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Wikipedia

Horror film

March 08, 2023

"Horror Movie" redirects here. For the Skyhooks song, see Horror Movie (song).

Horror is a film genre that seeks to elicit fear or disgust in its audience for entertainment purposes.[2]

Max Schreck as Count Orlok in the 1922 film Nosferatu. Critic and historian Kim Newman declared it as a film that set the template for the horror film.[1]

Horror films often explore dark subject matter and may deal with transgressive topics or themes. Broad elements include monsters, apocalyptic events, and religious or folk beliefs. Cinematic techniques used in horror films have been shown to provoke psychological reactions in an audience.

Horror films have existed for more than a century. Early inspirations from before the development of film include folklore, religious beliefs and superstitions of different cultures, and the Gothic and horror literature of authors such as Edgar Allan Poe, Bram Stoker, and Mary Shelley. From origins in silent films and German Expressionism, horror only became a codified genre after the release of Dracula (1931). Many sub-genres emerged in subsequent decades, including body horror, comedy horror, slasher films, supernatural horror and psychological horror. The genre has been produced worldwide, varying in content and style between regions. Horror is particularly prominent in the cinema of Japan, Korea, Italy and Thailand, among other countries.

Despite being the subject of social and legal controversy due to their subject matter, some horror films and franchises have seen major commercial success, influenced society and spawned several popular culture icons.

Characteristics

See also: Horror and terror

The Dictionary of Film Studies defines the horror film as representing "disturbing and dark subject matter, seeking to elicit responses of fear, terror, disgust, shock, suspense, and, of course, horror from their viewers."[2] In the chapter "The American Nightmare: Horror in the 70s" from Hollywood from Vietnam to Reagan (2002), film critic Robin Wood declared that commonality between horror films are that "normality is threatened by the monster."[3] This was further expanded upon by The Philosophy of Horror, or Parodoxes of the Heart by Noël Carroll who added that "repulsion must be pleasurable, as evidenced by the genre's popularity."[3]

Prior to the release of Dracula (1931), historian Gary Don Rhodes explained that the idea and terminology of horror film did not exist yet as a codified genre, although critics used the term "horror" to describe films in reviews prior to Dracula's release.[4] "Horror" was a term used to describe a variety of meanings. In 1913, Moving Picture World defined "horrors" as showcasing "striped convicts, murderous Indians, grinning 'black-handers', homicidal drunkards"[5] Some titles that suggest horror such as The Hand of Horror (1914) was a melodrama about a thief who steals from his own sister.[5] During the silent era, the term horror was used to describe everything from "battle scenes" in war films to tales of drug addiction.[6] Rhodes concluded that the term "horror film" or "horror movie" was not used in early cinema.[7]

The mystery film genre was in vogue and early information on Dracula being promoted as mystery film was common, despite the novel, play and film's story relying on the supernatural.[8] Newman discussed the genre in British Film Institute's Companion to Horror where he noted that Horror films in the 1930s were easy to identify, but following that decade "the more blurred distinctions become, and horror becomes less like a discrete genre than an effect which can be deployed within any number of narrative settings or narratives patterns".[9]

Various writings on genre from Altman, Lawrence Alloway (Violent America: The Movies 1946-1964 (1971)) and Peter Hutchings (Approaches to Popular Film (1995)) implied it easier to view films as cycles opposed to genres, suggesting the slasher film viewed as a cycle would place it in terms of how the film industry was economically and production wise, the personnel involved in their respective eras, and how the films were marketed exhibited and distributed.[10] Mark Jancovich in an essay declared that "there is no simple 'collective belief' as to what constitutes the horror genre" between both fans and critics of the genre.[11] Jancovich found that disagreements existed from audiences who wanted to distinguish themselves. This ranged from fans of different genres who may view a film like Alien (1979) as belonging to science fiction, and horror fan bases dismissing it as being inauthentic to either genre.[12] Further debates exist among fans of the genre with personal definitions of "true" horror films, such as fans who embrace cult figures like Freddy Kruger of the A Nightmare on Elm Street series, while others disassociate themselves from characters and series and focusing on genre auteur directors like Dario Argento, while others fans would deem Argento's films as too mainstream, having preferences more underground films.[13] Andrew Tudor wrote in Monsters and Mad Scientists: A Cultural History of the Horror Movie suggested that "Genre is what we collectively believe it to be"[14]

Cinematic techniques

 
Depiction of the usage of mirrors in horror films.

In a study by Jacob Shelton, the many ways that audience members are manipulated through horror films was investigated in detail.[15] Negative space is one such method that can play a part in inducing a reaction, causing one's eyes to remotely rest on anything in the frame – a wall, or the empty black void in the shadows.[15]

The jump scare is a horror film trope, where an abrupt change in image accompanied with a loud sound intends to surprise the viewer.[15] This can also be subverted to create tension, where an audience may feel more unease and discomfort by anticipating a jump scare.[15]

Mirrors are often used in horror films is to create visual depth and build tension. Shelton argues mirrors have been used so frequently in horror films that audiences have been conditioned to fear them, and subverting audience expectations of a jump scare in a mirror can further build tension.[15] Tight framing and close-ups are also commonly used; these can build tension and induce anxiety by not allowing the viewer to see beyond what is around the protagonist.[15]

Music

Main article: Horror film score
 
Filmmaker and composer John Carpenter, who has directed and scored numerous horror films, performing in 2016.

Music is a key component of horror films. In Music in the Horror Film (2010), Lerner writes "music in horror film frequently makes us feel threatened and uncomfortable" and intends to intensify the atmosphere created in imagery and themes. Dissonance, atonality and experiments with timbre are typical characteristics used by composers in horror film music.[16]

Themes

 
Frankenstein's monster
 
Apocalypse by Albert Goodwin
 
A demon in the Book of Wonders
Charles Derry proposed the three key components of horror are that of personality, Armageddon and the demonic.

In the book Dark Dreams, author Charles Derry conceived horror films as focusing on three broad themes: the horror of personality, horror of Armageddon and the horror of the demonic.[17] The horror of personality derives from monsters being at the centre of the plot, such Frankenstein's monster whose psychology makes them perform unspeakable horrific acts ranging from rapes, mutilations and sadistic killings.[17] Other key works of this form are Alfred Hitchcock's Psycho, which feature psychotic murderers without the make-up of a monster.[17] The second 'Armageddon' group delves on the fear of large-scale destruction, which ranges from science fiction works but also of natural events, such as Hitchcock's The Birds (1963).[17] The last group of the "Fear of the Demonic" features graphic accounts of satanic rites, witchcraft, exorcisms outside traditional forms of worship, as seen in films like The Exorcist (1973) or The Omen (1976).[18]

Some critics have suggested horror films can be a vessel for exploring contemporary cultural, political and social trends. Jeanne Hall, a film theorist, agrees with the use of horror films in easing the process of understanding issues by making use of their optical elements.[19] The use of horror films can help audiences understand international prior historical events occurs, for example, to depict the horrors of the Vietnam War, the Holocaust, the worldwide AIDS epidemic[20] or post-9/11 pessimism.[21] In many occurrences, the manipulation of horror presents cultural definitions that are not accurate,[according to whom?] yet set an example to which a person relates to that specific cultural from then on in their life.[clarification needed][22]

History

Main article: History of horror films

In his book Caligari's Children: The Film as Tale of Terror (1980), author Siegbert Solomon Prawer stated that those wanting to read into horror films in a linear historical path, citing historians and critics like Carlos Clarens noting that as some film audiences at a time took films made by Tod Browning that starred Bela Lugosi with utmost seriousness, other productions from other countries saw the material set for parody, as children's entertainment or nostalgic recollection.[17] John Kenneth Muir in his books covering the history of horror films through the later decades of the 20th century echoed this statement, stating that horror films mirror the anxieties of "their age and their audience" concluding that "if horror isn't relevant to everyday life... it isn't horrifying".[23]

Early influences and films

Beliefs in the supernatural, devils and ghosts have existed in folklore and religions of many cultures for centuries; these would go on to become integral parts of the horror genre.[24] Zombies, for example, originated from Haitian folklore.[25] Prior to the development of film in the late 1890s, Gothic fiction was developed.[26] These included Frankenstein (1818) and short stories by Edgar Allan Poe, which would later have several film adaptations.[27] By the late 1800s and early 1900s, more key horror texts would be developed than any other period preceding it.[28] While they were not all straight horror stories, the horrific elements of them lingered in popular culture, with their set pieces becoming staples in horror cinema.[29]

Critic and author Kim Newman described Georges Méliès Le Manoir du diable as the first horror film, featuring elements that would become staples in the genre: images of demons, ghosts, and haunted castles.[30] The early 20th century cinema had production of film so hectic, several adaptions of stories were made within months of each other.[31] This included Poe adaptations made in France and the United States, to Frankenstein adaptations being made in the United States and Italy.[32] The most adapted of these stories was Strange Case of Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde (1886), which had three version made in 1920 alone.[31]

Early German cinema involved Poe-like stories, such as The Student of Prague (1913) which featured director and actor Paul Wegener. Wegner would go on to work in similar features such as The Golem and the Dancing Girl and its related Golem films.[32] Other actors of the era who featured in similar films included Werner Krauss and Conrad Veidt who starred in The Cabinet of Dr. Caligari, leading to similar roles in other German productions.[1] F. W. Murnau would also direct an adaptation of Nosferatu (1922), a film Newman described as standing "as the only screen adaptation of Dracula to be primarily interested in horror, from the character's rat-like features and thin body, the film was, even more so than Caligari, "a template for the horror film."[1]

1930s

 
Bela Lugosi in Dracula (1931), a film noted as inspiring a wave of subsequent American horror films in the 1930s.

Following the 1927 success of Broadway play of Dracula, Universal Studios officially purchased the rights to both the play and the novel.[33][34][35] After the Dracula's premiere on February 12, 1931, the film received what authors of the book Universal Horrors proclaimed as "uniformly positive, some even laudatory" reviews.[36] The commercial reception surprised Universal who forged ahead to make similar production of Frankenstein (1931).[37][38] Frankenstein also proved to be a hit for Universal which led to both Dracula and Frankenstein making film stars of their leads: Bela Lugosi and Boris Karloff respectively.[39] Karloff starred in Universal's follow-up The Mummy (1932), which Newman described as the studio knowing "what they were getting" patterning the film close to the plot of Dracula.[39] Lugosi and Karloff would star together in several Poe-adaptations in the 1930s.[40]

Following the release of Dracula, The Washington Post declared the film's box office success led to a cycle of similar films while The New York Times stated in a 1936 overview that Dracula and the arrival of sound film began the "real triumph of these spectral thrillers".[41] Other studios began developing their own horror projects with Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer, Paramount Pictures, and Warner Bros.[42] Universal would also follow-up with several horror films until the mid-1930s.[39][42]

In 1935, the President of the BBFC Edward Shortt, wrote "although a separate category has been established for these [horrific] films, I am sorry to learn they are on the increase...I hope that the producers and renters will accept this word of warning, and discourage this type of subject as far as possible."[43] As the United Kingdom was a significant market for Hollywood, American producers listened to Shortt's warning, and the number of Hollywood produced horror films decreased in 1936.[43] A trade paper Variety reported that Universal Studios abandonment of horror films after the release of Dracula's Daughter (1936) was that "European countries, especially England are prejudiced against this type product [sic]."[43] At the end of the decade, a profitable re-release of Dracula and Frankenstein would encourage Universal to produce Son of Frankenstein (1939) featuring both Lugosi and Karloff, starting off a resurgence of the horror film that would continue into the mid-1940s.[44]

1940s

 
Cat People (1942), the first horror film produced by Val Lewton at RKO Pictures

After the success of Son of Frankenstein (1939), Universal's horror films received what author Rick Worland of The Horror Film called "a second wind" and horror films continued to be produced at a feverish pace into the mid-1940s.[45] Universal looked into their 1930s horror properties to develop new follow-ups such as their The Invisible Man and The Mummy series.[46] Universal saw potential in making actor Lon Chaney, Jr. a new star to replace Karloff as Chaney had not distinguished himself in either A or B pictures.[47] Chaney, Jr. would become a horror star for the decade showing in the films in The Wolf Man series, portraying several of Universal's monster characters.[46] B-Picture studios also developed films that imitated the style of Universal's horror output. Karloff worked with Columbia Pictures acting in various films as a "Mad doctor"-type characters starting with The Man They Could Not Hang (1939) while Lugosi worked between Universal and poverty row studios such as Producers Releasing Corporation (PRC) for The Devil Bat (1941) and Monogram for nine features films.[48]

In March 1942, producer Val Lewton ended his working relationship with independent producer David O. Selznick to work for RKO Radio Pictures' Charles Koerner, becoming the head of a new unit created to develop B-movie horror feature films.[49][50] According to screenwriter DeWitt Bodeen and director Jacques Tourneur, Lewton's first horror production Cat People (1942), Lewton wanted to make some different from the Universal horror with Tourneu describing it as making "something intelligent and in good taste".[51] Lewton developed a series of horror films for RKO, described by Newman as "polished, doom-haunted, poetic" while film critic Roger Ebert the films Lewton produced in the 1940s were "landmark[s] in American movie history".[52] Several horror films of the 1940s borrowed from Cat People, specifically feature a female character who fears that she has inherited the tendency to turn into a monster or attempt to replicate the shadowy visual style of the film.[53] Between 1947 and 1951, Hollywood made almost no new horror films.[54] This was due to sharply declining sales, leading to both major and poverty row studios to re-release their older horror films during this period rather than make new ones.[55][56]

1950s

The early 1950s featured only a few gothic horror films developed, prior to the release of Hammer Film Productions's gothic films,[57] Hammer originally began developing American-styled science fiction films in the early 1950s but later branched into horror with their colour films The Curse of Frankenstein and Dracula (1958).[58][59] These films would birth two horror film stars: Christopher Lee and Peter Cushing and led to further horror film production from Hammer in the decade.[59]

Among the most influential horror films of the 1950s was The Thing From Another World (1951), with Newman stating that countless science fiction horror films of the 1950s would follow in its style.[60] For five years following the release of The Thing From Another World, nearly every film involving aliens, dinosaurs or radioactive mutants would be dealt with matter-of-fact characters as seen in the film.[60] Films featuring vampires, werewolves, and Frankenstein's monster also took to having science fiction elements of the era such as have characters have similar plot elements from Strange Case of Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde.[61] Horror films also expanded further into international productions in the later half of the 1950s, with films in the genre being made in Mexico, Italy, Germany and France.[62]

1960s

The horror film changed dramatically in 1960, specifically, with Alfred Hitchcock's film Psycho (1960) based on the novel by Robert Bloch. Newman declared that the film elevated the idea of a multiple-personality serial killer that set the tone future film that was only touched upon in earlier melodramas and film noirs.[63][64] The release of Psycho led to similar pictures about the psychosis of characters and a brief reappearance of what Newman described as "stately, tasteful" horror films such as Jack Clayton's The Innocents (1961) and Robert Wise's The Haunting (1963).[65] Newman described Roman Polanski's Rosemary's Baby (1968) the other "event" horror film of the 1960s after Psycho.[66]

Roger Corman working with AIP to make House of Usher (1960), which led several future Poe-adaptations other 1960s Poe-adaptations by Corman, and provided roles for aging horror stars such as Karloff and Chaney, Jr. These films were made to compete with the British colour horror films from Hammer in the United Kingdom featuring their horror stars Cushing and Fisher, whose Frankenstein series continued from 1958 to 1973[63] Competition for Hammer appeared in the mid-1960s in the United Kingdom with Amicus Productions who also made feature film featuring Cushing and Lee.[63] Like Psycho, Amicus drew from contemporary sources such as Bloch (The Skull (1965) and Torture Garden (1967)) led to Hammer adapting works by more authors from the era.[63]

Mario Bava's Black Sunday (1960) marked an increase in onscreen violence in film.[67] Earlier British horror films had their gorier scenes cut on initial release or suggested through narration while Psycho suggested its violence through fast editing.[68] Black Sunday, by contrast, depicted violence without suggestion.[67] This level of violence would later be seen in other works of Bava and other Italian films such the giallo of Dario Argento and Lucio Fulci.[67] Other independent American productions of the 1960s expanded on the gore shown in the films in a genre later described as the splatter film, with films by Herschell Gordon Lewis such as Blood Feast, while Newman found that the true breakthrough of these independent films was George A. Romero's Night of the Living Dead (1968) which set a new attitudes for the horror film, one that was suspicious of authority figures, broke taboos of society and was satirical between its more suspenseful set pieces.[66]

1970s

 
George A. Romero's Night of the Living Dead (1968) led to what Newman described as a "slow burning influence" in independent and thoughtful horror films in the 1970s.[69]

Historian John Kenneth Muir described the 1970s as a "truly eclectic time" for horror cinema, noting a mixture of fresh and more personal efforts on film while other were a resurrection of older characters that have appeared since the 1930s and 1940s.[70] Night of the Living Dead had what Newman described as a "slow burning influence" on horror films of the era and what he described as "the first of the genre auteurs" who worked outside studio settings.[71] These included American directors such as John Carpenter, Tobe Hooper, Wes Craven and Brian De Palma as well as directors working outside America such as Bob Clark, David Cronenberg and Dario Argento.[71] Prior to Night of the Living Dead, the monsters of horror films could easily be banished or defeated by the end of the film, while Romero's film and the films of other filmmakers would often suggest other horror still lingered after the credits.[69]

Both Amicus and Hammer ceased feature film production in the 1970s.[72][73] Remakes of proved to be popular choices for horror films in the 1970s, with films like Invasion of the Bodysnatchers (1978) and tales based on Dracula which continued into the late 1970s with John Badham's Dracula (1979) and Werner Herzog's Nosferatu the Vampyre (1979).[74][75] Although not an official remake, the last high-grossing horror film of decade, Alien (1979) took b-movie elements from films like It! The Terror from Beyond Space (1958).[76] Newman has suggested high grossing films like Alien, Jaws (1975) and Halloween (1978) became hits by being "relentless suspense machines with high visual sophistication."[76] He continued that Jaws' memorable music theme and its monster not being product of society like Norman Bates in Psycho had carried over into Halloween's Michael Myers and its films theme music.[77]

1980s

With the appearance of home video in the 1980s, horror films were subject to censorship in the United Kingdom in a phenomenon popularly known as "video nasties", leading to video collections being seized by police and some people being jailed for selling or owning some horror films.[78] Newman described the response to the video nasty issue led to horror films becoming "dumber than the previous decade" and although films were not less gory, they were "more lightweight [...] becoming more disposable, less personal works."[79][78] Newman noted that these directors who created original material in the 1970s such as Carpenter, David Cronenberg, and Tobe Hooper would all at least briefly "play it safe" with Stephen King adaptations or remakes of the 1950s horror material.[80]

Replacing Frankenstein's monster and Dracula were new popular characters with more general names like Jason Voorhees (Friday the 13th), Michael Myers (Halloween), and Freddy Kruger (A Nightmare on Elm Street). Unlike the characters of the past who were vampires or created by mad scientists, these characters were seemingly people with common sounding names who developed the slasher film genre of the era.[81] The genre was derided by several contemporary film critics of the era such as Roger Ebert, and often were highly profitable in the box office.[82] The 1980s highlighted several films about body transformation, through special effects and make-up artists like Rob Bottin and Rick Baker who allowed for more detailed and graphic transformation scenes or the human body in various forms of horrific transformation.[83][84]

Other more traditional styles continued into the 1980s, such as supernatural themed films involving haunted houses, ghosts, and demonic possession.[85] Among the most popular films of the style included Stanley Kubrick's The Shining (1980), Hooper's high-grossing Poltergeist (1982).[86] After the release of films based on Stephen King's books like The Shining and Carrie led to further film adaptations of his novels throughout the 1980s.[87][88]

1990s

 
Some cast and crew members of The Blair Witch Project (1999), one of the highest grossing horror films of the 1990s.

Horror films of the 1990s also failed to develop as many major new directors of the genre as it had in the 1960s or 1970s.[89] Young independent filmmakers such as Kevin Smith, Richard Linklater, Michael Moore and Quentin Tarantino broke into cinema outside the genre at non-genre festivals like the Sundance Film Festival.[90] Newman noted that the early 1990s was "not a good time for horror", noting excessive release of sequels.[91] Muir commented that in the 1990s after the end of the Cold War, the United States did not really have a "serious enemy" internationally, leading to horror films adapting to fictional enemies predominantly within America, with the American government, large businesses, organized religion and the upper class as well as supernatural and occult items such as vampires or Satanists filling in the horror villains of the 1990s.[92] The rapid growth of technology in the 1990s with the internet and the fears of the Year 2000 problem causing the end of the world were reflected in plots of films.[93]

Other genre-based trends of the 1990s, included the post-modern horror films such as Scream (1996) were made in this era.[94] Post-modern horror films continued into the 2000s, eventually just being released as humorous parody films.[95] By the end of the 1990s, three films were released that Newman described as "cultural phenomenons."[96] These included Hideo Nakata's Ring (1998), which was the major hit across Asia, The Sixth Sense, another ghost story which Newman described as making "an instant cliche" of twist endings, and the low-budget independent film The Blair Witch Project (1999).[96] Newman described the first trend of horror films in the 2000s followed the success of The Blair Witch Project, but predominantly parodies or similar low-budget imitations.[97]

2000s

Teen oriented series began in the era with Final Destination while the success of the 1999 remake of William Castle's House on Haunted Hill led to a series of remakes in the decade.[98] The popularity of the remake of Dawn of the Dead (2004) led to a revival in American zombie films in the late 2000s. Beyond remakes, other long-dormant horror franchises such as The Exorcist and Friday the 13th received new feature films.[99] After the success of Ring (1998), several films came from Hong Kong, South Korea, Thailand, and Japan with similar detective plotlines investigating ghosts.[100] This trend was echoed in the West with films with similar plots and Hollywood remakes of Asian films like The Ring (2002).[101] In the United Kingdom, there was what Newman described as a "modest revival" of British horror films, first with war-related horror films and several independent films of various styles, with Newman describing the "breakouts of the new British horror" including 28 Days Later (2002) and Shaun of the Dead (2004).[101]

David Edelstein of The New York Times coined a term for a genre he described as "torture porn" in a 2006 article, as a label for films described, often retroactively, to over 40 films since 2003.[102] Edelstein lumped in films such as Saw (2004) and Wolf Creek (2005) under this banner suggesting audience a "titillating and shocking"[103] while film scholars of early 21st century horror films described them as "intense bodily acts and visible bodily representations" to produce uneasy reactions.[103] Kevin Wetmore, using the Saw film series suggested these film suggested reflected a post-9/11 attitude towards increasing pessimism, specifically one of "no redemption, no hope, no expectations that 'we're going to be OK'"[21]

2010s to present

After the film studio Blumhouse had success with Paranormal Activity (2007), the studio continued to produce films became hits in the 2010s with film series Insidious.[104] This led to what Newman described as the companies policy on "commercial savvy with thematic risk that has often paid off", such as Get Out (2017) and series like The Purge.[104][105] Laura Bradley in her article for Vanity Fair noted that both large and small film studios began noticing Blumhouse's success, including A24, which became popular with films like The Witch (2015) and Midsommar (2019).[104] Bradley commented how some of these films had been classified as "elevated horror", a term used for works that were 'elevated' beyond traditional or pure genre films, but declared "horror aficionados and some critics pushed back against the notion that these films are doing something entirely new" noting their roots in films like Night of the Living Dead (1968) and Rosemary's Baby (1968).[104] The increase in use of streaming services in the 2010s has also been suggested as boosting the popularity of horror; as well as Netflix and Amazon Prime Video producing and distributing numerous works in the genre, Shudder launched in 2015 as a horror-specific service.[106] In the early 2010s, a wave of horror films began exhibiting what Virginie Sélavy described as psychedelic tendency. This was inspired by experimentation and subgenres of the 1970s, specifically folk horror.[107] The trend began with Enter the Void (2009) and Beyond the Black Rainbow (2010) and continued throughout the decade with films like Climax (2018).[107]

Adapted from the Stephen King novel, It (2017) set a box office record for horror films by grossing $123.1 million on opening weekend in the United States and nearly $185 million globally.[108] The success of It led to further King novels being adapted into new feature films.[109] The beginning of 2020 and the COVID-19 pandemic had a major impact on the film industry, leading to several horror films being held back from release, or having their production halted.[110] During lockdowns, streaming for films featuring a fictional apocalypse increased.[111]

Sub-genres of horror films

Horror is a malleable genre and often can be altered to accommodate other genre types such as science fiction, making some films difficult to categorize.[112]

Body horror

Main article: Body horror

A genre that emerged in the 1970s, body horror films focus on the process of a bodily transformation. In these films, the body is either engulfed by some larger process or heading towards fragmentation and collapse.[113][114] In these films, the focus can be on apocalyptic implication of an entire society being overtaken, but the focus is generally upon an individual and their sense of identity, primarily them watching their own body change.[113] The earliest appearance of the sub-genre was the work of director David Cronenberg, specifically with early films like Shivers (1975).[113][114] Mark Jancovich of the University of Manchester declared that the transformation scenes in the genre provoke fear and repulsion, but also pleasure and excitement such as in The Thing (1982) and The Fly (1986).[115]

Comedy horror

Comedy horror combines elements of comedy and horror film. The comedy horror genre often crosses over with the black comedy genre. It occasionally includes horror films with lower ratings that are aimed at a family audience. The short story The Legend of Sleepy Hollow by Washington Irving is cited as "the first great comedy-horror story".[116]

Folk horror

Folk horror uses elements of folklore or other religious and cultural beliefs to instil fear in audiences. Folk horror films have featured rural settings and themes of isolation, religion and nature.[117][118] Frequently cited examples are Witchfinder General (1968), The Blood on Satan's Claw (1971), The Wicker Man (1973) and Midsommar (2019).[117][118] Local folklore and beliefs have been noted as being prevalent in horror films from the Southeast Asia region, including Thailand and Indonesia.[119][120]

Found footage horror

The found footage horror film "technique" gives the audience a first person view of the events on screen, and presents the footage as being discovered after. Horror films which are framed as being made up of "found-footage" merge the experiences of the audience and characters, which may induce suspense, shock, and bafflement.[121] Alexandra Heller-Nicholas noted that the popularity of sites like YouTube in 2006 sparked a taste for amateur media, leading to the production of further films in the found footage horror genre later in the 2000s including the particularly financially successful Paranormal Activity (2007).[122]

Gothic horror

Main article: Gothic film

In their book Gothic film, Richard J. McRoy and Richard J. Hand stated that "Gothic" can be argued as a very loose subgenre of horror, but argued that "Gothic" as a whole was a style like film noir and not bound to certain cinematic elements like the Western or science fiction film.[123] The term "gothic" is frequently used to describe a stylized approach to showcasing location, desire, and action in film. Contemporary views of the genre associate it with imagery of castles at hilltops and labyrinth like ancestral mansions that are in various states of disrepair.[124] Narratives in these films often focus on an audiences fear and attraction to social change and rebellion.[125] The genre can be applied to films as early as The Haunted Castle (1896), Frankenstein (1910) as well as to more complex iterations such as Park Chan-wook's Stoker (2013) and Jordan Peele's Get Out (2017).[123]

The gothic style is applied to several films throughout the history of the horror film. This includes Universal Pictures' horror films of the 1930s, the revival of gothic horror in the 1950s and 1960s with films from Hammer, Roger Corman's Poe-cycle, and several Italian productions.[126] By the 1970s American and British productions often had vampire films set in a contemporary setting, such as Hammer Films had their Dracula stories set in a modern setting and made other horror material which pushed the erotic content of their vampire films that was initiated by Black Sunday.[127][128][67] In the 1980s, the older horror characters of Dracula and Frankenstein's monster rarely appeared, with vampire themed films continued often in the tradition of authors like Anne Rice where vampirism becomes a lifestyle choice rather than plague or curse.[129] Following the release of Francis Ford Coppola's Bram Stoker's Dracula (1992), a small wave of high-budgeted gothic horror romance films were released in the 1990s.[130]

Natural horror

See also: List of natural horror films

Also described as "eco-horror", the natural horror film is a subgenre "featuring nature running amok in the form of mutated beasts, carnivorous insects, and normally harmless animals or plants turned into cold-blooded killers."[131][132] In 1963, Hitchcock defined a new genre nature taking revenge on humanity with The Birds (1963) that was expanded into a trend into the 1970s. Following the success of Willard (1971), a film about killer rats, 1972 had similar films with Stanley (1972) and an official sequel Ben (1972).[133] Other films followed in suit such as Night of the Lepus (1972), Frogs (1972), Bug (1975), Squirm (1976) and what Muir described as the "turning point" in the genre with Jaws (1975), which became the highest-grossing film at that point and moved the animal attacks genres "towards a less-fantastic route" with less giant animals and more real-life creatures such as Grizzly (1976) and Night Creature (1977), Orca (1977), and Jaws 2 (1978).[133][134][135] The film is linked with the environmental movements that became more mainstream in the 1970s and early 1980s such vegetarianism, animal rights movements, and organizations such as Greenpeace.[136] Following Jaws, sharks became the most popular animal of the genre, ranging from similar such as Mako: The Jaws of Death (1976) and Great White (1981) to the Sharknado film series.[136] James Marriott found that the genre had "lost momentum" since the 1970s while the films would still be made towards the turn of the millennium.[137]

Slasher film

See also: Slasher film

The slasher film is a horror subgenre, which involving a killer murdering a group of people (usually teenagers), usually by use of bladed tools.[138] In his book on the genre, author Adam Rockoff that these villains represented a "rogue genre" of films with "tough, problematic, and fiercely individualistic."[139] Following the financial success of Friday the 13th (1980), at least 20 other slasher films appeared in 1980 alone.[78] These films usually revolved around five properties: unique social settings (campgrounds, schools, holidays) and a crime from the past committed (an accidental drowning, infidelity, a scorned lover) and a ready made group of victims (camp counselors, students, wedding parties).[140] The genre was derided by several contemporary film critics of the era such as Ebert, and often were highly profitable in the box office.[82] The release of Scream (1996), led to a brief revival of the slasher films for the 1990s.[141] Other countries imitated the American slasher film revival, such as South Korea's early 2000s cycle with Bloody Beach (2000), Nightmare (2000) and The Record (2000).[142]

Supernatural horror

Supernatural horror films integrate supernatural elements, such as the afterlife, spirit possession and religion into the horror genre.[143]

Teen horror

Teen horror is a horror subgenre that victimizes teenagers while usually promoting strong, anti-conformity teenage leads, appealing to young generations. This subgenre often depicts themes of sex, under-aged drinking, and gore.[144] Horror films aimed a young audience featuring teenage monsters grew popular in the 1950s with several productions from American International Pictures (AIP) and productions of Herman Cohen with I Was a Teenage Werewolf (1957) and I Was a Teenage Frankenstein (1957).[59] This led to later productions like Daughter of Dr. Jekyll (1957) and Frankenstein's Daughter (1958).[59] Teen horror cycle in the 1980s often showcased explicit gore and nudity, with John Kenneth Muir described as cautionary conservative tales where most of the films stated if you partook in such vices such as drugs or sex, your punishment of death would be handed out.[145] Prior to Scream, there were no popular teen horror films in the early 1990s.[146] After the financial success of Scream, teen horror films became increasingly reflexive and self-aware until the end of the 1990s with films like I Know What You Did Last Summer (1997) and non-slasher The Faculty (1998).[147][146] The genre lost prominence as teen films dealt with threats with more realism in films like Donnie Darko (2001) and Crazy/Beautiful (2001).[148] In her book on the 1990s teen horror cycle, Alexandra West described the general trend of these films is often looked down upon by critics, journals, and fans as being too glossy, trendy, and sleek to be considered worthwhile horror films.[149]

Psychological horror

Psychological horror is a subgenre of horror and psychological fiction with a particular focus on mental, emotional, and psychological states to frighten, disturb, or unsettle its audience. The subgenre frequently overlaps with the related subgenre of psychological thriller, and often uses mystery elements and characters with unstable, unreliable, or disturbed psychological states to enhance the suspense, drama, action, and paranoia of the setting and plot and to provide an overall unpleasant, unsettling, or distressing atmosphere.[150]

Regional horror films

Asian horror films

Horror films in Asia have been noted as being inspired by national, cultural or religious folklore, particularly beliefs in ghosts or spirits.[119][24] In Asian Horror, Andy Richards writes that there is a "widespread and engrained acceptance of supernatural forces" in many Asian cultures, and suggests this is related to animist, pantheist and karmic religious traditions, as in Buddhism and Shintoism.[24] Although Chinese, Japanese, Thai and Korean horror has arguably received the most international attention,[24] horror also makes up a considerable proportion of Cambodian[151] and Malaysian cinema.[152]

India

Main articles: Indian ghost movie and Bollywood horror films

The Cinema of India produces the largest amount of films in the world, ranging from Bollywood (Hindi cinema based in Mumbai) to other regions such as West Bengal and Tamil Nadu. Unlike Hollywood and most Western cinematic traditions, horror films produced in India incorporate romance, song-and-dance, and other elements in the "masala" format,[153] where as many genres as possible are bundled into a single film.[154] Odell and Le Blanc described the Indian horror film as "a popular, but minor part of the country's film output" and that "has not found a true niche in mainstream Indian cinema."[154][155] These films are made outside of Mumbai, and are generally seen as disreputable to their more respectable popular cinema.[154] As of 2007, the Central Board of Film Certification, India's censorship board has stated films "pointless or unavoidable scenes of violence, cruelty and horror, scenes of violence intended to provide entertainment and such scene that may have the effect of desensitising or dehumanizing people are not shown."[156]

 
Still of Madhubala in Mahal (1949), an early Indian horror film.

The earliest Indian horror films were films about ghosts and reincarnation or rebirth such as Mahal (1949).[154] These early films tended to be spiritual pieces or tragic dramas opposed to having visceral content.[157] While prestige films from Hollywood productions had been shown in Indian theatres, the late 1960s had seen a parallel market for minor American and European co-productions to films like the James Bond film series and the films of Mario Bava.[158] In the 1970s and 1980s, the Ramsay Brothers created a career in the lower reaches of the Bombay film industry making low-budget horror films, primarily influenced by Hammer's horror film productions, with little known about their production or distribution history.[159][158] The Ramsay Brothers were a family of seven brothers who made horror films that were featured monsters and evil spirits that mix in song and dance sections as well as comic interludes.[160] Most of their films played at smaller cinema in India, with Tulsi Ramsay, one of the brothers, later stating "Places where even the trains don't stop, that's where our business was."[161] Their horror films are generally dominated by low-budget productions, such as those by the Ramsay Brothers. Their most successful film was Purana Mandir (1984), which was the second highest-grossing film in India that year.[160][162] The influence of American productions would have an effect on later Indian productions such as The Exorcist which would lead to films involving demonic possession such as Gehrayee (1980). India has also made films featuring zombies and vampires that drew from American horror films opposed to indigenous myths and stories.[157] Other directors, such as Mohan Bhakri made low budget highly exploitive films such as Cheekh (1985) and his biggest hit, the monster movie Khooni Mahal (1987).[160]

Horror films are not self-evident categories in Tamil and Telugu films and it was only until the late 1980s that straight horror cinema was regularly produced with films like Uruvam (1991), Sivi (2007), and Eeram (2009) were released.[163] The first decade of the twenty-first century saw a flurry of commercially successful Telugu horror films like A Film by Aravind (2005), Mantra (2007), and Arundhati (2009) were released.[163] Ram Gopal Varma made films that generally defied the conventions of popular Indian cinema, making horror films like Raat (1992) and Bhoot (2003), with the latter film not containing and comic scenes or musical numbers.[160] In 2018, the horror film Tumbbad premiered in the critics' week section of the 75th Venice International Film Festival—the first ever Indian film to open the festival.[164]

Indonesia

This section is an excerpt from Indonesian horror.[edit]
 
Actress Suzzanna has been called the "Queen of Indonesian horror".[165]
Indonesian horror refers to horror films produced in the Indonesian film industry. Often inspired by local folklore,[166][167] Indonesian horror films have been produced in the country since the 1960s. After a hiatus during the Suharto era in the 1990s when censorship affected production, Indonesian horror films continued being produced following Reformasi in 1998.[168][169]

Japan

Main article: Japanese horror
This section is an excerpt from Japanese horror § History and evolution.[edit]
 
Poster of the horror film Ghost-Cat of Gojusan-Tsugi (1956).
After the bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki in 1945, Japanese horror cinema would mainly consist of vengeful ghosts, radiation mutants, and kaiju (giant irradiated monsters) starting with Godzilla (1954).[170] The post-war era is also when the horror genre rose to prominence in Japan.[170] One of the first major Japanese horror films was Onibaba (1964), directed by Kaneto Shindo.[171] The film is categorized as a historical horror drama where a woman and her mother-in-law attempt to survive during a civil war.[171] Like many early Japanese horror films, elements are drawn largely from traditional Kabuki and Noh theater.[170] Onibaba also shows heavy influence from World War II.[170] Shindo himself revealed the make-up used in the unmasking scene was inspired by photos he had seen of mutilated victims of the atomic bombings.[170] In 1965, the film Kwaidan was released. Directed by Masaki Kobayashi, Kwaidan is an anthology film comprising four stories, each based upon traditional ghost stories.[171] Similar to Onibaba, Kwaidan weaves elements of Noh theater into the story.[170] The anthology uses elements of psychological horror rather than jump scare tactics common in Western horror films.[171] Additionally, Kwaidan showcases one commonality seen in various Japanese horror films, that being the recurring imagery of the woman with long, unkempt hair falling over her face.[172] Examples of other films created after Kwaidan weaving this motif into the story are Ring (1998), The Grudge (2004), and Exte (2007).[172] This imagery was directly taken from a traditional Japanese folklore tale similar to the Medusa.[172]

Some Japanese horror films have inspired American remakes. The visual interpretations of films can be lost in the translation of their elements from one culture to another, like in the adaptation of the Japanese film Ju on into the American film The Grudge. The cultural components from Japan were slowly "siphoned away" to make the film more relatable to a western audience.[173] This deterioration that can occur in an international remake happens by over-presenting negative cultural assumptions that, as time passes, sets a common ideal about that particular culture in each individual.[22] Holm's discussion of The Grudge remakes presents this idea by stating, "It is, instead, to note that The Grudge films make use of an un-theorized notion of Japan... that seek to directly represent the country."

South Korea

Main article: Korean horror

The Korean horror film originated in the 1960s and became a more prominent part of the countries film production in the early 2000s.[174] While ghosts have appeared as early as 1924 in Korean film, attempting to chart the history of the genre from this period was described by Alison Peirse and Daniel Martin, the authors of "Korean Horror Cinema" as "problematic", due to the control of the Japanese colonial government blocking artistic or politically independent films.[175] Regardless of settings or time period, many Korean horror films such as Song of the Dead (1980) have their stories focused on female relationships, rooted in Korean Confucianism tradition with an emphasis on biological families.[176] Despite the influence of folklore in some films, there is no key single canon to define the Korean horror film.[177] Korean horror cinema is also defined by melodrama, as it does in most of Korean cinema.[178]

The Housemaid (1960) is widely credited as initiating the first horror cycle in Korean cinema, which involved films of the 1960s about supernatural revenge tales, focused on cruelly murdered women who sought out revenge.[179] Several of these films are in dept to Korean folklore and ghost stories, with stories of animal transformation.[176] Traces of international cinema are found in early Korean horror cinema. such as Shin Sang-ok's Madame White Snake (1960) from the traditional Chinese folktale Legend of the White Snake.[176] Despite bans of Japanese cultural products that lasted from 1945 to 1998, the influence of Japanese culture are still found in Kaibyō eiga (ghost cats) themed films, such as A Devilish Homicide (1965) and Ghosts of Chosun (1970). Other 1960s films featured narratives involving kumiho such as The Thousand Year Old Fox (Cheonnyeonho) (1969).[177] These tales based on folklore and ghosts continued into the 1970s.[180] Korea also produced giant monster films that received release in the United States such as Yongary, Monster from the Deep (1967) and Ape (1976).[178]

 
Park Chan-wook, the director of Thirst (2009), one of the many varied Korean horror films from the early 21st century.

By the end of the 1970s, the Korean horror film entered a period known commonly as the "dark time" for South Korean cinema with audience attracted to Hong Kong and American imports. The biggest influence on this was the "3S" policy adopted by the Chun Doo-hwan government which promoted the production of "sports, screen and sex" for the film industry leading to more relaxed censorship leading to a boom in Erotic Korean films. Horror films followed this trend with Suddenly at Midnight (1981), a reimagining of The Housemaid (1960).[181] As of 2013, many pre-1990 Korean horror films are only available through the Korean Film Archive (KOFA) in Seoul.[174] It was not until the 1998 release of Whispering Corridors was the Korean horror film reinvigorated, with its style containing traces of traditional Korean cinema (culturally specific themes and melodrama) but also the American pattern of making a franchise of horror films, as the film received four sequels.[182] Since the film's release, Korean horror films had had strong diversity with gothic tales like A Tale of Two Sisters (2003), gory horror films like Bloody Reunion (2006), horror comedy (To Catch a Virgin Ghost (2004)), vampire films (Thirst (2009)), and independent productions (Teenage Hooker Became a Killing Machine (2000)).[182] These films varied in popularity with Ahn Byeong-ki's Phone (2002) reaching the top ten in the domestic box office sales in 2002 while in 2007, no locally produced Korean horror films were financially successful with local audiences.[182] In 2020, Anton Bitel declared in Sight & Sound that South Korea was one of the international hot spots for horror film production in the last decade, citing the international and popular releases of films like Train to Busan (2016), The Odd Family: Zombie on Sale (2019) Peninsula (2020) and The Wailing (2016).[183]

Thailand

This section is an excerpt from Thai horror.[edit]
Thai horror refers to horror films produced in the Thai film industry. Thai folklore and beliefs in ghosts have influenced its horror cinema.[184] Horror is among the most popular genres in Thai cinema, and its output has attracted recognition internationally.[185][186][187] Pee Mak, a 2013 comedy horror film, is the most commercially successful Thai film of all time.

Oceania

Australia

It is unknown when Australia's cinema first horror title may have been, with thoughts ranging from The Strangler's Grip (1912) to The Face at the Window (1919) while stories featuring ghosts would appear in Guyra Ghost Mystery (1921).[188] By 1913, the more prolific era of Australian cinema ended with production not returning with heavy input of government finance in the 1970s.[189] It took until the 1970s for Australia to develop sound film with television films that eventually received theatrical release with Dead Easy (1970) and Night of Fear (1973). The Cars That Ate Paris (1974) was the first Australian horror production made for theatrical release.[188] 1970s Australian art cinema was funded by state film corporations, who considered them more culturally acceptable than local exploitation films (Ozploitation), which was part of the Australian phenomenon called the cultural cringe.[190] The greater success of genre films like Mad Max (1979), The Last Wave (1977) and Patrick (1978) led to the Australian Film Commission to change its focus to being a more commercial operation. This closed in 1980 as its funding was abused by investors using them as tax avoiding measures. A new development known as the 10BA tax shelter scheme was developed ushering a slew of productions, leading to what Peter Shelley, author of Australian Horror Films, suggested meant "making a profit was more important than making a good film."[190] Shelley called these films derivative of "American films and presenting generic American material".[190] These films included the horror film productions of Antony I. Ginnane.[191] While Australia would have success with international films between the mid-1980s and the 2000s, less than 5 horror films were produced in the country between 1993 and 2000.[192][193] It was only after the success of Wolf Creek (2005) that a new generation of filmmakers would continuously make horror genre films in Australia that continued into the 2010s.[192][193]

New Zealand

By 2005, New Zealand has produced around 190 feature films, with about 88% of them being made after 1976.[194] New Zealand horror film history was described by Philip Matthews of Stuff as making "po-faced gothic and now we do horror for laughs."[195] Among the earliest known New Zealand horror films productions are Strange Behavior (1981), a co-production with Australia and Death Warmed Up (1984) a single production.[196] Early features such as Melanie Read's Trial Run (1984) where a mother is sent to remote cottage to photograph penguins and finds it habitat to haunted spirits, and Gaylene Preston's Mr. Wrong (1984) purchases a car that is haunted by its previous owner.[197] Other films imitate American slasher and splatter films with Bridge to Nowhere (1986), and the early films of Peter Jackson who combined splatter films with comedy with Bad Taste (1988) and Braindead (1992) which has the largest following of the mentioned films.[196] Film producer Ant Timpson had an influence curating New Zealand horror films, creating the Incredibly Strange Film Festival in the 1990s and producing his own horror films over the 2010s including The ABCs of Death (2012), Deathgasm (2015), and Housebound (2014).[195] Timpson noted the latter horror entries from New Zealand are all humorous films like What We Do in the Shadows (2014) with Jonathan King, director of Black Sheep (2006) and The Tattooist (2007) stating "I'd love to see a genuinely scary New Zealand film but I don't know if New Zealand audiences – or the funding bodies – are keen."[195]

European horror films

Ian Olney described the horror films of Europe were often more erotic and "just plain stranger" than their British and American counter-parts.[198] European horror films (generally referred to as Euro Horror)[199] draw from distinctly European cultural sources, including surrealism, romanticism, decadent tradition, early 20th century pulp-literature, film serials, and erotic comics.[200] In comparison to the narrative logic in American genre films, these films focused on imagery, excessiveness, and the irrational.[201]

Between the mid-1950s and the mid-1980s, European horror films emerged from counties like Italy, Spain and France and were shown in the United States predominantly at drive-in theatre and grindhouse theatres.[198] As producers and distributors all over the world were interested in horror films, regardless of their origin changes started occurring in European low-budget filmmaking that allowed for productions in the 1960s and 1970s for horror films from Italy, France, Germany, United Kingdom and Spain, as well as co-productions between these countries.[202] Several productions, such as those in Italy were co-productions due to the lack of international stars within the country.[203] European horror films began developing strong cult following since the late 1990s.[198]

France

See also: New French Extremity
 
French director Julia Ducournau (centre) won the Palme d'Or for horror film Titane. She is pictured with actors Agathe Rousselle and Vincent Lindon, who star in the film, at the 2021 Cannes Film Festival.

France never truly developed a horror film movement to the volume that the United Kingdom or Italy had produced.[204] In their book European Nightmares, editors Patricia Allmer, Emily Brick, and David Huxley noted that French cinema was generally perceived as having a tradition of the fantastic, rather than horror films. The editors noted that French cinema had produced a series of outstanding individual horror films, from directors who did not specialize in the field.[205] In their book Horror Films, Colin Odell & Michelle Le Blanc referred to director Jean Rollin as one of the countries most consistent horror auteurs with 40 years of productions described as "highly divisive" low budget horror films often featuring erotic elements, vampires, low budgets, pulp stories and references to both high and low European art.[206] Another of the few French directors who specialized in horror is Alexandre Aja, who stated that "the problem with the French is that they don't trust their own language [when it comes to horror]. American horror movies do well, but in their own language, the French just aren't interested."[205]

A 21st-century movement of transgressive French cinema known as New French Extremity was named by film programmer James Quandt in 2004, who declared and derided that films of Catherine Breillat, Claire Denis, Gaspar Noé, and Bruno Dumont, among others, had made "cinema suddenly determined to break every taboo, to wade in rivers of viscera and spumes of sperm, to fill each frame with flesh, nubile, or gnarled, and subject it to all manner of penetration mutilation and defilement."[207] In her book Films of the New French Extremity, Alexandra West described the phenomenon as initially an art house movement, but as the directors of those films started making horror films fitting arthouse standards such as Trouble Every Day (2001) and Marina de Van's In My Skin (2002), other directors began making more what West described as "outright horror films" such as Aja's High Tension (2003) and Xavier Gens' Frontier(s) (2007). Some of these horror films of the New French Extremity movement would regularly place on "Best Of" genre lists, such as Martyrs (2008), Inside (2007) and High Tension (2003) while Julia Ducournau's film Titane (2021) won the Palme d'Or at the 2021 Cannes Film Festival.[208][209]

Germany

 
Jörg Buttgereit in 2015. Buttgereit was described by Kai-Uwe Werbeck as "arguably the most visible German horror director of the 1980s and early 1990s"[210]

German postwar horror films remained marginal after its success during the silent film era.[211] The Third Reich ended production of horror films and German productions never gained a mass audience in Germany's horror film output leading the genre to not return in any major form until the late 1960s.[212][213] Between 1933 and 1989, Randall Halle stated about only 34 films that could be described as horror films and 45 which were co-productions with other countries, primarily Spain and Italy. Outside of Herzog's Nosferatu (1979) most of these films low-budget that focused on erotic themes over horrific turns in narrative.[213] In the mid-1970s, Federal Department for Media Harmful to Young Persons was tasked with protection of minors from violent, racist and pornographic content in literature and comic books which led to increased the code which became law in 1973.[214] These laws expanded to home video in 1985 following the release of titles such as Sam Raimi's The Evil Dead (1981) and the political change when Helmut Kohl became chancellor in 1982.[215] The amount of West German film productions were already low in the 1980s, leaving the genre to be shot by amateurs who had little to no budgets.[216] In the early 1980s, West Germany's government cracked down on graphic horror films similar to the United Kingdom's Video nasty panic.[217] A direct response to this led to West German independent directors in the late 1980s and early 1990s, West German indie directors to release a comparatively high number of what Kai-Uwe Werbeck described as low-budget "hyper-violent horror films" sometimes described as German underground horror.[217][218] Werbeck described the most prominent of these were of Jörg Buttgereit, described by Werbeck as "arguably the most visible German horror director of the 1980s and early 1990s", one which Harald Harzheim claimed to be "the first German director since the 1920s to give the horror genre new impulses".[210] Similar gory films such as Olaf Ittenbach's The Burning Moon was the first, and last film to be made in Germany that is still banned there as of 2016.[217][219]

German horror films made a comeback in what Werbeck described as a mainstream fashion in the 21st century.[218] This included the box office hit Anatomy (2000) and Antibodies (2005), who Odell and Le Blanc described as being a similar to the 1960s krimi genre of crime films.[219][220] The second were films made for international markets such as Legion of the Dead (2001) and the video game adaptations directed Uwe Boll such as House of the Dead (2003) and Alone in the Dark (2005).[220]

Italy

See also: Giallo

Early silent Italian fantastique films focused more on adventure and farce opposed to Germany's expressionism.[221] The National Fascist Party in Italy had forced film in the early sound era to "spread the civilization of Rome throughout the world as quickly as possible."[222] Another influence was the Centro Cattolico Cinematografico (Catholic Cinematic Centre) that was described by Curti as "permissive towards propaganda and repressive against anything related to sexuality or morality."[222] The Vatican City's newspaper L'Osservatore Romano for example, critiqued the circulation of films like Bride of Frankenstein (1935) in 1940.[222]

As Italian neorealism had monopolized Italian cinema in the 1940s, and as the average Italian standard for living increased, Italian critic and historian Gian Piero Brunetta stated that it would "appear legitimate to start exploring the fantastic."[223] Italian film historian Goffredo Fofi echoed these statements, stating in 1963 that "ghosts, monsters and the taste for the horrible appears when a society that became wealthy and evolves by industrializing, and are accompanied by a state of well-being which began to exist and expand in Italy only since a few years"[224][225] Initially, this was a rise in peplum films after the release of Hercules (1958).[226] Italy started moving beyond peplums making Westerns and horror films which were less expensive to produce than the previous sword-and-sandal films.[203]

Italy's initial wave of horror films were gothic horror were rooted in popular cinema, and were often co-productions with other countries.[223] Curti described the initial wave of the 1960s Italian gothic horror allowed directors like Mario Bava, Riccardo Freda and Antonio Margheriti to helm what Curti described as "some of their very best works."[227] Bava's Black Sunday (1960) was particularly influential.[67] Many productions of this era were often written in a hurry, sometimes developed during filming production by production companies that often did not last very long, sometimes for only one film production.[228] After 1966, the gothic cycle ended, primarily through a broader crisis that effected the Italian film industry with its audience rapidly shrinking.[229] Some gothics continued to be produced into the beginning of the 1970s, while the influence of the genre was felt in other Italian genres like the Spaghetti Western.[230]

 
Still from Dario Argento's Suspiria (1977). Curti described the film as developing an "artistic rebirth" and "irrational dimension" to the Italian gothic from its "set pieces to the color and the music."[231]

The term giallo, which means "yellow" in Italian, is derived from Il Giallo Mondadori, a long-running series of mystery and crime novels identifiable by their distinctive uniform yellow covers, and is used in Italy to describe all mystery and thriller fiction. English-language critics use the term to describe more specific films within the genre, involving a murder mystery that revels in the details of the murder rather than the deduction of it or police procedural elements.[232] Tim Lucas deemed early films in the genre such as Bava's The Girl Who Knew Too Much (1963) while Curti described Blood and Black Lace (1964) as predominantly a series of violent, erotically charged set pieces that are "increasingly elaborate and spectacular" in their construction, and that Bava pushed these elements to the extreme which would solidify the genre.[233][234][232] It was not until the success of Dario Argento's 1970 film The Bird with the Crystal Plumage that the giallo genre started a major trend in Italian cinema.[235][236]

Other smaller trends permutated in Italy in the 1970s such as films involving cannibals, zombies and Nazis which Newman described as "disreputable crazes".[77] In Italy entered the 1980s, the Italian film industry would gradually move towards making films for television.[237] The decade started with a high-budgeted production of Argento's Inferno (1980) and with the death of Mario Bava, Fulci became what historian Roberto Curti called "Italy's most prominent horror film director in the early 1980s".[238] Several zombie films were made in the country in the early 80s from Fulci and others while Argento would continue directing and producing films for others such as Lamberto Bava.[238] As Fulci's health deteriorated towards the end of the decade, many directors turned to making horror films for Joe D'Amato's Filmirage company, independent films or works for television and home video.[239][240]

Spain

The highest point of production of Spanish horror films took place during late Francoism, between 1968 and 1975,[241] a period associated to the so-called Fantaterror, the local expression of Euro Horror, identifiable for its "disproportionate doses of sex and violence".[242] During this period, several Spanish filmmakers appeared with unique styles and themes such as Jesús Franco's The Awful Dr. Orloff (1962), first internationally successful horror and exploitation film production from Spain.[243] Dr. Orloff would appears in other films of Franco's during the period.[244] Paul Naschy, the actor and screenwriter.,[244] and Amando de Ossorio with his zombie like medieval knights in Tombs of the Blind Dead (1972).[244] These directors adapted established monsters from popular films, comics and pulp fiction and imbuing them with what Lazaro-Reboll described as "certain local flavour and relevance."[244] A partial overview of films from this era focused on classic monsters (Frankenstein's Bloody Terror (1968), Dr. Jekyll y el Hombre Lobo (1972)) and films that grew from trends created by Night of the Living Dead and The Exorcist (The Living Dead at the Manchester Morgue (1974), Exorcismo (1975)).[245] Most films of the period were low-budget films with short shooting schedules, while occasional films had respectable budgets such as 99 Women (1969) and others that had art house directors attempt commercial production such as Vicente Aranda's The Blood Spattered Bride and Jorge Grau's Bloody Ceremony (1973)[246] Antonio Lazaro-Reboll wrote in 2012 that in the last forty years, the horror film has formed as a significant part of Spain's local transnational filmic production, that created its own auteurs, stars and cycles.[247] For decades, it was described by Beck and Rodríguez-Ortega in Contemporary Spanish Cinema and Genre that the view of the genre has been "almost exclusively been constructed negatively" and that the rise in horror film productions in the late 1960s and 1970s in Spain was "reviled by contemporary critics, film historians and scholars".[248] In his 1974 book Cine español, cine de subgéneros, author Román Gurbern saw contemporary Spanish horror films as "derivative of Authentic American and European traditions" that will "never make it into the histories of Spanish cinema, unless it is dealt with in a succinct footnote."[249]

Film production decreased dramatically in the late 1970s and 1980s for several reasons, including the boom in historical and political films in Spain during early year of democracy. The film legislation implemented by general director of cinematography Pilar Miró in 1983 introduced a selective subvention system, causing the overall number of annually made films (including horror films) to shrink, thereby dealing a heavy blow to horror industry and the Fantaterror craze.[250] In addition, there were changing habits on audiences and the visual material they sought. It was not until the late 1990s and the 2000s that Spanish horror reached another production peak.[241]

After the success of private television operator Canal+ from the 1990s onward investing in the production of films by the likes of Álex de la Iglesia (The Day of the Beast; 1995) or Alejandro Amenábar (Tesis; 1996 and The Others; 2001) through Sogecine,[251] other television companies such as Antena 3 and Telecinco (through Telecinco Cinema) came to see horror as a profitable niche, and the genre thereby became a successful formula for box-office hits in the 2000s, underpinning the wider switch in the industry from the largely State-dependent model of the 1980s to the hegemony of mass media holdings in domestic film production.[252] Jaume Balagueró's The Nameless (1999), which became a popular film both in Spain and abroad, paved the way for new Spanish horror films.[253] Filmax tried to capitalise on the success of the former film by creating the Fantastic Factory genre label[254] and eventually came to develop one of the most successful Spanish film franchises with the Rec film series.[255] The success of Juan Antonio Bayona's The Orphanage (2007) ensued with the release of ersatz gothic films featuring creepy children.[254] Other key names for the development of the genre in the 21st-century Spanish industry include Juan Carlos Fresnadillo and Paco Plaza.[256]

United Kingdom

Further information: British horror cinema

Americas

Mexico

Main article: Horror films of Mexico

After the 1931 release of a US-produced Spanish-language version of Dracula by George Melford for the Latin-American market employing Mexican actors, Mexican horror films were produced throughout the 1930s and 1940s, often reflecting on the overarching theme of science vs. religion conflict.[257] Ushered by the release of El vampiro, the Mexploitation horror film era started in 1957, with films characterised by their low production values and camp appeal, often featuring vampires, wrestlers, and aztec mummies.[258] A key figure in the Mexican horror scene (particularly in Germán Robles-starred vampire films) was producer Abel Salazar.[259] The late 1960s saw the advent of the prominence of Carlos Enrique Taboada as an standout Mexican horror filmmaker, with films such as Hasta el viento tiene miedo (1967), El libro de piedra (1968), Más negro que la noche (1975) or Veneno para las hadas (1984).[260] Mexican horror cinema has been noted for the mashup of classic gothic and romantic themes and characters with autochthonous features of the Mexican culture such as the Ranchería setting, the colonial past or the myth of La Llorona (shared with other Hispanic-American nations).[261]

Horror has proven to be a dependable genre at the Mexican box office in the 21st-century, with Mexico ranking as having the world's largest relative popularity of the genre among viewers (ahead of South Korea), according to a 2016 research.[262]

Effects on audiences

Psychological effects

In a study done by Uri Hasson et al., brain waves were observed via functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI). This study used the inter-subject correlation analysis (ISC) method of determining results. It was shown that audience members tend to focus on certain facets in a particular scene simultaneously and tend to sit as still as possible while watching horror films.[263]

In another study done by John Greene & Glenn Sparks, it was found that the audience tends to experience the excitation transfer process (ETP) which causes a physiological arousal in audience members. The ETP refers to the feelings experienced immediately after an emotion-arousing experience, such as watching a horror film. In this case, audience members' heart rate, blood pressure and respiration all increased while watching films with violence. Audience members with positive feedback regarding the horror film have feelings similar to happiness or joy felt with friends, but intensified. Alternatively, audience members with negative feedback regarding the film would typically feel emotions they would normally associate with negative experiences in their life.[citation needed]

Only about 10% of the American population enjoy the physiological rush felt immediately after watching horror films. The population that does not enjoy horror films could experience emotional fallout similar to that of PTSD if the environment reminds them of particular scenes.[citation needed]

A 2021 study suggested horror films that explore grief can provide psychological benefits to the bereaved, with the genre well suited to representing grief through its genre conventions.[264]

Physical effects

In a study by Medes et al., prolonged exposure to infrasound and low-frequency noise (<500 Hz) in long durations has an effect on vocal range (i.e. longer exposure tends to form a lower phonation frequency range).[265] Another study by Baliatsas et al. observed that there is a correlation between exposure to infrasound and low-frequency noises and sleep-related problems.[266] Though most horror films keep the audio around 20–30 Hz, the noise can still be unsettling in long durations.[15]

Another technique used in horror films to provoke a response from the audience is cognitive dissonance, which is when someone experiences tension in themselves and is urged to relieve that tension.[267] Dissonance is the clashing of unpleasant or harsh sounds.[268] A study by Prete et al. identified that the ability to recognize dissonance relied on the left hemisphere of the brain, while consonance relied on the right half.[269] There is a stronger preference for consonance; this difference is noticeable even in early stages of life.[269] Previous musical experience also can influence a dislike for dissonance.[269]

Skin conductance responses (SCRs), heart rate (HR), and electromyographic (EMG) responses vary in response to emotional stimuli, showing higher for negative emotions in what is known as the "negative bias."[270] When applied to dissonant music, HR decreases (as a bodily form of adaptation to harsh stimulation), SCR increases, and EMG responses in the face are higher.[270] The typical reactions go through a two-step process of first orienting to the problem (the slowing of HR), then a defensive process (a stronger increase in SCR and an increase in HR).[270] This initial response can sometimes result in a fight-or-flight response, which is the characteristic of dissonance that horror films rely on to frighten and unsettle viewers.[15]

Reception

In film criticism

See also: Vulgar auteurism

Critic Robin Wood was not the first film critic to take the horror film seriously, but his article Return of the Repressed in 1978 helped inaugurate the horror film into academic study as a genre.[271] Wood later stated that he was surprised that his work, as well as the writing of Richard Lippe and Andrew Britton would receive "historic importance" intellectual views of the film genre.[271] William Paul in his book Laughing Screaming comments that "the negative definition of the lower works would have it that they are less subtle than higher genres. More positively, it could be said that they are more direct. Where lower forms are explicit, higher forms tend to operate more by indirection. Because of this indirection the higher forms are often regarded as being more metaphorical, and consequently more resonant, more open to the exegetical analyses of the academic industry."[272]

Steffen Hantke noted that academic criticism about horror cinema had "always operated under duress" noting that challenges in legitimizing its subject, finding "career-minded academics might have always suspected that they were studying something that was ultimately too frivolous, garish, and sensationalistic to warrant serious critical attention".[273]

Some commentary has suggested that horror films have been underrepresented or underappreciated as serious works worthy of film criticism and major films awards.[274][275] As of 2021, only six horror films have been nominated for the Academy Award for Best Picture, with The Silence of the Lambs being the sole winner.[276][277] However, horror films have still won major awards.[278]

Critics have also commented on the representation of women[279][280][281][282] and disability[283] in horror films, as well as the prevalence of racial stereotypes.[284][285]

Censorship

Many horror films have been the subject of moral panic, censorship and legal controversy.

In the United Kingdom, film censorship has frequently been applied to horror films.[286] A moral panic over several slasher films in the 1980s led to many of them being banned but released on videotape; the phenomenon became popularly termed "video nasties".[287][288] Constraints on permitted subject matter in Indonesian films has also influenced Indonesian horror films.[289] In March 2008, China banned all horror films from its market.[290]

In the U.S., the Motion Picture Production Code which was implemented in 1930, set moral guidelines for film content, restraining movies containing controversial themes, graphic violence, explicit sexuality and/or nudity. The gradual abandonment of the Code, and its eventual formal repeal in 1968 (when it was replaced by the MPAA film rating system)[291] offered more freedom to the movie industry.

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Further reading

  • Dixon, Wheeler Winston. A History of Horror. (Rutgers University Press; 2010), ISBN 978-0-8135-4796-1.
  • Steffen Hantke, ed. American Horror Film: The Genre at the Turn of the Millennium (University Press of Mississippi; 2010), 253 pages.
  • Petridis, Sotiris (2014). "A Historical Approach to the Slasher Film". Film International 12 (1): 76–84.

External links

  • Horror genre on IMDb

March 08, 2023
horror, film, horror, movie, redirects, here, skyhooks, song, horror, movie, song, this, article, multiple, issues, please, help, improve, discuss, these, issues, talk, page, learn, when, remove, these, template, messages, this, article, contain, indiscriminat. Horror Movie redirects here For the Skyhooks song see Horror Movie song This article has multiple issues Please help improve it or discuss these issues on the talk page Learn how and when to remove these template messages This article may contain indiscriminate excessive or irrelevant examples Please improve the article by adding more descriptive text and removing less pertinent examples See Wikipedia s guide to writing better articles for further suggestions January 2017 This article needs additional citations for verification Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources Unsourced material may be challenged and removed Find sources Horror film news newspapers books scholar JSTOR December 2021 Learn how and when to remove this template message This article may need to be rewritten to comply with Wikipedia s quality standards You can help The talk page may contain suggestions December 2021 Learn how and when to remove this template message Horror is a film genre that seeks to elicit fear or disgust in its audience for entertainment purposes 2 Max Schreck as Count Orlok in the 1922 film Nosferatu Critic and historian Kim Newman declared it as a film that set the template for the horror film 1 Horror films often explore dark subject matter and may deal with transgressive topics or themes Broad elements include monsters apocalyptic events and religious or folk beliefs Cinematic techniques used in horror films have been shown to provoke psychological reactions in an audience Horror films have existed for more than a century Early inspirations from before the development of film include folklore religious beliefs and superstitions of different cultures and the Gothic and horror literature of authors such as Edgar Allan Poe Bram Stoker and Mary Shelley From origins in silent films and German Expressionism horror only became a codified genre after the release of Dracula 1931 Many sub genres emerged in subsequent decades including body horror comedy horror slasher films supernatural horror and psychological horror The genre has been produced worldwide varying in content and style between regions Horror is particularly prominent in the cinema of Japan Korea Italy and Thailand among other countries Despite being the subject of social and legal controversy due to their subject matter some horror films and franchises have seen major commercial success influenced society and spawned several popular culture icons Contents 1 Characteristics 1 1 Cinematic techniques 1 2 Music 1 3 Themes 2 History 2 1 Early influences and films 2 2 1930s 2 3 1940s 2 4 1950s 2 5 1960s 2 6 1970s 2 7 1980s 2 8 1990s 2 9 2000s 2 10 2010s to present 3 Sub genres of horror films 3 1 Body horror 3 2 Comedy horror 3 3 Folk horror 3 4 Found footage horror 3 5 Gothic horror 3 6 Natural horror 3 7 Slasher film 3 8 Supernatural horror 3 9 Teen horror 3 10 Psychological horror 4 Regional horror films 4 1 Asian horror films 4 1 1 India 4 1 2 Indonesia 4 1 3 Japan 4 1 4 South Korea 4 1 5 Thailand 4 2 Oceania 4 2 1 Australia 4 2 2 New Zealand 4 3 European horror films 4 3 1 France 4 3 2 Germany 4 3 3 Italy 4 3 4 Spain 4 3 5 United Kingdom 4 4 Americas 4 4 1 Mexico 5 Effects on audiences 5 1 Psychological effects 5 2 Physical effects 6 Reception 6 1 In film criticism 6 2 Censorship 7 References 7 1 Notes 7 2 Bibliography 8 Further reading 9 External linksCharacteristicsSee also Horror and terrorThe Dictionary of Film Studies defines the horror film as representing disturbing and dark subject matter seeking to elicit responses of fear terror disgust shock suspense and of course horror from their viewers 2 In the chapter The American Nightmare Horror in the 70s from Hollywood from Vietnam to Reagan 2002 film critic Robin Wood declared that commonality between horror films are that normality is threatened by the monster 3 This was further expanded upon by The Philosophy of Horror or Parodoxes of the Heart by Noel Carroll who added that repulsion must be pleasurable as evidenced by the genre s popularity 3 Prior to the release of Dracula 1931 historian Gary Don Rhodes explained that the idea and terminology of horror film did not exist yet as a codified genre although critics used the term horror to describe films in reviews prior to Dracula s release 4 Horror was a term used to describe a variety of meanings In 1913 Moving Picture World defined horrors as showcasing striped convicts murderous Indians grinning black handers homicidal drunkards 5 Some titles that suggest horror such as The Hand of Horror 1914 was a melodrama about a thief who steals from his own sister 5 During the silent era the term horror was used to describe everything from battle scenes in war films to tales of drug addiction 6 Rhodes concluded that the term horror film or horror movie was not used in early cinema 7 The mystery film genre was in vogue and early information on Dracula being promoted as mystery film was common despite the novel play and film s story relying on the supernatural 8 Newman discussed the genre in British Film Institute s Companion to Horror where he noted that Horror films in the 1930s were easy to identify but following that decade the more blurred distinctions become and horror becomes less like a discrete genre than an effect which can be deployed within any number of narrative settings or narratives patterns 9 Various writings on genre from Altman Lawrence Alloway Violent America The Movies 1946 1964 1971 and Peter Hutchings Approaches to Popular Film 1995 implied it easier to view films as cycles opposed to genres suggesting the slasher film viewed as a cycle would place it in terms of how the film industry was economically and production wise the personnel involved in their respective eras and how the films were marketed exhibited and distributed 10 Mark Jancovich in an essay declared that there is no simple collective belief as to what constitutes the horror genre between both fans and critics of the genre 11 Jancovich found that disagreements existed from audiences who wanted to distinguish themselves This ranged from fans of different genres who may view a film like Alien 1979 as belonging to science fiction and horror fan bases dismissing it as being inauthentic to either genre 12 Further debates exist among fans of the genre with personal definitions of true horror films such as fans who embrace cult figures like Freddy Kruger of the A Nightmare on Elm Street series while others disassociate themselves from characters and series and focusing on genre auteur directors like Dario Argento while others fans would deem Argento s films as too mainstream having preferences more underground films 13 Andrew Tudor wrote in Monsters and Mad Scientists A Cultural History of the Horror Movie suggested that Genre is what we collectively believe it to be 14 Cinematic techniques This section relies largely or entirely on a single source Relevant discussion may be found on the talk page Please help improve this article by introducing citations to additional sources Find sources Horror film news newspapers books scholar JSTOR December 2021 Depiction of the usage of mirrors in horror films In a study by Jacob Shelton the many ways that audience members are manipulated through horror films was investigated in detail 15 Negative space is one such method that can play a part in inducing a reaction causing one s eyes to remotely rest on anything in the frame a wall or the empty black void in the shadows 15 The jump scare is a horror film trope where an abrupt change in image accompanied with a loud sound intends to surprise the viewer 15 This can also be subverted to create tension where an audience may feel more unease and discomfort by anticipating a jump scare 15 Mirrors are often used in horror films is to create visual depth and build tension Shelton argues mirrors have been used so frequently in horror films that audiences have been conditioned to fear them and subverting audience expectations of a jump scare in a mirror can further build tension 15 Tight framing and close ups are also commonly used these can build tension and induce anxiety by not allowing the viewer to see beyond what is around the protagonist 15 Music Main article Horror film score Filmmaker and composer John Carpenter who has directed and scored numerous horror films performing in 2016 Music is a key component of horror films In Music in the Horror Film 2010 Lerner writes music in horror film frequently makes us feel threatened and uncomfortable and intends to intensify the atmosphere created in imagery and themes Dissonance atonality and experiments with timbre are typical characteristics used by composers in horror film music 16 Themes Frankenstein s monster Apocalypse by Albert Goodwin A demon in the Book of WondersCharles Derry proposed the three key components of horror are that of personality Armageddon and the demonic In the book Dark Dreams author Charles Derry conceived horror films as focusing on three broad themes the horror of personality horror of Armageddon and the horror of the demonic 17 The horror of personality derives from monsters being at the centre of the plot such Frankenstein s monster whose psychology makes them perform unspeakable horrific acts ranging from rapes mutilations and sadistic killings 17 Other key works of this form are Alfred Hitchcock s Psycho which feature psychotic murderers without the make up of a monster 17 The second Armageddon group delves on the fear of large scale destruction which ranges from science fiction works but also of natural events such as Hitchcock s The Birds 1963 17 The last group of the Fear of the Demonic features graphic accounts of satanic rites witchcraft exorcisms outside traditional forms of worship as seen in films like The Exorcist 1973 or The Omen 1976 18 Some critics have suggested horror films can be a vessel for exploring contemporary cultural political and social trends Jeanne Hall a film theorist agrees with the use of horror films in easing the process of understanding issues by making use of their optical elements 19 The use of horror films can help audiences understand international prior historical events occurs for example to depict the horrors of the Vietnam War the Holocaust the worldwide AIDS epidemic 20 or post 9 11 pessimism 21 In many occurrences the manipulation of horror presents cultural definitions that are not accurate according to whom yet set an example to which a person relates to that specific cultural from then on in their life clarification needed 22 HistoryMain article History of horror filmsIn his book Caligari s Children The Film as Tale of Terror 1980 author Siegbert Solomon Prawer stated that those wanting to read into horror films in a linear historical path citing historians and critics like Carlos Clarens noting that as some film audiences at a time took films made by Tod Browning that starred Bela Lugosi with utmost seriousness other productions from other countries saw the material set for parody as children s entertainment or nostalgic recollection 17 John Kenneth Muir in his books covering the history of horror films through the later decades of the 20th century echoed this statement stating that horror films mirror the anxieties of their age and their audience concluding that if horror isn t relevant to everyday life it isn t horrifying 23 Early influences and films Beliefs in the supernatural devils and ghosts have existed in folklore and religions of many cultures for centuries these would go on to become integral parts of the horror genre 24 Zombies for example originated from Haitian folklore 25 Prior to the development of film in the late 1890s Gothic fiction was developed 26 These included Frankenstein 1818 and short stories by Edgar Allan Poe which would later have several film adaptations 27 By the late 1800s and early 1900s more key horror texts would be developed than any other period preceding it 28 While they were not all straight horror stories the horrific elements of them lingered in popular culture with their set pieces becoming staples in horror cinema 29 Critic and author Kim Newman described Georges Melies Le Manoir du diable as the first horror film featuring elements that would become staples in the genre images of demons ghosts and haunted castles 30 The early 20th century cinema had production of film so hectic several adaptions of stories were made within months of each other 31 This included Poe adaptations made in France and the United States to Frankenstein adaptations being made in the United States and Italy 32 The most adapted of these stories was Strange Case of Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde 1886 which had three version made in 1920 alone 31 Early German cinema involved Poe like stories such as The Student of Prague 1913 which featured director and actor Paul Wegener Wegner would go on to work in similar features such as The Golem and the Dancing Girl and its related Golem films 32 Other actors of the era who featured in similar films included Werner Krauss and Conrad Veidt who starred in The Cabinet of Dr Caligari leading to similar roles in other German productions 1 F W Murnau would also direct an adaptation of Nosferatu 1922 a film Newman described as standing as the only screen adaptation of Dracula to be primarily interested in horror from the character s rat like features and thin body the film was even more so than Caligari a template for the horror film 1 1930s Bela Lugosi in Dracula 1931 a film noted as inspiring a wave of subsequent American horror films in the 1930s Following the 1927 success of Broadway play of Dracula Universal Studios officially purchased the rights to both the play and the novel 33 34 35 After the Dracula s premiere on February 12 1931 the film received what authors of the book Universal Horrors proclaimed as uniformly positive some even laudatory reviews 36 The commercial reception surprised Universal who forged ahead to make similar production of Frankenstein 1931 37 38 Frankenstein also proved to be a hit for Universal which led to both Dracula and Frankenstein making film stars of their leads Bela Lugosi and Boris Karloff respectively 39 Karloff starred in Universal s follow up The Mummy 1932 which Newman described as the studio knowing what they were getting patterning the film close to the plot of Dracula 39 Lugosi and Karloff would star together in several Poe adaptations in the 1930s 40 Following the release of Dracula The Washington Post declared the film s box office success led to a cycle of similar films while The New York Times stated in a 1936 overview that Dracula and the arrival of sound film began the real triumph of these spectral thrillers 41 Other studios began developing their own horror projects with Metro Goldwyn Mayer Paramount Pictures and Warner Bros 42 Universal would also follow up with several horror films until the mid 1930s 39 42 In 1935 the President of the BBFC Edward Shortt wrote although a separate category has been established for these horrific films I am sorry to learn they are on the increase I hope that the producers and renters will accept this word of warning and discourage this type of subject as far as possible 43 As the United Kingdom was a significant market for Hollywood American producers listened to Shortt s warning and the number of Hollywood produced horror films decreased in 1936 43 A trade paper Variety reported that Universal Studios abandonment of horror films after the release of Dracula s Daughter 1936 was that European countries especially England are prejudiced against this type product sic 43 At the end of the decade a profitable re release of Dracula and Frankenstein would encourage Universal to produce Son of Frankenstein 1939 featuring both Lugosi and Karloff starting off a resurgence of the horror film that would continue into the mid 1940s 44 1940s Cat People 1942 the first horror film produced by Val Lewton at RKO Pictures After the success of Son of Frankenstein 1939 Universal s horror films received what author Rick Worland of The Horror Film called a second wind and horror films continued to be produced at a feverish pace into the mid 1940s 45 Universal looked into their 1930s horror properties to develop new follow ups such as their The Invisible Man and The Mummy series 46 Universal saw potential in making actor Lon Chaney Jr a new star to replace Karloff as Chaney had not distinguished himself in either A or B pictures 47 Chaney Jr would become a horror star for the decade showing in the films in The Wolf Man series portraying several of Universal s monster characters 46 B Picture studios also developed films that imitated the style of Universal s horror output Karloff worked with Columbia Pictures acting in various films as a Mad doctor type characters starting with The Man They Could Not Hang 1939 while Lugosi worked between Universal and poverty row studios such as Producers Releasing Corporation PRC for The Devil Bat 1941 and Monogram for nine features films 48 In March 1942 producer Val Lewton ended his working relationship with independent producer David O Selznick to work for RKO Radio Pictures Charles Koerner becoming the head of a new unit created to develop B movie horror feature films 49 50 According to screenwriter DeWitt Bodeen and director Jacques Tourneur Lewton s first horror production Cat People 1942 Lewton wanted to make some different from the Universal horror with Tourneu describing it as making something intelligent and in good taste 51 Lewton developed a series of horror films for RKO described by Newman as polished doom haunted poetic while film critic Roger Ebert the films Lewton produced in the 1940s were landmark s in American movie history 52 Several horror films of the 1940s borrowed from Cat People specifically feature a female character who fears that she has inherited the tendency to turn into a monster or attempt to replicate the shadowy visual style of the film 53 Between 1947 and 1951 Hollywood made almost no new horror films 54 This was due to sharply declining sales leading to both major and poverty row studios to re release their older horror films during this period rather than make new ones 55 56 1950s The early 1950s featured only a few gothic horror films developed prior to the release of Hammer Film Productions s gothic films 57 Hammer originally began developing American styled science fiction films in the early 1950s but later branched into horror with their colour films The Curse of Frankenstein and Dracula 1958 58 59 These films would birth two horror film stars Christopher Lee and Peter Cushing and led to further horror film production from Hammer in the decade 59 Among the most influential horror films of the 1950s was The Thing From Another World 1951 with Newman stating that countless science fiction horror films of the 1950s would follow in its style 60 For five years following the release of The Thing From Another World nearly every film involving aliens dinosaurs or radioactive mutants would be dealt with matter of fact characters as seen in the film 60 Films featuring vampires werewolves and Frankenstein s monster also took to having science fiction elements of the era such as have characters have similar plot elements from Strange Case of Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde 61 Horror films also expanded further into international productions in the later half of the 1950s with films in the genre being made in Mexico Italy Germany and France 62 1960s The horror film changed dramatically in 1960 specifically with Alfred Hitchcock s film Psycho 1960 based on the novel by Robert Bloch Newman declared that the film elevated the idea of a multiple personality serial killer that set the tone future film that was only touched upon in earlier melodramas and film noirs 63 64 The release of Psycho led to similar pictures about the psychosis of characters and a brief reappearance of what Newman described as stately tasteful horror films such as Jack Clayton s The Innocents 1961 and Robert Wise s The Haunting 1963 65 Newman described Roman Polanski s Rosemary s Baby 1968 the other event horror film of the 1960s after Psycho 66 Roger Corman working with AIP to make House of Usher 1960 which led several future Poe adaptations other 1960s Poe adaptations by Corman and provided roles for aging horror stars such as Karloff and Chaney Jr These films were made to compete with the British colour horror films from Hammer in the United Kingdom featuring their horror stars Cushing and Fisher whose Frankenstein series continued from 1958 to 1973 63 Competition for Hammer appeared in the mid 1960s in the United Kingdom with Amicus Productions who also made feature film featuring Cushing and Lee 63 Like Psycho Amicus drew from contemporary sources such as Bloch The Skull 1965 and Torture Garden 1967 led to Hammer adapting works by more authors from the era 63 Mario Bava s Black Sunday 1960 marked an increase in onscreen violence in film 67 Earlier British horror films had their gorier scenes cut on initial release or suggested through narration while Psycho suggested its violence through fast editing 68 Black Sunday by contrast depicted violence without suggestion 67 This level of violence would later be seen in other works of Bava and other Italian films such the giallo of Dario Argento and Lucio Fulci 67 Other independent American productions of the 1960s expanded on the gore shown in the films in a genre later described as the splatter film with films by Herschell Gordon Lewis such as Blood Feast while Newman found that the true breakthrough of these independent films was George A Romero s Night of the Living Dead 1968 which set a new attitudes for the horror film one that was suspicious of authority figures broke taboos of society and was satirical between its more suspenseful set pieces 66 1970s George A Romero s Night of the Living Dead 1968 led to what Newman described as a slow burning influence in independent and thoughtful horror films in the 1970s 69 Historian John Kenneth Muir described the 1970s as a truly eclectic time for horror cinema noting a mixture of fresh and more personal efforts on film while other were a resurrection of older characters that have appeared since the 1930s and 1940s 70 Night of the Living Dead had what Newman described as a slow burning influence on horror films of the era and what he described as the first of the genre auteurs who worked outside studio settings 71 These included American directors such as John Carpenter Tobe Hooper Wes Craven and Brian De Palma as well as directors working outside America such as Bob Clark David Cronenberg and Dario Argento 71 Prior to Night of the Living Dead the monsters of horror films could easily be banished or defeated by the end of the film while Romero s film and the films of other filmmakers would often suggest other horror still lingered after the credits 69 Both Amicus and Hammer ceased feature film production in the 1970s 72 73 Remakes of proved to be popular choices for horror films in the 1970s with films like Invasion of the Bodysnatchers 1978 and tales based on Dracula which continued into the late 1970s with John Badham s Dracula 1979 and Werner Herzog s Nosferatu the Vampyre 1979 74 75 Although not an official remake the last high grossing horror film of decade Alien 1979 took b movie elements from films like It The Terror from Beyond Space 1958 76 Newman has suggested high grossing films like Alien Jaws 1975 and Halloween 1978 became hits by being relentless suspense machines with high visual sophistication 76 He continued that Jaws memorable music theme and its monster not being product of society like Norman Bates in Psycho had carried over into Halloween s Michael Myers and its films theme music 77 1980s With the appearance of home video in the 1980s horror films were subject to censorship in the United Kingdom in a phenomenon popularly known as video nasties leading to video collections being seized by police and some people being jailed for selling or owning some horror films 78 Newman described the response to the video nasty issue led to horror films becoming dumber than the previous decade and although films were not less gory they were more lightweight becoming more disposable less personal works 79 78 Newman noted that these directors who created original material in the 1970s such as Carpenter David Cronenberg and Tobe Hooper would all at least briefly play it safe with Stephen King adaptations or remakes of the 1950s horror material 80 Replacing Frankenstein s monster and Dracula were new popular characters with more general names like Jason Voorhees Friday the 13th Michael Myers Halloween and Freddy Kruger A Nightmare on Elm Street Unlike the characters of the past who were vampires or created by mad scientists these characters were seemingly people with common sounding names who developed the slasher film genre of the era 81 The genre was derided by several contemporary film critics of the era such as Roger Ebert and often were highly profitable in the box office 82 The 1980s highlighted several films about body transformation through special effects and make up artists like Rob Bottin and Rick Baker who allowed for more detailed and graphic transformation scenes or the human body in various forms of horrific transformation 83 84 Other more traditional styles continued into the 1980s such as supernatural themed films involving haunted houses ghosts and demonic possession 85 Among the most popular films of the style included Stanley Kubrick s The Shining 1980 Hooper s high grossing Poltergeist 1982 86 After the release of films based on Stephen King s books like The Shining and Carrie led to further film adaptations of his novels throughout the 1980s 87 88 1990s Some cast and crew members of The Blair Witch Project 1999 one of the highest grossing horror films of the 1990s Horror films of the 1990s also failed to develop as many major new directors of the genre as it had in the 1960s or 1970s 89 Young independent filmmakers such as Kevin Smith Richard Linklater Michael Moore and Quentin Tarantino broke into cinema outside the genre at non genre festivals like the Sundance Film Festival 90 Newman noted that the early 1990s was not a good time for horror noting excessive release of sequels 91 Muir commented that in the 1990s after the end of the Cold War the United States did not really have a serious enemy internationally leading to horror films adapting to fictional enemies predominantly within America with the American government large businesses organized religion and the upper class as well as supernatural and occult items such as vampires or Satanists filling in the horror villains of the 1990s 92 The rapid growth of technology in the 1990s with the internet and the fears of the Year 2000 problem causing the end of the world were reflected in plots of films 93 Other genre based trends of the 1990s included the post modern horror films such as Scream 1996 were made in this era 94 Post modern horror films continued into the 2000s eventually just being released as humorous parody films 95 By the end of the 1990s three films were released that Newman described as cultural phenomenons 96 These included Hideo Nakata s Ring 1998 which was the major hit across Asia The Sixth Sense another ghost story which Newman described as making an instant cliche of twist endings and the low budget independent film The Blair Witch Project 1999 96 Newman described the first trend of horror films in the 2000s followed the success of The Blair Witch Project but predominantly parodies or similar low budget imitations 97 2000s Teen oriented series began in the era with Final Destination while the success of the 1999 remake of William Castle s House on Haunted Hill led to a series of remakes in the decade 98 The popularity of the remake of Dawn of the Dead 2004 led to a revival in American zombie films in the late 2000s Beyond remakes other long dormant horror franchises such as The Exorcist and Friday the 13th received new feature films 99 After the success of Ring 1998 several films came from Hong Kong South Korea Thailand and Japan with similar detective plotlines investigating ghosts 100 This trend was echoed in the West with films with similar plots and Hollywood remakes of Asian films like The Ring 2002 101 In the United Kingdom there was what Newman described as a modest revival of British horror films first with war related horror films and several independent films of various styles with Newman describing the breakouts of the new British horror including 28 Days Later 2002 and Shaun of the Dead 2004 101 David Edelstein of The New York Times coined a term for a genre he described as torture porn in a 2006 article as a label for films described often retroactively to over 40 films since 2003 102 Edelstein lumped in films such as Saw 2004 and Wolf Creek 2005 under this banner suggesting audience a titillating and shocking 103 while film scholars of early 21st century horror films described them as intense bodily acts and visible bodily representations to produce uneasy reactions 103 Kevin Wetmore using the Saw film series suggested these film suggested reflected a post 9 11 attitude towards increasing pessimism specifically one of no redemption no hope no expectations that we re going to be OK 21 2010s to present After the film studio Blumhouse had success with Paranormal Activity 2007 the studio continued to produce films became hits in the 2010s with film series Insidious 104 This led to what Newman described as the companies policy on commercial savvy with thematic risk that has often paid off such as Get Out 2017 and series like The Purge 104 105 Laura Bradley in her article for Vanity Fair noted that both large and small film studios began noticing Blumhouse s success including A24 which became popular with films like The Witch 2015 and Midsommar 2019 104 Bradley commented how some of these films had been classified as elevated horror a term used for works that were elevated beyond traditional or pure genre films but declared horror aficionados and some critics pushed back against the notion that these films are doing something entirely new noting their roots in films like Night of the Living Dead 1968 and Rosemary s Baby 1968 104 The increase in use of streaming services in the 2010s has also been suggested as boosting the popularity of horror as well as Netflix and Amazon Prime Video producing and distributing numerous works in the genre Shudder launched in 2015 as a horror specific service 106 In the early 2010s a wave of horror films began exhibiting what Virginie Selavy described as psychedelic tendency This was inspired by experimentation and subgenres of the 1970s specifically folk horror 107 The trend began with Enter the Void 2009 and Beyond the Black Rainbow 2010 and continued throughout the decade with films like Climax 2018 107 Adapted from the Stephen King novel It 2017 set a box office record for horror films by grossing 123 1 million on opening weekend in the United States and nearly 185 million globally 108 The success of It led to further King novels being adapted into new feature films 109 The beginning of 2020 and the COVID 19 pandemic had a major impact on the film industry leading to several horror films being held back from release or having their production halted 110 During lockdowns streaming for films featuring a fictional apocalypse increased 111 Sub genres of horror filmsHorror is a malleable genre and often can be altered to accommodate other genre types such as science fiction making some films difficult to categorize 112 Body horror Main article Body horror A genre that emerged in the 1970s body horror films focus on the process of a bodily transformation In these films the body is either engulfed by some larger process or heading towards fragmentation and collapse 113 114 In these films the focus can be on apocalyptic implication of an entire society being overtaken but the focus is generally upon an individual and their sense of identity primarily them watching their own body change 113 The earliest appearance of the sub genre was the work of director David Cronenberg specifically with early films like Shivers 1975 113 114 Mark Jancovich of the University of Manchester declared that the transformation scenes in the genre provoke fear and repulsion but also pleasure and excitement such as in The Thing 1982 and The Fly 1986 115 Comedy horror Comedy horror combines elements of comedy and horror film The comedy horror genre often crosses over with the black comedy genre It occasionally includes horror films with lower ratings that are aimed at a family audience The short story The Legend of Sleepy Hollow by Washington Irving is cited as the first great comedy horror story 116 Folk horror Folk horror uses elements of folklore or other religious and cultural beliefs to instil fear in audiences Folk horror films have featured rural settings and themes of isolation religion and nature 117 118 Frequently cited examples are Witchfinder General 1968 The Blood on Satan s Claw 1971 The Wicker Man 1973 and Midsommar 2019 117 118 Local folklore and beliefs have been noted as being prevalent in horror films from the Southeast Asia region including Thailand and Indonesia 119 120 Found footage horror The found footage horror film technique gives the audience a first person view of the events on screen and presents the footage as being discovered after Horror films which are framed as being made up of found footage merge the experiences of the audience and characters which may induce suspense shock and bafflement 121 Alexandra Heller Nicholas noted that the popularity of sites like YouTube in 2006 sparked a taste for amateur media leading to the production of further films in the found footage horror genre later in the 2000s including the particularly financially successful Paranormal Activity 2007 122 Gothic horror Main article Gothic film In their book Gothic film Richard J McRoy and Richard J Hand stated that Gothic can be argued as a very loose subgenre of horror but argued that Gothic as a whole was a style like film noir and not bound to certain cinematic elements like the Western or science fiction film 123 The term gothic is frequently used to describe a stylized approach to showcasing location desire and action in film Contemporary views of the genre associate it with imagery of castles at hilltops and labyrinth like ancestral mansions that are in various states of disrepair 124 Narratives in these films often focus on an audiences fear and attraction to social change and rebellion 125 The genre can be applied to films as early as The Haunted Castle 1896 Frankenstein 1910 as well as to more complex iterations such as Park Chan wook s Stoker 2013 and Jordan Peele s Get Out 2017 123 The gothic style is applied to several films throughout the history of the horror film This includes Universal Pictures horror films of the 1930s the revival of gothic horror in the 1950s and 1960s with films from Hammer Roger Corman s Poe cycle and several Italian productions 126 By the 1970s American and British productions often had vampire films set in a contemporary setting such as Hammer Films had their Dracula stories set in a modern setting and made other horror material which pushed the erotic content of their vampire films that was initiated by Black Sunday 127 128 67 In the 1980s the older horror characters of Dracula and Frankenstein s monster rarely appeared with vampire themed films continued often in the tradition of authors like Anne Rice where vampirism becomes a lifestyle choice rather than plague or curse 129 Following the release of Francis Ford Coppola s Bram Stoker s Dracula 1992 a small wave of high budgeted gothic horror romance films were released in the 1990s 130 Natural horror See also List of natural horror filmsAlso described as eco horror the natural horror film is a subgenre featuring nature running amok in the form of mutated beasts carnivorous insects and normally harmless animals or plants turned into cold blooded killers 131 132 In 1963 Hitchcock defined a new genre nature taking revenge on humanity with The Birds 1963 that was expanded into a trend into the 1970s Following the success of Willard 1971 a film about killer rats 1972 had similar films with Stanley 1972 and an official sequel Ben 1972 133 Other films followed in suit such as Night of the Lepus 1972 Frogs 1972 Bug 1975 Squirm 1976 and what Muir described as the turning point in the genre with Jaws 1975 which became the highest grossing film at that point and moved the animal attacks genres towards a less fantastic route with less giant animals and more real life creatures such as Grizzly 1976 and Night Creature 1977 Orca 1977 and Jaws 2 1978 133 134 135 The film is linked with the environmental movements that became more mainstream in the 1970s and early 1980s such vegetarianism animal rights movements and organizations such as Greenpeace 136 Following Jaws sharks became the most popular animal of the genre ranging from similar such as Mako The Jaws of Death 1976 and Great White 1981 to the Sharknado film series 136 James Marriott found that the genre had lost momentum since the 1970s while the films would still be made towards the turn of the millennium 137 Slasher film See also Slasher film The slasher film is a horror subgenre which involving a killer murdering a group of people usually teenagers usually by use of bladed tools 138 In his book on the genre author Adam Rockoff that these villains represented a rogue genre of films with tough problematic and fiercely individualistic 139 Following the financial success of Friday the 13th 1980 at least 20 other slasher films appeared in 1980 alone 78 These films usually revolved around five properties unique social settings campgrounds schools holidays and a crime from the past committed an accidental drowning infidelity a scorned lover and a ready made group of victims camp counselors students wedding parties 140 The genre was derided by several contemporary film critics of the era such as Ebert and often were highly profitable in the box office 82 The release of Scream 1996 led to a brief revival of the slasher films for the 1990s 141 Other countries imitated the American slasher film revival such as South Korea s early 2000s cycle with Bloody Beach 2000 Nightmare 2000 and The Record 2000 142 Supernatural horror Supernatural horror films integrate supernatural elements such as the afterlife spirit possession and religion into the horror genre 143 Teen horror Teen horror is a horror subgenre that victimizes teenagers while usually promoting strong anti conformity teenage leads appealing to young generations This subgenre often depicts themes of sex under aged drinking and gore 144 Horror films aimed a young audience featuring teenage monsters grew popular in the 1950s with several productions from American International Pictures AIP and productions of Herman Cohen with I Was a Teenage Werewolf 1957 and I Was a Teenage Frankenstein 1957 59 This led to later productions like Daughter of Dr Jekyll 1957 and Frankenstein s Daughter 1958 59 Teen horror cycle in the 1980s often showcased explicit gore and nudity with John Kenneth Muir described as cautionary conservative tales where most of the films stated if you partook in such vices such as drugs or sex your punishment of death would be handed out 145 Prior to Scream there were no popular teen horror films in the early 1990s 146 After the financial success of Scream teen horror films became increasingly reflexive and self aware until the end of the 1990s with films like I Know What You Did Last Summer 1997 and non slasher The Faculty 1998 147 146 The genre lost prominence as teen films dealt with threats with more realism in films like Donnie Darko 2001 and Crazy Beautiful 2001 148 In her book on the 1990s teen horror cycle Alexandra West described the general trend of these films is often looked down upon by critics journals and fans as being too glossy trendy and sleek to be considered worthwhile horror films 149 Psychological horror Psychological horror is a subgenre of horror and psychological fiction with a particular focus on mental emotional and psychological states to frighten disturb or unsettle its audience The subgenre frequently overlaps with the related subgenre of psychological thriller and often uses mystery elements and characters with unstable unreliable or disturbed psychological states to enhance the suspense drama action and paranoia of the setting and plot and to provide an overall unpleasant unsettling or distressing atmosphere 150 Regional horror filmsAsian horror films Horror films in Asia have been noted as being inspired by national cultural or religious folklore particularly beliefs in ghosts or spirits 119 24 In Asian Horror Andy Richards writes that there is a widespread and engrained acceptance of supernatural forces in many Asian cultures and suggests this is related to animist pantheist and karmic religious traditions as in Buddhism and Shintoism 24 Although Chinese Japanese Thai and Korean horror has arguably received the most international attention 24 horror also makes up a considerable proportion of Cambodian 151 and Malaysian cinema 152 India Main articles Indian ghost movie and Bollywood horror films The Cinema of India produces the largest amount of films in the world ranging from Bollywood Hindi cinema based in Mumbai to other regions such as West Bengal and Tamil Nadu Unlike Hollywood and most Western cinematic traditions horror films produced in India incorporate romance song and dance and other elements in the masala format 153 where as many genres as possible are bundled into a single film 154 Odell and Le Blanc described the Indian horror film as a popular but minor part of the country s film output and that has not found a true niche in mainstream Indian cinema 154 155 These films are made outside of Mumbai and are generally seen as disreputable to their more respectable popular cinema 154 As of 2007 the Central Board of Film Certification India s censorship board has stated films pointless or unavoidable scenes of violence cruelty and horror scenes of violence intended to provide entertainment and such scene that may have the effect of desensitising or dehumanizing people are not shown 156 Still of Madhubala in Mahal 1949 an early Indian horror film The earliest Indian horror films were films about ghosts and reincarnation or rebirth such as Mahal 1949 154 These early films tended to be spiritual pieces or tragic dramas opposed to having visceral content 157 While prestige films from Hollywood productions had been shown in Indian theatres the late 1960s had seen a parallel market for minor American and European co productions to films like the James Bond film series and the films of Mario Bava 158 In the 1970s and 1980s the Ramsay Brothers created a career in the lower reaches of the Bombay film industry making low budget horror films primarily influenced by Hammer s horror film productions with little known about their production or distribution history 159 158 The Ramsay Brothers were a family of seven brothers who made horror films that were featured monsters and evil spirits that mix in song and dance sections as well as comic interludes 160 Most of their films played at smaller cinema in India with Tulsi Ramsay one of the brothers later stating Places where even the trains don t stop that s where our business was 161 Their horror films are generally dominated by low budget productions such as those by the Ramsay Brothers Their most successful film was Purana Mandir 1984 which was the second highest grossing film in India that year 160 162 The influence of American productions would have an effect on later Indian productions such as The Exorcist which would lead to films involving demonic possession such as Gehrayee 1980 India has also made films featuring zombies and vampires that drew from American horror films opposed to indigenous myths and stories 157 Other directors such as Mohan Bhakri made low budget highly exploitive films such as Cheekh 1985 and his biggest hit the monster movie Khooni Mahal 1987 160 Horror films are not self evident categories in Tamil and Telugu films and it was only until the late 1980s that straight horror cinema was regularly produced with films like Uruvam 1991 Sivi 2007 and Eeram 2009 were released 163 The first decade of the twenty first century saw a flurry of commercially successful Telugu horror films like A Film by Aravind 2005 Mantra 2007 and Arundhati 2009 were released 163 Ram Gopal Varma made films that generally defied the conventions of popular Indian cinema making horror films like Raat 1992 and Bhoot 2003 with the latter film not containing and comic scenes or musical numbers 160 In 2018 the horror film Tumbbad premiered in the critics week section of the 75th Venice International Film Festival the first ever Indian film to open the festival 164 Indonesia This section is an excerpt from Indonesian horror edit Actress Suzzanna has been called the Queen of Indonesian horror 165 Indonesian horror refers to horror films produced in the Indonesian film industry Often inspired by local folklore 166 167 Indonesian horror films have been produced in the country since the 1960s After a hiatus during the Suharto era in the 1990s when censorship affected production Indonesian horror films continued being produced following Reformasi in 1998 168 169 Japan Main article Japanese horror This section is an excerpt from Japanese horror History and evolution edit Poster of the horror film Ghost Cat of Gojusan Tsugi 1956 After the bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki in 1945 Japanese horror cinema would mainly consist of vengeful ghosts radiation mutants and kaiju giant irradiated monsters starting with Godzilla 1954 170 The post war era is also when the horror genre rose to prominence in Japan 170 One of the first major Japanese horror films was Onibaba 1964 directed by Kaneto Shindo 171 The film is categorized as a historical horror drama where a woman and her mother in law attempt to survive during a civil war 171 Like many early Japanese horror films elements are drawn largely from traditional Kabuki and Noh theater 170 Onibaba also shows heavy influence from World War II 170 Shindo himself revealed the make up used in the unmasking scene was inspired by photos he had seen of mutilated victims of the atomic bombings 170 In 1965 the film Kwaidan was released Directed by Masaki Kobayashi Kwaidan is an anthology film comprising four stories each based upon traditional ghost stories 171 Similar to Onibaba Kwaidan weaves elements of Noh theater into the story 170 The anthology uses elements of psychological horror rather than jump scare tactics common in Western horror films 171 Additionally Kwaidan showcases one commonality seen in various Japanese horror films that being the recurring imagery of the woman with long unkempt hair falling over her face 172 Examples of other films created after Kwaidan weaving this motif into the story are Ring 1998 The Grudge 2004 and Exte 2007 172 This imagery was directly taken from a traditional Japanese folklore tale similar to the Medusa 172 Some Japanese horror films have inspired American remakes The visual interpretations of films can be lost in the translation of their elements from one culture to another like in the adaptation of the Japanese film Ju on into the American film The Grudge The cultural components from Japan were slowly siphoned away to make the film more relatable to a western audience 173 This deterioration that can occur in an international remake happens by over presenting negative cultural assumptions that as time passes sets a common ideal about that particular culture in each individual 22 Holm s discussion of The Grudge remakes presents this idea by stating It is instead to note that The Grudge films make use of an un theorized notion of Japan that seek to directly represent the country South Korea Main article Korean horror The Korean horror film originated in the 1960s and became a more prominent part of the countries film production in the early 2000s 174 While ghosts have appeared as early as 1924 in Korean film attempting to chart the history of the genre from this period was described by Alison Peirse and Daniel Martin the authors of Korean Horror Cinema as problematic due to the control of the Japanese colonial government blocking artistic or politically independent films 175 Regardless of settings or time period many Korean horror films such as Song of the Dead 1980 have their stories focused on female relationships rooted in Korean Confucianism tradition with an emphasis on biological families 176 Despite the influence of folklore in some films there is no key single canon to define the Korean horror film 177 Korean horror cinema is also defined by melodrama as it does in most of Korean cinema 178 The Housemaid 1960 is widely credited as initiating the first horror cycle in Korean cinema which involved films of the 1960s about supernatural revenge tales focused on cruelly murdered women who sought out revenge 179 Several of these films are in dept to Korean folklore and ghost stories with stories of animal transformation 176 Traces of international cinema are found in early Korean horror cinema such as Shin Sang ok s Madame White Snake 1960 from the traditional Chinese folktale Legend of the White Snake 176 Despite bans of Japanese cultural products that lasted from 1945 to 1998 the influence of Japanese culture are still found in Kaibyō eiga ghost cats themed films such as A Devilish Homicide 1965 and Ghosts of Chosun 1970 Other 1960s films featured narratives involving kumiho such as The Thousand Year Old Fox Cheonnyeonho 1969 177 These tales based on folklore and ghosts continued into the 1970s 180 Korea also produced giant monster films that received release in the United States such as Yongary Monster from the Deep 1967 and Ape 1976 178 Park Chan wook the director of Thirst 2009 one of the many varied Korean horror films from the early 21st century By the end of the 1970s the Korean horror film entered a period known commonly as the dark time for South Korean cinema with audience attracted to Hong Kong and American imports The biggest influence on this was the 3S policy adopted by the Chun Doo hwan government which promoted the production of sports screen and sex for the film industry leading to more relaxed censorship leading to a boom in Erotic Korean films Horror films followed this trend with Suddenly at Midnight 1981 a reimagining of The Housemaid 1960 181 As of 2013 many pre 1990 Korean horror films are only available through the Korean Film Archive KOFA in Seoul 174 It was not until the 1998 release of Whispering Corridors was the Korean horror film reinvigorated with its style containing traces of traditional Korean cinema culturally specific themes and melodrama but also the American pattern of making a franchise of horror films as the film received four sequels 182 Since the film s release Korean horror films had had strong diversity with gothic tales like A Tale of Two Sisters 2003 gory horror films like Bloody Reunion 2006 horror comedy To Catch a Virgin Ghost 2004 vampire films Thirst 2009 and independent productions Teenage Hooker Became a Killing Machine 2000 182 These films varied in popularity with Ahn Byeong ki s Phone 2002 reaching the top ten in the domestic box office sales in 2002 while in 2007 no locally produced Korean horror films were financially successful with local audiences 182 In 2020 Anton Bitel declared in Sight amp Sound that South Korea was one of the international hot spots for horror film production in the last decade citing the international and popular releases of films like Train to Busan 2016 The Odd Family Zombie on Sale 2019 Peninsula 2020 and The Wailing 2016 183 Thailand This section is an excerpt from Thai horror edit Thai horror refers to horror films produced in the Thai film industry Thai folklore and beliefs in ghosts have influenced its horror cinema 184 Horror is among the most popular genres in Thai cinema and its output has attracted recognition internationally 185 186 187 Pee Mak a 2013 comedy horror film is the most commercially successful Thai film of all time Oceania Australia It is unknown when Australia s cinema first horror title may have been with thoughts ranging from The Strangler s Grip 1912 to The Face at the Window 1919 while stories featuring ghosts would appear in Guyra Ghost Mystery 1921 188 By 1913 the more prolific era of Australian cinema ended with production not returning with heavy input of government finance in the 1970s 189 It took until the 1970s for Australia to develop sound film with television films that eventually received theatrical release with Dead Easy 1970 and Night of Fear 1973 The Cars That Ate Paris 1974 was the first Australian horror production made for theatrical release 188 1970s Australian art cinema was funded by state film corporations who considered them more culturally acceptable than local exploitation films Ozploitation which was part of the Australian phenomenon called the cultural cringe 190 The greater success of genre films like Mad Max 1979 The Last Wave 1977 and Patrick 1978 led to the Australian Film Commission to change its focus to being a more commercial operation This closed in 1980 as its funding was abused by investors using them as tax avoiding measures A new development known as the 10BA tax shelter scheme was developed ushering a slew of productions leading to what Peter Shelley author of Australian Horror Films suggested meant making a profit was more important than making a good film 190 Shelley called these films derivative of American films and presenting generic American material 190 These films included the horror film productions of Antony I Ginnane 191 While Australia would have success with international films between the mid 1980s and the 2000s less than 5 horror films were produced in the country between 1993 and 2000 192 193 It was only after the success of Wolf Creek 2005 that a new generation of filmmakers would continuously make horror genre films in Australia that continued into the 2010s 192 193 New Zealand By 2005 New Zealand has produced around 190 feature films with about 88 of them being made after 1976 194 New Zealand horror film history was described by Philip Matthews of Stuff as making po faced gothic and now we do horror for laughs 195 Among the earliest known New Zealand horror films productions are Strange Behavior 1981 a co production with Australia and Death Warmed Up 1984 a single production 196 Early features such as Melanie Read s Trial Run 1984 where a mother is sent to remote cottage to photograph penguins and finds it habitat to haunted spirits and Gaylene Preston s Mr Wrong 1984 purchases a car that is haunted by its previous owner 197 Other films imitate American slasher and splatter films with Bridge to Nowhere 1986 and the early films of Peter Jackson who combined splatter films with comedy with Bad Taste 1988 and Braindead 1992 which has the largest following of the mentioned films 196 Film producer Ant Timpson had an influence curating New Zealand horror films creating the Incredibly Strange Film Festival in the 1990s and producing his own horror films over the 2010s including The ABCs of Death 2012 Deathgasm 2015 and Housebound 2014 195 Timpson noted the latter horror entries from New Zealand are all humorous films like What We Do in the Shadows 2014 with Jonathan King director of Black Sheep 2006 and The Tattooist 2007 stating I d love to see a genuinely scary New Zealand film but I don t know if New Zealand audiences or the funding bodies are keen 195 European horror films Ian Olney described the horror films of Europe were often more erotic and just plain stranger than their British and American counter parts 198 European horror films generally referred to as Euro Horror 199 draw from distinctly European cultural sources including surrealism romanticism decadent tradition early 20th century pulp literature film serials and erotic comics 200 In comparison to the narrative logic in American genre films these films focused on imagery excessiveness and the irrational 201 Between the mid 1950s and the mid 1980s European horror films emerged from counties like Italy Spain and France and were shown in the United States predominantly at drive in theatre and grindhouse theatres 198 As producers and distributors all over the world were interested in horror films regardless of their origin changes started occurring in European low budget filmmaking that allowed for productions in the 1960s and 1970s for horror films from Italy France Germany United Kingdom and Spain as well as co productions between these countries 202 Several productions such as those in Italy were co productions due to the lack of international stars within the country 203 European horror films began developing strong cult following since the late 1990s 198 France See also New French Extremity French director Julia Ducournau centre won the Palme d Or for horror film Titane She is pictured with actors Agathe Rousselle and Vincent Lindon who star in the film at the 2021 Cannes Film Festival France never truly developed a horror film movement to the volume that the United Kingdom or Italy had produced 204 In their book European Nightmares editors Patricia Allmer Emily Brick and David Huxley noted that French cinema was generally perceived as having a tradition of the fantastic rather than horror films The editors noted that French cinema had produced a series of outstanding individual horror films from directors who did not specialize in the field 205 In their book Horror Films Colin Odell amp Michelle Le Blanc referred to director Jean Rollin as one of the countries most consistent horror auteurs with 40 years of productions described as highly divisive low budget horror films often featuring erotic elements vampires low budgets pulp stories and references to both high and low European art 206 Another of the few French directors who specialized in horror is Alexandre Aja who stated that the problem with the French is that they don t trust their own language when it comes to horror American horror movies do well but in their own language the French just aren t interested 205 A 21st century movement of transgressive French cinema known as New French Extremity was named by film programmer James Quandt in 2004 who declared and derided that films of Catherine Breillat Claire Denis Gaspar Noe and Bruno Dumont among others had made cinema suddenly determined to break every taboo to wade in rivers of viscera and spumes of sperm to fill each frame with flesh nubile or gnarled and subject it to all manner of penetration mutilation and defilement 207 In her book Films of the New French Extremity Alexandra West described the phenomenon as initially an art house movement but as the directors of those films started making horror films fitting arthouse standards such as Trouble Every Day 2001 and Marina de Van s In My Skin 2002 other directors began making more what West described as outright horror films such as Aja s High Tension 2003 and Xavier Gens Frontier s 2007 Some of these horror films of the New French Extremity movement would regularly place on Best Of genre lists such as Martyrs 2008 Inside 2007 and High Tension 2003 while Julia Ducournau s film Titane 2021 won the Palme d Or at the 2021 Cannes Film Festival 208 209 Germany Jorg Buttgereit in 2015 Buttgereit was described by Kai Uwe Werbeck as arguably the most visible German horror director of the 1980s and early 1990s 210 German postwar horror films remained marginal after its success during the silent film era 211 The Third Reich ended production of horror films and German productions never gained a mass audience in Germany s horror film output leading the genre to not return in any major form until the late 1960s 212 213 Between 1933 and 1989 Randall Halle stated about only 34 films that could be described as horror films and 45 which were co productions with other countries primarily Spain and Italy Outside of Herzog s Nosferatu 1979 most of these films low budget that focused on erotic themes over horrific turns in narrative 213 In the mid 1970s Federal Department for Media Harmful to Young Persons was tasked with protection of minors from violent racist and pornographic content in literature and comic books which led to increased the code which became law in 1973 214 These laws expanded to home video in 1985 following the release of titles such as Sam Raimi s The Evil Dead 1981 and the political change when Helmut Kohl became chancellor in 1982 215 The amount of West German film productions were already low in the 1980s leaving the genre to be shot by amateurs who had little to no budgets 216 In the early 1980s West Germany s government cracked down on graphic horror films similar to the United Kingdom s Video nasty panic 217 A direct response to this led to West German independent directors in the late 1980s and early 1990s West German indie directors to release a comparatively high number of what Kai Uwe Werbeck described as low budget hyper violent horror films sometimes described as German underground horror 217 218 Werbeck described the most prominent of these were of Jorg Buttgereit described by Werbeck as arguably the most visible German horror director of the 1980s and early 1990s one which Harald Harzheim claimed to be the first German director since the 1920s to give the horror genre new impulses 210 Similar gory films such as Olaf Ittenbach s The Burning Moon was the first and last film to be made in Germany that is still banned there as of 2016 217 219 German horror films made a comeback in what Werbeck described as a mainstream fashion in the 21st century 218 This included the box office hit Anatomy 2000 and Antibodies 2005 who Odell and Le Blanc described as being a similar to the 1960s krimi genre of crime films 219 220 The second were films made for international markets such as Legion of the Dead 2001 and the video game adaptations directed Uwe Boll such as House of the Dead 2003 and Alone in the Dark 2005 220 Italy See also Giallo Early silent Italian fantastique films focused more on adventure and farce opposed to Germany s expressionism 221 The National Fascist Party in Italy had forced film in the early sound era to spread the civilization of Rome throughout the world as quickly as possible 222 Another influence was the Centro Cattolico Cinematografico Catholic Cinematic Centre that was described by Curti as permissive towards propaganda and repressive against anything related to sexuality or morality 222 The Vatican City s newspaper L Osservatore Romano for example critiqued the circulation of films like Bride of Frankenstein 1935 in 1940 222 As Italian neorealism had monopolized Italian cinema in the 1940s and as the average Italian standard for living increased Italian critic and historian Gian Piero Brunetta stated that it would appear legitimate to start exploring the fantastic 223 Italian film historian Goffredo Fofi echoed these statements stating in 1963 that ghosts monsters and the taste for the horrible appears when a society that became wealthy and evolves by industrializing and are accompanied by a state of well being which began to exist and expand in Italy only since a few years 224 225 Initially this was a rise in peplum films after the release of Hercules 1958 226 Italy started moving beyond peplums making Westerns and horror films which were less expensive to produce than the previous sword and sandal films 203 Italy s initial wave of horror films were gothic horror were rooted in popular cinema and were often co productions with other countries 223 Curti described the initial wave of the 1960s Italian gothic horror allowed directors like Mario Bava Riccardo Freda and Antonio Margheriti to helm what Curti described as some of their very best works 227 Bava s Black Sunday 1960 was particularly influential 67 Many productions of this era were often written in a hurry sometimes developed during filming production by production companies that often did not last very long sometimes for only one film production 228 After 1966 the gothic cycle ended primarily through a broader crisis that effected the Italian film industry with its audience rapidly shrinking 229 Some gothics continued to be produced into the beginning of the 1970s while the influence of the genre was felt in other Italian genres like the Spaghetti Western 230 Still from Dario Argento s Suspiria 1977 Curti described the film as developing an artistic rebirth and irrational dimension to the Italian gothic from its set pieces to the color and the music 231 The term giallo which means yellow in Italian is derived from Il Giallo Mondadori a long running series of mystery and crime novels identifiable by their distinctive uniform yellow covers and is used in Italy to describe all mystery and thriller fiction English language critics use the term to describe more specific films within the genre involving a murder mystery that revels in the details of the murder rather than the deduction of it or police procedural elements 232 Tim Lucas deemed early films in the genre such as Bava s The Girl Who Knew Too Much 1963 while Curti described Blood and Black Lace 1964 as predominantly a series of violent erotically charged set pieces that are increasingly elaborate and spectacular in their construction and that Bava pushed these elements to the extreme which would solidify the genre 233 234 232 It was not until the success of Dario Argento s 1970 film The Bird with the Crystal Plumage that the giallo genre started a major trend in Italian cinema 235 236 Other smaller trends permutated in Italy in the 1970s such as films involving cannibals zombies and Nazis which Newman described as disreputable crazes 77 In Italy entered the 1980s the Italian film industry would gradually move towards making films for television 237 The decade started with a high budgeted production of Argento s Inferno 1980 and with the death of Mario Bava Fulci became what historian Roberto Curti called Italy s most prominent horror film director in the early 1980s 238 Several zombie films were made in the country in the early 80s from Fulci and others while Argento would continue directing and producing films for others such as Lamberto Bava 238 As Fulci s health deteriorated towards the end of the decade many directors turned to making horror films for Joe D Amato s Filmirage company independent films or works for television and home video 239 240 Spain The highest point of production of Spanish horror films took place during late Francoism between 1968 and 1975 241 a period associated to the so called Fantaterror the local expression of Euro Horror identifiable for its disproportionate doses of sex and violence 242 During this period several Spanish filmmakers appeared with unique styles and themes such as Jesus Franco s The Awful Dr Orloff 1962 first internationally successful horror and exploitation film production from Spain 243 Dr Orloff would appears in other films of Franco s during the period 244 Paul Naschy the actor and screenwriter 244 and Amando de Ossorio with his zombie like medieval knights in Tombs of the Blind Dead 1972 244 These directors adapted established monsters from popular films comics and pulp fiction and imbuing them with what Lazaro Reboll described as certain local flavour and relevance 244 A partial overview of films from this era focused on classic monsters Frankenstein s Bloody Terror 1968 Dr Jekyll y el Hombre Lobo 1972 and films that grew from trends created by Night of the Living Dead and The Exorcist The Living Dead at the Manchester Morgue 1974 Exorcismo 1975 245 Most films of the period were low budget films with short shooting schedules while occasional films had respectable budgets such as 99 Women 1969 and others that had art house directors attempt commercial production such as Vicente Aranda s The Blood Spattered Bride and Jorge Grau s Bloody Ceremony 1973 246 Antonio Lazaro Reboll wrote in 2012 that in the last forty years the horror film has formed as a significant part of Spain s local transnational filmic production that created its own auteurs stars and cycles 247 For decades it was described by Beck and Rodriguez Ortega in Contemporary Spanish Cinema and Genre that the view of the genre has been almost exclusively been constructed negatively and that the rise in horror film productions in the late 1960s and 1970s in Spain was reviled by contemporary critics film historians and scholars 248 In his 1974 book Cine espanol cine de subgeneros author Roman Gurbern saw contemporary Spanish horror films as derivative of Authentic American and European traditions that will never make it into the histories of Spanish cinema unless it is dealt with in a succinct footnote 249 Film production decreased dramatically in the late 1970s and 1980s for several reasons including the boom in historical and political films in Spain during early year of democracy The film legislation implemented by general director of cinematography Pilar Miro in 1983 introduced a selective subvention system causing the overall number of annually made films including horror films to shrink thereby dealing a heavy blow to horror industry and the Fantaterror craze 250 In addition there were changing habits on audiences and the visual material they sought It was not until the late 1990s and the 2000s that Spanish horror reached another production peak 241 After the success of private television operator Canal from the 1990s onward investing in the production of films by the likes of Alex de la Iglesia The Day of the Beast 1995 or Alejandro Amenabar Tesis 1996 and The Others 2001 through Sogecine 251 other television companies such as Antena 3 and Telecinco through Telecinco Cinema came to see horror as a profitable niche and the genre thereby became a successful formula for box office hits in the 2000s underpinning the wider switch in the industry from the largely State dependent model of the 1980s to the hegemony of mass media holdings in domestic film production 252 Jaume Balaguero s The Nameless 1999 which became a popular film both in Spain and abroad paved the way for new Spanish horror films 253 Filmax tried to capitalise on the success of the former film by creating the Fantastic Factory genre label 254 and eventually came to develop one of the most successful Spanish film franchises with the Rec film series 255 The success of Juan Antonio Bayona s The Orphanage 2007 ensued with the release of ersatz gothic films featuring creepy children 254 Other key names for the development of the genre in the 21st century Spanish industry include Juan Carlos Fresnadillo and Paco Plaza 256 United Kingdom Further information British horror cinema Americas Mexico Main article Horror films of Mexico After the 1931 release of a US produced Spanish language version of Dracula by George Melford for the Latin American market employing Mexican actors Mexican horror films were produced throughout the 1930s and 1940s often reflecting on the overarching theme of science vs religion conflict 257 Ushered by the release of El vampiro the Mexploitation horror film era started in 1957 with films characterised by their low production values and camp appeal often featuring vampires wrestlers and aztec mummies 258 A key figure in the Mexican horror scene particularly in German Robles starred vampire films was producer Abel Salazar 259 The late 1960s saw the advent of the prominence of Carlos Enrique Taboada as an standout Mexican horror filmmaker with films such as Hasta el viento tiene miedo 1967 El libro de piedra 1968 Mas negro que la noche 1975 or Veneno para las hadas 1984 260 Mexican horror cinema has been noted for the mashup of classic gothic and romantic themes and characters with autochthonous features of the Mexican culture such as the Rancheria setting the colonial past or the myth of La Llorona shared with other Hispanic American nations 261 Horror has proven to be a dependable genre at the Mexican box office in the 21st century with Mexico ranking as having the world s largest relative popularity of the genre among viewers ahead of South Korea according to a 2016 research 262 Effects on audiencesPsychological effects This section does not cite any sources Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources Unsourced material may be challenged and removed November 2019 Learn how and when to remove this template message In a study done by Uri Hasson et al brain waves were observed via functional magnetic resonance imaging fMRI This study used the inter subject correlation analysis ISC method of determining results It was shown that audience members tend to focus on certain facets in a particular scene simultaneously and tend to sit as still as possible while watching horror films 263 In another study done by John Greene amp Glenn Sparks it was found that the audience tends to experience the excitation transfer process ETP which causes a physiological arousal in audience members The ETP refers to the feelings experienced immediately after an emotion arousing experience such as watching a horror film In this case audience members heart rate blood pressure and respiration all increased while watching films with violence Audience members with positive feedback regarding the horror film have feelings similar to happiness or joy felt with friends but intensified Alternatively audience members with negative feedback regarding the film would typically feel emotions they would normally associate with negative experiences in their life citation needed Only about 10 of the American population enjoy the physiological rush felt immediately after watching horror films The population that does not enjoy horror films could experience emotional fallout similar to that of PTSD if the environment reminds them of particular scenes citation needed A 2021 study suggested horror films that explore grief can provide psychological benefits to the bereaved with the genre well suited to representing grief through its genre conventions 264 Physical effects In a study by Medes et al prolonged exposure to infrasound and low frequency noise lt 500 Hz in long durations has an effect on vocal range i e longer exposure tends to form a lower phonation frequency range 265 Another study by Baliatsas et al observed that there is a correlation between exposure to infrasound and low frequency noises and sleep related problems 266 Though most horror films keep the audio around 20 30 Hz the noise can still be unsettling in long durations 15 Another technique used in horror films to provoke a response from the audience is cognitive dissonance which is when someone experiences tension in themselves and is urged to relieve that tension 267 Dissonance is the clashing of unpleasant or harsh sounds 268 A study by Prete et al identified that the ability to recognize dissonance relied on the left hemisphere of the brain while consonance relied on the right half 269 There is a stronger preference for consonance this difference is noticeable even in early stages of life 269 Previous musical experience also can influence a dislike for dissonance 269 Skin conductance responses SCRs heart rate HR and electromyographic EMG responses vary in response to emotional stimuli showing higher for negative emotions in what is known as the negative bias 270 When applied to dissonant music HR decreases as a bodily form of adaptation to harsh stimulation SCR increases and EMG responses in the face are higher 270 The typical reactions go through a two step process of first orienting to the problem the slowing of HR then a defensive process a stronger increase in SCR and an increase in HR 270 This initial response can sometimes result in a fight or flight response which is the characteristic of dissonance that horror films rely on to frighten and unsettle viewers 15 ReceptionIn film criticism See also Vulgar auteurism Critic Robin Wood was not the first film critic to take the horror film seriously but his article Return of the Repressed in 1978 helped inaugurate the horror film into academic study as a genre 271 Wood later stated that he was surprised that his work as well as the writing of Richard Lippe and Andrew Britton would receive historic importance intellectual views of the film genre 271 William Paul in his book Laughing Screaming comments that the negative definition of the lower works would have it that they are less subtle than higher genres More positively it could be said that they are more direct Where lower forms are explicit higher forms tend to operate more by indirection Because of this indirection the higher forms are often regarded as being more metaphorical and consequently more resonant more open to the exegetical analyses of the academic industry 272 Steffen Hantke noted that academic criticism about horror cinema had always operated under duress noting that challenges in legitimizing its subject finding career minded academics might have always suspected that they were studying something that was ultimately too frivolous garish and sensationalistic to warrant serious critical attention 273 Some commentary has suggested that horror films have been underrepresented or underappreciated as serious works worthy of film criticism and major films awards 274 275 As of 2021 only six horror films have been nominated for the Academy Award for Best Picture with The Silence of the Lambs being the sole winner 276 277 However horror films have still won major awards 278 Critics have also commented on the representation of women 279 280 281 282 and disability 283 in horror films as well as the prevalence of racial stereotypes 284 285 Censorship This section needs expansion You can help by adding to it January 2022 Many horror films have been the subject of moral panic censorship and legal controversy In the United Kingdom film censorship has frequently been applied to horror films 286 A moral panic over several slasher films in the 1980s led to many of them being banned but released on videotape the phenomenon became popularly termed video nasties 287 288 Constraints on permitted subject matter in Indonesian films has also influenced Indonesian horror films 289 In March 2008 China banned all horror films from its market 290 In the U S the Motion Picture Production Code which was implemented in 1930 set moral guidelines for film content restraining movies containing controversial themes graphic violence explicit sexuality and or nudity The gradual abandonment of the Code and its eventual formal repeal in 1968 when it was replaced by the MPAA film rating system 291 offered more freedom to the movie industry ReferencesNotes a b c Marriott amp Newman 2018 p 20 a b Kuhn Annette Westwell Guy 20 December 2012 horror film A Dictionary of Film Studies Oxford University Press doi 10 1093 acref 9780199587261 001 0001 ISBN 978 0 19 958726 1 retrieved 20 December 2021 a b Balmain 2008 p 4 Rhodes 2014 p 91 a b Rhodes 2018b p 97 Rhodes 2018b p 98 Rhodes 2018b p 97 98 Rhodes 2014 p 90 Balmain 2008 p 5 Jancovich 2000 p 31 32 Jancovich 2000 p 25 26 Jancovich 2000 p 26 27 Jancovich 2000 p 28 Tudor 1991 p 6 7 a b c d e f g h 15 Ways You Didn t Even Realize Horror Movies Are Manipulating You into Fear Ranker Retrieved 22 November 2019 Lerner Neil 16 December 2009 Music in the Horror Film Listening to Fear Routledge ISBN 978 1 135 28044 4 a b c d e Prawer 1989 p 16 Prawer 1989 p 17 Lizardi Ryan 31 August 2010 Re Imagining Hegemony and Misogyny in the Contemporary Slasher Remake Journal of Popular Film and Television 38 3 113 121 doi 10 1080 01956051003623464 S2CID 191466131 Heller Nicholas Alexandra History and Horror Screen Education a b Aston amp Walliss 2013 p 4 a b Carta Silvio October 2011 Orientalism in the Documentary Representation of Culture Visual Anthropology 24 5 403 420 doi 10 1080 08949468 2011 604592 S2CID 144730190 Muir 2011 p 3 a b c d Richards Andy 21 October 2010 Asian Horror Oldcastle Books ISBN 978 1 84243 408 6 Dendle Peter 1 January 2007 The Zombie as Barometer of Cultural Anxiety Brill ISBN 978 94 012 0481 1 Marriott amp Newman 2018 p 11 Marriott amp Newman 2018 p 13 Marriott amp Newman 2018 p 14 Marriott amp Newman 2018 p 15 Marriott amp Newman 2018 p 17 a b Marriott amp Newman 2018 p 18 a b Marriott amp Newman 2018 p 19 Weaver Brunas amp Brunas 2007 p 21 Weaver Brunas amp Brunas 2007 p 23 Welsh Out of Universal Laemmle Jr Takes Helm Film Daily 24 May 1929 p 1 Weaver Brunas amp Brunas 2007 p 31 Rhodes 2014 p 278 Weaver Brunas amp Brunas 2007 p 47 a b c Marriott amp Newman 2018 p 30 Marriott amp Newman 2018 p 32 Rhodes 2014 p 289 a b Marriott amp Newman 2018 p 31 32 a b c Chibnall amp Petley 2002 p 59 Worland 2007 p 68 Worland 2007 p 69 a b Marriott amp Newman 2018 p 53 Weaver Brunas amp Brunas 2007 p 242 Marriott amp Newman 2018 p 54 Fujiwara 2000 p 72 Newman 2009 p 7 Newman 2009 pp 8 9 Ebert 2006 Newman 2009 p 69 Marriott amp Newman 2018 p 55 Rhodes amp Kaffenberger 2016 2103 Rhodes amp Kaffenberger 2016 2115 Marriott amp Newman 2018 p 68 69 Marriott amp Newman 2018 p 69 a b c d Marriott amp Newman 2018 p 70 a b Marriott amp Newman 2018 p 65 Marriott amp Newman 2018 p 66 Marriott amp Newman 2018 p 71 a b c d Marriott amp Newman 2018 p 91 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s lair Bangkok Post Retrieved 19 January 2022 McRobert Neil November 2015 Mimesis of Media Found Footage Cinema and the Horror of the Real Gothic Studies 17 2 137 150 doi 10 7227 GS 17 2 9 Heller Nicholas 2014 p 4 a b Hand amp McRoy 2020 p 3 Hand amp McRoy 2020 p 1 Hand amp McRoy 2020 p 2 Hand amp McRoy 2020 p 5 6 Muir 2012 p 10 Muir 2012 p 11 Marriott amp Newman 2018 p 220 Marriott amp Newman 2018 p 272 sfn error no target CITEREFMarriottNewman 2018 help Natural Horror Top rated Most Viewed AllMovie Allrovi com Archived from the original on 7 February 2012 Retrieved 24 April 2012 Gregersdotter Hoglund amp Hallen 2015 p 32 a b Muir 2012 p 17 Muir 2012 p 19 Muir 2012 p 20 a b Gregersdotter Hoglund amp Hallen 2015 p 31 Marriott amp Newman 2018 p 187 sfn error no target CITEREFMarriottNewman 2018 help Clayton Wickham ed 2015 Style and form in the Hollywood slasher film Basingstoke Palgrave Macmillan ISBN 9781137496478 OCLC 927961472 Muir 2007 p 17 Muir 2007 p 21 Marriott amp Newman 2018 p 274 sfn error no target CITEREFMarriottNewman 2018 help Chung 2013 p 87 Supernatural The Script Lab 26 March 2011 Retrieved 19 December 2021 Miller C Van Riper A Marketing Monsters and Music Teensploitation Horror Films Journal of American Culture serial online June 2015 38 2 130 141 Available from Academic Search Complete Ipswich MA Retrieved 21 March 2017 West 2018 p 4 a b Shary 2005 p 99 Shary 2005 p 102 Shary 2005 p 103 West 2018 pp 3 4 What Exactly Is a Psychological Horror Film PopMatters 31 July 2013 Retrieved 17 August 2018 Chronister Kay 1 March 2020 My Mother the Ap Cambodian Horror Cinema and the Gothic Transformation of a Folkloric Monster Gothic Studies 22 1 98 113 doi 10 3366 gothic 2020 0040 ISSN 1362 7937 S2CID 216404862 Ainslie Mary J 2016 Siddique Sophia Raphael Raphael eds Towards a Southeast Asian Model of Horror Thai Horror Cinema in Malaysia Urbanization and Cultural Proximity Transnational Horror Cinema Bodies of Excess and the Global Grotesque London Palgrave Macmillan UK pp 179 203 doi 10 1057 978 1 137 58417 5 9 ISBN 978 1 137 58417 5 retrieved 24 January 2022 Dhusiya 2014 p 2 a b c d Odell amp Le Blanc 2007 p 166 Odell amp Le Blanc 2007 p 169 Odell amp Le Blanc 2007 p 169 170 a b Odell amp Le Blanc 2007 p 167 a b Nair 2012 p 125 Nair 2012 p 123 a b c d Odell amp Le Blanc 2007 p 168 Nair 2012 p 127 Salvi 2018 a b Dhusiya 2014 p 3 Tumbbad starring Sohum Shah to be the first Indian movie to open Venice Film Festival s Critics Week Firstpost 23 July 2018 Archived from the original on 21 August 2018 Retrieved 21 August 2018 Horror artist Suzanna dies The Jakarta Post Archived from the original on 21 October 2008 Retrieved 11 December 2022 Barker Thomas 2013 The Trauma of Post 1998 Indonesian Horror Films Journal of Letters 42 1 29 60 ISSN 2586 9736 Ferrarese Marco New kinds of monsters The rise of Southeast Asian horror films www aljazeera com Retrieved 23 December 2021 Heeren Katinka van 1 June 2007 Return of the Kyai representations of horror commerce and censorship in post Suharto Indonesian film and television Inter Asia Cultural Studies 8 2 211 226 doi 10 1080 13583880701238688 ISSN 1464 9373 S2CID 145086314 Indonesian Horror A Beginner s Guide pastemagazine com 7 February 2021 Retrieved 23 December 2021 a b c d e f Balmain Colette 2008 Introduction to Japanese Horror Film George Square Edinburgh Edinburgh University Press ISBN 9780748624751 a b c d A Brief History of Japanese Horror rikumo journal Retrieved 9 November 2019 a b c Byrne James July 2014 Wigs and Rings Cross Cultural Exchange in the South Korean and Japanese Horror Film Journal of Japanese amp Korean Cinema 6 2 184 201 doi 10 1080 17564905 2014 961708 S2CID 154836006 Holm Nicholas 30 November 2011 Ex or cising the Spirit of Japan Ringu The Ring and the Persistence of Japan Journal of Popular Film and Television 39 4 183 192 doi 10 1080 01956051 2011 562934 S2CID 194089240 a b Peirse amp Martin 2013 p 1 Peirse amp Martin 2013 p 3 4 a b c Peirse amp Martin 2013 p 2 a b Peirse amp Martin 2013 p 3 a b Peirse amp Martin 2013 p 5 Peirse amp Martin 2013 p 4 5 Peirse amp Martin 2013 p 6 Peirse amp Martin 2013 p 8 a b c Peirse amp Martin 2013 p 9 Bitel 2020 p 49 Ancuta Katarzyna 1 November 2015 Ghost skins Globalising the supernatural in contemporary Thai horror film Manchester University Press ISBN 978 1 5261 0297 3 Ancuta Katarzyna 1 June 2011 Global spectrologies Contemporary Thai horror films and the globalization of the supernatural Horror Studies 2 1 131 144 doi 10 1386 host 2 1 131 1 15 Best Thai Horror Movies ScreenRant 17 March 2020 Retrieved 23 December 2021 Ainslie Mary J 2016 Siddique Sophia Raphael Raphael eds Towards a Southeast Asian Model of Horror Thai Horror Cinema in Malaysia Urbanization and Cultural Proximity Transnational Horror Cinema Bodies of Excess and the Global Grotesque London Palgrave Macmillan UK pp 179 203 doi 10 1057 978 1 137 58417 5 9 ISBN 978 1 137 58417 5 retrieved 23 December 2021 a b Shelley 2012 p 9 Shelley 2012 p 5 6 a b c Shelley 2012 p 10 Odell amp Le Blanc 2007 p 192 a b Shelley 2012 p 12 a b Withers 2016 Conrich 2005 p 115 a b c Matthews 2017 a b Conrich 2005 p 117 Conrich 2005 p 116 a b c Olney 2013 p xi Wynter 2016 p 44 Olney 2013 p 6 Olney 2013 p 7 Lazaro Reboll 2012 p 11 12 a b Heffernan 2004 p 141 Odell amp Le Blanc 2007 p 47 a b West 2016 p 7 Odell amp Le Blanc 2007 p 48 West 2016 p 5 West 2016 p 6 LaCava 2021 a b Werbeck 2016 p 439 Werbeck 2016 p 436 Halle 2003 p 281 a b Halle 2003 p 284 Werbeck 2016 p 437 Werbeck 2016 p 437 438 Werbeck 2016 p 438 a b c Werbeck 2016 p 435 a b Werbeck 2016 p 447 a b Werbeck 2016 p 443 a b Odell amp Le Blanc 2007 p 56 57 Curti 2015 p 11 a b c Curti 2015 p 12 a b Curti 2015 p 15 Shipka 2011 p 22 Fofi 1963 p 80 Lucas 2013b p 15 sfn error no target CITEREFLucas2013b help Curti 2015 p 15 16 Curti 2015 p 16 Curti 2015 p 17 Curti 2015 p 17 18 Curti 2017 p 183 a b Lucas 2013 p 542 Curti 2019 p 20 Curti 2019 p 21 Lucas 2013 p 557 Lucas 2013 p 558 Curti 2019 p 4 a b Curti 2019 p 6 Curti 2019 p 8 Curti 2019 p 191 a b Lazaro Reboll 2012 p 7 Rodriguez Ortega amp Romero Santos 2020 p 317 Shipka 2011 p 175 a b c d Lazaro Reboll 2012 p 8 Lazaro Reboll 2012 p 12 Lazaro Reboll 2012 p 13 Lazaro Reboll 2012 p 3 Lazaro Reboll 2012 p 5 Lazaro Reboll 2012 p 5 6 Aldana Reyes Xavier 2017 Spanish Gothic Palgrave Macmillan p 201 doi 10 1057 978 1 137 30601 2 ISBN 978 1 137 30600 5 Rodriguez Ortega amp Romero Santos 2020 pp 321 330 Rodriguez Ortega amp Romero Santos 2020 p 330 Aldana Reyes 2017 pp 210 211 a b Aldana Reyes 2017 p 211 Rodriguez Ortega amp Romero Santos 2020 p 324 Rodriguez Ortega Vicente Romero Santos Ruben 2020 Spanish Horror Film Genre Television and a New Model of Production In Lewis I Canning L eds European Cinema in the Twenty First Century p 331 doi 10 1007 978 3 030 33436 9 18 ISBN 978 3 030 33435 2 S2CID 219469402 Green Doyle 2005 Mexploitation Cinema A Critical History of Mexican Vampire Wrestler Ape Man and similar films 1957 1977 McFarland amp Company Inc ISBN 0 7864 2201 7 Doyle 2005 pp 6 9 sfn error no target CITEREFDoyle2005 help Flores Silvana 2018 Entre monstruos leyendas ancestrales y luchadores populares La insercion del Santo en el cine fantastico mexicano Secuencias Madrid UAM Ediciones 17 doi 10 15366 secuencias2018 48 001 ISSN 1134 6795 S2CID 213113335 Garcia Ruiz 2019 pp 41 42 Garcia Ruiz Pedro Enrique 2019 El cine de terror mexicano mas que romanticismo y gotico Cine mexicano y filosofia PDF Ciudad de Mexico Universidad Nacional Autonoma de Mexico p 40 ISBN 978 607 30 2039 8 Gallon Angelica 26 August 2022 Que dice de Mexico que sea el primer pais del mundo que mas cine de terror consume El Pais Hasson Uri Landesman Ohad Knappmeyer Barbara Vallines Ignacio Rubin Nava Heeger David J 1 June 2008 Neurocinematics The Neuroscience of Film Projections 2 1 1 26 doi 10 3167 proj 2008 020102 ISSN 1934 9696 Millar Becky Lee Jonny 1 July 2021 Horror Films and Grief Emotion Review 13 3 171 182 doi 10 1177 17540739211022815 ISSN 1754 0739 S2CID 235779574 Bonanca Iris Caetano Marlene Castelo Branco NunoA A Ferraria Renata Graca Andreia Jorge Ana Mendes Ana P Oliveira Nadia Santos Carolina Alves Pereira Mariana 2014 Voice acoustic profile of males exposed to occupational infrasound and low frequency noise Journal of Laryngology and Voice 4 1 12 doi 10 4103 2230 9748 141460 hdl 10400 26 14507 S2CID 53399379 Baliatsas Christos van Kamp Irene van Poll Ric Yzermans Joris July 2016 Health effects from low frequency noise and infrasound in the general population Is it time to listen A systematic review of observational studies Science of the Total Environment 557 558 163 169 Bibcode 2016ScTEn 557 163B doi 10 1016 j scitotenv 2016 03 065 PMID 26994804 Dissonance theory TheFreeDictionary com Retrieved 22 November 2019 dissonance The Free Dictionary retrieved 22 November 2019 a b c Prete Giulia Fabri Mara Foschi Nicoletta Brancucci Alfredo Tommasi Luca 4 May 2015 The consonance effect and the hemispheres A study on a split brain patient Laterality Asymmetries of Body Brain and Cognition 20 3 257 269 doi 10 1080 1357650X 2014 959525 PMID 25256169 S2CID 31138548 a b c Dellacherie Delphine Roy Mathieu Hugueville Laurent Peretz Isabelle Samson Severine March 2011 The effect of musical experience on emotional self reports and psychophysiological responses to dissonance Psychophysiology of musical emotion Psychophysiology 48 3 337 349 doi 10 1111 j 1469 8986 2010 01075 x PMID 20701708 a b Peirse amp Martin 2013 p 7 Paul 1994 p 32 Hantke 2007 Barber Nicholas Is horror the most disrespected genre BBC Retrieved 20 December 2021 Davis Clayton 2 October 2020 Horror and the Academy 13 Times the Oscars Could Have Embraced the Genre Variety Retrieved 20 December 2021 Durkan Deirdre 1 March 2018 Jaws to Get Out The Only 6 Horror Films Ever Nominated for Oscar s Best Picture The Hollywood Reporter Retrieved 20 December 2021 The only 6 horror films ever nominated for Best Picture at the Oscars Vogue India 8 April 2021 Retrieved 20 December 2021 15 Horror Films That Won Major Awards ScreenRant 25 February 2020 Retrieved 20 December 2021 Linz Daniel G Donnerstein Edward Penrod Steven 1988 Effects of long term exposure to violent and sexually degrading depictions of women Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 55 5 758 768 doi 10 1037 0022 3514 55 5 758 ISSN 1939 1315 PMID 3210143 Clover Carol J 1 October 1987 Her Body Himself Gender in the Slasher Film Representations 20 20 187 228 doi 10 2307 2928507 ISSN 0734 6018 JSTOR 2928507 Spines Christine Chicks dig scary movies Entertainment Weekly Retrieved 15 April 2012 Nowell Richard 2011 There s More Than One Way to Lose Your Heart The American Film Industry Early Teen Slasher Films and Female Youth Cinema Journal 51 1 115 140 doi 10 1353 cj 2011 0073 JSTOR 41342285 Gale A277106285 Sutton Travis 9 September 2014 Benshoff Harry M ed Avenging the Body Disability in the Horror Film A Companion to the Horror Film 1 ed Wiley pp 73 89 doi 10 1002 9781118883648 ch5 ISBN 978 0 470 67260 0 retrieved 30 September 2022 From Blacula to Get Out the documentary examining black horror The Guardian 7 February 2019 Retrieved 21 December 2021 Means Coleman Robin R 2011 Horror noire blacks in American horror films from the 1890s to present Internet Archive New York Routledge ISBN 978 0 415 88019 0 Kermode Mark 2001 The British censors and horror cinema In Steve Chibnall Julian Petley ed British Horror Cinema Routledge doi 10 4324 9780203996768 ISBN 978 0 203 99676 8 Retrieved 22 December 2021 Film censorship How moral panic led to a mass ban of video nasties The Independent 11 July 2014 Retrieved 22 December 2021 Looking Back at Britain s Moral Panic Over Slasher Flicks Vice magazine Retrieved 22 December 2021 Heeren Katinka van 1 June 2007 Return of the Kyai representations of horror commerce and censorship in post Suharto Indonesian film and television Inter Asia Cultural Studies 8 2 211 226 doi 10 1080 13583880701238688 ISSN 1464 9373 S2CID 145086314 China Bans Horror Movies Shanghai Daily March 2008 Hunt Kristin 28 February 2018 The End of American Film Censorship JSTOR Daily Retrieved 30 June 2022 Bibliography Aston James Walliss John 2013 To See the Saw Movies McFarland amp Company Inc ISBN 978 0 7864 7089 1 Balmain Colette 2008 Introduction to Japanese Horror Film Edinburgh University Press ISBN 9780748630592 Baumgartner Holly Lynn Davis Roger 2008 Hosting the Monster Rodopi ISBN 978 0 7864 0988 4 Bitel Anton November 2020 Beyond North America Three International Horror Hotspots from the Last Decade Sight amp Sound Vol 30 no 9 British Film Institute Bradley Laura 17 December 2019 This Was the Decade Horror Got Elevated Vanity Fair Archived from the original on 23 November 2020 Retrieved 2 January 2021 Chibnall Steve Petley Julian 2002 British horror cinema Routledge ISBN 0 415 23004 7 Collins Charlie 1 December 1930 The Stage Chicago Tribune Conrich Ian 2005 Kiwi Gothic New Zealand s Cinema of a Perilous Paradise Horror International Contemporary Approaches to Film and Television Wayne State University Press ISBN 9780814331019 Craig Pamela Fradley Matin 2010 American Horror Film The Genre at the Turn of the Millennium University Press of Mississippi ISBN 9781604734546 Chung Hye Seung 2013 Acacia and Adoption Anxiety in Korean Horror Cinema In Peirse Alison Daniel Martin eds Korean Horror Cinema Edinburgh University Press Curti Roberto 2015 Italian Gothic Horror Films 1957 1969 McFarland ISBN 978 1 4766 1989 7 Curti Roberto 2017 Italian Gothic Horror Films 1970 1979 McFarland ISBN 978 1 4766 2960 5 Curti Roberto 2019 Italian Gothic Horror Films 1980 1989 McFarland ISBN 978 1 4766 7243 4 Dhusiya Mithuraaj February 2014 Let the Ghost Speak A Study of Contemporary Indian Horror Cinema Wide Screen 5 1 ISSN 1757 3920 Ebert Roger 12 March 2006 Cat People 1942 Chicago Sun Times Chicago Illinois Archived from the original on 28 August 2014 Fofi Goffredo September 1963 Terreur in Italie Midi Minuit Fantastique No 7 Fujiwara Chris 2000 1st pub 1998 Jacques Tourneur The Cinema of Nightfall Baltimore Maryland McFarland ISBN 0 8018 6561 1 Galbraith IV Stuart 2008 The Toho Studios Story A History and Complete Filmography Scarecrow Press ISBN 978 1 4616 7374 3 Gregersdotter Katarina Hoglund Johan Hallen Nicklas 2015 Animal Horror Cinema Genre History and Criticism Palgrave Macmillan ISBN 978 1 349 55349 5 Halle Randall 2003 Unification Horror Queer Desire and Uncanny Visions Light Motives German Popular Film in Perspective Wayne State University Press ISBN 0 8143 3044 4 Hand Richard J McRoy Richard J 2020 Introduction Gothic Film An Edinburgh Companion Edinburgh University Press ISBN 978 1 4744 4804 8 Hardy Phil ed 1995 The Overlook Film Encyclopedia Vol 3 Overlook Press ISBN 0 87951 624 0 Hantke Steffan 2007 Academic Film Criticism the Rhetoric of Crisis and the Current State of American Horror Cinema Thoughts on Canonicity and Academic Anxiety College Literature 34 4 191 202 doi 10 1353 lit 2007 0045 Hawkins Joan 2000 Cutting Edge Art horror and the Horrrific Avant garde University of Minnesota Press Heffernan Kevin 2004 Ghouls Gimmicks and Gold Horror Films and the American Movie Business 1953 1968 Duke University Press ISBN 0822385554 Heller Nicholas Alexandra 2014 Found Footage Horror Films McFarland amp Company Inc ISBN 978 0 7864 7077 8 Jancovich Mark 1992 Horror B T Batsford Ltd ISBN 0 7134 6820 3 Jancovich Mark 1994 American Horror From 1951 to the Present Keele University Press ISBN 1 85331 149 9 Jancovich Mark 2000 A Real Shocker authenticity genre and the struggle for distinction Continuum Journal of Media amp Cultural Studies 14 1 23 35 doi 10 1080 713657675 ISSN 1030 4312 S2CID 144833572 Jones Steve 2013 Torture Porn Popular Horror After Saw Palgrave MacMillan ISBN 978 0 230 31941 7 LaCava Stephanie 7 October 2021 Julia Ducournau on Titane Screen Slate Retrieved 20 January 2021 Lazaro Reboll Antonio 2012 Spanish Horror Film Edinburgh University Press ISBN 978 0 7486 3638 9 Lucas Tim 2013 Mario Bava All the Colors of the Dark Video Watchdog ISBN 978 0 9633756 1 2 Lucas Tim 2013b The Two Faces of Black Sabbath booklet Arrow Films p 15 FCD778 Mank Gregory William 2010 Bela Lugosi and Boris Karloff The Expanded Story of a Haunting Collaboration with a Complete Filmography of Their Films Together McFarland ISBN 978 0 7864 5472 3 Marriott James Newman Kim 2018 1st pub 2006 The Definitive Guide to Horror Movies London Carlton Books ISBN 978 1 78739 139 0 Matthews Philip 30 October 2017 What are You Afraid of The New Horror Movie Renaissance Stuff Archived from the original on 30 November 2017 Retrieved 21 January 2021 Mendelson Scott 11 September 2017 Box Office Stephen King s It Scared Up A Monstrous 123M Weekend Forbes Retrieved 13 July 2018 Muir John Kenneth 2007 Horror Films of the 1980s McFarland amp Company ISBN 978 0 7864 2821 2 Muir John Kenneth 2011 Horror Films of the 1990s McFarland amp Company ISBN 978 0 7864 4012 2 Muir John Kenneth 2012 Horror Films of the 1970s McFarland ISBN 978 0 7864 9156 8 Nair Kartik 2012 Taste Taboo Trash The Story of the Ramsay Brothers BioScope 3 2 123 145 doi 10 1177 097492761200300203 S2CID 144146193 Newman Kim 2009 1st pub 1999 Cat People Palgrave Macmillan ISBN 978 0 85170 741 9 Newman Kim 2011 1st pub 1988 Nightmare Movies Bloomsbury ISBN 978 1 4088 0503 9 Newman Kim November 2020 Planet Terror The Year in Horror Sight amp Sound Vol 30 no 9 British Film Institute Newman Kim January 2020c This Year in Horror Sight amp Sound Vol 30 no 1 British Film Institute Newman Kim November 2020b Wide Angle Exploring the Bigger Picture Sight amp Sound Vol 30 no 9 British Film Institute Odell Colin Le Blanc Michelle 2007 Horror Films Kamera Books ISBN 978 1 84243 218 1 Olney Ian 2013 Euro Horror Classic European Horror Cinmea in Contemporary American Culture Indiana University Press ISBN 978 0 253 00648 6 Paul William 1994 Laughing Screaming Modern Hollywood Horror and Comedy Columbia University Press Peirse Alison Martin Daniel 2013 Introduction Korean Horror Cinema ISBN 978 0 7486 4310 3 Prawer Siegbert Solomon 1989 1st pub 1980 Caligari s Children The Film as Tale of Terror Da Capo ISBN 0 306 80347 X Prince Stephen 2004 The Horror Film Rutgers University Press ISBN 0 8135 3363 5 Rhodes Gary D 2014 Tod Browning s Dracula Tomahawk Press ISBN 978 0 9566834 5 8 Rhodes Gary D Kaffenberger Bill 2016 No Traveler Returns The Lost Years of Bela Lugosi Kindle ed BearManor Media ISBN 978 1 59393 285 5 Rhodes Gary D 2018b Horror Film How the Term Came to Be PDF Monstrum 1 1 ISSN 2561 5629 Retrieved 14 October 2022 Salvi Pooja 28 October 2018 Have you ever wondered what the Ramsays are doing We find out DNA India Selavy Virginie November 2020 The Psychedelic Renaissance The Enduring Influence of 1970s Horror Sight amp Sound Vol 30 no 9 British Film Institute Shary Timothy 2005 Teen Movies American Youth on Screen Wallflower ISBN 1 904764 49 5 Shelley Peter 2012 Australian Horror Films 1973 2010 McFarland ISBN 978 0 7864 6167 7 Shipka Danny 2011 Perverse Titillation The Exploitation Cinema of Italy Spain and France 1960 1980 McFarland ISBN 978 0 7864 4888 3 Tudor Andrew 1991 Monsters and Mad Scientists A Cultural History of the Horror Movie Wiley Blackwell ISBN 063116992X Weaver Tom Brunas Michael Brunas John 2007 1990 Universal Horrors 2 ed McFarland amp Company ISBN 978 0 7864 2974 5 Werbeck Kai Uwe 2016 The State vs Buttgereit and Ittenbach Censorship and Subversion in German No Budget Horror Film Journal of the Fantastic in the Arts 27 3 West Alexandra 2016 Films of the New French Extremity McFarland ISBN 9781476663487 West Alexandra 2018 The 1990s Teen Horror Cycle Final Girls and a New Hollywood Formula McFarland amp Company ISBN 978 1 4766 7064 5 Wynter Kevin 2016 An Introduction to the Continental Horror Film In Siddique Sophia Raphael Raphael eds Transnational Horror Cinema Bodies of Excess and the Global Grotesque Palgrave Macmillan p 44 doi 10 1057 978 1 137 58417 5 ISBN 978 1 137 58416 8 Withers Ned Athol 18 January 2016 The 10 Best Australian Films of The 21st Century Taste of Cinema Retrieved 21 January 2021 Worland Rick 2007 The Horror Film A Brief Introduction Blackwell Publishing ISBN 978 1 4051 3902 1 Further readingDixon Wheeler Winston A History of Horror Rutgers University Press 2010 ISBN 978 0 8135 4796 1 Steffen Hantke ed American Horror Film The Genre at the Turn of the Millennium University Press of Mississippi 2010 253 pages Petridis Sotiris 2014 A Historical Approach to the Slasher Film Film International 12 1 76 84 External linksHorror film at Wikipedia s sister projects Definitions from Wiktionary Media from Commons News from Wikinews Quotations from Wikiquote Texts from Wikisource Textbooks from Wikibooks Horror genre on IMDb Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Horror film amp oldid 1142694154, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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