps from 1991 to 1995 138 Croat forces were also known to have committed rapes and acts of sexual violence against Serb women during Operations Flash and Storm with an estimated 94 140 victims 138 Sexual abuse of Serb prisoners also occurred in the Croat run Lora and Kerestinec camps 138 Consequences EditCasualties Edit UN peacekeepers collecting corpses after the Ahmici massacre Some estimates put the number of killed in the Yugoslav Wars at 140 000 6 The Humanitarian Law Center estimates that in the conflicts in former Yugoslav republics at least 130 000 people lost their lives 7 Slovenia s involvement in the conflicts was brief thus avoiding higher casualties and around 70 people were killed in its ten day conflict The War in Croatia left an estimated 22 000 people dead of which 15 000 were Croats and 7 000 Serbs 139 Bosnia and Herzegovina suffered the heaviest burden of the fighting between 97 207 and 102 622 people were killed in the war including 64 036 Bosniaks 24 905 Serbs and 7 788 Croats 140 By share 65 of the killed were Bosniaks 25 Serbs and 8 Croats 141 In the Kosovo conflict 13 535 people were killed including 10 812 Albanians 80 and 2 197 Serbs 16 142 The highest death toll was in Sarajevo with around 14 000 killed during the siege 143 the city lost almost as many people as the entire war in Kosovo In relative and absolute numbers Bosniaks suffered the heaviest losses 64 036 of their people were killed in Bosnia which represents a death toll of over 3 of their entire ethnic group 140 They experienced the worst plight in the Srebrenica massacre where the mortality rate of the Bosniak men irrespective of their age or civilian status reached 33 in July 1995 144 The share of Bosniaks among all the civilian fatalities during the Bosnian War was around 83 rising to almost 95 in Eastern Bosnia 145 During the War in Croatia 43 4 of the killed on the Croatian side were civilians 146 Internally displaced persons and refugees Edit Bosnian refugees in 1993 Kosovo Albanian refugees in 1999 Kosovo Serb refugees in 1999 The Yugoslav Wars caused one of the largest refugee crises in European history It is estimated that the wars in Croatia Bosnia and Herzegovina and Kosovo produced about 2 4 million refugees and an additional 2 million internally displaced persons 147 The war in Bosnia and Herzegovina caused 2 2 million refugees or displaced of which over half were Bosniaks 148 Up until 2001 there were still 650 000 displaced Bosniaks while 200 000 left the country permanently 148 The Kosovo War caused 862 979 Albanian refugees who were either expelled from the Serb forces or fled from the battle front 149 In addition 500 000 to 600 000 were internally displaced 150 which means that according to the OSCE almost 90 of all Albanians were displaced from their homes in Kosovo by June 1999 151 After the end of the war Albanians returned but over 200 000 Serbs Romani and other non Albanians fled Kosovo By the end of 2000 Serbia thus became the host of 700 000 Serb refugees or internally displaced from Kosovo Croatia and Bosnia 152 From the perspective of asylum for internally displaced or refugees Croatia took the brunt of the crisis According to some sources in 1992 Croatia was the host to almost 750 000 refugees or internally displaced which represents a quota of almost 16 of its population of 4 7 million inhabitants these figures included 420 to 450 000 Bosnian refugees 35 000 refugees from Serbia mostly from Vojvodina and Kosovo while a further 265 000 persons from other parts of Croatia itself were internally displaced This would be equivalent of Germany being a host to 10 million displaced people or France to 8 million people 153 Official UNHCR data indicate that Croatia was the host to 287 000 refugees and 344 000 internally displaced in 1993 This is a ratio of 64 7 refugees per 1000 inhabitants 154 In its 1992 report UNHCR placed Croatia 7 on its list of 50 most refugee burdened countries it registered 316 thousand refugees which is a ratio of 15 1 relative to its total population 155 Together with those internally displaced Croatia was the host to at least 648 000 people in need of an accommodation in 1992 156 In comparison Macedonia had 10 5 refugees per 1000 inhabitants in 1999 157 Slovenia was the host to 45 000 refugees in 1993 which is 22 7 refugees per 1000 inhabitants 158 Serbia and Montenegro were the host to 479 111 refugees in 1993 which is a ratio of 45 5 refugees per 1000 inhabitants By 1998 this grew to 502 037 refugees or 47 7 refugees per 1000 inhabitants By 2000 the number of refugees fell to 484 391 persons but the number of internally displaced grew to 267 500 or a combined total of 751 891 persons who were displaced and in need of an accommodation 159 Number of refugees or internally displaced in 1991 2000 Country region Albanians Bosniaks Croats Serbs Others Hungarians Gorani Romani Croatia 247 000 160 300 000 161 Bosnia and Herzegovina 1 270 000 162 490 000 162 540 000 162 Kosovo 1 200 000 163 1 450 000 151 35 000 153 40 000 164 143 000 165 67 000 165 Vojvodina Sandzak 30 000 40 000 166 60 000 164 Total 1 200 000 1 450 000 1 300 000 1 310 000 772 000 777 000 983 000 127 000Material damage Edit War damage on a Sarajevo building Material and economic damages brought by the conflicts were catastrophic Bosnia and Herzegovina had a GDP of between 8 9 billion before the war The government estimated the overall war damages at 50 70 billion It also registered a GDP decline of 75 after the war 167 Some 60 of the housing in the country has been either damaged or destroyed which proved a problem when trying to bring all the refugees back home 168 Bosnia also became the most landmine contaminated country of Europe 1820 km2 of its territory were contaminated with these explosives which represent 3 6 of its land surface Between 3 and 6 million landmines were scattered throughout Bosnia Five thousand people died from them of which 1 520 were killed after the war 169 In 1999 the Croatian Parliament passed a bill estimating war damages of the country at 37 billion 170 The government alleges that between 1991 and April 1993 an estimated total of 210 000 buildings in Croatia including schools hospitals and refugee camps were either damaged or destroyed from shelling by the Republic of Serbian Krajina and the JNA forces Cities affected by the shelling were Karlovac Gospic Ogulin Zadar Biograd and others 171 The Croatian government also acknowledged that 7 489 buildings belonging to Croatian Serbs were damaged or destroyed by explosives arson or other deliberate means by the end of 1992 From January to March 1993 another 220 buildings were also damaged or destroyed Criminal charges were brought against 126 Croats for such acts 172 Sanctions against FR Yugoslavia created a hyperinflation of 300 million percent of the Yugoslav dinar By 1995 almost 1 million workers lost their jobs while the gross domestic product had fallen 55 percent since 1989 173 The 1999 NATO bombing of Serbia resulted in additional damages One of the most severe was the bombing of the Pancevo petrochemical factory which caused the release of 80 000 tonnes of burning fuel into the environment 174 Approximately 31 000 rounds of depleted Uranium ammunition were used during this bombing 175 ICTY IRMCT Edit Main articles International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia and International Residual Mechanism for Criminal Tribunals Several people were convicted by the ICTY for crimes during the Yugoslav wars including from left Radovan Karadzic Ratko Mladic Milan Lukic and Slobodan Praljak The International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia ICTY was a body of the United Nations established to prosecute serious crimes committed during the Yugoslav Wars and to try their perpetrators The tribunal was an ad hoc court located in The Hague Netherlands One of the most prominent trials involved ex Serbian President Slobodan Milosevic who was in 2002 indicted on 66 counts of crimes against humanity war crimes and genocide allegedly committed in wars in Kosovo Bosnia and Croatia 176 His trial remained incomplete since he died in 2006 before a verdict was reached 177 Nonetheless ICTY s trial helped to delegitimize Milosevic s leadership as one scholar put it 178 Several convictions were handed over by the ICTY and its successor the International Residual Mechanism for Criminal Tribunals IRMCT The first notable verdict confirming genocide in Srebrenica was the case against Serb General Radislav Krstic he was sentenced in 2001 while the Appeals Chamber confirmed the verdict in 2004 179 Another verdict was against ex Bosnian Serb leader Radovan Karadzic who was also convicted for genocide 180 On 22 November 2017 general Ratko Mladic was sentenced to a life in prison 181 Other important convictions included those of ultranationalist Vojislav Seselj 182 183 paramilitary leader Milan Lukic 184 Bosnian Serb politician Momcilo Krajisnik 185 Bosnian Serb general Stanislav Galic who was convicted for the siege of Sarajevo 186 the former Assistant Minister of the Serbian Ministry of Internal Affairs and Chief of its Public Security Department Vlastimir Đorđevic who was convicted for crimes in Kosovo 187 ex JNA commander Mile Mrksic 188 189 as well as both of Republic of Serbian Krajina ex Presidents Milan Martic 190 and Milan Babic 191 Several Croats Bosniaks and Albanians were convicted for crimes as well including ex Herzegovina Croat leader Jadranko Prlic and commander Slobodan Praljak 192 Bosnian Croat military commander Mladen Naletilic 193 ex Bosnian Army commander Enver Hadzihasanovic 194 and ex Kosovo commander Haradin Bala 195 In the Trial of Gotovina et al Croatian Generals Ante Gotovina and Mladen Markac were ultimately acquitted on appeal in 2012 196 By 2019 based on its statute 197 the ICTY found that the Serb officials were found guilty of persecutions deportation and or forcible transfer crimes against humanity Article 5 in Croatia 198 Bosnia and Herzegovina 180 Kosovo 199 and Vojvodina 182 They were also found guilty of murder crimes against humanity Article 5 in Croatia 198 Bosnia and Herzegovina 180 and Kosovo 199 as well as terror violations of the laws or customs of war Article 3 186 and genocide Article 4 179 180 in Bosnia and Herzegovina The Croat forces were not found guilty of anything in Croatia but were found guilty of deportation other inhumane acts forcible transfer murder and persecutions crimes against humanity Article 5 in Bosnia and Herzegovina 192 The Bosniak forces were found guilty of inhuman treatment grave breaches of the Geneva Conventions Article 2 murder cruel treatment violations of the laws or customs of war Article 3 in Bosnia and Herzegovina 200 One Albanian official was found guilty of torture cruel treatment murder violations of the laws or customs of war Article 3 in Kosovo 201 Gunrunning Edit After the fighting ended millions of weapons were left with civilians who held on to them in case violence should resurface These weapons later turned up on the arms black market of Europe 202 In 2018 there were no exact official figures on how many firearms are missing in Serbia authorities have given estimates ranging from 250 000 to 900 000 of different kinds are in circulation In Bosnia public reports state a figure of 750 000 At the end of 2017 a man entered a bus in Banja Luka carrying two bags with 36 hand grenades three assault rifles seven handguns a mine and hundreds of cartridges with Gothenburg as the destination He was stopped in the neighbouring country of Slovenia A 26 year old woman was stopped at the border to Croatia with three antitank weapons and a hand grenade Police found four machine guns three battle rifles three assault rifles and a large quantity of explosives at the home of a 79 year old man According to a UNDP official getting civilians to give up their arms to state authorities is complicated as people are then forced to trust that authorities will protect them Instead criminals collect the weapons 203 Some of the missing weapons were used in the November 2015 Paris attacks during which 130 people were killed by jihadists Other arms were assault rifles used in the 2015 Gothenburg pub shooting 203 Successor state government efforts to reduce the prevalence of illegally held arms are co ordinated through a Regional Approach to Stockpile Reduction RASR focused on reducing stockpiles arms diversion and unexplained explosions in South east Europe Partners include the European Union the US Office of Weapons Removal and Abatement the US Defense Threat Reduction Agency DTRA and NATO s Support and Procurement Agency 204 Funded by the US Government activities include annual workshops attended by US government officials from the Departments of State and Defense and defense ministry representatives from the Yugoslav successor states 205 Drug trafficking Edit Since the beginning of hostilities between warring factions in the former Yugoslavia the Kosovo Liberation Army as well as the Serbian mafia have been involved in the illegal drug trade particularly with West Asian heroin entering Central and Western Europe In the early 1990 s 2 000 Albanians from Kosovo were held in Swiss jails on charges of arms and drug smuggling Over the course of the war a total of several tons of heroin were confiscated by Interpol and local law enforcement Illegal drug smuggling operations also led to additional crimes all across Western Europe which included bank robberies and extortion committed by criminal gangs operating out of Eastern Europe The intensification of heroin consumption in Western Europe led to the expansion of open air drug markets particularly in Switzerland Bosnian criminal gangs continue to have a significant impact on global drug trafficking through entering the lucrative cocaine trade 206 207 208 Timeline EditMain article Timeline of the Yugoslav Wars 1990 Log Revolution SAO Krajina is proclaimed over an indefinite area of Croatia 1991 People observing new death notifications on a wall in Dubrovnik during the siege December 1991 Slovenia and Croatia declare independence in June North Macedonia in September War in Slovenia lasts ten days and results in dozens of fatalities The Yugoslav army leaves Slovenia after intervention of the UN which insisted that Slovenia be allowed to leave but supports rebel Serb forces in Croatia The Croatian War of Independence begins in Croatia Serb areas in Croatia declare independence but are recognized only by Belgrade Vukovar is devastated by bombardments and shelling and other cities such as Dubrovnik Karlovac and Osijek sustain extensive damage 209 Refugees from war zones overwhelm Croatia while Europe is slow to accept refugees In Croatia about 250 000 Croats and other non Serbs forced from their homes or fled the violence 210 1992 Besieged residents collect firewood in the bitter winter of 1992 during the Siege of Sarajevo Vance Plan signed creating four United Nations Protection Force zones for Serbs and ending large scale fighting in Croatia Bosnia declares independence Bosnian war begins with the Bosnian Serb military leadership most notably Ratko Mladic trying to create a new separate Serb state Republika Srpska through which they would conquer as much of Bosnia as possible for the vision of either a Greater Serbia 211 or a rump Yugoslavia 212 213 214 Federal Republic of Yugoslavia proclaimed consisting of Serbia and Montenegro the two remaining republics United Nations impose sanctions against FR Yugoslavia for its support of the unrecognized Republic of Serbian Krajina in Croatia and Republika Srpska in Bosnia 215 In May 1992 Slovenia Croatia and Bosnia become UN members FR Yugoslavia claims being sole legal heir to SFRY which is disputed by other republics UN envoys agree that Yugoslavia had dissolved into constituent republics The Yugoslav army retreats from Bosnia but leaves its weapons to the army of Republika Srpska which attacks poorly armed Bosnian cities of Zvornik Kotor Varos Prijedor Foca Visegrad Doboj Prijedor ethnic cleansing and siege of Sarajevo start Hundreds of thousands of non Serbian refugees flee Bosniak Croat conflict begins in Bosnia 1993 Two Croatian Defense Council HVO T 55 Main Battle Tanks pull into firing position during a three day exercise held at the Barbara Range in Glamoc Bosnia and Herzegovina Srebrenica Genocide Memorial Stone at Potocari Fighting begins in the Bihac region between Bosnian Government forces loyal to Alija Izetbegovic and Bosniaks loyal to Fikret Abdic also supported by the Serbs Sanctions in FR Yugoslavia now isolated create hyperinflation of 300 million percent of the Yugoslav dinar 173 Ahmici massacre the Croat forces kill over a hundred Bosnian Muslims Battle of Mostar UNESCO World Heritage Site Stari Most The Old Bridge in Mostar built in 1566 was destroyed by Croatian HVO forces 216 It was rebuilt in 2003 ARBiH launch Operation Neretva 93 against HVO in Herzegovina which ended in a stalemate 1994 Markale market shelling in Sarajevo Peace treaty between Bosniaks and Croats arbitrated by the United States Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina formed FR Yugoslavia starts slowly suspending its financial and military support for Republika Srpska 217 1995 Srebrenica massacre reported 8 000 Bosniaks killed by Serb forces 111 Croatia launches Operation Flash recapturing a part of its territory but tens of thousands of Serb civilians flee from the area The RSK responds with the Zagreb rocket attack Croatia launches Operation Storm reclaiming all UNPA zones except Eastern Slavonia and resulting in exodus of 150 000 200 000 Serbs from the zones Yugoslav forces do not intervene War in Croatia ends NATO launches a series of air strikes on Bosnian Serb artillery and other military targets Croatian and Bosnian army start a joint offensive against Republika Srpska Dayton Agreement signed in Paris War in Bosnia and Herzegovina ends Aftermath of war is over 100 000 killed and missing and two million people internally displaced or refugees 218 1996 FR Yugoslavia recognizes Croatia and Bosnia amp Herzegovina Fighting breaks out in Kosovo between Albanians rebels and FR Yugoslav authorities Following allegations of fraud in local elections tens of thousands of Serbs demonstrate in Belgrade against the Milosevic government for three months 219 1998 Eastern Slavonia peacefully reintegrated into Croatia following a gradual three year handover of power Fighting in Kosovo gradually escalates between Albanians demanding independence and the state 1999 Racak massacre Rambouillet talks fail NATO starts a military campaign in Kosovo and bombards FR Yugoslavia in Operation Allied Force 220 Following Milosevic s signing of an agreement control of Kosovo is handed to the United Nations but still remains a part of Yugoslavia s federation After losing wars in Croatia Bosnia and Kosovo numerous Serbs leave those regions to find refuge in remainder of Serbia In 1999 Serbia was host to some 700 000 Serb refugees or internally displaced 152 Fresh fighting erupts between Albanians and Yugoslav security forces in Albanian populated areas outside of Kosovo with the intent of joining three municipalities to Kosovo Presevo Bujanovac and Medveđa Franjo Tuđman dies Shortly after his party loses the elections Yugoslav Ministry of Defence building in Belgrade destroyed during the 1999 NATO bombing 2000 Slobodan Milosevic is voted out of office and Vojislav Kostunica becomes the new president of Yugoslavia With Milosevic ousted and a new government in place FR Yugoslavia restores ties with the west The political and economic sanctions are suspended in total and FRY is reinstated in many political and economic organizations as well as becoming a candidate for other collaborative efforts 2001 An Albanian insurgency begins in Macedonia Conflict in Southern Serbia ends in defeat for Albanians Conflict in Macedonia ends with the Ohrid Agreement Notes Edit There was no formal declaration of war The first armed clash of the war was the Pakrac clash on 1 March 1991 1 followed by the Plitvice Lakes incident on 31 March 1991 when the first fatalities occurred 2 The last major combat operation was Operation Storm from 5 8 August 1995 3 Formally hostilities ceased when the Erdut Agreement was signed on 12 November 1995 4 Some historians only narrow the conflicts to Slovenia Croatia Bosnia and Herzegovina and Kosovo in the 1990s 12 Others also include the Presevo Valley insurgency and 2001 Macedonian insurgency References EditCitations Edit Stephen Engelberg 3 March 1991 Belgrade Sends Troops to Croatia Town The New York Times Retrieved 11 December 2010 Chuck Sudetic 1 April 1991 Deadly Clash in a Yugoslav Republic The New York Times Retrieved 11 December 2010 Dean E Murphy 8 August 1995 Croats Declare Victory End Blitz Los Angeles Times Retrieved 18 December 2010 Chris Hedges 12 November 1995 Serbs in Croatia Resolve Key Issue by Giving up Land The New York Times Retrieved 18 December 2010 Mine kills Serb police BBC News 14 October 2000 Archived from the original on 10 August 2014 a b c d Transitional Justice in the Former Yugoslavia International Center for Transitional Justice 1 January 2009 Retrieved 8 September 2009 a b c About us Humanitarian Law Center Archived from the original on 22 May 2011 Retrieved 17 November 2010 Transitional Justice in the Former Yugoslavia ICJT org International Center for Transitional Justice 1 January 2009 a b c Judah Tim 17 February 2011 Yugoslavia 1918 2003 BBC Retrieved 1 April 2012 Finlan 2004 p 8 Naimark 2003 p xvii Shaw 2013 p 132 Armatta Judith 2010 Twilight of Impunity The War Crimes Trial of Slobodan Milosevic Duke University Press p 121 Annex IV II The politics of creating a Greater Serbia nationalism fear and repression Janssens Jelle 5 February 2015 State building in Kosovo A plural policing perspective Maklu p 53 ISBN 978 90 466 0749 7 Totten Samuel Bartrop Paul R 2008 Dictionary of Genocide with contributions by Steven Leonard Jacobs Greenwood Publishing Group p 249 ISBN 978 0 313 32967 8 Sullivan Colleen 14 September 2014 Kosovo Liberation Army KLA Encyclopaedia Britannica Karon Tony 9 March 2001 Albanian Insurgents Keep NATO Forces Busy TIME Phillips David L 2012 Liberating Kosovo Coercive Diplomacy and U S Intervention in cooperation with the Future of Diplomacy Project Belfer Center for Science and International Affairs The MIT Press p 69 ISBN 978 0 262 30512 9 International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia 29 May 2013 Prlic et al judgement vol 6 2013 PDF United Nations p 383 Gow James 2003 The Serbian Project and Its Adversaries A Strategy of War Crimes C Hurst amp Co p 229 ISBN 978 1 85065 499 5 van Meurs Wim ed 11 November 2013 Prospects and Risks Beyond EU Enlargement Southeastern Europe Weak States and Strong International Support Springer Science amp Business Media p 168 ISBN 978 3 663 11183 2 Thomas Raju G C ed 2003 Yugoslavia Unraveled Sovereignty Self Determination Intervention Lexington Books p 10 ISBN 978 0 7391 0757 7 Mahmutcehajic Rusmir 1 February 2012 Sarajevo Essays Politics Ideology and Tradition State University of New York Press p 120 ISBN 978 0 7914 8730 3 Bosnia Genocide United Human Rights Council archived from the original on 22 April 2009 retrieved 13 April 2015 United Nations Security Council Resolution 827 S RES 827 1993 25 May 1993 The Balkan Refugee Crisis Crisis Group June 1999 Retrieved 14 March 2022 Crisis in the Balkans Chomsky info Retrieved 14 March 2022 Bosnia and Herzegovina The Fall of Srebrenica and the Failure of UN Peacekeeping Human Rights Watch 15 October 1995 Retrieved 14 March 2022 Tabeau Ewa 15 January 2009 Casualties of the 1990s wars in the former Yugoslavia 1991 1999 PDF Helsinki Committee for Human Rights in Serbia Glenny 1996 p 250 Bideleux amp Jeffries 2007 p 429 Serbia and Kosovo reach EU brokered landmark accord BBC 19 April 2013 Retrieved 13 December 2014 Tomasevich Jozo 2001 War and Revolution in Yugoslavia 1941 1945 Stanford University Press pp 747 152 ISBN 0 8047 7924 4 Redzic Enver 2005 Bosnia and Herzegovina in the Second World War London New York Frank Cass pp 155 402 ISBN 978 0 7146 5625 0 Hart Stephen A 17 February 2011 Partisans War in the Balkans 1941 1945 BBC History Retrieved 11 July 2012 Annex III The Balkan wars and the world wars a b Annex IV Prelude to the breakup Brown amp Karim 1995 p 116 Milosevic s Yugoslavia Communism Crumbles Milosevic s Yugoslavia BBC News a b Perunovic 2015 Cohen amp Dragovic Saso 2008 p 323 Guzina 2003 p 91 a b Gagnon 2004 p 5 Udovicki amp Ridgeway 2000 pp 255 266 Fridman 2010 Spomenik neznanom dezerteru Vreme 2008 Retrieved 4 May 2020 Udovicki amp Ridgeway 2000 pp 255 258 Powers 1997 p 467 Lenard J Cohen Jasna Dragovic Soso 2007 State Collapse in South Eastern Europe New Perspectives on Yugoslavia s Disintegration p 309 Purdue University Press ISBN 1 55753 460 8 Race Helena 2005 Dan prej 26 junij 1991 diplomsko delo A Day Before 26 June 1991 diploma thesis PDF in Slovenian Faculty of Social Sciences University of Ljubljana Retrieved 3 February 2011 Prunk Janko 2001 Path to Slovene State Public Relations and Media Office Government of the Republic of Slovenia Retrieved 3 February 2011 Tanner 2001 p 229 Guskova Elena 2001 History of the Yugoslavian crisis 1990 2000 Moscow p 147 ISBN 5941910037 Yugoslavia in the 20th Century Sketches of Political History 2011 pp 780 781 ISBN 9785916741216 Tanner 2001 p 233 Ramet 2010 p 262 a b Goldstein 1999 p 222 Ramet 2010 p 119 Sudetic Chuck 20 May 1991 Croatia Votes for Sovereignty and Confederation The New York Times Retrieved 12 December 2010 Goldstein 1999 p 226 Glaurdic Josip 2011 The Hour of Europe Western Powers and the Breakup of Yugoslavia Yale University Press p 57 ISBN 978 0 300 16645 3 Annex III The Conflict in Slovenia Annex III General structure of the Yugoslav armed forces Annex III Forces operating in Croatia Tanner 2001 p 256 Pearson 2010 Ramet 2010 p 263 Profile Ratko Mladic Bosnian Serb army chief BBC News 31 July 2012 Retrieved 11 July 2012 The Erdut Agreement PDF United States Institute of Peace 12 November 1995 Retrieved 17 January 2011 Hayden Robert M 12 March 1993 The Partition of Bosnia and Herzegovina 1990 1993 PDF National Council for Eurasian and East European Research p ii a b Resolution 47 121 91st plenary meeting The situation in Bosnia and Herzegovina United Nations General Assembly 18 December 1992 Retrieved 23 April 2011 a b Mestrovic 1996 p 36 Mestrovic 1996 pg 7 Prosecutor v Rasim Delic Judgement PDF International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia 15 September 2008 p 24 CIA 2002 p 379 Dayton Peace Agreement Organization for Security and Co operation in Europe 14 December 1995 Retrieved 7 January 2019 Mestrovic 1996 p 8 Henry H Perritt 1 October 2010 Kosovo Liberation Army The Inside Story of an Insurgency University of Illinois Press p 62 Professor Peter Radan Dr Aleksandar Pavkovic 28 April 2013 The Ashgate Research Companion to Secession Ashgate Publishing Ltd pp 178 ISBN 978 1 4094 7652 8 a b Marsden 2000 Professor Peter Radan Dr Aleksandar Pavkovic 28 April 2013 The Ashgate Research Companion to Secession Ashgate Publishing Ltd pp 178 ISBN 978 1 4094 7652 8 Kushner 2002 p 206 Unknown Albanian liberation army claims attacks Agence France Presse 17 February 1996 Perritt 2008 pp 44 56 Human Rights Watch 1998 p 27 Allan Stuart Zelizer Barbie 2004 Reporting war journalism in wartime Routledge p 178 ISBN 978 0 415 33998 8 Elsie 2011 p 142 James Ron 19 April 2003 Frontiers and Ghettos State Violence in Serbia and Israel University of California Press pp 98 ISBN 978 0 520 93690 4 Professor Peter Radan Dr Aleksandar Pavkovic 28 April 2013 The Ashgate Research Companion to Secession Ashgate Publishing Ltd pp 178 ISBN 978 1 4094 7652 8 a b The Prosecutor vs Milan Milutinovic et al Judgement 26 February 2009 pp 88 89 a b The Prosecutor vs Milan Milutinovic et al Judgement 26 February 2009 p 416 The Rambouillet text Appendix B The Guardian 28 April 1999 Retrieved 5 October 2021 Suy Eric 2000 NATO s Intervention in the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia Leiden Journal of International Law Cambridge University Press 13 193 205 doi 10 1017 S0922156500000133 S2CID 145232986 Perritt Henry H Jr 18 July 2008 Kosovo Liberation Army The Inside Story of an Insurgency University of Illinois Press ISBN 978 0 252 03342 1 Morton Jeffrey S Bianchini Stefano Nation Craig Forage Paul eds 17 January 2004 Reflections on the Balkan Wars Ten Years After the Break up of Yugoslavia Palgrave Macmillan ISBN 978 1 4039 6332 1 Morton Jeffrey S 2004 Reflections on the Balkan Wars Palgrave Macmillan p 57 ISBN 978 1 4039 6332 1 Renewed clashes near Kosovo border BBC News 28 January 2001 Retrieved 23 April 2015 Kostunica warns of fresh fighting BBC News 29 January 2001 a b Wood Paul 20 March 2001a Who are the rebels BBC News Census of Population Households and Dwellings in the Republic of Macedonia 2002 Book XIII PDF Skopje State Statistical Office of the Republic of Macedonia May 2005 Macedonia s Liberation Army A Learner s Lexicon World Press Review 48 9 September 2001 Retrieved 18 April 2012 UN arms embargo on Yugoslavia FRY Stockholm International Peace Research Institute Retrieved 28 December 2015 Blaz Zgaga Matej Surc 2 December 2011 Yugoslavia and the profits of doom EUobserver Retrieved 4 December 2011 Chile generals convicted over 1991 Croatia arms deal BBC News 20 January 2012 Retrieved 21 January 2012 Human Rights Watch World Report 1993 The former Yugoslav Republics Helsinki Watch 1 January 1993 Retrieved 10 July 2017 Peter W Galbraith Galbraith telegram PDF United States Department of State Archived from the original PDF on 25 February 2021 Retrieved 19 February 2022 A resolution expressing the sense of the Senate regarding the massacre at Srebrenica in July 1995 Archived 2016 01 07 at the Wayback Machine thomas loc gov accessed 25 April 2015 a b Marlise Simons 27 February 2007 Court Declares Bosnia Killings Were Genocide The New York Times Retrieved 10 July 2017 Sense Tribunal SERBIA FOUND GUILTY OF FAILURE TO PREVENT AND PUNISH GENOCIDE Archived from the original on 30 July 2009 Retrieved 25 April 2015 a b Alexandra Sims 24 March 2016 Radovan Karadzic guilty of genocide over Srebrenica massacre in Bosnia The Independent Archived from the original on 7 May 2022 Retrieved 10 July 2017 Wood 2001 p 57 75 Campbell 2002 p 1 Prosecutor v Vujadin Popovic Ljubisa Beara Drago Nikolic Ljubomir Borovcanin Radivoje Miletic Milan Gvero and Vinko Pandurevic PDF In the Motion the Prosecution submits that both the existence and implementation of the plan to create an ethnically pure Bosnian Serb state by Bosnian Serb political and military leaders are facts of common knowledge and have been held to be historical and accurate in a wide range of sources ICTY Radoslav Brđanin judgement Archived from the original on 14 April 2009 Tadic Case The Verdict Importantly the objectives remained the same to create an ethnically pure Serb State by uniting Serbs in Bosnia and Herzegovina and extending that State from the FRY to the Croatian Krajina along the important logistics and supply line that went through opstina Prijedor thereby necessitating the expulsion of the non Serb population of the opstina Prosecutor v Jadranko Prlic Bruno Stojic Slobodan Praljak Milivoj Petkovic Valentin Coric and Berislav Pusic PDF Significantly the Trial Chamber held that a reasonable Trial Chamber could make a finding beyond any reasonable doubt that all of these acts were committed to carry out a plan aimed at changing the ethnic balance of the areas that formed Herceg Bosna and mainly to deport the Muslim population and other non Croat population out of Herceg Bosna to create an ethnically pure Croatian territory within Herceg Bosna Judgement Summary for Jovica Stanisic and Franko Simatovic PDF ICTY 30 May 2013 p 2 Retrieved 10 July 2017 Five Senior Serb Officials Convicted of Kosovo Crimes One Acquitted ICTY 26 February 2009 Retrieved 10 July 2017 Campbell 2001 p 58 Geldenhuys 2004 p 34 Weine et al 1998 p 147 a b de Brouwer 2005 p 10 a b de Brouwer 2005 pp 9 10 Robson Angela June 1993 Rape Weapon of War New Internationalist 244 Archived from the original on 17 August 2010 Netherlands Institute for War Documentation Archived September 29 2007 at the Wayback Machine Part 1 Chapter 9 Bosnia Landmark Verdicts for Rape Torture and Sexual Enslavement Criminal Tribunal Convicts Bosnian Serbs for Crimes Against Humanity Human Rights Watch Human Rights Watch 22 February 2001 Simons Marlise June 1996 For first time Court Defines Rape as War Crime The New York Times de Brouwer 2005 p 11 Salzman 1998 p 348 378 Vesna Peric Zimonjic 20 February 2006 Film award forces Serbs to face spectre of Bosnia s rape babies The Independent Belgrade Archived from the original on 24 September 2009 Retrieved 26 June 2009 United Nations 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massacre was genocide UN tribunal for former Yugoslavia confirms UN News 14 April 2004 Retrieved 7 January 2019 a b c d UN welcomes historic guilty verdict against Radovan Karadzic UN News 24 March 2016 Archived from the original on 15 January 2019 Retrieved 15 April 2018 UN hails conviction of Mladic the epitome of evil a momentous victory for justice UN News 22 November 2017 Retrieved 23 November 2017 a b APPEALS CHAMBER REVERSES SESELJ S ACQUITTAL IN PART AND CONVICTS HIM OF CRIMES AGAINST HUMANITY United Nations Mechanism for International Criminal Tribunals 11 April 2018 Retrieved 11 April 2018 Serbia Conviction of war criminal delivers long overdue justice to victims Amnesty International 11 April 2018 Retrieved 11 April 2018 UN genocide tribunal affirms life sentence of Serb paramilitary leader UN News 4 December 2012 Retrieved 15 April 2018 UN tribunal transfers former Bosnian Serb leader to UK prison UN News 8 September 2009 Retrieved 15 April 2018 a b UN war crimes tribunal 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forces it has supported Washington cautiously welcomes move LA Times Retrieved 7 July 2017 Returns to Bosnia and Herzegovina reach 1 million This is a summary of what was said by UNHCR spokesperson Ron Redmond to whom quoted text may be attributed at today s press briefing at the Palais des Nations in Geneva UNHCR The UN Refugee Agency United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees 21 September 2004 Retrieved 11 August 2012 20 000 Attend a Protest Against Serbian Leader The New York Times 10 March 1996 Retrieved 7 July 2017 NATO attack on Yugoslavia begins CNN 24 March 1999 Retrieved 7 July 2017 General and cited sources Edit Books Edit Allcock John B Explaining Yugoslavia Columbia University Press 2000 Allcock John B et al eds Conflict in the Former Yugoslavia An Encyclopedia 1998 Allen Beverly 1996 Rape Warfare The Hidden Genocide in Bosnia Herzegovina and Croatia University of Minnesota Press ISBN 978 0 8166 2818 6 Baker Catherine 2015 The Yugoslav Wars of the 1990s Macmillan 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B 2001 Geographic Aspects of Genocide A Comparison of Bosnia and Rwanda Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers 26 1 57 75 doi 10 1111 1475 5661 00006 JSTOR 623145 Zaknic Ivan 1992 The Pain of Ruins Croatian Architecture under Siege Journal of Architectural Education 46 2 115 124 doi 10 1080 10464883 1992 10734547 Fridman Orli 2010 It was like fighting a war with our own people anti war activism in Serbia during the 1990s The Journal of Nationalism and Ethnicity 39 4 507 522 doi 10 1080 00905992 2011 579953 S2CID 153467930 Perunovic Sreca 2015 Animosities in Yugoslavia before its demise Revelations of an opinion poll survey Ethnicities 16 6 819 841 doi 10 1177 1468796815576059 S2CID 147068505 Other sources Edit Bassiouni M Cherif 28 December 1994 Final report of the United Nations Commission of Experts established pursuant to security council resolution 780 1992 Annex III The military structure strategy and tactics of the warring factions United Nations Archived from the original on 28 July 2012 Retrieved 11 July 2012 Bassiouni M Cherif 28 December 1994 Final report of the United Nations Commission of Experts established pursuant to security council resolution 780 1992 Annex IV The policy of ethnic cleansing United Nations Archived from the original on 4 May 2012 Retrieved 11 July 2012 Ferguson Kate An investigation into the irregular military dynamics in Yugoslavia 1992 1995 Diss University of East Anglia 2015 Siblesz H H 1998 History of Sandzak PDF Refworld p 10 The Prosecutor vs Milan Milutinovic et al Judgement PDF International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia 26 February 2009 Human Rights Watch 1994 Human Rights Abuses of Non Serbs In Kosovo Sandnak and Vojvodina PDF Human Rights Watch 29 October 2001 Milosevic Important New Charges on Croatia OHCHR 1993 Fifth periodic report on the situation of human rights in the territory of the former Yugoslavia submitted by Mr Tadeusz Mazowiecki Retrieved 19 August 2017 OSCE 1999 KOSOVO KOSOVA As Seen As Told p 13 UNHCR 1993 The State of the World s Refugees 1993 PDF UNHCR 1997 U S Committee for Refugees World Refugee Survey 1997 Yugoslavia 2002 UNHCR Statistical Yearbook Croatia PDF UNHCR 2002 2002 UNHCR Statistical Yearbook Macedonia UNHCR 2000 ISBN 978 0 19 924104 0 2002 UNHCR Statistical Yearbook Slovenia PDF UNHCR 2002 2002 UNHCR Statistical Yearbook Serbia PDF UNHCR 2002 UNHCR 2003 Bosnian refugees in Australia identity community and labour market integration PDF External links Edit Wikimedia Commons has media related to Yugoslav wars Di Lellio Anna 2009 The Missing Democratic Revolution and Serbia s Anti European Choice 1989 2009 International Journal of Politics Culture and Society 22 3 373 384 JSTOR 25621931 Bogoeva Julija 2017 The War in Yugoslavia in ICTY Judgements The Goals of the Warring Parties and Nature of the Conflict Brussels Torkel Opsahl Academic EPublisher Video on the Conflict in the Former Yugoslavia from the Dean Peter Krogh Foreign Affairs Digital Archives Information and links on the Third Balkan War 1991 2001 Nation R Craig War in the Balkans 1991 2002 Radovic Bora Jugoslovenski ratovi 1991 1999 i neke od njihovih drustvenih posledica PDF in Serbian RS IAN archived from the original PDF on 4 March 2016 retrieved 8 February 2016 Bitter Land a multilingual database of mass graves in the Yugoslav Wars by Balkan Investigative Reporting Network Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Yugoslav Wars amp oldid 1132538383, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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