fbpx
Wikipedia

Saltwater crocodile

January 31, 2023

The saltwater crocodile (Crocodylus porosus) is a crocodilian native to saltwater habitats and brackish wetlands from India's east coast across Southeast Asia and the Sundaic region to northern Australia and Micronesia. It has been listed as Least Concern on the IUCN Red List since 1996.[2] It was hunted for its skin throughout its range up to the 1970s, and is threatened by illegal killing and habitat loss. It is regarded as dangerous to humans.[4]

Saltwater crocodile
Temporal range: Pliocene–Present, 5.3–0 Ma[1]
Male
Female
CITES Appendix I (CITES)[3][note 1]
Scientific classification
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Reptilia
Order: Crocodilia
Family: Crocodylidae
Genus: Crocodylus
Species:
C. porosus
Binomial name
Crocodylus porosus
Schneider, 1801
Range of the saltwater crocodile in black

The saltwater crocodile is considered to be the largest living reptile.[5][6][7] Males can grow up to a length of 6 m (20 ft), rarely exceeding 6.3 m (21 ft), and a weight of 1,000–1,300 kg (2,200–2,900 lb).[8][9][10] Females are much smaller and rarely surpass 3 m (10 ft).[11][12] It is also called the estuarine crocodile, Indo-Pacific crocodile, marine crocodile, sea crocodile, and informally as the saltie.[13] A large and opportunistic hypercarnivorous apex predator, they ambush most of their prey and then drown or swallow it whole. They are capable of prevailing over almost any animal that enters their territory, including other predators such as sharks, varieties of freshwater and saltwater fish including pelagic species, invertebrates such as crustaceans, various amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals, including humans.[14][15]

Taxonomy and evolution

 
Sweetheart, a saltwater crocodile from Finnis River in northern Australia proposed as Crocodilus pethericki in 1985

Crocodilus porosus was the scientific name proposed by Johann Gottlob Theaenus Schneider who described a zoological specimen in 1801.[16] In the 19th and 20th centuries, several saltwater crocodile specimens were described with the following names:

  • Crocodilus biporcatus proposed by Georges Cuvier in 1807 were 23 saltwater crocodile specimens from India, Java and Timor.[17]
  • Crocodilus biporcatus raninus proposed by Salomon Müller and Hermann Schlegel in 1844 was a crocodile from Borneo.[18]
  • Crocodylus porosus australis proposed by Paulus Edward Pieris Deraniyagala in 1953 was a specimen from Australia.[19]
  • Crocodylus pethericki proposed by Richard Wells and C. Ross Wellington in 1985 was a large-bodied, relatively large-headed and short-tailed crocodile specimen collected in 1979 in the Finnis River, Northern Territory.[20] This purported species was later considered to be a misinterpretation of the physiological changes that very large male crocodiles undergo. However, Wells and Wellington's assertion that the Australian saltwater crocodiles may be distinctive enough from northern Asian saltwater crocodiles to warrant subspecies status, as could raninus from other Asian saltwater crocodiles, has been considered to possibly bear validity.[21][22]

Currently, the saltwater crocodile is considered a monotypic species.[23] However, based largely on morphological variability, it is thought possible that the taxon C. porosus comprises a species complex. Borneo crocodile C. raninus specimens can reliably be distinguished both from saltwater and Siamese crocodiles (C. siamensis) on the basis of the number of ventral scales and on the presence of four postoccipital scutes, which are often absent in true saltwater crocodiles.[24][25]

Evolution

Fossil remains of a saltwater crocodile excavated in northern Queensland were dated to the Pliocene.[26][27] The saltwater crocodile's closest extant (living) relatives are the Siamese crocodile and the mugger crocodile.[28][29][30][31]

The genus Crocodylus likely originated in Africa and radiated outwards towards Southeast Asia and the Americas,[31] although an Australia/Asia origin has also been considered.[32] Phylogenetic evidence supports Crocodylus diverging from its closest recent relative, the extinct Voay of Madagascar, around 25 million years ago, near the Oligocene/Miocene boundary.[31]

Phylogeny

Below is a cladogram based on a 2018 tip dating study by Lee & Yates simultaneously using morphological, molecular (DNA sequencing), and stratigraphic (fossil age) data,[30] as revised by the 2021 Hekkala et al. paleogenomics study using DNA extracted from the extinct Voay.[31]

Crocodylinae

Voay†

Crocodylus
Asia+Australia

Crocodylus johnstoni Freshwater crocodile  

Crocodylus novaeguineae New Guinea crocodile

Crocodylus mindorensis Philippine crocodile

Crocodylus porosus Saltwater crocodile  

Crocodylus siamensis Siamese crocodile  

Crocodylus palustris Mugger crocodile  

Africa+New World

Crocodylus suchus West African crocodile

Crocodylus niloticus Nile crocodile  

New World

Crocodylus moreletii Morelet's crocodile

Crocodylus rhombifer Cuban crocodile  

Crocodylus intermedius Orinoco crocodile

Crocodylus acutus American crocodile  

Description

 
Saltwater crocodile skull from The Museum of Zoology, Saint Petersburg. Note the considerably more slender skull of a gharial in the background.
 
Head of a saltwater crocodile

The saltwater crocodile has a wide snout compared to most crocodiles. However, it has a longer snout than the mugger crocodile (C. palustris); its length is twice its width at the base.[33] A pair of ridges runs from the eyes along the centre of the snout. The scales are oval in shape and the scutes are either small compared to other species or commonly are entirely absent. In addition, an obvious gap is also present between the cervical and dorsal shields, and small, triangular scutes are present between the posterior edges of the large, transversely arranged scutes in the dorsal shield. The relative lack of scutes is considered an asset useful to distinguish saltwater crocodiles in captivity or in illicit leather trading, as well as in the few areas in the field where sub-adult or younger saltwater crocodiles may need to be distinguished from other crocodiles. It has fewer armour plates on its neck than other crocodilians.[34][35]

The adult saltwater crocodile's broad body contrasts with that of most other lean crocodiles, leading to early unverified assumptions the reptile was an alligator.[36]

Young saltwater crocodiles are pale yellow in colour with black stripes and spots on their bodies and tails. This colouration lasts for several years until the crocodiles mature into adults. The colour as an adult is much darker greenish-drab, with a few lighter tan or grey areas sometimes apparent. Several colour variations are known and some adults may retain fairly pale skin, whereas others may be so dark as to appear blackish. The ventral surface is white or yellow in colour in saltwater crocodiles of all ages. Stripes are present on the lower sides of their bodies, but do not extend onto their bellies. Their tails are grey with dark bands.[37][38]

Size

The weight of a crocodile increases approximately cubically as length increases (see square–cube law).[39] This explains why individuals at 6 m (20 ft) weigh more than twice as much as individuals at 5 m (16 ft).[36] In crocodiles, linear growth eventually decreases and they start getting bulkier at a certain point.[40]

Saltwater crocodiles are the largest extant riparian predators in the world. However, they start life fairly small. Newly hatched saltwater crocodiles measure about 28 cm (11 in) long and weigh an average of 71 g (2.5 oz).[41] These sizes and ages are almost identical to those at average sexual maturity in Nile crocodiles, despite the fact that average adult male saltwater crocodiles are considerably larger than average adult male Nile crocodiles.[42][43]

The largest skull of a saltwater crocodile that could be scientifically verified was of a specimen in the Muséum national d'Histoire naturelle, collected in Cambodia. Its skull was 76 cm (30 in) long and 48 cm (19 in) wide near its base, with 98.3 cm (38.7 in) long mandibles. The length of this specimen is not known, but based on skull-to-total-length ratios for very large saltwater crocodiles its length was presumably somewhere in the 7 m (23 ft) range.[11][44] If detached from the body, the head of a very large male crocodile can reportedly weigh over 200 kg (440 lb) alone, including the large muscles and tendons at the base of the skull that lend the crocodile its massive biting strength.[45] The largest tooth measured 9 cm (3.5 in) in length.[46][47] Other crocodilians have a proportionately longer skull, like the gharial (Gavialis gangeticus) and the false gharial (Tomistoma schlegelii), but both their skulls and their bodies are less massive than in the saltwater crocodile.[11]

Male size

An adult male saltwater crocodile, from young adults to older individuals, typically ranges 3.5 to 6 m (11 ft 6 in to 19 ft 8 in) in length and weighs 200 to 1,100 kg (440 to 2,430 lb).[48][49][50][51] On average, adult males range 4.3 to 5 m (14 ft 1 in to 16 ft 5 in) in length and weigh 408 to 770 kg (899 to 1,698 lb).[45][52] However average size largely depends on the location, habitat, and human interactions and thus varies from one study to another. In one case, Webb and Manolis (1989) recorded the average weight of adult males in Australian tidal rivers as only 240 to 350 kg (530 to 770 lb) at lengths of 4 to 4.5 m (13 to 15 ft) during the 1980s, possibly representing a reduced body mass due to the species being in recovery after decades of overhunting, as males this size would typically weigh about 100 kg (220 lb) heavier.[49] Very large, aged males can exceed 6 m (20 ft) in length and presumably weigh up to 2,000 kg (4,400 lb).[36][11][44][53]

The largest confirmed saltwater crocodile on record drowned in a fishing net in Papua New Guinea, in 1979. Its dried skin plus head measured 6.2 m (20 ft 4 in) in length and it was estimated to have been 6.3 m (20 ft 8 in) when accounting for shrinkage and a missing tail tip.[12][11] Projected from their skull lengths, multiple specimens from Singapore were estimated to belong in life to male crocodiles measuring more than 6 m (19 ft 8 in).[54] A large Vietnamese saltwater crocodile was reliably estimated, based on its skull after its death, at 6.3 to 6.8 m (20 ft 8 in to 22 ft 4 in).[55] However, according to evidence in the form of skulls coming from some of the largest crocodiles ever shot, the maximum possible size attained by the largest members of this species is considered to be 7 m (23 ft 0 in).[12][36] A governmental study from Australia accepts that the very largest members of the species are likely to measure 6 to 7 m (19 ft 8 in to 23 ft 0 in) in length and weigh 900 to 1,500 kg (2,000 to 3,300 lb).[56] Furthermore, a research paper on the morphology and physiology of crocodilians by the same organisation estimates that saltwater crocodiles reaching sizes of 7 m (23 ft 0 in) would weigh around 2,000 kg (4,400 lb).[57] Due to extensive poaching during the 20th century, such individuals are extremely rare today in most areas, as it takes a long time for the crocodiles to attain those sizes. Also, a possible earlier presence of particular genes may have led to such large-sized saltwater crocodiles, genes that were ultimately lost from the overall gene pool due to extensive hide and trophy hunting in the past.[12] However, as the population recovers,[12] the number of large crocodiles is increasing, especially in Bhitarkanika National Park, where at least one living individual is estimated to have obtained a length of around 7 m (23 ft 0 in).[12][58] This species is the only extant crocodilian regularly to reach or exceed 5.2 m (17 ft 1 in).[11][45] A large male in the Philippines, named Lolong, was the largest saltwater crocodile ever caught and placed in captivity. He was 6.17 m (20 ft 3 in) long and weighed 1,075 kg (2,370 lb).[12][59][60]

Female size

Adult females typically measure from 2.7 to 3.1 m (8 ft 10 in to 10 ft 2 in) in total length and weigh 76 to 103 kg (168 to 227 lb).[61][62][63] Large mature females reach 3.4 m (11 ft 2 in) and weigh up to 120 to 200 kg (260 to 440 lb).[64] The largest female on record measured about 4.3 m (14 ft 1 in) in total length.[45] Female are thus similar in size to other species of large crocodiles and average slightly smaller than females of some other species, like the Nile crocodile.[43] The saltwater crocodile has the greatest size sexual dimorphism, by far, of any extant crocodilian, as males average about 4 to 5 times as massive as adult females and can sometimes measure twice her total length. The reason for the male skewered dimorphism in this species is not definitively known but might be correlated with sex-specific territoriality and the need for adult male saltwater crocodiles to monopolise large stretches of habitat.[65][66] Due to the extreme sexual dimorphism of the species as contrasted with the more modest size dimorphism of other species, the average length of the species is only slightly more than some other extant crocodilians at 3.8–4 m (12 ft 6 in – 13 ft 1 in).[23][33][67]

Reported sizes

Distribution and habitat

 
A saltwater crocodile off Maconacon, Isabela (province)
 
Saltwater crocodile tracks in East Timor
 
Saltwater crocodile jumping up at Adelaide River
Video of a jumping crocodile at Adelaide River

The saltwater crocodile inhabits coastal brackish mangrove swamps and river deltas from India's east coast, Sri Lanka and Bangladesh to Myanmar, Malaysia, Brunei, Indonesia, Philippines, East Timor, Palau, Solomon Islands, Singapore, Papua New Guinea, Vanuatu and Australia's north coast. It is considered possibly extirpated from Cambodia, Vietnam, and Thailand, and definitively so from the Seychelles.[2][4] The southernmost population in India lives in Odisha's Bhitarkanika Wildlife Sanctuary; in northern Odisha, it has not been recorded since the 1930s.[71] It occurs along the Andaman and Nicobar Islands coasts and in the Sundarbans.[72][73][74][75][76] In Sri Lanka, it occurs foremost in western and southern parts of the country.[77]

In Myanmar, it inhabits the Ayeyarwady Delta.[78] In southern Thailand, it was recorded in Phang Nga Province.[79] It is extirpated from Singapore, Cambodia and Vietnam.[4][80][81]

In China, it may have once inhabited coastal areas from Fujian province in the north to the border of Vietnam.[82] References to crocodile attacks on humans and livestock during the Han and Song dynasties indicate that until the 18th century, it may have occurred in lower Pearl River and Macau, Han River, Min River, portions of coastal Guangxi province and Hainan Island.[33] However, more recent studies indicate that these reports may have in fact referred to the now-extinct gavialid Hanyusuchus.[83]

In Sabah, it was recorded in the Klias, Segama, and Kinabatangan Rivers.[84][85][86] In Sarawak, it was recorded by a camera trap in Kuching Wetlands National Park.[87] In the Lesser Sunda Islands, it is present along the coasts of Sumba, Lembata Island, Flores, Menipo, Rote Island, and Timor. Its status along Alor Island is unknown, where one individual was captured in the 2010s.[88] In the Maluku Islands, it is present around the Kai Islands, the Aru Islands, and many other islands in the region, including the Torres Strait Islands. In Papua New Guinea, it is common within the coastal reaches of every river system such as the Fly River and in the Bismarck Archipelago.[89] In the Philippines, it occurs in a few coastal sites like eastern Luzon, Palawan, the Liguasan Marsh, and Agusan River on Mindanao.[4]

 
On a beach in Darwin, Australia

In northern Australia, Western Australia, and Queensland, the saltwater crocodile is thriving, particularly in the multiple river systems near Darwin such as the Adelaide, Mary, and Daly Rivers, along with their adjacent billabongs and estuaries.[90][91] The saltwater crocodile population in Australia is estimated at 100,000 to 200,000 adults. Its range extends from Broome, Western Australia through the entire Northern Territory coast all the way south to Rockhampton, Queensland. The Alligator Rivers in the Arnhem Land region are misnamed due to the resemblance of the saltwater crocodile to alligators as compared to freshwater crocodiles, which also inhabit the Northern Territory.[92]

Because of its tendency to swim long distances at sea, individual saltwater crocodiles appeared occasionally in areas far away from their general range, up to Fiji.[93][94] Saltwater crocodiles generally spend the tropical wet season in freshwater swamps and rivers, moving downstream to estuaries in the dry season. Crocodiles compete fiercely with each other for territory, with dominant males in particular occupying the most eligible stretches of freshwater creeks and streams. Junior crocodiles are thus forced into marginal river systems and sometimes into the ocean. This explains the large distribution of the species, as well as its being found in the odd places on occasion such as the Sea of Japan. Like all crocodiles, they can survive for prolonged periods in only warm temperatures, and crocodiles seasonally vacate parts of Australia if cold spells hit.[95]

Behaviour and ecology

 
Saltwater crocodile sunning itself
 
An adult saltwater crocodile swimming through a swamp

The primary behaviour to distinguish the saltwater crocodile from other crocodiles is its tendency to occupy salt water. Though other crocodiles also have salt glands that enable them to survive in saltwater, a trait that alligators do not possess, most other species do not venture out to sea except during extreme conditions.[96]

Saltwater crocodiles use ocean currents to travel long distances. In Australia, 20 crocodiles were tagged with satellite transmitters; 8 of them ventured out into open ocean, and one of them traveled 590 km (370 mi) along the coast in 25 days from the North Kennedy River on the eastern coast of Far North Queensland, around Cape York Peninsula, to the west coast in the Gulf of Carpentaria. Another individual swam 411 km (255 mi) in 20 days. Without having to move around much, sometimes simply by floating, the current-riding behaviour allows for the conservation of energy. They interrupted their movements and resided in sheltered bays for a few days until the current changed direction. Sometimes, they also swam up and down river systems.[93] While most crocodilians are social animals sharing basking spots and food, saltwater crocodiles are more territorial and are less tolerant of their own kind; adult males will share territory with females, but drive off rival males. Saltwater crocodiles mate in the wet season, laying eggs in a nest consisting of a mound of mud and vegetation. The female guards the nest and hatchlings from predators.

Generally very lethargic, a trait that helps it survive months at a time without food, the saltwater crocodile will usually loiter in the water or bask in the sun during much of the day, preferring to hunt at night. A study of seasonal saltwater crocodile behaviour in Australia indicated that they are more active and more likely to spend time in the water during the Australian summer; conversely, they are less active and spend relatively more time basking in the sun during the winter.[97] Saltwater crocodiles, however, are among the most active of all crocodilians, spending more time cruising and active, especially in water. They are much less terrestrial than most species of crocodiles, spending less time on land except for basking. At times, they tend to spend weeks at sea in search of land and in some cases, barnacles have been observed growing on crocodile scales, indicative of the long periods they spend at sea.[98]

 
Saltwater crocodile with a GPS-based satellite transmitter attached to its head for tracking

Despite their relative lethargy, saltwater crocodiles are agile predators and display surprising agility and speed when necessary, usually during strikes at prey. They can also swim at 24 to 29 km/h (15 to 18 mph) in short bursts, around three times as fast as the fastest human swimmers, but when cruising, they usually travel at 3 to 5 km/h (2 to 3 mph). Although stories of crocodiles being faster than a race horse for short distances across land are little more than urban legend, at the water's edge they can combine propulsion from both feet and tail to give sudden bursts of extreme speed.

While crocodilian brains are much smaller than those of mammals (as low as 0.05% of body weight in the saltwater crocodile), saltwater crocodiles are capable of learning difficult tasks with very little conditioning, learning to track the migratory route of their prey as the seasons change, and may possess a deeper communication ability than currently accepted.[99][100]

Hunting and diet

 
Feeding young adult in captivity, Western Australia
 
Saltwater crocodile tears apart a pig carcass for consumption

Like most species in the crocodilian family, saltwater crocodiles are not fastidious in their choice of food, and readily vary their prey selection according to availability. Nor are they voracious, as they are able to survive on relatively little food for a prolonged period. Because of their size and distribution, saltwater crocodiles hunt the broadest range of prey species of any modern crocodilian.[95] The diet of hatchling, juvenile, and subadult saltwater crocodiles has been subject to extensively greater scientific study than that of fully-grown crocodiles, in large part due to the aggression, territoriality, and size of adults that make them difficult for biologists to handle without significant risk to safety, for both humans and the crocodiles themselves. The main method used for capturing adult saltwater crocodiles is a huge pole with large hooks, meant for shark capture, that restrict the crocodile's jaws, but these can cause damage to their snouts; and even this is unproven to allow successful capture for crocodiles in excess of 4 m (13 ft 1 in). While for example 20th century biological studies rigorously cataloged the stomach contents of "sacrificed" adult Nile crocodiles in Africa,[101][102] few such studies were done on behalf of saltwater crocodiles despite the plethora that were slaughtered due to the leather trade during that time period. Therefore, the diet of adults is more likely to be based on reliable eye-witness accounts.[103][104][105] Hatchlings are restricted to feeding on smaller animals, such as small fish, frogs, insects and small aquatic invertebrates.[104] In addition to these prey, juveniles also take a variety of freshwater and saltwater fish, various amphibians, crustaceans, molluscs, such as large gastropods and cephalopods, birds, small to medium-sized mammals, and other reptiles, such as snakes and lizards. When crocodiles obtain a length of more than 1.2 m (3 ft 11 in), the significance of small invertebrate prey fades in favour of small vertebrates, including fish and smaller mammals and birds.[106] The larger the animal grows, the greater the variety of its diet, although relatively small prey are taken throughout its lifetime.[citation needed]

Among crustacean prey, large mud crabs of the genus Scylla are frequently consumed, especially in mangrove habitats. Ground-living birds, such as the emu and different kinds of water birds, especially the magpie goose, are the most commonly preyed upon birds, due to the increased chance of encounter.[107][108] Even swift-flying birds and bats may be snatched if close to the surface of water,[95] as well as wading birds while these are patrolling the shore looking for food, even down to the size of a common sandpiper.[41][109] Mammalian prey of juveniles and subadults are usually as large as the smaller species of ungulates, such as the greater mouse-deer (Tragulus napu) and hog deer (Hyelaphus porcinus).[110] Prey species recorded include primate species such as crab-eating macaques,[111] proboscis monkeys,[112] and gibbons. It preys on agile wallabies,[113] golden jackals, viverrids, turtles, flying foxes, hares, rodents, badgers, otters, chevrotains and pangolins.[114][115] A rare incidence of an adult, 2.6 m saltwater crocodile preying on an Indian porcupine was reported from Sri Lanka.[116] Unlike fish, crabs and aquatic creatures, mammals and birds are usually found only sporadically in or next to water; so crocodiles seem to search for places where such prey may be concentrated, e.g. the water under a tree holding a flying fox colony, or spots where herds of water buffaloes feed, in order to capture small animals disturbed by the buffalo or (if a large adult crocodile is hunting) weaker members of the buffalo herd.[108]

Studies have shown that, unlike freshwater crocodiles (which can easily die from eating poisonous toads), saltwater crocodiles are partially resistant to cane toad toxins and can consume them, but in only small quantities and not enough to provide effective natural control for this virulent introduced pest.[117] Large crocodiles, even the oldest males, do not ignore small species, especially those without developed escape abilities, when the opportunity arises. On the other hand, sub-adult saltwater crocodiles weighing only 8.7 to 15.8 kg (19+1⁄4 to 34+3⁄4 lb) (and measuring 1.36 to 1.79 m (4 ft 6 in to 5 ft 10 in)) have been recorded killing and eating goats weighing 50 to 92% of their own body mass in Orissa, India, and so are capable of attacking large prey from an early age.[115][118][119] It was found that the diet of specimens in juvenile to subadult range, since they feed on any animals up to their own size practically no matter how small, was more diverse than that of adults, which often ignored all prey below a certain size limit.[120]

Large animals taken by adult saltwater crocodiles include sambar deer, wild boar, Malayan tapirs, kangaroos, feral pigs,[121] humans, orangutans, dingos, tigers,[122] and large bovines, such as banteng,[56] water buffalo, and gaur.[74][123][124][125][126][127] However, larger animals are taken only sporadically because only large males typically attack very large prey, and large ungulates and other sizeable wild mammals are only sparsely distributed in this species's range, outside of a few key areas such as the Sundarbans.[95] Off-setting this, goats, water buffalo and wild boar/pigs have been introduced to many of the areas occupied by saltwater crocodiles and returned to feral states to varying degrees, and thus can amply support large crocodiles.[33] In Australia, the saltwater crocodile's taste for feral pigs and buffalo was a key factor in their recovery for hunting pressures over the last fifty years according to studies published in 2022 by Dr. Marianna Campbell et al.,. Isotopes taken from the bones of crocodiles collected over five decades ago when crocodiles populations were low and comparisons to specimens from modern populations suggest that initially, Australian saltwater crocodiles subsisted on a more estuarine diet, and both hunting pressures by humans and a reduction in aquatic prey in places like the Top End resulted in a dietary switch to more terrestrial prey that allowed them to grow and recover more rapidly from population declines.[128] Any type of domestic livestock, such as chicken, sheep, pigs, horses and cattle, and domesticated animals/pets may be eaten if given the opportunity.[95] As a seagoing species, the saltwater crocodile also preys on a variety of saltwater bony fish and other marine animals, including sea snakes, sea turtles, sea birds, dugongs, rays (including large sawfish[129]), and small sharks. Most witnessed acts of predation on marine animals have occurred in coastal waters or within sight of land, with female sea turtles and their babies caught during mating season when the turtles are closer to shore, and bull sharks being the only largish shark with a strong propensity to patrol brackish and fresh waters.[95][45][130][131][132][133][134] However, there is evidence that saltwater crocodiles do hunt while out in the open seas, based upon the remains of pelagic fishes that dwell only miles away from land being found in their stomachs.[14][15]

The hunting methods utilised by saltwater crocodiles are indistinct from any other crocodilian, with the hunting crocodile submerging and quietly swimming over to the prey before pouncing upwards, striking suddenly. Unlike some other crocodilians, such as American alligators and even Nile crocodiles, they are not known to have hunted on dry land.[95][33] Young saltwater crocodiles are capable of breaching their entire body into the air in a single upward motion while hunting prey that may be perched on low hanging branches.[104] While hunting rhesus macaques, they have been seen to knock the monkeys off a bank by knocking them with their tail, forcing the macaque into water for easy consumption. However, whether tail use in hunting is intentional or just an accidental benefit is not definitely clear.[33] As with other crocodilians, their sharp, peg-like teeth are well-suited to seize and tightly grip prey, but not to shear flesh. Small prey are simply swallowed whole, while larger animals are dragged into deep water and drowned or crushed.[135] Large prey is then torn into manageable pieces by "death rolling" (the spinning of the crocodile to twist off hunks of meat) or by sudden jerks of the head.[136] Occasionally, food items will be stored for later consumption once a crocodile eats its fill, although this can lead to scavenging by interlopers such as monitor lizards.[137]

Bite

 
Regression of mean body mass and bite force of C. porosus
 
Saltwater crocodiles, even adults, can breach out of the water in upwards direction to capture food, although are most often seen to do so when coerced by bait, as seen here

Saltwater crocodiles have the strongest bite of any living animal. A 4.59-metre-long (15 ft 1 in) saltwater crocodile has been confirmed as having the highest bite force ever recorded for an animal in a laboratory setting, with a value of 16,414 newtons (3,690 pounds-force) (surpassing the previous record of 13,172 N or 2,961 lbf made by an American alligator (Alligator mississippinesis)).[138][139] Based on the regression of mean body mass and mean bite force, the bite forces of multiple crocodile species, 1,308 kg (2,884 lb) individuals were estimated at 27,531 to 34,424 N (6,189 to 7,739 lbf).[139] The extraordinary bite of crocodilians is a result of their anatomy. The space for the jaw muscle in the skull is very large, which is easily visible from the outside as a bulge at each side. The nature of the muscle is extremely stiff, almost as hard as bone to the touch, such that it can appear to be a continuation of the skull. Another trait is that most of the muscle in a crocodile's jaw is arranged for clamping down. Despite the strong muscles to close the jaw, crocodiles have extremely small and weak muscles to open the jaw. The jaws of a crocodile can be securely shut with several layers of duct tape.[140]

Reproduction

 
Saltwater crocodiles go through numerous physiological changes as they mature. Pictured here is a hatchling age or baby crocodile.
 
Seen here is a juvenile crocodile, which grows considerably in length over several years but is easily distinguished by slender build and size.
 
A saltwater crocodile in the subadult age range at Gembira Loka Zoo, similar but not as robust and relatively small-headed compared to adults.

Males reach sexual maturity around 3.3 m (10 ft 10 in) at around 16 years of age, while females reach sexual maturity at 2.1 m (6 ft 11 in) and 12–14 years of age.[12] Saltwater crocodiles mate in the wet season, when water levels are at their highest. In Australia, the male and female engage in courtship in September and October, and the female lays eggs between November and March.[56] It is possible the rising temperatures of the wet season provoke reproductive behaviour in this species.[108] While crocodilians generally nest every year, there have been several recorded cases of female saltwater crocodiles nesting only every other year and also records of a female attempting to produce two broods in a single wet season.[108] The female selects the nesting site, and both parents will defend the nesting territory, which is typically a stretch of shore along tidal rivers or freshwater areas, especially swamps. Nests are often in a surprisingly exposed location, often in mud with little to no vegetation around, and thus limited protection from the sun and wind. The nest is a mound of mud and vegetation, usually measuring 175 cm (5 ft 9 in) long and 53 cm (1 ft 9 in) high, with an entrance averaging 160 cm (5 ft 3 in) in diameter.[108] Some nests in unlikely habitats have occurred, such as rocky rubble or in a damp low-grass field.[141][142] The female crocodile usually scratches a layer of leaves and other debris around the nest entrance and this covering is reported to produce an "astonishing" amount of warmth for the eggs (coincidentally these nesting habits are similar to those of the birds known as megapodes that nest in upland areas of the same Australasian regions where saltwater crocodiles are found).[33][143]

The female typically lays from 40 to 60 eggs, but some clutches have included up to 90. The eggs measure on average 8 by 5 cm (3 by 2 in) and weigh 113 g (4 oz) on average in Australia and 121 g (4+1⁄4 oz) in India.[56][144] These are relatively small, as the average female saltwater crocodile weighs around five times as much as a freshwater crocodile, but lays eggs that are only about 20% larger in measurement and 40% heavier than those of the smaller species.[41] The average weight of a new hatchling in Australia is reportedly 69.4 g (2+7⁄16 oz).[56] Although the female guards the nest for 80 to 98 days (in extreme high and low cases from 75 to 106 days), the loss of eggs is often high due to flooding and occasionally to predation.[56] As in all crocodilians, the sex of the hatchlings is determined by temperature. At 28–30 degrees all hatchlings will be female, at 30–32 degrees 86% of hatchlings are male, and at 33 or more degrees predominantly female (84%).[145] In Australia, goannas (Varanus giganteus) commonly eat freshwater crocodile eggs (feeding on up to 95% of the clutch if discovered), but are relatively unlikely to eat saltwater crocodile eggs due to the vigilance of the imposing mother, with about 25% of the eggs being lost to goannas (less than half as many Nile crocodile eggs are estimated to be eaten by monitors in Africa).[41] A majority of the loss of eggs of saltwater crocodiles occurs due to flooding of the nest hole.[108][146]

As in most crocodilian species, the female saltwater crocodile exhibits a remarkable level of maternal care for a reptile. She excavates the nest in response to "yelping" calls from the hatchlings, and even gently rolls eggs in her mouth to assist hatching. The female will then carry the hatchlings to water in her mouth (as Nile crocodile and American alligator females have been observed doing when their eggs hatch) and remains with the young for several months. Despite her diligence, losses of baby crocodiles are heavy due to various predators and unrelated crocodiles of their own species. Only approximately 1% of the hatchlings will survive to adulthood.[147] By crocodilian standards, saltwater crocodile hatchlings are exceptionally aggressive to one another and will often fight almost immediately after being transported to water by their mother.[148] The young naturally start to disperse after around 8 months, and start to exhibit territorial behaviour at around 2.5 years old. They are the most territorial of extant crocodilians and, due to their aggressiveness to conspecifics, from the dispersed immature stage on, they are never seen in concentrations or loose groups as are most other crocodilians.[149] However, even females will not reach proper sexual maturity for another 10 years. Saltwater crocodiles that survive to adulthood can attain a very long lifespan, with an estimated life expectancy upwards of 70 years, and some individuals possibly exceed 100 years, although no such extreme ages have been verified for any crocodilian.[12][150]

While adults have no natural predators, baby saltwater crocodiles may fall prey to monitor lizards (occasionally, but not commonly, the numerous goanna in Australia, and the Asian water monitor (Varanus salvator) further north), predatory fish (especially the barramundi (Lates calcarifer)), wild boars, rats, various aquatic and raptorial birds (e.g. black-necked storks (Ephippiorhynchus asiaticus) and white-bellied sea eagles (Haliaeetus leucogaster)), pythons, larger crocodiles, and many other predators.[108][56][144][146] Pigs and cattle also occasionally inadvertently trample eggs and nests on occasion and degrade habitat quality where found in numbers.[151] Juveniles may also fall prey to tigers and leopards (Panthera pardus) in certain parts of their range, although encounters between these predators are rare, and cats are likely to avoid areas with saltwater crocodiles.[152]

Conservation status

 
Saltwater crocodile
 
Large saltwater crocodile in park

The species is considered of minimal concern for extinction but is protected from the effects of international trade under the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES) as follows:

  • Appendix I (prohibiting all commercial trade in the species or its parts/derivatives): All wild populations except for those of Australia, Indonesia and Papua New Guinea;
  • Appendix II (commercial trade allowed with export permit; import permits may or may not be required depending on the laws of the importing country): Australia, Indonesia and Papua New Guinea wild populations, plus all worldwide populations bred in captivity for commercial purposes.

The saltwater crocodile was often hunted for its meat and eggs, and its skin is the most commercially valuable of any crocodilian. Unregulated hunting during the 20th century caused a dramatic decline in the species throughout its range, with the population in northern Australia reduced by 95% by 1971. The years from 1940 to 1970 were the peak of unregulated hunting and may have regionally caused irreparable damage to saltwater crocodile populations.[153] The species currently has full legal protection in all Australian states and territories where it is found – Western Australia (since 1970), Northern Territory (since 1971) and Queensland (since 1974).[154] Illegal hunting still persists in some areas, with protection in some countries being grossly ineffective, and trade is often difficult to monitor and control over such a vast range. However, many areas have not recovered; some population surveys have shown that although young crocodiles are present, fewer than 10% of specimens spotted are in adult size range and do not include any particularly large males, such as Sri Lanka or Palau. This is indicative of both potential continued persecution and exploitation and a non-recovered breeding population.[155][156] In a more balanced population, such as those from Bhitarkanika National Park or Sabah on Borneo, 28% and 24.2% of specimens observed were in the adult size range of more than 3 m (9 ft 10 in).[84][157]

Habitat loss continues to be a major problem for the species. In northern Australia, much of the nesting habitat of the saltwater crocodile is susceptible to trampling by feral water buffalo, although buffalo eradication programs have now reduced this problem considerably. Even where large areas of suitable habitat remain, subtle habitat alterations can be a problem, such as in the Andaman Islands, where freshwater areas, used for nesting, are being increasingly converted to human agriculture. After the commercial value of crocodile skins waned, perhaps the greatest immediate challenge to implementing conservation efforts has been the occasional danger the species can pose to humans, and the resulting negative view of the crocodile.[147][158]

Relationship with humans

Attacks on humans

See also: Crocodile attack

Of all the crocodilians, the saltwater crocodile and Nile crocodile have the strongest tendencies to treat humans as prey.[159] The saltwater crocodile has a long history of attacking humans who unknowingly venture into its territory. As a result of its power, intimidating size and speed, survival of a direct predatory attack is unlikely if the crocodile is able to make direct contact. In contrast to alligators where a degree of coexistence may be the policy, the only recommended policy for dealing with saltwater crocodiles is to completely avoid their habitat whenever possible, as they are exceedingly aggressive when encroached upon.[33]

Exact data on attacks are limited outside Australia, where one or two fatal attacks are reported per year.[161] From 1971 to 2013, the total number of fatalities reported in Australia due to saltwater crocodile attack was 106.[162][161] The low level of attacks may be due to extensive efforts by wildlife officials in Australia to post crocodile warning signs at numerous at-risk billabongs, rivers, lakes and beaches.[163] Less-publicised attacks have been reported in Borneo,[164] Sumatra,[165] Eastern India (Andaman Islands),[166][167] and Burma.[168] In Sarawak, Borneo, the average number of fatal attacks is reportedly 2.8 annually for the years from 2000 to 2003.[169] In the Northern Territory in Australia, attempts have been made to relocate saltwater crocodiles who have displayed aggressive behaviour towards humans but these have proven ineffective as the problem crocodiles are apparently able to find their way back to their original territories.[170] In the Darwin area from 2007 to 2009, 67–78% of "problem crocodiles" were identified as males.[171]

Many attacks in areas outside Australia are believed to go unreported, with one study positing up to 20 to 30 attacks occur every year.[169] This number may be conservative in light of several areas where humans and saltwater crocodiles co-exist in relatively undeveloped, low-economy and rural regions, where attacks are likely to go unreported.[159] However, claims in the past that saltwater crocodiles are responsible for thousands of human fatalities annually are likely to have been exaggerations and were probably falsified to benefit leather companies, hunting organisations and other sources that may have benefited from maximising the negative perception of crocodiles for financial gain.[33][45][169] Despite their reputations, many wild saltwater crocodiles are normally quite wary of humans and will go out of their way to submerge and swim away from them, even large adult males, if previously subject to harassment or persecution.[172][173] Some attacks on humans appear to be territorial rather than predatory in nature, with crocodiles over two years in age often attacking anything that comes into their area (including boats). Humans can usually escape alive from such encounters, which comprise about half of all attacks. Non-fatal attacks usually involve crocodiles of 3 m (9 ft 10 in) or less in length. Fatal attacks, more likely to be predatory in motivation, commonly involve larger crocodiles with an average estimated size of 4.3 m (14 ft 1 in). Under normal circumstances, Nile crocodiles are believed to be responsible for a considerably greater number of fatal attacks on humans than saltwater crocodiles, but this may have more to do with the fact that many people in Africa tend to rely on riparian areas for their livelihood, which is less prevalent in most of Asia and certainly less so in Australia.[169] In the Andaman Islands, the number of fatal attacks on humans has reportedly increased, possibly due to habitat destruction and reduction of natural prey.[174]

During the Japanese retreat in the Battle of Ramree Island on 19 February 1945, saltwater crocodiles may have been responsible for the deaths of over 400 Japanese soldiers. British soldiers encircled the swampland through which the Japanese were retreating, condemning the Japanese to a night in the mangroves, which were home to thousands of saltwater crocodiles. Many Japanese soldiers did not survive this night, but the attribution of the majority of their deaths to crocodile attacks has been doubted.[175] Another reported mass attack involved a cruise in eastern India where a boat accident forced 28 people into the water where they were reportedly consumed by saltwater crocodiles.[45] Another notorious crocodile attack was in 1985, on ecofeminist Val Plumwood, who survived the attack.[176][177]

In July 2018, a 600-strong mob slaughtered 292 saltwater and New Guinea crocodiles in Papua province in Indonesia in a revenge attack after a man who encroached upon the sanctuary was devoured.[178]

Cultural references

 
1948 postage stamp depicting an aboriginal artwork of the saltwater crocodile

The saltwater crocodile is considered holy on Timor. According to legend, the island was formed by a giant crocodile. The Papuan people have a similar and very involved myth and traditionally the crocodile was described as a relative (normally a father or grandfather).[33]

According to Wondjina, the mythology of Indigenous Australians, the saltwater crocodile was banished from the fresh water for becoming full of bad spirits and growing too large, unlike the freshwater crocodile, which was somewhat revered.[179] Aboriginal rock art depicting the saltwater crocodile is rare, although examples of up to 3,000 years old were found in caves in Kakadu and Arnhem land, roughly matching the distribution of the species. It is however depicted in contemporary aboriginal art.[180] The Larrakia people think of themselves as crocodile descendants, and regard it as their totem.[181] They respect crocodiles as protectors of harbours and do not eat crocodile meat.[182]

The species is featured on several postage stamps, including an 1894 State of North Borneo 12-cent stamp; a 1948 Australian 2 shilling stamp depicting an aboriginal rock artwork of the species; a 1966 Republic of Indonesia stamp; a 1994 Palau 20-cent stamp; a 1997 Australian 22-cent stamp; and a 2005 1 Malaysian ringgit postage stamp.

The saltwater crocodile has featured in contemporary Australian film and television including the "Crocodile" Dundee series of films and The Crocodile Hunter television series. There are now several saltwater crocodile-themed parks in Australia.[citation needed]

Examples of large unconfirmed saltwater crocodiles

Large saltwater crocodiles have always attracted mainstream attention throughout the ages, and have suffered from all sorts of big fish stories and hunter tales, due to man's desire to find the largest of any given thing. Therefore, the largest size recorded for a saltwater crocodile has always been a subject of considerable controversy. The reason behind unverified sizes is either the case of insufficient/inconclusive data or exaggeration from a folkloric point of view. This section is dedicated to examples of the largest saltwater crocodiles recorded outside scientific norms measurement and estimation, with the aim of satisfying the public interest without creating data pollution, as well as serving an educational purpose of guiding the reader to separate fact from possible fiction. Below, in descending order starting from the largest, are some examples of large unconfirmed saltwater crocodiles, recorded throughout history.

  • A crocodile shot in the Bay of Bengal in 1840 was reported at 10.1 m (33 ft 2 in). Furthermore, this specimen was claimed to have a belly girth of 4.17 m (13 ft 8 in) and a body mass estimated 3,000 kg (6,600 lb). However, the skull of this specimen was examined by Guinness Records and found to be only 66.5 cm (2 ft 2+1⁄4 in) in length, indicating the above size was considerably exaggerated and the animal would have probably measured no more than 5.89 m (19 ft 4 in).[45]
  • James R. Montgomery, who ran a plantation near to the Lower Kinabatangan Segama Wetlands in Borneo from 1926 to 1932, claimed to have netted, killed, and examined numerous crocodiles well over 6.1 m (20 ft 0 in) there, including a specimen he claims measured 10 m (32 ft 10 in). However, no one scientifically confirmed any of Montgomery's specimens and no voucher specimens are known.[45]
  • A crocodile shot in Queensland in 1957, nicknamed Krys the croc (named after the woman that shot the crocodile in July 1957; Krystina Pawlowski), was reported to be 8.63 m (28 ft 4 in) long, but no verified measurements were made and no remains of this crocodile exist.[183][184] A "replica" of this crocodile has been made as a tourist attraction.[185][186][187]
  • A crocodile killed in 1823 at Jalajala on the main island of Luzon in the Philippines was reported at 8.2 m (26 ft 11 in). However the skull of the specimen is 66.5 cm (26+1⁄4 in) long indicating an animal of approximately 6.1 m (20 ft 0 in).[45]
  • A crocodile shot in Odisha, India,[188] was claimed to measure 7.6 m (24 ft 11 in) in life, but its skull, when given scholarly examination, was thought to have come from a crocodile of a length no greater than 7 m (23 ft 0 in).[189]
  • A reported 7.6 m (24 ft 11 in) crocodile was killed in the Hooghly River in the Alipore District of Calcutta. However, examinations of the animal's skull, one of the largest skulls known to exist for the species at 75 cm (30 in) long, actually indicating it could have measured 6.7 m (22 ft 0 in).[45]
  • In 2006, Guinness accepted a 7.01 m (23 ft 0 in), 2,000-kilogram (4,400 lb) male saltwater crocodile living within Bhitarkanika Park in Odisha. Due to the difficulty of trapping and measuring a very large living crocodile, the accuracy of these dimensions is yet to be verified. These observations and estimations have been made by park officials over the course of ten years, from 2006 to 2016, however, regardless of the skill of the observers it cannot be compared to a verified tape measurement, especially considering the uncertainty inherent in visual size estimation in the wild.[190] In addition, this region may contain up to four other specimens measuring over 6.1 m (20 ft 0 in).[188][191]
  • S. Baker (1874) claimed that in Sri Lanka in the 1800s, specimens measuring 6.7 m (22 ft 0 in) or more were commonplace.[45] However, the largest specimen killed on the island that was considered authentic by Guinness Records was a suspected man-eater killed in the Eastern Province and measuring exactly 6 m (19 ft 8 in) in length.[45]
  • The record size for a crocodile from Papua New Guinea to be considered authentic by Guinness was a 6.32 m (20 ft 9 in) specimen shot by Herb Schweighofer in May 1966 along the northeastern coast. This specimen had a belly girth of 2.74 m (9 ft 0 in).[45]

See also

Notes

  1. ^ Except populations of Australia, Indonesia, Malaysia and Papua New Guinea which are included in Appendix II.

References

  1. ^ Rio, Jonathan P.; Mannion, Philip D. (6 September 2021). "Phylogenetic analysis of a new morphological dataset elucidates the evolutionary history of Crocodylia and resolves the long-standing gharial problem". PeerJ. 9: e12094. doi:10.7717/peerj.12094. PMC 8428266. PMID 34567843.
  2. ^ a b c Webb, G.J.W.; Manolis, C.; Brien, M.L.; Balaguera-Reina, S.A. & Isberg, S. (2021). "Crocodylus porosus". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2021: e.T5668A3047556. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2021-2.RLTS.T5668A3047556.en. Retrieved 20 November 2021.
  3. ^ "Appendices | CITES". cites.org. Retrieved 14 January 2022.
  4. ^ a b c d Webb, G. J. W.; Manolis, C.; Brien, M. L. (2010). "Saltwater Crocodile Crocodylus porosus" (PDF). In Manolis, S. C.; Stevenson, C. (eds.). Crocodiles: Status Survey and Conservation Action Plan (3rd ed.). Darwin: IUCN Crocodile Specialist Group. pp. 99–113.
  5. ^ Read, Mark A.; Grigg, Gordon C.; Irwin, Steve R.; Shanahan, Danielle; Franklin, Craig E. (2007). "Satellite Tracking Reveals Long Distance Coastal Travel and Homing by Translocated Estuarine Crocodiles, Crocodylus porosus". PLOS ONE. 2 (9): e949. Bibcode:2007PLoSO...2..949R. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0000949. PMC 1978533. PMID 17895990.
  6. ^ "Crocodiles surf ocean currents". www.telegraph.co.uk. Archived from the original on 11 January 2022.
  7. ^ "Fauna of Australia" (PDF). {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  8. ^ "Top 10 Largest Crocodiles Ever Recorded". Our planet. 11 May 2019.
  9. ^ "Relationship between total length and head length for Saltwater Crocodiles Crocodylus". ResearchGate.
  10. ^ "World's Crocodile Heavy Weight Champion Cassius Turns 112". media.queensland.com.
  11. ^ a b c d e f Whitaker, R.; Whitaker, N. (2008). "Who's got the biggest?" (PDF). Crocodile Specialist Group Newsletter. 27 (4): 26–30.
  12. ^ a b c d e f g h i Britton, A. R. C.; Whitaker, R.; Whitaker, N. (2012). "Here be a Dragon: Exceptional Size in Saltwater Crocodile (Crocodylus porosus) from the Philippines". Herpetological Review. 43 (4): 541–546.
  13. ^ Allen, G. R. (1974). "The marine crocodile, Crocodylus porosus, from Ponape, Eastern Caroline Islands, with notes on food habits of crocodiles from the Palau Archipelago". Copeia. 1974 (2): 553. doi:10.2307/1442558. JSTOR 1442558.
  14. ^ a b Hua, S.; Buffetaut, E. (1997). "Part V: Crocodylia". In Callaway, J. M.; Nicholls, E. L. (eds.). Ancient marine reptiles. Cambridge: Academic Press. pp. 357–374. doi:10.1016/B978-0-12-155210-7.X5000-5. ISBN 978-0-12-155210-7.
  15. ^ a b Blaber, S. J. M. (2008). "Mangroves and Estuarine Dependence". Tropical estuarine fishes: ecology, exploration and conservation. Oxford: Blackwell Science. pp. 185–201. ISBN 9780470694985.
  16. ^ Schneider, J. G. (1801). "Porosus". Historiae Amphibiorum naturalis et literariae Fasciculus Secundus continens Crocodilos, Scincos, Chamaesauras, Boas, Pseudoboas, Elapes, Angues, Amphisbaenas et Caecilias. Jenae: Wesselhoeft. pp. 159–160.
  17. ^ Cuvier, G. (1807). "Sur les différentes especes de crocodiles vivans et sur leurs caracteres distinctifs". Annales du Muséum d'Histoire Naturelle Paris. 10: 8–86.
  18. ^ Müller, S.; Schlegel, H. (1844). "Over de Krokodillen van den Indischen Archipel". In Temminck, C. J. (ed.). Verhandelingen over de natuurlijke geschiedenis der Nederlandsche overzeesche Bezittingen, door de leden der Natuurkundige Commissie in Indie en andere Schrijvers. Leiden: S. en J. Luchtmans en C. C. van der Hoek. pp. 1–70.
  19. ^ Deraniyagala, P. E. P. (1953). "Crocodylus porosus australis ssp. nov.". A coloured atlas of some vertebrates from Ceylon. Vol. Tetrapod Reptilia. Colombo: Government Press. pp. 33–34.
  20. ^ Wells, R. W. & Wellington, C. R. (1985). "A classification of the Amphibia and Reptilia of Australia" (PDF). Australian Journal of Herpetology, Supplemental Series. 1: 1–61.
  21. ^ Das, I.; Charles, J. K. (2000). "A Record of Crocodylus raninus Müller & Schlegel, 1844 from Brunei, North-western Borneo". Sabah Parks Nature Journal. 3: 1–5.
  22. ^ Brochu, C. A. (2000). "Phylogenetic relationships and divergence timing of Crocodylus based on morphology and the fossil record". Copeia. 2000 (3): 657–673. doi:10.1643/0045-8511(2000)000[0657:PRADTO]2.0.CO;2. S2CID 85824292.
  23. ^ a b Brazaitis, P. (2001). A Guide to the Identification of the Living Species of Crocodilians. New York: Wildlife Conservation Society.
  24. ^ Ross, C. A. (1990). "Crocodylus raninus S. Müller and H. Schlegel, a valid species of crocodile (Reptilia: Crocodylidae) from Borneo". Proceedings of the Biological Society of Washington. 103: 955–961.
  25. ^ Ross, C. A. (1992). "Designation of a lectotype for Crocodylus raninus S. Müller and Schlegel (Reptilia: Crocodylidae), the Borneo crocodile". Proceedings of the Biological Society of Washington. 105: 400–402.
  26. ^ Molnar, R. E. (1979). "Crocodylus porosus from the Pliocene Allingham formation of North Queensland. Results of the Ray E. Lemley expeditions, part 5". Memoirs of the Queensland Museum. 19: 357–365.
  27. ^ Willis, P. M. A. (1997). "Review of fossil crocodilians from Australasia". Australian Journal of Zoology. 30 (3): 287–298. doi:10.7882/AZ.1997.004.
  28. ^ Gatesy, J.; Amato, G. (2008). "The rapid accumulation of consistent molecular support for intergeneric crocodylian relationships". Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution. 48 (3): 1232–1237. doi:10.1016/j.ympev.2008.02.009. PMID 18372192.
  29. ^ Srikulnath, K.; Thapana, W. & Muangmai, N. (2015). "Role of chromosome changes in Crocodylus evolution and diversity". Genomics Inform. 13 (4): 102–111. doi:10.5808/GI.2015.13.4.102. PMC 4742319. PMID 26865840.
  30. ^ a b Lee, M. S. Y. & Yates, A. M. (2018). "Tip-dating and homoplasy: reconciling the shallow molecular divergences of modern gharials with their long fossil". Proceedings of the Royal Society B. 285 (1881). doi:10.1098/rspb.2018.1071. PMC 6030529. PMID 30051855.
  31. ^ a b c d Hekkala, E.; Gatesy, J.; Narechania, A.; Meredith, R.; Russello, M.; Aardema, M. L.; Jensen, E.; Montanari, S.; Brochu, C.; Norell, M.; Amato, G. (27 April 2021). "Paleogenomics illuminates the evolutionary history of the extinct Holocene "horned" crocodile of Madagascar, Voay robustus". Communications Biology. 4 (1): 505. doi:10.1038/s42003-021-02017-0. ISSN 2399-3642. PMC 8079395. PMID 33907305.
  32. ^ Oaks, J.R. (2011). "A time-calibrated species tree of Crocodylia reveals a recent radiation of the true crocodiles". Evolution. 65 (11): 3285–3297. doi:10.1111/j.1558-5646.2011.01373.x. PMID 22023592. S2CID 7254442.
  33. ^ a b c d e f g h i j Guggisberg, C. A. W. (1972). Crocodiles: Their Natural History, Folklore, and Conservation. Newton Abbot: David & Charles. p. 195. ISBN 978-0-7153-5272-4.
  34. ^ Kondo, H. (1970). Grolier's Amazing World of Reptiles. New York, NY: Grolier Interprises Inc.
  35. ^ Ross, F. D.; Mayer, G. C. (1983). "On the dorsal armor of the Crocodilia". In Rhodin, A. G. J.; Miyata, K. (eds.). Advances in Herpetology and Evolutionary Biology. Cambridge: Museum of Comparative Zoology. pp. 306–331. ISBN 9780910999007.
  36. ^ a b c d Britton, A. . The Crocodilian Species List. Archived from the original on 8 January 2006.
  37. ^ Lanworn, R. (1972). The Book of Reptiles. New York, NY: The Hamlyn Publishing Group Ltd. ISBN 978-0600312734.
  38. ^ "Crocodylus porosus". ReptilianZone.com. 17 February 2017.
  39. ^ Seymour, R. S.; Gienger, C. M.; Brien, M. L.; Tracy, C. R.; Manolis, C. S.; Webb, G. J. W.; Christian, K. A. (2012). "Scaling of standard metabolic rate in estuarine crocodiles Crocodylus porosus". Journal of Comparative Physiology B. 183 (4): 491–500. doi:10.1007/s00360-012-0732-1. PMID 23233168. S2CID 3191541.
  40. ^ "World's Biggest Crocodiles". Madras Crocodile Bank Trust. Retrieved 26 May 2016.
  41. ^ a b c d (PDF). newholland.com.au. Archived from the original (PDF) on 4 October 2009.
  42. ^ Loveridge, J. P., & Blake, D. K. (1972). Techniques in the immobilisation and handling of the Nile crocodile, Crocodylus niloticus. National Museums and Monuments of Rhodesia.
  43. ^ a b Bourquin, S. L. (2008). The population ecology of the Nile Crocodile (Crocodylus niloticus) in the Panhandle Region of the Okavango Delta, Botswana (Doctoral dissertation). Stellenbosch University.
  44. ^ a b c Greer, A. E. (1974). "On the Maximum Total Length of the Salt-Water Crocodile (Crocodylus porosus)". Journal of Herpetology. 8 (4): 381–384. doi:10.2307/1562913. JSTOR 1562913.
  45. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n Wood, G. (1983). The Guinness Book of Animal Facts and Feats. p. 256. ISBN 978-0-85112-235-9.
  46. ^ "Australian crocodile Elvis sinks teeth into lawnmower". CNN. 2011.
  47. ^ "Australian Saltwater Crocodile (Estuarine Crocodile) – Crocodylus porosus". Angelfire. Retrieved 25 July 2013.
  48. ^ Olsson, A.; Phalen, D. (2012). "Preliminary studies of chemical immobilization of captive juvenile estuarine (Crocodylus porosus) and Australian freshwater (C. johnstoni) crocodiles with medetomidine and reversal with atipamezole". Veterinary Anaesthesia and Analgesia. 39 (4): 345–356. doi:10.1111/j.1467-2995.2012.00721.x. PMID 22642399.
  49. ^ a b Webb, G.; Manolis, S. C. (1989). Crocodiles of Australia. Reed Books.
  50. ^ Webb, G. J. W.; Messel, H.; Crawford, J.; Yerbury, M. J. (1978). "Growth rates of Crocodylus porosus (Reptilia: Crocodilia) from Arnhem Land, northern Australia". Wildlife Research. 5 (3): 385–399. doi:10.1071/WR9780385.
  51. ^ "Estuarine crocodiles." FAO species identification guide for fishery purposes. The Living Marine Resources of the Western Central Pacific (PDF). Rosenzweig, P. A. 2001. p. 3972.
  52. ^ Nayak, Lakshman; Sharma, Satyabrata Das; Pati, Mitali Priyadarsini. "Conservation and Management of Saltwater Crocodile (Crocodylus porosus) in Bhitarkanika Wildlife Sanctuary, Odisha, India". Environmental Management of Marine Ecosystems. p. 313.
  53. ^ Nayak, Lakshman; Sharma, Satyabrata Das; Pati, Mitali Priyadarsini. "Conservation and Management of Saltwater Crocodile (Crocodylus porosus) in Bhitarkanika Wildlife Sanctuary, Odisha, India". Environmental Management of Marine Ecosystems. p. 313.
  54. ^ Fukuda, Y., How, C. B., Seah, B., Yang, S., Pocklington, K., & Peng, L. K. (2018). Historical, exceptionally large skulls of saltwater crocodiles discovered at the Lee Kong Chian Natural History Museum in Singapore. The Raffles Bulletin of Zoology, 66, 810–813.
  55. ^ Ziegler, T., Tao, N. T., Minh, N. T., Manalo, R., Diesmos, A., & Manolis, C. (2019). A giant crocodile skull from Can Tho, named “Dau Sau”, represents the largest known saltwater crocodile (Crocodylus porosus) ever reported from Vietnam. Tap chi Sinh hoc (Journal of Biology), 41(4), 25–30.
  56. ^ a b c d e f g Leach, G., Delaney, R., & Fukuda, Y. (2009). Management program for the saltwater crocodile in the Northern Territory of Australia, 2009–2014. Department of Natural Resources, Environment, the Arts and Sport.
  57. ^ Grigg, G.; Gans, C. "Morphology & Physiology of Crocodylia" (PDF). Australian Government- Department of the Environment. Retrieved 17 May 2016.
  58. ^ Wright, L. (1982). The IUCN Amphibia-Reptilia red data book (Vol. 1). IUCN.
  59. ^ Manalo, R. I., & Alcala, A. C. (2013). Status of the crocodile (Crocodylus porosus, Schneider) industry in the Philippines. Transactions of the National Academy of Science and Technology of the Philippines, 35(1), 219–222.
  60. ^ Mullen, J. (2013). "Lolong, world's largest captive crocodile, dies in Philippines". CNN. Retrieved 16 January 2021.
  61. ^ Kay, W. R. (2005). "Movements and home ranges of radio-tracked Crocodylus porosus in the Cambridge Gulf region of Western Australia" (PDF). Wildlife Research. 31 (5): 495–508. doi:10.1071/WR04037.
  62. ^ Campbell, H. A.; Dwyer, R. G.; Irwin, T. R.; Franklin, C. E. (2013). "Home range utilisation and long-range movement of estuarine crocodiles during the breeding and nesting season". PLOS ONE. 8 (5): e62127. Bibcode:2013PLoSO...862127C. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0062127. PMC 3641080. PMID 23650510.
  63. ^ Mercado, V. P. (2008). "Current status of the crocodile industry in the Republic of the Philippines". National Museum Papers. 14: 26–34.
  64. ^ McDonald, K. R., Dennis, A. J., Kyne, P. J., Debus, S. J., & Curtis, L. (2012). Queensland's Threatened Animals. CSIRO Publishing, pg. 185–186.
  65. ^ Halliday, T. R.; Verrell, P. A. (1988). "Body size and age in amphibians and reptiles". Journal of Herpetology. 22 (3): 253–265. doi:10.2307/1564148. JSTOR 1564148.
  66. ^ Cox, R. M., Butler, M. A., & John-Alder, H. B. (2007). The evolution of sexual size dimorphism in reptiles. Sex, size and gender roles: evolutionary studies of sexual size dimorphism, 38–49.
  67. ^ Brazaitis, P. (1987). Identification of Crocodilian Skins. Chipping Norton, Australia: Pty Lim.
  68. ^ George Albert Boulenger (1889). Catalogue of the chelonians, rhynchocephalians, and crocodiles in the British Museum (Natural History). British Museum (Natural History). Department of Zoology.
  69. ^ La Gironière, P. (1854). Twenty Years in the Philippines [1819–1839]. Harper & Brothers.
  70. ^ Wood, G.L. (1982). Guinness Book of World Records Animal Facts and Feats. Sterling Pub Co., Inc. ISBN 978-0851122359.
  71. ^ Singh, L. A. K. & Kar, S. K. (2006). "Status of the Saltwater Crocodile in Orissa: an overview". Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society. 103 (2/3): 274–285.
  72. ^ Andrews, H. V. & Whitaker, R. (1994). "Status of the saltwater crocodile (Crocodylus porosus Schneider, 1801) in North Andaman Island". Hamadryad. 19: 79–92.
  73. ^ Whitaker, N. (2008). Survey of Human/Crocodile Conflict in the Union Territory of the Andaman Islands, Hut Bay, Little Andaman, January 2008 (PDF). Madras: Madras Crocodile Trust.
  74. ^ a b Kumar, A.; Kumar, S.; Zaidi, Y. F. & Kanaujia, A. (2012). A review on status and conservation of salt water crocodile (Crocodylus porosus) in India (PDF). pp. 141–148.
  75. ^ Das, C. S. & Jana, R. (2018). "Human–crocodile conflict in the Indian Sundarban: an analysis of spatio-temporal incidences in relation to people's livelihood". Oryx. 52 (4): 661–668. doi:10.1017/S0030605316001502.
  76. ^ Aziz, M. A. & Islam, M. A. (2018). "Population status and spatial distribution of saltwater crocodile, Crocodylus porosus in the Sundarbans of Bangladesh". Bangladesh Journal of Zoology. 46 (1): 33–44. doi:10.3329/bjz.v46i1.37624.
  77. ^ Amarasinghe, A. T.; Madawala, M. B.; Karunarathna, D. S.; Manolis, S. C.; de Silva, A. & Sommerlad, R. (2015). "Human-crocodile conflict and conservation implications of saltwater crocodiles Crocodylus porosus (Reptilia: Crocodylia: Crocodylidae) in Sri Lanka". Journal of Threatened Taxa. 7 (5): 7111–7130. doi:10.11609/JoTT.o4159.7111-30.
  78. ^ Thorbjarnarson, J.; Platt, S. G. & Khaing, U. (2000). "A population survey of the estuarine crocodile in the Ayeyarwady Delta, Myanmar". Oryx. 34 (4): 317–324. doi:10.1046/j.1365-3008.2000.00135.x.
  79. ^ Pauwels, O. S.; Laohawat, O. A.; Naaktae, W.; Puangjit, C.; Wisusutharom, T.; Chimsunchart, C. & David, P. (2002). "Reptile and amphibian diversity in Phang-nga Province, southern Thailand". Tropical Natural History. 2 (1): 25–30.
  80. ^ Stuart, B. L.; Hayes, B.; Manh, B. H. & Platt, S. G. (2002). "Status of crocodiles in the U Minh Thuong Nature Reserve, southern Vietnam". Pacific Conservation Biology. 8 (1): 62. doi:10.1071/PC020062. S2CID 54020729.
  81. ^ Platt, S. G.; Holloway, R. H. P.; Evans, P. T.; Paudyal, K.; Piron, H. & Rainwater, T. R. (2006). "Evidence for the historic occurrence of Crocodylus porosus Schneider, 1801 in Tonle Sap, Cambodia". Hamadryad. 30 (1/2): 206.
  82. ^ Webb, G. J. (2000). "Risk of extinction and categories of endangerment: perspectives from long-lived reptiles". Population Ecology. 42 (1): 11–17. doi:10.1007/s101440050004. S2CID 42753122.
  83. ^ Iijima, Masaya; Qiao, Yu; Lin, Wenbin; Peng, Youjie; Yoneda, Minoru; Liu, Jun (9 March 2022). "An intermediate crocodylian linking two extant gharials from the Bronze Age of China and its human-induced extinction". Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. 289 (1970): 20220085. doi:10.1098/rspb.2022.0085. PMC 8905159. PMID 35259993.
  84. ^ a b Stuebing, R. B.; Ismail, G. & Ching, L. H. (1994). "The distribution and abundance of the Indo-Pacific crocodile Crocodylus porosus Schneider in the Klias River, Sabah, east Malaysia". Biological Conservation. 69 (1): 1–7. doi:10.1016/0006-3207(94)90322-0.
  85. ^ Kaur, T. (2006). "Segama River survey". Crocodile Specialist Group Newsletter. 25 (1): 15.
  86. ^ Evans, L.; Jones, T.; Pang, K.; Saimin, S. & Goossens, B. (2016). "Spatial ecology of estuarine crocodile (Crocodylus porosus) nesting in a fragmented landscape". Sensors. 16 (9): 1527. Bibcode:2016Senso..16.1527E. doi:10.3390/s16091527. PMC 5038800. PMID 27657065.
  87. ^ Mohd-Azlan, J.; Zulaiha, J.; Lading, E.; Nuriza, A. & Das, I. (2016). "Employing Camera Traps for Studying Habitat Use by Crocodiles in a Mangrove Forest in Sarawak, Borneo". Herpetological Review. 47 (4): 579–583.
  88. ^ Sideleau, B. (2016). "Notes on the current status of the saltwater crocodile, Crocodylus porosus, within East Nusa Tenggara Province, Indonesia" (PDF). In Crocodile Specialist Group (ed.). Crocodiles. Proceedings of the 24th Working Meeting of the Crocodile Specialist Group Skukuza, South Africa, 23–26 May 2016. Gland: IUCN. pp. 149–152.
  89. ^ Jelden, D. C. (1980). "Preliminary Studies on the Breeding Biology of Crocodylus porosus and Crocodylus n. novaguineae on the Middle Sepik (Papua New Guinea)". Amphibia-Reptilia. 1 (3): 353–358. doi:10.1163/156853881X00456.
  90. ^ Messel, H. & Vorlicek, G. C. (1986). "Population-Dynamics and Status of Crocodylus porosus in the Tidal Waterways of Northern Australia". Wildlife Research. 13 (1): 71–111. doi:10.1071/WR9860071.
  91. ^ Read, M. A.; Miller, J. D.; Bell, I. P. & Felton, A. (2005). "The distribution and abundance of the estuarine crocodile, Crocodylus porosus, in Queensland" (PDF). Wildlife Research. 31 (5): 527–534. doi:10.1071/WR02025.[dead link]
  92. ^ "West Alligator River". Northern Territory Land Information System. Northern Territory Government. Retrieved 25 September 2012.
  93. ^ a b Campbell, H.A.; Watts, M. E.; Sullivan, S.; Read, M. A.; Choukroun, S.; Irwin, S. R. & Franklin, C. E. (2010). "Estuarine crocodiles ride surface currents to facilitate long‐distance travel". Journal of Animal Ecology. 79 (5): 955–964. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2656.2010.01709.x. PMID 20546063.
  94. ^ Spennemann, D.H.R. (2021). "Cruising the currents: observations of extra-limital Saltwater Crocodiles (Crocodylus porosus Schneider, 1801) in the Pacific Region. Supplemental". Pacific Science. 74 (3): 211–227. doi:10.2984/74.3.1. S2CID 231875504.
  95. ^ a b c d e f g Ross, C. A.; Garnett, S., eds. (1989). Crocodiles and Alligators. Checkmark Books. ISBN 978-0816021741.
  96. ^ Schmidt-Nielsen, K. (1997). "Marine air-breathing vertebrates". Animal physiology: adaptation and environment. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 343–354. ISBN 9780521570985.
  97. ^ Grigg, G. C.; Seebacherd, F.; Beard, L. A.; Morris, D. (1998). "Thermal relations of large crocodiles, Crocodylus porosus, free-ranging in a naturalistic situation". Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. 265 (1407): 1793–1799. doi:10.1098/rspb.1998.0504. PMC 1689355.
  98. ^ . WallaWalla. Archived from the original on 18 October 2007. Retrieved 2 December 2011.
  99. ^ "Big Gecko – Crocodile Management, Research and Filming". Crocodilian.com. Retrieved 25 July 2013.
  100. ^ "Crocodile Communication: Crocodiles, Caimans, Alligators, Gharials". Flmnh.ufl.edu. 5 March 1996. Retrieved 25 July 2013.
  101. ^ Cott, H. B. (1961). "Scientific results of an inquiry into the ecology and economic status of the Nile crocodile (Crocodilus niloticus) in Uganda and Northern Rhodesia". Transactions of the Zoological Society of London. 29 (4): 211–356. doi:10.1111/j.1096-3642.1961.tb00220.x.
  102. ^ Graham, A., & Beard, P. (1973). Eyelids of Mornings. A. & W. Visual Library, Greenwich, CT, 113.
  103. ^ Webb, G. J.; Hollis, G. J.; Manolis, S. C. (1991). "Feeding, growth, and food conversion rates of wild juvenile saltwater crocodiles (Crocodylus porosus)". Journal of Herpetology. 25 (4): 462–473. doi:10.2307/1564770. JSTOR 1564770.
  104. ^ a b c Davenport, J.; Grove, D. J.; Cannon, J.; Ellis, T. R.; Stables, R. (1990). "Food capture, appetite, digestion rate and efficiency in hatchling and juvenile Crocodylus porosus". Journal of Zoology. 220 (4): 569–592. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7998.1990.tb04736.x.
  105. ^ Webb, G. J.; Messel, H. (1977). "Crocodile capture techniques". The Journal of Wildlife Management. 41 (3): 572–575. doi:10.2307/3800531. JSTOR 3800531.
  106. ^ Taylor, J. A. (1979). "The foods and feeding habits of subadult Crocodylus porosus Schneider in northern Australia". Wildlife Research. 6 (3): 347–359. doi:10.1071/WR9790347.
  107. ^ "Emu (Dromaius Novaehollandiae) – Animals – A–Z Animals – Animal Facts, Information, Pictures, Videos, Resources and Links". A–Z Animals. Retrieved 25 July 2013.
  108. ^ a b c d e f g Messel, H., & Vorlicek, G. C. (1989). "Ecology of Crocodylus porosus in northern Australia", pp. 164–183 in Crocodiles: Their Ecology, Management and Conservation. IUCN. ISBN 2880329876
  109. ^ Yalden, D.; Dougall, T. (2004). "Production, Survival, and Catchability of Chicks of Common Sandpipers Actitis hypoleucos". Wader Study Group Bulletin. 104: 82–84.
  110. ^ Cramb, R. A.; Sujang, P. S. (2013). "The mouse deer and the crocodile: oil palm smallholders and livelihood strategies in Sarawak, Malaysia". The Journal of Peasant Studies. 40 (1): 129–154. doi:10.1080/03066150.2012.750241. S2CID 126939848.
  111. ^ Galdikas, B. M.; Yeager, C. P. (1984). "Brief report: Crocodile predation on a crab-eating macaque in Borneo". American Journal of Primatology. 6 (1): 49–51. doi:10.1002/ajp.1350060106. PMID 31986847. S2CID 84208150.
  112. ^ Otani, Y., Tuuga, A., Bernard, H. and Matsuda, I. (2012). "Opportunistic predation and predation-related events on long-tailed macaque and proboscis monkey in Kinabatangan, Sabah, Malaysia". Journal of Tropical Biology and Conservation. 9: 214–218.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  113. ^ Blumstein, D. T.; Daniel, J. C.; Sims, R. A. (2003). "Group size but not distance to cover influences agile wallaby (Macropus agilis) time allocation". Journal of Mammalogy. 84 (1): 197–204. doi:10.1644/1545-1542(2003)084<0197:GSBNDT>2.0.CO;2.
  114. ^ Kruuk, H. 1995. Wild Otters. New York, New York: Oxford University Press.
  115. ^ a b Corlett, R. T. (2011). "Vertebrate carnivores and predation in the Oriental (Indomalayan) region". Raffles Bulletin of Zoology. 59: 325–360.
  116. ^ Samarasinghe, D. J. S.; Alwis, D. (September 2017). "Crocodylus porosus (Saltwater Crocodile) diet". Herpetological Review. 48 (3): 630–631.
  117. ^ Letnic, M.; Webb, J. K.; Shine, R. (2008). "Invasive cane toads (Bufo marinus) cause mass mortality of freshwater crocodiles (Crocodylus johnstoni) in tropical Australia". Biological Conservation. 141 (7): 1773–1782. doi:10.1016/j.biocon.2008.04.031.
  118. ^ Kar, S. K.; Bustard, H. R. (1983). "Saltwater crocodile attacks on man". Biological Conservation. 25 (4): 377–382. doi:10.1016/0006-3207(83)90071-X.
  119. ^ Kar, S. K.; Bustard, H. R. (1983). "Attacks on domestic livestock by juvenile saltwater crocodile, Crocodylus porosus, in Bhitarkanika Wildlife Sanctuary, Orissa India". Amphibia-Reptilia. 4 (1): 81–83. doi:10.1163/156853883X00283.
  120. ^ Hanson, J. O.; Salisbury, S. W.; Campbell, H. A.; Dwyer, R. G.; Jardine T. D.; Franklin, C. E. (2015). "Feeding across the food web: The interaction between diet, movement and body size in estuarine crocodiles (Crocodylus porosus)". Austral Ecology. 40 (3): 275–286. doi:10.1111/aec.12212. S2CID 85858989.
  121. ^ "Swine dining: crocodiles are thriving in the NT and it could be because of feral pigs". the Guardian. 26 April 2022. Retrieved 27 April 2022.
  122. ^ Dean Nelson. "Fifteen-foot Bengali crocodile claims king of jungle title from tiger". The Telegraph. Archived from the original on 11 January 2022. Retrieved 8 March 2016.
  123. ^ Collins, B. (2005). "Crocodiles Inside Out: A Guide to the Crocodilians and Their Functional Morphology". Austral Ecology. 30 (4): 487–508. doi:10.1111/j.1442-9993.2005.01448.x.
  124. ^ Russon, A. E.; Kuncoro, P.; Ferisa, A.; Handayani, D. P. (2010). "How orangutans (Pongo pygmaeus) innovate for water". Journal of Comparative Psychology. 124 (1): 14–28. doi:10.1037/a0017929. PMID 20175593.
  125. ^ NG, M. & Mendyk, R. W. (2012). "Predation of an Adult Malaysian Water monitor Varanus salvator macromaculatus by an Estuarine Crocodile Crocodylus porosus". Biawak. 6 (1): 34–38.
  126. ^ Butler, J. R.; Linnell, J. D.; Morrant, D.; Athreya, V.; Lescureux, N.; McKeown, A. (2013). "Dog eat dog, cat eat dog: social-ecological dimensions of dog predation by wild carnivores". Free-Ranging Dogs and Wildlife Conservation. Oxford University Press. p. 117.
  127. ^ De Silva, M.; Dissanayake, S.; Santiapillai, C. (1994). "Aspects of the population dynamics of the wild Asiatic water buffalo (Bubalus bubalis) in Ruhuna National Park, Sri Lanka" (PDF). Journal of South Asian Natural History. 1 (1): 65–76.
  128. ^ Darwin, Charles (2022). "Change in diet may contribute to rapid recovery of apex predator, new research reveals". Biology Letters. Phys.org. 18 (4). doi:10.1098/rsbl.2021.0676. PMC 9042529. PMID 35472283. S2CID 248396446. Retrieved 25 May 2022.
  129. ^ "FLMNH Ichthyology Department: Green Sawfish". www.flmnh.ufl.edu. Retrieved 22 October 2015.
  130. ^ Walker, P.; Wood, E. (2009). The Saltwater Wetland. Infobase Publishing. ISBN 9781438122359.
  131. ^ Significant Trade in Wildlife: a review of selected species in CITES Appendix II. Volume 2: reptiles and invertebrates : Luxmoore, R., Groombridge, B., Broad, S., IUCN Conservation Monitoring Centre : Free Download & Streaming. Internet Archive. IUCN, CITES. 1988. ISBN 9782880329549. Retrieved 22 October 2015.
  132. ^ Reid, R. (2011). Shark!: Killer Tales from the Dangerous Depths: Killer Tales from the Dangerous Depths (Large Print 16pt). ReadHowYouWant.com. ISBN 9781459613287.
  133. ^ "No Bull: Saltwater Crocodile Eats Shark". UnderwaterTimes.com. 2007. Retrieved 30 April 2011.
  134. ^ Whiting, S. D.; Whiting, A. U. (2011). "Predation by the Saltwater Crocodile (Crocodylus porosus) on sea turtle adults, eggs, and hatchlings". Chelonian Conservation and Biology. 10 (2): 198–205. doi:10.2744/CCB-0881.1. S2CID 85816270.
  135. ^ "Crocodiles Have Strongest Bite Ever Measured, Hands-on Tests Show". News.nationalgeographic.com. 15 March 2012. Retrieved 12 June 2013.
  136. ^ "Saltwater Crocodiles, Crocodylus porosus ~". Marinebio.org. 14 January 2013. Retrieved 25 July 2013.
  137. ^ Doody, J. S. (2009). "Eyes bigger than stomach: prey caching and retrieval in the saltwater crocodile, Crocodylus porosus". Herpetological Review. 40 (1): 26.
  138. ^ Erickson, Gregory M.; Lappin, A. Kristopher; Parker, Trevor; Vliet, Kent A. (2004). "Comparison of bite-force performance between long-term captive and wild American alligators (Alligator mississippiensis)" (PDF). Journal of Zoology. 262 (1): 21–28. doi:10.1017/S0952836903004400.
  139. ^ a b Erickson, GM; Gignac PM; Steppan SJ; Lappin AK; Vliet KA; et al. (2012). "Insights into the Ecology and Evolutionary Success of Crocodilians Revealed through Bite-Force and Tooth-Pressure Experimentation". PLOS ONE. 7 (3): e31781. Bibcode:2012PLoSO...731781E. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0031781. PMC 3303775. PMID 22431965.
  140. ^ Cogger, H.G. (1996). Reptiles and Amphibians of Australia. Chatswood, NSW: Reed Books.
  141. ^ Somaweera, R.; Shine, R. (2013). "Nest-site selection by crocodiles at a rocky site in the Australian tropics: Making the best of a bad lot". Austral Ecology. 38 (3): 313–325. doi:10.1111/j.1442-9993.2012.02406.x.
  142. ^ Magnusson, W. E. (1980). "Habitat required for nesting by Crocodylus porosus (Reptilia: Crocodilidae) in northern Australia". Austrealian Wildlife Research. 7 (1): 149–156. doi:10.1071/WR9800149.
  143. ^ Seymour, R. S.; Ackerman, R. A. (1980). "Adaptations to underground nesting in birds and reptiles". American Zoologist. 20 (2): 437–447. doi:10.1093/icb/20.2.437.
  144. ^ a b Gopi, G.V.; ANGOM, S. (2007). "Aspects of nesting biology of Crocodylus porosus at Bhitarkanika, Orissa, Eastern India". Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society. 104 (3): 328–333.
  145. ^ Lang, J. W.; Andrews, H. V. (1994). "Temperature-dependent sex determination in crocodilians". Journal of Experimental Zoology. 270 (1): 28–44. doi:10.1002/jez.1402700105.
  146. ^ a b Magnusson, W. E. (1982). "Mortality of eggs of the crocodile Crocodylus porosus in northern Australia". Journal of Herpetology. 16 (2): 121–130. doi:10.2307/1563804. JSTOR 1563804.
  147. ^ a b "Crocodilian Species – Australian Saltwater Crocodile (Crocodylus porosus)". Flmnh.ufl.edu. Retrieved 26 December 2010.
  148. ^ Brien, M. L.; Webb, G. J.; Lang, J. W.; McGuinness, K. A.; Christian, K. A. (2013). "Born to be bad: agonistic behaviour in hatchling saltwater crocodiles (Crocodylus porosus)". Behaviour. 150 (7): 737–762. doi:10.1163/1568539x-00003078.
  149. ^ Lang, J. W. (1987). "Crocodilian behaviour: implications for management", pp. 273–294 in Wildlife management: crocodiles and alligators.
  150. ^ . Archived from the original on 14 August 2001. Retrieved 25 July 2013.
  151. ^ Webb, G. J. W.; Manolis, S. C.; Buckworth, R.; Sack, G. C. (1983). "An examination of Crocodylus porosus nests in two northern Australian freshwater swamps, with an analysis of embryo mortality". Wildlife Research. 10 (3): 571–605. doi:10.1071/WR9830571.
  152. ^ Somaweera, R.; Brien, M.; Shine, R. (2013). "The role of predation in shaping crocodilian natural history". Herpetological Monographs. 27 (1): 23–51. doi:10.1655/HERPMONOGRAPHS-D-11-00001. S2CID 86167446.
  153. ^ Whitaker, R. (1982). "Status of Asian crocodilians". In Crocodile Specialist Group (ed.). Crocodiles. Proceedings of the 5th Working Meeting of the Crocodile Specialist Group of the Species Survival Commission of the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources Convened at the Florida State Museum, Gainesville, Florida, USA, 12 to 16 August 1980. Gland: IUCN. p. 237.
  154. ^ "Crocodylus porosus – Salt-water Crocodile, Estuarine Crocodile". Environment.gov.au. Retrieved 8 August 2013.
  155. ^ Gramantez, D. (2008) A case study of the Saltwater Crocodile Crocodylus porosus in Muthurajawela Marsh, Sri Lanka – Considerations for conservation. IUCN- Crocodile Specialist Group.
  156. ^ Brazaitis, P.; Eberdong, J.; Brazaitis, P. J.; Watkins-Colwell, G. J. (2009). "Notes on the saltwater crocodile, Crocodylus porosus, in the Republic of Palau". Bulletin of the Peabody Museum of Natural History. 50 (1): 27–48. doi:10.3374/014.050.0103. S2CID 84984946.
  157. ^ Kar, S. K. (1992). "Conservation, research, and management of estuarine crocodiles Crocodylus porosus Schneider in Bhitarkania Wildlife Sanctuary, Orissa, India during the last 17 years" (PDF). In Crocodile Specialist Group (ed.). Crocodiles. Proceedings of the 11th Working Meeting of the Crocodile Specialist Group of the IUCN Species Survival Commission convened at Victoria Falls, Zimbabwe, 2 to 7 August 1992. Vol. 1. Gland: IUCN. pp. 222–242.
  158. ^ Tisdell, C.; Nantha, H. S.; Wilson, C. (2007). "Endangerment and likeability of wildlife species: How important are they for payments proposed for conservation?". Ecological Economics. 60 (3): 627–633. doi:10.1016/j.ecolecon.2006.01.007.
  159. ^ a b Sideleau, B., & Britton, A. R. C. (2012). "A preliminary analysis of worldwide crocodilian attacks", pp. 111–114 in Crocodiles Proceedings of the 21st Working Meeting of the IUCN-SSC Crocodile Specialist Group. Gland, Switzerland: IUCN.
  160. ^ "Crocodile Management" (PDF). Northern Territory Government. Retrieved 6 May 2016.
  161. ^ a b Caldicott, David G.E.; Croser, D.; Manolis, C.; Webb, G.; Britton, A. (September 2005). "Crocodile attack in Australia: an analysis of its incidence and review of the pathology and management of crocodilian attacks in general". Wilderness & Environmental Medicine. 16 (3): 143–159. doi:10.1580/1080-6032(2005)16[143:CAIAAA]2.0.CO;2. PMID 16209470.
  162. ^ Manolis, S. C., & Webb, G. J. (September 2013). "Assessment of saltwater crocodile (Crocodylus porosus) attacks in Australia (1971–2013): implications for management", pp. 97–104 in Crocodiles Proceedings of the 22nd Working Meeting of the IUCN-SSC Crocodile Specialist Group. Gland, Switzerland: IUCN.
  163. ^ Nichols, T.; Letnic, M. (2008). "Problem crocodiles: reducing the risk of attacks by Crocodylus porosus in Darwin Harbour, Northern Territory, Australia". Urban herpetology. Vol. 3. pp. 503–511.
  164. ^ . Associated Press via International Herald Tribune. 25 April 2007. Archived from the original on 11 August 2007. Retrieved 18 August 2010.
  165. ^ "Woman saves daughter from crocodile". Telegraph. 14 March 2008. Archived from the original on 11 January 2022. Retrieved 25 July 2013.
  166. ^ . 7 June 2008. Archived from the original on 7 June 2008. Retrieved 25 July 2013.
  167. ^ . Today.msnbc.msn.com. 5 October 2010. Archived from the original on 13 May 2010. Retrieved 25 July 2013.
  168. ^ . Associated Press via International Herald Tribune. 20 April 2008. Archived from the original on 17 May 2008. Retrieved 18 August 2010.
  169. ^ a b c d . Archived from the original on 3 May 2009. Retrieved 25 July 2013.
  170. ^ Walsh, B.; Whitehead, P. J. (1993). "Problem crocodiles, Crocodylus porosus, at Nhulunbuy, Northern Territory: an assessment of relocation as a management strategy". Wildlife Research. 20 (1): 127–135. doi:10.1071/WR9930127.
  171. ^ Delaney, R., Fukuda, Y., & Saalfeld, K. (2009). SALTWATER CROCODILE (Crocodylus porosus) MANAGEMENT PROGRAM. Northern Territory Government, Department of Natural Resources, Environment, the Arts and Sport.
  172. ^ Webb, G. J. W.; Messel, H. (1979). "Wariness in Crocodylus porosus (Reptilia: Crocodilidae)". Wildlife Research. 6 (2): 227–234. doi:10.1071/WR9790227.
  173. ^ Somaweera, R. & A. de Silva (2013). Using traditional knowledge to minimize human-crocodile conflict in Sri Lanka, pp. 257. In: Crocodiles. Proceedings of the 22nd Working Meeting of the IUCN-SSC Crocodile Specialist Group. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland.
  174. ^ Sivaperuman, C. (2014). Saltwater Crocodiles in Andaman and Nicobar Islands, with Special Reference to Human–Crocodile Conflict. Marine Faunal Diversity in India: Taxonomy, Ecology and Conservation, 453.
  175. ^ Platt, S. G.; W. K. Ko; M. Kalyar Myo; L. L. Khaing; T. Rainwater (2001). "Man eating by estuarine crocodiles: the Ramree Island massacre revisited". Herpetological Bulletin. 75: 15–18.
  176. ^ "National Museum of Australia – Val Plumwood canoe". Nma.gov.au. Retrieved 25 July 2013.
  177. ^ "Val Plumwood Prey to a Crocodile". Aislingmagazine.com. Retrieved 25 July 2013.
  178. ^ Wootson, Cleve R. Jr. (16 July 2018). "A crocodile killed an Indonesian man — so his village slaughtered nearly 300 crocodiles". Washington Post.
  179. ^ . Australianstamp.com. 2007. Archived from the original on 16 October 2013. Retrieved 8 August 2013.
  180. ^ Fijn, N. (2013). "Living with crocodiles: engagement with a powerful reptilian being". Animal Studies Journal. 2 (2): 1–27.
  181. ^ "Two decades of fierce determination". Office of the Registrar of Indigenous Corporations. Retrieved 16 January 2021.
  182. ^ Rawlinson, C. (2012). "Learning Larrakia: totem animal 'Dungalaba'". ABC Radio Darwin.
  183. ^ . The Sunday Mail. news.com.au. 28 November 2010. Archived from the original on 7 June 2012.
  184. ^ Reid, Robert (28 November 2008). "Death of a monster". The Australian. Retrieved 2 April 2011.
  185. ^ "QLD – NORMANTON – Home of largest Crocodile ever shot!". Give An Aussie A Go. Retrieved 25 July 2013.
  186. ^ . abc.net.au. 6 January 2004. Archived from the original on 13 February 2009.
  187. ^ "Saltwater Crocodiles, Saltwater Crocodile Pictures, Saltwater Crocodile Facts – National Geographic". Animals.nationalgeographic.com. Retrieved 25 July 2013.
  188. ^ a b "Guinness: India Park Home to World's Largest Crocodile". UnderwaterTimes.com. Retrieved 30 April 2011.
  189. ^ "Crocodilian Biology Database. FAQ". Crocodilian.com. Retrieved 24 May 2012.
  190. ^ Bayliss, P. (1987). Survey methods and monitoring within crocodile management programmes. Surrey Beatty & Sons, Chipping Norton, pages 157–175
  191. ^ Mishra, Braja Kishore (14 June 2006). "World's Largest Reptile Found in India". ohmynews.com.

External links

 
Wikispecies has information related to Crocodylus porosus.
 
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Crocodylus porosus.
  • Fisheries Western Australia – Estuarine Crocodile Fact Sheet
  • Saltwater crocodiles in freedom: Authentic pictures and descriptions
  • Comprehensive Saltwater Crocodile web site unique information, plentiful images and video presentations
  • Saltwater crocodile calls from Dr. Britton's crocodilian.com site
  • Brief discussion from Dr. Britton and others discussing dromaeosaurid intelligence
  • Naish, D. (2012). "The Saltwater Crocodile, and all that it implies (crocodiles part III)". Tetrapod Zoology. Scientific American. Retrieved 12 June 2015.

January 31, 2023
saltwater, crocodile, saltwater, crocodile, crocodylus, porosus, crocodilian, native, saltwater, habitats, brackish, wetlands, from, india, east, coast, across, southeast, asia, sundaic, region, northern, australia, micronesia, been, listed, least, concern, iu. The saltwater crocodile Crocodylus porosus is a crocodilian native to saltwater habitats and brackish wetlands from India s east coast across Southeast Asia and the Sundaic region to northern Australia and Micronesia It has been listed as Least Concern on the IUCN Red List since 1996 2 It was hunted for its skin throughout its range up to the 1970s and is threatened by illegal killing and habitat loss It is regarded as dangerous to humans 4 Saltwater crocodileTemporal range Pliocene Present 5 3 0 Ma 1 PreꞒ Ꞓ O S D C P T J K Pg NMaleFemaleConservation statusLeast Concern IUCN 3 1 2 CITES Appendix I CITES 3 note 1 Scientific classificationKingdom AnimaliaPhylum ChordataClass ReptiliaOrder CrocodiliaFamily CrocodylidaeGenus CrocodylusSpecies C porosusBinomial nameCrocodylus porosusSchneider 1801Range of the saltwater crocodile in blackThe saltwater crocodile is considered to be the largest living reptile 5 6 7 Males can grow up to a length of 6 m 20 ft rarely exceeding 6 3 m 21 ft and a weight of 1 000 1 300 kg 2 200 2 900 lb 8 9 10 Females are much smaller and rarely surpass 3 m 10 ft 11 12 It is also called the estuarine crocodile Indo Pacific crocodile marine crocodile sea crocodile and informally as the saltie 13 A large and opportunistic hypercarnivorous apex predator they ambush most of their prey and then drown or swallow it whole They are capable of prevailing over almost any animal that enters their territory including other predators such as sharks varieties of freshwater and saltwater fish including pelagic species invertebrates such as crustaceans various amphibians reptiles birds and mammals including humans 14 15 Contents 1 Taxonomy and evolution 1 1 Evolution 1 2 Phylogeny 2 Description 2 1 Size 2 1 1 Male size 2 1 2 Female size 2 1 3 Reported sizes 3 Distribution and habitat 4 Behaviour and ecology 4 1 Hunting and diet 4 1 1 Bite 4 2 Reproduction 5 Conservation status 6 Relationship with humans 6 1 Attacks on humans 6 2 Cultural references 6 3 Examples of large unconfirmed saltwater crocodiles 7 See also 8 Notes 9 References 10 External linksTaxonomy and evolution Sweetheart a saltwater crocodile from Finnis River in northern Australia proposed as Crocodilus pethericki in 1985 Crocodilus porosus was the scientific name proposed by Johann Gottlob Theaenus Schneider who described a zoological specimen in 1801 16 In the 19th and 20th centuries several saltwater crocodile specimens were described with the following names Crocodilus biporcatus proposed by Georges Cuvier in 1807 were 23 saltwater crocodile specimens from India Java and Timor 17 Crocodilus biporcatus raninus proposed by Salomon Muller and Hermann Schlegel in 1844 was a crocodile from Borneo 18 Crocodylus porosus australis proposed by Paulus Edward Pieris Deraniyagala in 1953 was a specimen from Australia 19 Crocodylus pethericki proposed by Richard Wells and C Ross Wellington in 1985 was a large bodied relatively large headed and short tailed crocodile specimen collected in 1979 in the Finnis River Northern Territory 20 This purported species was later considered to be a misinterpretation of the physiological changes that very large male crocodiles undergo However Wells and Wellington s assertion that the Australian saltwater crocodiles may be distinctive enough from northern Asian saltwater crocodiles to warrant subspecies status as could raninus from other Asian saltwater crocodiles has been considered to possibly bear validity 21 22 Currently the saltwater crocodile is considered a monotypic species 23 However based largely on morphological variability it is thought possible that the taxon C porosus comprises a species complex Borneo crocodile C raninus specimens can reliably be distinguished both from saltwater and Siamese crocodiles C siamensis on the basis of the number of ventral scales and on the presence of four postoccipital scutes which are often absent in true saltwater crocodiles 24 25 Evolution Fossil remains of a saltwater crocodile excavated in northern Queensland were dated to the Pliocene 26 27 The saltwater crocodile s closest extant living relatives are the Siamese crocodile and the mugger crocodile 28 29 30 31 The genus Crocodylus likely originated in Africa and radiated outwards towards Southeast Asia and the Americas 31 although an Australia Asia origin has also been considered 32 Phylogenetic evidence supports Crocodylus diverging from its closest recent relative the extinct Voay of Madagascar around 25 million years ago near the Oligocene Miocene boundary 31 Phylogeny Below is a cladogram based on a 2018 tip dating study by Lee amp Yates simultaneously using morphological molecular DNA sequencing and stratigraphic fossil age data 30 as revised by the 2021 Hekkala et al paleogenomics study using DNA extracted from the extinct Voay 31 Crocodylinae Voay Crocodylus Crocodylus anthropophagus Crocodylus thorbjarnarsoni Crocodylus palaeindicus Crocodylus Tirari Desert Asia Australia Crocodylus johnstoni Freshwater crocodile Crocodylus novaeguineae New Guinea crocodileCrocodylus mindorensis Philippine crocodileCrocodylus porosus Saltwater crocodile Crocodylus siamensis Siamese crocodile Crocodylus palustris Mugger crocodile Africa New World Crocodylus checchiai Crocodylus falconensis Crocodylus suchus West African crocodileCrocodylus niloticus Nile crocodile New World Crocodylus moreletii Morelet s crocodileCrocodylus rhombifer Cuban crocodile Crocodylus intermedius Orinoco crocodileCrocodylus acutus American crocodile Description Saltwater crocodile skull from The Museum of Zoology Saint Petersburg Note the considerably more slender skull of a gharial in the background Head of a saltwater crocodile The saltwater crocodile has a wide snout compared to most crocodiles However it has a longer snout than the mugger crocodile C palustris its length is twice its width at the base 33 A pair of ridges runs from the eyes along the centre of the snout The scales are oval in shape and the scutes are either small compared to other species or commonly are entirely absent In addition an obvious gap is also present between the cervical and dorsal shields and small triangular scutes are present between the posterior edges of the large transversely arranged scutes in the dorsal shield The relative lack of scutes is considered an asset useful to distinguish saltwater crocodiles in captivity or in illicit leather trading as well as in the few areas in the field where sub adult or younger saltwater crocodiles may need to be distinguished from other crocodiles It has fewer armour plates on its neck than other crocodilians 34 35 The adult saltwater crocodile s broad body contrasts with that of most other lean crocodiles leading to early unverified assumptions the reptile was an alligator 36 Young saltwater crocodiles are pale yellow in colour with black stripes and spots on their bodies and tails This colouration lasts for several years until the crocodiles mature into adults The colour as an adult is much darker greenish drab with a few lighter tan or grey areas sometimes apparent Several colour variations are known and some adults may retain fairly pale skin whereas others may be so dark as to appear blackish The ventral surface is white or yellow in colour in saltwater crocodiles of all ages Stripes are present on the lower sides of their bodies but do not extend onto their bellies Their tails are grey with dark bands 37 38 Size The weight of a crocodile increases approximately cubically as length increases see square cube law 39 This explains why individuals at 6 m 20 ft weigh more than twice as much as individuals at 5 m 16 ft 36 In crocodiles linear growth eventually decreases and they start getting bulkier at a certain point 40 Saltwater crocodiles are the largest extant riparian predators in the world However they start life fairly small Newly hatched saltwater crocodiles measure about 28 cm 11 in long and weigh an average of 71 g 2 5 oz 41 These sizes and ages are almost identical to those at average sexual maturity in Nile crocodiles despite the fact that average adult male saltwater crocodiles are considerably larger than average adult male Nile crocodiles 42 43 The largest skull of a saltwater crocodile that could be scientifically verified was of a specimen in the Museum national d Histoire naturelle collected in Cambodia Its skull was 76 cm 30 in long and 48 cm 19 in wide near its base with 98 3 cm 38 7 in long mandibles The length of this specimen is not known but based on skull to total length ratios for very large saltwater crocodiles its length was presumably somewhere in the 7 m 23 ft range 11 44 If detached from the body the head of a very large male crocodile can reportedly weigh over 200 kg 440 lb alone including the large muscles and tendons at the base of the skull that lend the crocodile its massive biting strength 45 The largest tooth measured 9 cm 3 5 in in length 46 47 Other crocodilians have a proportionately longer skull like the gharial Gavialis gangeticus and the false gharial Tomistoma schlegelii but both their skulls and their bodies are less massive than in the saltwater crocodile 11 Male size An adult male saltwater crocodile from young adults to older individuals typically ranges 3 5 to 6 m 11 ft 6 in to 19 ft 8 in in length and weighs 200 to 1 100 kg 440 to 2 430 lb 48 49 50 51 On average adult males range 4 3 to 5 m 14 ft 1 in to 16 ft 5 in in length and weigh 408 to 770 kg 899 to 1 698 lb 45 52 However average size largely depends on the location habitat and human interactions and thus varies from one study to another In one case Webb and Manolis 1989 recorded the average weight of adult males in Australian tidal rivers as only 240 to 350 kg 530 to 770 lb at lengths of 4 to 4 5 m 13 to 15 ft during the 1980s possibly representing a reduced body mass due to the species being in recovery after decades of overhunting as males this size would typically weigh about 100 kg 220 lb heavier 49 Very large aged males can exceed 6 m 20 ft in length and presumably weigh up to 2 000 kg 4 400 lb 36 11 44 53 The largest confirmed saltwater crocodile on record drowned in a fishing net in Papua New Guinea in 1979 Its dried skin plus head measured 6 2 m 20 ft 4 in in length and it was estimated to have been 6 3 m 20 ft 8 in when accounting for shrinkage and a missing tail tip 12 11 Projected from their skull lengths multiple specimens from Singapore were estimated to belong in life to male crocodiles measuring more than 6 m 19 ft 8 in 54 A large Vietnamese saltwater crocodile was reliably estimated based on its skull after its death at 6 3 to 6 8 m 20 ft 8 in to 22 ft 4 in 55 However according to evidence in the form of skulls coming from some of the largest crocodiles ever shot the maximum possible size attained by the largest members of this species is considered to be 7 m 23 ft 0 in 12 36 A governmental study from Australia accepts that the very largest members of the species are likely to measure 6 to 7 m 19 ft 8 in to 23 ft 0 in in length and weigh 900 to 1 500 kg 2 000 to 3 300 lb 56 Furthermore a research paper on the morphology and physiology of crocodilians by the same organisation estimates that saltwater crocodiles reaching sizes of 7 m 23 ft 0 in would weigh around 2 000 kg 4 400 lb 57 Due to extensive poaching during the 20th century such individuals are extremely rare today in most areas as it takes a long time for the crocodiles to attain those sizes Also a possible earlier presence of particular genes may have led to such large sized saltwater crocodiles genes that were ultimately lost from the overall gene pool due to extensive hide and trophy hunting in the past 12 However as the population recovers 12 the number of large crocodiles is increasing especially in Bhitarkanika National Park where at least one living individual is estimated to have obtained a length of around 7 m 23 ft 0 in 12 58 This species is the only extant crocodilian regularly to reach or exceed 5 2 m 17 ft 1 in 11 45 A large male in the Philippines named Lolong was the largest saltwater crocodile ever caught and placed in captivity He was 6 17 m 20 ft 3 in long and weighed 1 075 kg 2 370 lb 12 59 60 Female size Adult females typically measure from 2 7 to 3 1 m 8 ft 10 in to 10 ft 2 in in total length and weigh 76 to 103 kg 168 to 227 lb 61 62 63 Large mature females reach 3 4 m 11 ft 2 in and weigh up to 120 to 200 kg 260 to 440 lb 64 The largest female on record measured about 4 3 m 14 ft 1 in in total length 45 Female are thus similar in size to other species of large crocodiles and average slightly smaller than females of some other species like the Nile crocodile 43 The saltwater crocodile has the greatest size sexual dimorphism by far of any extant crocodilian as males average about 4 to 5 times as massive as adult females and can sometimes measure twice her total length The reason for the male skewered dimorphism in this species is not definitively known but might be correlated with sex specific territoriality and the need for adult male saltwater crocodiles to monopolise large stretches of habitat 65 66 Due to the extreme sexual dimorphism of the species as contrasted with the more modest size dimorphism of other species the average length of the species is only slightly more than some other extant crocodilians at 3 8 4 m 12 ft 6 in 13 ft 1 in 23 33 67 Reported sizes Date Location Reported Length Reported Weight Reported Girth Reported Skull Length Scientifically Analyzed Length Comments1840 Bay of Bengal 1 005 84 cm 396 00 in 2 721 55 kg 6 000 0 lb 396 24 cm 156 00 in 927 mm 36 5 in 591 312 cm 232 800 in Skull saved but was later shown to be measured incorrectly by calculating from snout to posterior edge of lower jaw per GA Greer Actual skull length was 655mm 68 44 1823 Luzon Philippines 822 96 cm 324 00 in Not listed 335 28 cm 132 00 in 674 mm 26 5 in 609 6 cm 240 0 in Skull preserved and measured by Thomas Barbour who determined original length was taken along the curve of the belly 69 July 1957 Carpenteria Australia 860 cm 340 in Not listed Not listed Not listed Not listed Killed by Krystyna Pawlowski while defending her three year old daughter citation needed 1926 1932 North Borneo 1 005 84 cm 396 00 in Not listed Not listed Not listed Not listed Sighted by James R Montgomery sleeping on a river bank and was considered a legend by the Seluke people said to be over 200 years old 70 Distribution and habitat A saltwater crocodile off Maconacon Isabela province Saltwater crocodile tracks in East Timor Saltwater crocodile jumping up at Adelaide River source source source source source source source source source source source source Video of a jumping crocodile at Adelaide River The saltwater crocodile inhabits coastal brackish mangrove swamps and river deltas from India s east coast Sri Lanka and Bangladesh to Myanmar Malaysia Brunei Indonesia Philippines East Timor Palau Solomon Islands Singapore Papua New Guinea Vanuatu and Australia s north coast It is considered possibly extirpated from Cambodia Vietnam and Thailand and definitively so from the Seychelles 2 4 The southernmost population in India lives in Odisha s Bhitarkanika Wildlife Sanctuary in northern Odisha it has not been recorded since the 1930s 71 It occurs along the Andaman and Nicobar Islands coasts and in the Sundarbans 72 73 74 75 76 In Sri Lanka it occurs foremost in western and southern parts of the country 77 In Myanmar it inhabits the Ayeyarwady Delta 78 In southern Thailand it was recorded in Phang Nga Province 79 It is extirpated from Singapore Cambodia and Vietnam 4 80 81 In China it may have once inhabited coastal areas from Fujian province in the north to the border of Vietnam 82 References to crocodile attacks on humans and livestock during the Han and Song dynasties indicate that until the 18th century it may have occurred in lower Pearl River and Macau Han River Min River portions of coastal Guangxi province and Hainan Island 33 However more recent studies indicate that these reports may have in fact referred to the now extinct gavialid Hanyusuchus 83 In Sabah it was recorded in the Klias Segama and Kinabatangan Rivers 84 85 86 In Sarawak it was recorded by a camera trap in Kuching Wetlands National Park 87 In the Lesser Sunda Islands it is present along the coasts of Sumba Lembata Island Flores Menipo Rote Island and Timor Its status along Alor Island is unknown where one individual was captured in the 2010s 88 In the Maluku Islands it is present around the Kai Islands the Aru Islands and many other islands in the region including the Torres Strait Islands In Papua New Guinea it is common within the coastal reaches of every river system such as the Fly River and in the Bismarck Archipelago 89 In the Philippines it occurs in a few coastal sites like eastern Luzon Palawan the Liguasan Marsh and Agusan River on Mindanao 4 On a beach in Darwin Australia In northern Australia Western Australia and Queensland the saltwater crocodile is thriving particularly in the multiple river systems near Darwin such as the Adelaide Mary and Daly Rivers along with their adjacent billabongs and estuaries 90 91 The saltwater crocodile population in Australia is estimated at 100 000 to 200 000 adults Its range extends from Broome Western Australia through the entire Northern Territory coast all the way south to Rockhampton Queensland The Alligator Rivers in the Arnhem Land region are misnamed due to the resemblance of the saltwater crocodile to alligators as compared to freshwater crocodiles which also inhabit the Northern Territory 92 Because of its tendency to swim long distances at sea individual saltwater crocodiles appeared occasionally in areas far away from their general range up to Fiji 93 94 Saltwater crocodiles generally spend the tropical wet season in freshwater swamps and rivers moving downstream to estuaries in the dry season Crocodiles compete fiercely with each other for territory with dominant males in particular occupying the most eligible stretches of freshwater creeks and streams Junior crocodiles are thus forced into marginal river systems and sometimes into the ocean This explains the large distribution of the species as well as its being found in the odd places on occasion such as the Sea of Japan Like all crocodiles they can survive for prolonged periods in only warm temperatures and crocodiles seasonally vacate parts of Australia if cold spells hit 95 Behaviour and ecology Saltwater crocodile sunning itself An adult saltwater crocodile swimming through a swamp The primary behaviour to distinguish the saltwater crocodile from other crocodiles is its tendency to occupy salt water Though other crocodiles also have salt glands that enable them to survive in saltwater a trait that alligators do not possess most other species do not venture out to sea except during extreme conditions 96 Saltwater crocodiles use ocean currents to travel long distances In Australia 20 crocodiles were tagged with satellite transmitters 8 of them ventured out into open ocean and one of them traveled 590 km 370 mi along the coast in 25 days from the North Kennedy River on the eastern coast of Far North Queensland around Cape York Peninsula to the west coast in the Gulf of Carpentaria Another individual swam 411 km 255 mi in 20 days Without having to move around much sometimes simply by floating the current riding behaviour allows for the conservation of energy They interrupted their movements and resided in sheltered bays for a few days until the current changed direction Sometimes they also swam up and down river systems 93 While most crocodilians are social animals sharing basking spots and food saltwater crocodiles are more territorial and are less tolerant of their own kind adult males will share territory with females but drive off rival males Saltwater crocodiles mate in the wet season laying eggs in a nest consisting of a mound of mud and vegetation The female guards the nest and hatchlings from predators Generally very lethargic a trait that helps it survive months at a time without food the saltwater crocodile will usually loiter in the water or bask in the sun during much of the day preferring to hunt at night A study of seasonal saltwater crocodile behaviour in Australia indicated that they are more active and more likely to spend time in the water during the Australian summer conversely they are less active and spend relatively more time basking in the sun during the winter 97 Saltwater crocodiles however are among the most active of all crocodilians spending more time cruising and active especially in water They are much less terrestrial than most species of crocodiles spending less time on land except for basking At times they tend to spend weeks at sea in search of land and in some cases barnacles have been observed growing on crocodile scales indicative of the long periods they spend at sea 98 Saltwater crocodile with a GPS based satellite transmitter attached to its head for tracking Despite their relative lethargy saltwater crocodiles are agile predators and display surprising agility and speed when necessary usually during strikes at prey They can also swim at 24 to 29 km h 15 to 18 mph in short bursts around three times as fast as the fastest human swimmers but when cruising they usually travel at 3 to 5 km h 2 to 3 mph Although stories of crocodiles being faster than a race horse for short distances across land are little more than urban legend at the water s edge they can combine propulsion from both feet and tail to give sudden bursts of extreme speed While crocodilian brains are much smaller than those of mammals as low as 0 05 of body weight in the saltwater crocodile saltwater crocodiles are capable of learning difficult tasks with very little conditioning learning to track the migratory route of their prey as the seasons change and may possess a deeper communication ability than currently accepted 99 100 Hunting and diet Feeding young adult in captivity Western Australia Saltwater crocodile tears apart a pig carcass for consumption Like most species in the crocodilian family saltwater crocodiles are not fastidious in their choice of food and readily vary their prey selection according to availability Nor are they voracious as they are able to survive on relatively little food for a prolonged period Because of their size and distribution saltwater crocodiles hunt the broadest range of prey species of any modern crocodilian 95 The diet of hatchling juvenile and subadult saltwater crocodiles has been subject to extensively greater scientific study than that of fully grown crocodiles in large part due to the aggression territoriality and size of adults that make them difficult for biologists to handle without significant risk to safety for both humans and the crocodiles themselves The main method used for capturing adult saltwater crocodiles is a huge pole with large hooks meant for shark capture that restrict the crocodile s jaws but these can cause damage to their snouts and even this is unproven to allow successful capture for crocodiles in excess of 4 m 13 ft 1 in While for example 20th century biological studies rigorously cataloged the stomach contents of sacrificed adult Nile crocodiles in Africa 101 102 few such studies were done on behalf of saltwater crocodiles despite the plethora that were slaughtered due to the leather trade during that time period Therefore the diet of adults is more likely to be based on reliable eye witness accounts 103 104 105 Hatchlings are restricted to feeding on smaller animals such as small fish frogs insects and small aquatic invertebrates 104 In addition to these prey juveniles also take a variety of freshwater and saltwater fish various amphibians crustaceans molluscs such as large gastropods and cephalopods birds small to medium sized mammals and other reptiles such as snakes and lizards When crocodiles obtain a length of more than 1 2 m 3 ft 11 in the significance of small invertebrate prey fades in favour of small vertebrates including fish and smaller mammals and birds 106 The larger the animal grows the greater the variety of its diet although relatively small prey are taken throughout its lifetime citation needed Among crustacean prey large mud crabs of the genus Scylla are frequently consumed especially in mangrove habitats Ground living birds such as the emu and different kinds of water birds especially the magpie goose are the most commonly preyed upon birds due to the increased chance of encounter 107 108 Even swift flying birds and bats may be snatched if close to the surface of water 95 as well as wading birds while these are patrolling the shore looking for food even down to the size of a common sandpiper 41 109 Mammalian prey of juveniles and subadults are usually as large as the smaller species of ungulates such as the greater mouse deer Tragulus napu and hog deer Hyelaphus porcinus 110 Prey species recorded include primate species such as crab eating macaques 111 proboscis monkeys 112 and gibbons It preys on agile wallabies 113 golden jackals viverrids turtles flying foxes hares rodents badgers otters chevrotains and pangolins 114 115 A rare incidence of an adult 2 6 m saltwater crocodile preying on an Indian porcupine was reported from Sri Lanka 116 Unlike fish crabs and aquatic creatures mammals and birds are usually found only sporadically in or next to water so crocodiles seem to search for places where such prey may be concentrated e g the water under a tree holding a flying fox colony or spots where herds of water buffaloes feed in order to capture small animals disturbed by the buffalo or if a large adult crocodile is hunting weaker members of the buffalo herd 108 Studies have shown that unlike freshwater crocodiles which can easily die from eating poisonous toads saltwater crocodiles are partially resistant to cane toad toxins and can consume them but in only small quantities and not enough to provide effective natural control for this virulent introduced pest 117 Large crocodiles even the oldest males do not ignore small species especially those without developed escape abilities when the opportunity arises On the other hand sub adult saltwater crocodiles weighing only 8 7 to 15 8 kg 19 1 4 to 34 3 4 lb and measuring 1 36 to 1 79 m 4 ft 6 in to 5 ft 10 in have been recorded killing and eating goats weighing 50 to 92 of their own body mass in Orissa India and so are capable of attacking large prey from an early age 115 118 119 It was found that the diet of specimens in juvenile to subadult range since they feed on any animals up to their own size practically no matter how small was more diverse than that of adults which often ignored all prey below a certain size limit 120 Large animals taken by adult saltwater crocodiles include sambar deer wild boar Malayan tapirs kangaroos feral pigs 121 humans orangutans dingos tigers 122 and large bovines such as banteng 56 water buffalo and gaur 74 123 124 125 126 127 However larger animals are taken only sporadically because only large males typically attack very large prey and large ungulates and other sizeable wild mammals are only sparsely distributed in this species s range outside of a few key areas such as the Sundarbans 95 Off setting this goats water buffalo and wild boar pigs have been introduced to many of the areas occupied by saltwater crocodiles and returned to feral states to varying degrees and thus can amply support large crocodiles 33 In Australia the saltwater crocodile s taste for feral pigs and buffalo was a key factor in their recovery for hunting pressures over the last fifty years according to studies published in 2022 by Dr Marianna Campbell et al Isotopes taken from the bones of crocodiles collected over five decades ago when crocodiles populations were low and comparisons to specimens from modern populations suggest that initially Australian saltwater crocodiles subsisted on a more estuarine diet and both hunting pressures by humans and a reduction in aquatic prey in places like the Top End resulted in a dietary switch to more terrestrial prey that allowed them to grow and recover more rapidly from population declines 128 Any type of domestic livestock such as chicken sheep pigs horses and cattle and domesticated animals pets may be eaten if given the opportunity 95 As a seagoing species the saltwater crocodile also preys on a variety of saltwater bony fish and other marine animals including sea snakes sea turtles sea birds dugongs rays including large sawfish 129 and small sharks Most witnessed acts of predation on marine animals have occurred in coastal waters or within sight of land with female sea turtles and their babies caught during mating season when the turtles are closer to shore and bull sharks being the only largish shark with a strong propensity to patrol brackish and fresh waters 95 45 130 131 132 133 134 However there is evidence that saltwater crocodiles do hunt while out in the open seas based upon the remains of pelagic fishes that dwell only miles away from land being found in their stomachs 14 15 The hunting methods utilised by saltwater crocodiles are indistinct from any other crocodilian with the hunting crocodile submerging and quietly swimming over to the prey before pouncing upwards striking suddenly Unlike some other crocodilians such as American alligators and even Nile crocodiles they are not known to have hunted on dry land 95 33 Young saltwater crocodiles are capable of breaching their entire body into the air in a single upward motion while hunting prey that may be perched on low hanging branches 104 While hunting rhesus macaques they have been seen to knock the monkeys off a bank by knocking them with their tail forcing the macaque into water for easy consumption However whether tail use in hunting is intentional or just an accidental benefit is not definitely clear 33 As with other crocodilians their sharp peg like teeth are well suited to seize and tightly grip prey but not to shear flesh Small prey are simply swallowed whole while larger animals are dragged into deep water and drowned or crushed 135 Large prey is then torn into manageable pieces by death rolling the spinning of the crocodile to twist off hunks of meat or by sudden jerks of the head 136 Occasionally food items will be stored for later consumption once a crocodile eats its fill although this can lead to scavenging by interlopers such as monitor lizards 137 Bite Regression of mean body mass and bite force of C porosus Saltwater crocodiles even adults can breach out of the water in upwards direction to capture food although are most often seen to do so when coerced by bait as seen here Saltwater crocodiles have the strongest bite of any living animal A 4 59 metre long 15 ft 1 in saltwater crocodile has been confirmed as having the highest bite force ever recorded for an animal in a laboratory setting with a value of 16 414 newtons 3 690 pounds force surpassing the previous record of 13 172 N or 2 961 lbf made by an American alligator Alligator mississippinesis 138 139 Based on the regression of mean body mass and mean bite force the bite forces of multiple crocodile species 1 308 kg 2 884 lb individuals were estimated at 27 531 to 34 424 N 6 189 to 7 739 lbf 139 The extraordinary bite of crocodilians is a result of their anatomy The space for the jaw muscle in the skull is very large which is easily visible from the outside as a bulge at each side The nature of the muscle is extremely stiff almost as hard as bone to the touch such that it can appear to be a continuation of the skull Another trait is that most of the muscle in a crocodile s jaw is arranged for clamping down Despite the strong muscles to close the jaw crocodiles have extremely small and weak muscles to open the jaw The jaws of a crocodile can be securely shut with several layers of duct tape 140 Reproduction Saltwater crocodiles go through numerous physiological changes as they mature Pictured here is a hatchling age or baby crocodile Seen here is a juvenile crocodile which grows considerably in length over several years but is easily distinguished by slender build and size A saltwater crocodile in the subadult age range at Gembira Loka Zoo similar but not as robust and relatively small headed compared to adults Males reach sexual maturity around 3 3 m 10 ft 10 in at around 16 years of age while females reach sexual maturity at 2 1 m 6 ft 11 in and 12 14 years of age 12 Saltwater crocodiles mate in the wet season when water levels are at their highest In Australia the male and female engage in courtship in September and October and the female lays eggs between November and March 56 It is possible the rising temperatures of the wet season provoke reproductive behaviour in this species 108 While crocodilians generally nest every year there have been several recorded cases of female saltwater crocodiles nesting only every other year and also records of a female attempting to produce two broods in a single wet season 108 The female selects the nesting site and both parents will defend the nesting territory which is typically a stretch of shore along tidal rivers or freshwater areas especially swamps Nests are often in a surprisingly exposed location often in mud with little to no vegetation around and thus limited protection from the sun and wind The nest is a mound of mud and vegetation usually measuring 175 cm 5 ft 9 in long and 53 cm 1 ft 9 in high with an entrance averaging 160 cm 5 ft 3 in in diameter 108 Some nests in unlikely habitats have occurred such as rocky rubble or in a damp low grass field 141 142 The female crocodile usually scratches a layer of leaves and other debris around the nest entrance and this covering is reported to produce an astonishing amount of warmth for the eggs coincidentally these nesting habits are similar to those of the birds known as megapodes that nest in upland areas of the same Australasian regions where saltwater crocodiles are found 33 143 The female typically lays from 40 to 60 eggs but some clutches have included up to 90 The eggs measure on average 8 by 5 cm 3 by 2 in and weigh 113 g 4 oz on average in Australia and 121 g 4 1 4 oz in India 56 144 These are relatively small as the average female saltwater crocodile weighs around five times as much as a freshwater crocodile but lays eggs that are only about 20 larger in measurement and 40 heavier than those of the smaller species 41 The average weight of a new hatchling in Australia is reportedly 69 4 g 2 7 16 oz 56 Although the female guards the nest for 80 to 98 days in extreme high and low cases from 75 to 106 days the loss of eggs is often high due to flooding and occasionally to predation 56 As in all crocodilians the sex of the hatchlings is determined by temperature At 28 30 degrees all hatchlings will be female at 30 32 degrees 86 of hatchlings are male and at 33 or more degrees predominantly female 84 145 In Australia goannas Varanus giganteus commonly eat freshwater crocodile eggs feeding on up to 95 of the clutch if discovered but are relatively unlikely to eat saltwater crocodile eggs due to the vigilance of the imposing mother with about 25 of the eggs being lost to goannas less than half as many Nile crocodile eggs are estimated to be eaten by monitors in Africa 41 A majority of the loss of eggs of saltwater crocodiles occurs due to flooding of the nest hole 108 146 As in most crocodilian species the female saltwater crocodile exhibits a remarkable level of maternal care for a reptile She excavates the nest in response to yelping calls from the hatchlings and even gently rolls eggs in her mouth to assist hatching The female will then carry the hatchlings to water in her mouth as Nile crocodile and American alligator females have been observed doing when their eggs hatch and remains with the young for several months Despite her diligence losses of baby crocodiles are heavy due to various predators and unrelated crocodiles of their own species Only approximately 1 of the hatchlings will survive to adulthood 147 By crocodilian standards saltwater crocodile hatchlings are exceptionally aggressive to one another and will often fight almost immediately after being transported to water by their mother 148 The young naturally start to disperse after around 8 months and start to exhibit territorial behaviour at around 2 5 years old They are the most territorial of extant crocodilians and due to their aggressiveness to conspecifics from the dispersed immature stage on they are never seen in concentrations or loose groups as are most other crocodilians 149 However even females will not reach proper sexual maturity for another 10 years Saltwater crocodiles that survive to adulthood can attain a very long lifespan with an estimated life expectancy upwards of 70 years and some individuals possibly exceed 100 years although no such extreme ages have been verified for any crocodilian 12 150 While adults have no natural predators baby saltwater crocodiles may fall prey to monitor lizards occasionally but not commonly the numerous goanna in Australia and the Asian water monitor Varanus salvator further north predatory fish especially the barramundi Lates calcarifer wild boars rats various aquatic and raptorial birds e g black necked storks Ephippiorhynchus asiaticus and white bellied sea eagles Haliaeetus leucogaster pythons larger crocodiles and many other predators 108 56 144 146 Pigs and cattle also occasionally inadvertently trample eggs and nests on occasion and degrade habitat quality where found in numbers 151 Juveniles may also fall prey to tigers and leopards Panthera pardus in certain parts of their range although encounters between these predators are rare and cats are likely to avoid areas with saltwater crocodiles 152 Conservation status Saltwater crocodile Large saltwater crocodile in park The species is considered of minimal concern for extinction but is protected from the effects of international trade under the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species CITES as follows Appendix I prohibiting all commercial trade in the species or its parts derivatives All wild populations except for those of Australia Indonesia and Papua New Guinea Appendix II commercial trade allowed with export permit import permits may or may not be required depending on the laws of the importing country Australia Indonesia and Papua New Guinea wild populations plus all worldwide populations bred in captivity for commercial purposes The saltwater crocodile was often hunted for its meat and eggs and its skin is the most commercially valuable of any crocodilian Unregulated hunting during the 20th century caused a dramatic decline in the species throughout its range with the population in northern Australia reduced by 95 by 1971 The years from 1940 to 1970 were the peak of unregulated hunting and may have regionally caused irreparable damage to saltwater crocodile populations 153 The species currently has full legal protection in all Australian states and territories where it is found Western Australia since 1970 Northern Territory since 1971 and Queensland since 1974 154 Illegal hunting still persists in some areas with protection in some countries being grossly ineffective and trade is often difficult to monitor and control over such a vast range However many areas have not recovered some population surveys have shown that although young crocodiles are present fewer than 10 of specimens spotted are in adult size range and do not include any particularly large males such as Sri Lanka or Palau This is indicative of both potential continued persecution and exploitation and a non recovered breeding population 155 156 In a more balanced population such as those from Bhitarkanika National Park or Sabah on Borneo 28 and 24 2 of specimens observed were in the adult size range of more than 3 m 9 ft 10 in 84 157 Habitat loss continues to be a major problem for the species In northern Australia much of the nesting habitat of the saltwater crocodile is susceptible to trampling by feral water buffalo although buffalo eradication programs have now reduced this problem considerably Even where large areas of suitable habitat remain subtle habitat alterations can be a problem such as in the Andaman Islands where freshwater areas used for nesting are being increasingly converted to human agriculture After the commercial value of crocodile skins waned perhaps the greatest immediate challenge to implementing conservation efforts has been the occasional danger the species can pose to humans and the resulting negative view of the crocodile 147 158 Relationship with humansAttacks on humans See also Crocodile attack Of all the crocodilians the saltwater crocodile and Nile crocodile have the strongest tendencies to treat humans as prey 159 The saltwater crocodile has a long history of attacking humans who unknowingly venture into its territory As a result of its power intimidating size and speed survival of a direct predatory attack is unlikely if the crocodile is able to make direct contact In contrast to alligators where a degree of coexistence may be the policy the only recommended policy for dealing with saltwater crocodiles is to completely avoid their habitat whenever possible as they are exceedingly aggressive when encroached upon 33 No Swimming sign used by Parks and Wildlife Commission of the Northern Territory 160 Exact data on attacks are limited outside Australia where one or two fatal attacks are reported per year 161 From 1971 to 2013 the total number of fatalities reported in Australia due to saltwater crocodile attack was 106 162 161 The low level of attacks may be due to extensive efforts by wildlife officials in Australia to post crocodile warning signs at numerous at risk billabongs rivers lakes and beaches 163 Less publicised attacks have been reported in Borneo 164 Sumatra 165 Eastern India Andaman Islands 166 167 and Burma 168 In Sarawak Borneo the average number of fatal attacks is reportedly 2 8 annually for the years from 2000 to 2003 169 In the Northern Territory in Australia attempts have been made to relocate saltwater crocodiles who have displayed aggressive behaviour towards humans but these have proven ineffective as the problem crocodiles are apparently able to find their way back to their original territories 170 In the Darwin area from 2007 to 2009 67 78 of problem crocodiles were identified as males 171 Many attacks in areas outside Australia are believed to go unreported with one study positing up to 20 to 30 attacks occur every year 169 This number may be conservative in light of several areas where humans and saltwater crocodiles co exist in relatively undeveloped low economy and rural regions where attacks are likely to go unreported 159 However claims in the past that saltwater crocodiles are responsible for thousands of human fatalities annually are likely to have been exaggerations and were probably falsified to benefit leather companies hunting organisations and other sources that may have benefited from maximising the negative perception of crocodiles for financial gain 33 45 169 Despite their reputations many wild saltwater crocodiles are normally quite wary of humans and will go out of their way to submerge and swim away from them even large adult males if previously subject to harassment or persecution 172 173 Some attacks on humans appear to be territorial rather than predatory in nature with crocodiles over two years in age often attacking anything that comes into their area including boats Humans can usually escape alive from such encounters which comprise about half of all attacks Non fatal attacks usually involve crocodiles of 3 m 9 ft 10 in or less in length Fatal attacks more likely to be predatory in motivation commonly involve larger crocodiles with an average estimated size of 4 3 m 14 ft 1 in Under normal circumstances Nile crocodiles are believed to be responsible for a considerably greater number of fatal attacks on humans than saltwater crocodiles but this may have more to do with the fact that many people in Africa tend to rely on riparian areas for their livelihood which is less prevalent in most of Asia and certainly less so in Australia 169 In the Andaman Islands the number of fatal attacks on humans has reportedly increased possibly due to habitat destruction and reduction of natural prey 174 During the Japanese retreat in the Battle of Ramree Island on 19 February 1945 saltwater crocodiles may have been responsible for the deaths of over 400 Japanese soldiers British soldiers encircled the swampland through which the Japanese were retreating condemning the Japanese to a night in the mangroves which were home to thousands of saltwater crocodiles Many Japanese soldiers did not survive this night but the attribution of the majority of their deaths to crocodile attacks has been doubted 175 Another reported mass attack involved a cruise in eastern India where a boat accident forced 28 people into the water where they were reportedly consumed by saltwater crocodiles 45 Another notorious crocodile attack was in 1985 on ecofeminist Val Plumwood who survived the attack 176 177 In July 2018 a 600 strong mob slaughtered 292 saltwater and New Guinea crocodiles in Papua province in Indonesia in a revenge attack after a man who encroached upon the sanctuary was devoured 178 Cultural references 1948 postage stamp depicting an aboriginal artwork of the saltwater crocodile The saltwater crocodile is considered holy on Timor According to legend the island was formed by a giant crocodile The Papuan people have a similar and very involved myth and traditionally the crocodile was described as a relative normally a father or grandfather 33 According to Wondjina the mythology of Indigenous Australians the saltwater crocodile was banished from the fresh water for becoming full of bad spirits and growing too large unlike the freshwater crocodile which was somewhat revered 179 Aboriginal rock art depicting the saltwater crocodile is rare although examples of up to 3 000 years old were found in caves in Kakadu and Arnhem land roughly matching the distribution of the species It is however depicted in contemporary aboriginal art 180 The Larrakia people think of themselves as crocodile descendants and regard it as their totem 181 They respect crocodiles as protectors of harbours and do not eat crocodile meat 182 The species is featured on several postage stamps including an 1894 State of North Borneo 12 cent stamp a 1948 Australian 2 shilling stamp depicting an aboriginal rock artwork of the species a 1966 Republic of Indonesia stamp a 1994 Palau 20 cent stamp a 1997 Australian 22 cent stamp and a 2005 1 Malaysian ringgit postage stamp The saltwater crocodile has featured in contemporary Australian film and television including the Crocodile Dundee series of films and The Crocodile Hunter television series There are now several saltwater crocodile themed parks in Australia citation needed Examples of large unconfirmed saltwater crocodiles Large saltwater crocodiles have always attracted mainstream attention throughout the ages and have suffered from all sorts of big fish stories and hunter tales due to man s desire to find the largest of any given thing Therefore the largest size recorded for a saltwater crocodile has always been a subject of considerable controversy The reason behind unverified sizes is either the case of insufficient inconclusive data or exaggeration from a folkloric point of view This section is dedicated to examples of the largest saltwater crocodiles recorded outside scientific norms measurement and estimation with the aim of satisfying the public interest without creating data pollution as well as serving an educational purpose of guiding the reader to separate fact from possible fiction Below in descending order starting from the largest are some examples of large unconfirmed saltwater crocodiles recorded throughout history A crocodile shot in the Bay of Bengal in 1840 was reported at 10 1 m 33 ft 2 in Furthermore this specimen was claimed to have a belly girth of 4 17 m 13 ft 8 in and a body mass estimated 3 000 kg 6 600 lb However the skull of this specimen was examined by Guinness Records and found to be only 66 5 cm 2 ft 2 1 4 in in length indicating the above size was considerably exaggerated and the animal would have probably measured no more than 5 89 m 19 ft 4 in 45 James R Montgomery who ran a plantation near to the Lower Kinabatangan Segama Wetlands in Borneo from 1926 to 1932 claimed to have netted killed and examined numerous crocodiles well over 6 1 m 20 ft 0 in there including a specimen he claims measured 10 m 32 ft 10 in However no one scientifically confirmed any of Montgomery s specimens and no voucher specimens are known 45 A crocodile shot in Queensland in 1957 nicknamed Krys the croc named after the woman that shot the crocodile in July 1957 Krystina Pawlowski was reported to be 8 63 m 28 ft 4 in long but no verified measurements were made and no remains of this crocodile exist 183 184 A replica of this crocodile has been made as a tourist attraction 185 186 187 A crocodile killed in 1823 at Jalajala on the main island of Luzon in the Philippines was reported at 8 2 m 26 ft 11 in However the skull of the specimen is 66 5 cm 26 1 4 in long indicating an animal of approximately 6 1 m 20 ft 0 in 45 A crocodile shot in Odisha India 188 was claimed to measure 7 6 m 24 ft 11 in in life but its skull when given scholarly examination was thought to have come from a crocodile of a length no greater than 7 m 23 ft 0 in 189 A reported 7 6 m 24 ft 11 in crocodile was killed in the Hooghly River in the Alipore District of Calcutta However examinations of the animal s skull one of the largest skulls known to exist for the species at 75 cm 30 in long actually indicating it could have measured 6 7 m 22 ft 0 in 45 In 2006 Guinness accepted a 7 01 m 23 ft 0 in 2 000 kilogram 4 400 lb male saltwater crocodile living within Bhitarkanika Park in Odisha Due to the difficulty of trapping and measuring a very large living crocodile the accuracy of these dimensions is yet to be verified These observations and estimations have been made by park officials over the course of ten years from 2006 to 2016 however regardless of the skill of the observers it cannot be compared to a verified tape measurement especially considering the uncertainty inherent in visual size estimation in the wild 190 In addition this region may contain up to four other specimens measuring over 6 1 m 20 ft 0 in 188 191 S Baker 1874 claimed that in Sri Lanka in the 1800s specimens measuring 6 7 m 22 ft 0 in or more were commonplace 45 However the largest specimen killed on the island that was considered authentic by Guinness Records was a suspected man eater killed in the Eastern Province and measuring exactly 6 m 19 ft 8 in in length 45 The record size for a crocodile from Papua New Guinea to be considered authentic by Guinness was a 6 32 m 20 ft 9 in specimen shot by Herb Schweighofer in May 1966 along the northeastern coast This specimen had a belly girth of 2 74 m 9 ft 0 in 45 See alsoCrocodiles in India Crocodile skinNotes Except populations of Australia Indonesia Malaysia and Papua New Guinea which are included in Appendix II References Rio Jonathan P Mannion Philip D 6 September 2021 Phylogenetic analysis of a new morphological dataset elucidates the evolutionary history of Crocodylia and resolves the long standing gharial problem PeerJ 9 e12094 doi 10 7717 peerj 12094 PMC 8428266 PMID 34567843 a b c Webb G J W Manolis C Brien M L Balaguera Reina S A amp Isberg S 2021 Crocodylus porosus IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2021 e T5668A3047556 doi 10 2305 IUCN UK 2021 2 RLTS T5668A3047556 en Retrieved 20 November 2021 Appendices CITES cites org Retrieved 14 January 2022 a b c d Webb G J W Manolis C Brien M L 2010 Saltwater Crocodile Crocodylus porosus PDF In Manolis S C Stevenson C eds Crocodiles Status Survey and Conservation Action Plan 3rd ed Darwin IUCN Crocodile Specialist Group pp 99 113 Read Mark A Grigg Gordon C Irwin Steve R Shanahan Danielle Franklin Craig E 2007 Satellite Tracking Reveals Long Distance Coastal Travel and Homing by Translocated Estuarine Crocodiles Crocodylus porosus PLOS ONE 2 9 e949 Bibcode 2007PLoSO 2 949R doi 10 1371 journal pone 0000949 PMC 1978533 PMID 17895990 Crocodiles surf ocean currents www telegraph co uk Archived from the original on 11 January 2022 Fauna of Australia PDF a href Template Cite journal html title Template Cite journal cite journal a Cite journal requires journal help Top 10 Largest Crocodiles Ever Recorded Our planet 11 May 2019 Relationship between total length and head length for Saltwater Crocodiles Crocodylus ResearchGate World s Crocodile Heavy Weight Champion Cassius Turns 112 media queensland com a b c d e f Whitaker R Whitaker N 2008 Who s got the biggest PDF Crocodile Specialist Group Newsletter 27 4 26 30 a b c d e f g h i Britton A R C Whitaker R Whitaker N 2012 Here be a Dragon Exceptional Size in Saltwater Crocodile Crocodylus porosus from the Philippines Herpetological Review 43 4 541 546 Allen G R 1974 The marine crocodile Crocodylus porosus from Ponape Eastern Caroline Islands with notes on food habits of crocodiles from the Palau Archipelago Copeia 1974 2 553 doi 10 2307 1442558 JSTOR 1442558 a b Hua S Buffetaut E 1997 Part V Crocodylia In Callaway J M Nicholls E L eds Ancient marine reptiles Cambridge Academic Press pp 357 374 doi 10 1016 B978 0 12 155210 7 X5000 5 ISBN 978 0 12 155210 7 a b Blaber S J M 2008 Mangroves and Estuarine Dependence Tropical estuarine fishes ecology exploration and conservation Oxford Blackwell Science pp 185 201 ISBN 9780470694985 Schneider J G 1801 Porosus Historiae Amphibiorum naturalis et literariae Fasciculus Secundus continens Crocodilos Scincos Chamaesauras Boas Pseudoboas Elapes Angues Amphisbaenas et Caecilias Jenae Wesselhoeft pp 159 160 Cuvier G 1807 Sur les differentes especes de crocodiles vivans et sur leurs caracteres distinctifs Annales du Museum d Histoire Naturelle Paris 10 8 86 Muller S Schlegel H 1844 Over de Krokodillen van den Indischen Archipel In Temminck C J ed Verhandelingen over de natuurlijke geschiedenis der Nederlandsche overzeesche Bezittingen door de leden der Natuurkundige Commissie in Indie en andere Schrijvers Leiden S en J Luchtmans en C C van der Hoek pp 1 70 Deraniyagala P E P 1953 Crocodylus porosus australis ssp nov A coloured atlas of some vertebrates from Ceylon Vol Tetrapod Reptilia Colombo Government Press pp 33 34 Wells R W amp Wellington C R 1985 A classification of the Amphibia and Reptilia of Australia PDF Australian Journal of Herpetology Supplemental Series 1 1 61 Das I Charles J K 2000 A Record of Crocodylus raninus Muller amp Schlegel 1844 from Brunei North western Borneo Sabah Parks Nature Journal 3 1 5 Brochu C A 2000 Phylogenetic relationships and divergence timing of Crocodylus based on morphology and the fossil record Copeia 2000 3 657 673 doi 10 1643 0045 8511 2000 000 0657 PRADTO 2 0 CO 2 S2CID 85824292 a b Brazaitis P 2001 A Guide to the Identification of the Living Species of Crocodilians New York Wildlife Conservation Society Ross C A 1990 Crocodylus raninus S Muller and H Schlegel a valid species of crocodile Reptilia Crocodylidae from Borneo Proceedings of the Biological Society of Washington 103 955 961 Ross C A 1992 Designation of a lectotype for Crocodylus raninus S Muller and Schlegel Reptilia Crocodylidae the Borneo crocodile Proceedings of the Biological Society of Washington 105 400 402 Molnar R E 1979 Crocodylus porosus from the Pliocene Allingham formation of North Queensland Results of the Ray E Lemley expeditions part 5 Memoirs of the Queensland Museum 19 357 365 Willis P M A 1997 Review of fossil crocodilians from Australasia Australian Journal of Zoology 30 3 287 298 doi 10 7882 AZ 1997 004 Gatesy J Amato G 2008 The rapid accumulation of consistent molecular support for intergeneric crocodylian relationships Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 48 3 1232 1237 doi 10 1016 j ympev 2008 02 009 PMID 18372192 Srikulnath K Thapana W amp Muangmai N 2015 Role of chromosome changes in Crocodylus evolution and diversity Genomics Inform 13 4 102 111 doi 10 5808 GI 2015 13 4 102 PMC 4742319 PMID 26865840 a b Lee M S Y amp Yates A M 2018 Tip dating and homoplasy reconciling the shallow molecular divergences of modern gharials with their long fossil Proceedings of the Royal Society B 285 1881 doi 10 1098 rspb 2018 1071 PMC 6030529 PMID 30051855 a b c d Hekkala E Gatesy J Narechania A Meredith R Russello M Aardema M L Jensen E Montanari S Brochu C Norell M Amato G 27 April 2021 Paleogenomics illuminates the evolutionary history of the extinct Holocene horned crocodile of Madagascar Voay robustus Communications Biology 4 1 505 doi 10 1038 s42003 021 02017 0 ISSN 2399 3642 PMC 8079395 PMID 33907305 Oaks J R 2011 A time calibrated species tree of Crocodylia reveals a recent radiation of the true crocodiles Evolution 65 11 3285 3297 doi 10 1111 j 1558 5646 2011 01373 x PMID 22023592 S2CID 7254442 a b c d e f g h i j Guggisberg C A W 1972 Crocodiles Their Natural History Folklore and Conservation Newton Abbot David amp Charles p 195 ISBN 978 0 7153 5272 4 Kondo H 1970 Grolier s Amazing World of Reptiles New York NY Grolier Interprises Inc Ross F D Mayer G C 1983 On the dorsal armor of the Crocodilia In Rhodin A G J Miyata K eds Advances in Herpetology and Evolutionary Biology Cambridge Museum of Comparative Zoology pp 306 331 ISBN 9780910999007 a b c d Britton A Crocodylus porosus Schneider 1801 The Crocodilian Species List Archived from the original on 8 January 2006 Lanworn R 1972 The Book of Reptiles New York NY The Hamlyn Publishing Group Ltd ISBN 978 0600312734 Crocodylus porosus ReptilianZone com 17 February 2017 Seymour R S Gienger C M Brien M L Tracy C R Manolis C S Webb G J W Christian K A 2012 Scaling of standard metabolic rate in estuarine crocodiles Crocodylus porosus Journal of Comparative Physiology B 183 4 491 500 doi 10 1007 s00360 012 0732 1 PMID 23233168 S2CID 3191541 World s Biggest Crocodiles Madras Crocodile Bank Trust Retrieved 26 May 2016 a b c d Insights into Crocodile lifestyles PDF newholland com au Archived from the original PDF on 4 October 2009 Loveridge J P amp Blake D K 1972 Techniques in the immobilisation and handling of the Nile crocodile Crocodylus niloticus National Museums and Monuments of Rhodesia a b Bourquin S L 2008 The population ecology of the Nile Crocodile Crocodylus niloticus in the Panhandle Region of the Okavango Delta Botswana Doctoral dissertation Stellenbosch University a b c Greer A E 1974 On the Maximum Total Length of the Salt Water Crocodile Crocodylus porosus Journal of Herpetology 8 4 381 384 doi 10 2307 1562913 JSTOR 1562913 a b c d e f g h i j k l m n Wood G 1983 The Guinness Book of Animal Facts and Feats p 256 ISBN 978 0 85112 235 9 Australian crocodile Elvis sinks teeth into lawnmower CNN 2011 Australian Saltwater Crocodile Estuarine Crocodile Crocodylus porosus Angelfire Retrieved 25 July 2013 Olsson A Phalen D 2012 Preliminary studies of chemical immobilization of captive juvenile estuarine Crocodylus porosus and Australian freshwater C johnstoni crocodiles with medetomidine and reversal with atipamezole Veterinary Anaesthesia and Analgesia 39 4 345 356 doi 10 1111 j 1467 2995 2012 00721 x PMID 22642399 a b Webb G Manolis S C 1989 Crocodiles of Australia Reed Books Webb G J W Messel H Crawford J Yerbury M J 1978 Growth rates of Crocodylus porosus Reptilia Crocodilia from Arnhem Land northern Australia Wildlife Research 5 3 385 399 doi 10 1071 WR9780385 Estuarine crocodiles FAO species identification guide for fishery purposes The Living Marine Resources of the Western Central Pacific PDF Rosenzweig P A 2001 p 3972 Nayak Lakshman Sharma Satyabrata Das Pati Mitali Priyadarsini Conservation and Management of Saltwater Crocodile Crocodylus porosus in Bhitarkanika Wildlife Sanctuary Odisha India Environmental Management of Marine Ecosystems p 313 Nayak Lakshman Sharma Satyabrata Das Pati Mitali Priyadarsini Conservation and Management of Saltwater Crocodile Crocodylus porosus in Bhitarkanika Wildlife Sanctuary Odisha India Environmental Management of Marine Ecosystems p 313 Fukuda Y How C B Seah B Yang S Pocklington K amp Peng L K 2018 Historical exceptionally large skulls of saltwater crocodiles discovered at the Lee Kong Chian Natural History Museum in Singapore The Raffles Bulletin of Zoology 66 810 813 Ziegler T Tao N T Minh N T Manalo R Diesmos A amp Manolis C 2019 A giant crocodile skull from Can Tho named Dau Sau represents the largest known saltwater crocodile Crocodylus porosus ever reported from Vietnam Tap chi Sinh hoc Journal of Biology 41 4 25 30 a b c d e f g Leach G Delaney R amp Fukuda Y 2009 Management program for the saltwater crocodile in the Northern Territory of Australia 2009 2014 Department of Natural Resources Environment the Arts and Sport Grigg G Gans C Morphology amp Physiology of Crocodylia PDF Australian Government Department of the Environment Retrieved 17 May 2016 Wright L 1982 The IUCN Amphibia Reptilia red data book Vol 1 IUCN Manalo R I amp Alcala A C 2013 Status of the crocodile Crocodylus porosus Schneider industry in the Philippines Transactions of the National Academy of Science and Technology of the Philippines 35 1 219 222 Mullen J 2013 Lolong world s largest captive crocodile dies in Philippines CNN Retrieved 16 January 2021 Kay W R 2005 Movements and home ranges of radio tracked Crocodylus porosus in the Cambridge Gulf region of Western Australia PDF Wildlife Research 31 5 495 508 doi 10 1071 WR04037 Campbell H A Dwyer R G Irwin T R Franklin C E 2013 Home range utilisation and long range movement of estuarine crocodiles during the breeding and nesting season PLOS ONE 8 5 e62127 Bibcode 2013PLoSO 862127C doi 10 1371 journal pone 0062127 PMC 3641080 PMID 23650510 Mercado V P 2008 Current status of the crocodile industry in the Republic of the Philippines National Museum Papers 14 26 34 McDonald K R Dennis A J Kyne P J Debus S J amp Curtis L 2012 Queensland s Threatened Animals CSIRO Publishing pg 185 186 Halliday T R Verrell P A 1988 Body size and age in amphibians and reptiles Journal of Herpetology 22 3 253 265 doi 10 2307 1564148 JSTOR 1564148 Cox R M Butler M A amp John Alder H B 2007 The evolution of sexual size dimorphism in reptiles Sex size and gender roles evolutionary studies of sexual size dimorphism 38 49 Brazaitis P 1987 Identification of Crocodilian Skins Chipping Norton Australia Pty Lim George Albert Boulenger 1889 Catalogue of the chelonians rhynchocephalians and crocodiles in the British Museum Natural History British Museum Natural History Department of Zoology La Gironiere P 1854 Twenty Years in the Philippines 1819 1839 Harper amp Brothers Wood G L 1982 Guinness Book of World Records Animal Facts and Feats Sterling Pub Co Inc ISBN 978 0851122359 Singh L A K amp Kar S K 2006 Status of the Saltwater Crocodile in Orissa an overview Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society 103 2 3 274 285 Andrews H V amp Whitaker R 1994 Status of the saltwater crocodile Crocodylus porosus Schneider 1801 in North Andaman Island Hamadryad 19 79 92 Whitaker N 2008 Survey of Human Crocodile Conflict in the Union Territory of the Andaman Islands Hut Bay Little Andaman January 2008 PDF Madras Madras Crocodile Trust a b Kumar A Kumar S Zaidi Y F amp Kanaujia A 2012 A review on status and conservation of salt water crocodile Crocodylus porosus in India PDF pp 141 148 Das C S amp Jana R 2018 Human crocodile conflict in the Indian Sundarban an analysis of spatio temporal incidences in relation to people s livelihood Oryx 52 4 661 668 doi 10 1017 S0030605316001502 Aziz M A amp Islam M A 2018 Population status and spatial distribution of saltwater crocodile Crocodylus porosus in the Sundarbans of Bangladesh Bangladesh Journal of Zoology 46 1 33 44 doi 10 3329 bjz v46i1 37624 Amarasinghe A T Madawala M B Karunarathna D S Manolis S C de Silva A amp Sommerlad R 2015 Human crocodile conflict and conservation implications of saltwater crocodiles Crocodylus porosus Reptilia Crocodylia Crocodylidae in Sri Lanka Journal of Threatened Taxa 7 5 7111 7130 doi 10 11609 JoTT o4159 7111 30 Thorbjarnarson J Platt S G amp Khaing U 2000 A population survey of the estuarine crocodile in the Ayeyarwady Delta Myanmar Oryx 34 4 317 324 doi 10 1046 j 1365 3008 2000 00135 x Pauwels O S Laohawat O A Naaktae W Puangjit C Wisusutharom T Chimsunchart C amp David P 2002 Reptile and amphibian diversity in Phang nga Province southern Thailand Tropical Natural History 2 1 25 30 Stuart B L Hayes B Manh B H amp Platt S G 2002 Status of crocodiles in the U Minh Thuong Nature Reserve southern Vietnam Pacific Conservation Biology 8 1 62 doi 10 1071 PC020062 S2CID 54020729 Platt S G Holloway R H P Evans P T Paudyal K Piron H amp Rainwater T R 2006 Evidence for the historic occurrence of Crocodylus porosus Schneider 1801 in Tonle Sap Cambodia Hamadryad 30 1 2 206 Webb G J 2000 Risk of extinction and categories of endangerment perspectives from long lived reptiles Population Ecology 42 1 11 17 doi 10 1007 s101440050004 S2CID 42753122 Iijima Masaya Qiao Yu Lin Wenbin Peng Youjie Yoneda Minoru Liu Jun 9 March 2022 An intermediate crocodylian linking two extant gharials from the Bronze Age of China and its human induced extinction Proceedings of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences 289 1970 20220085 doi 10 1098 rspb 2022 0085 PMC 8905159 PMID 35259993 a b Stuebing R B Ismail G amp Ching L H 1994 The distribution and abundance of the Indo Pacific crocodile Crocodylus porosus Schneider in the Klias River Sabah east Malaysia Biological Conservation 69 1 1 7 doi 10 1016 0006 3207 94 90322 0 Kaur T 2006 Segama River survey Crocodile Specialist Group Newsletter 25 1 15 Evans L Jones T Pang K Saimin S amp Goossens B 2016 Spatial ecology of estuarine crocodile Crocodylus porosus nesting in a fragmented landscape Sensors 16 9 1527 Bibcode 2016Senso 16 1527E doi 10 3390 s16091527 PMC 5038800 PMID 27657065 Mohd Azlan J Zulaiha J Lading E Nuriza A amp Das I 2016 Employing Camera Traps for Studying Habitat Use by Crocodiles in a Mangrove Forest in Sarawak Borneo Herpetological Review 47 4 579 583 Sideleau B 2016 Notes on the current status of the saltwater crocodile Crocodylus porosus within East Nusa Tenggara Province Indonesia PDF In Crocodile Specialist Group ed Crocodiles Proceedings of the 24th Working Meeting of the Crocodile Specialist Group Skukuza South Africa 23 26 May 2016 Gland IUCN pp 149 152 Jelden D C 1980 Preliminary Studies on the Breeding Biology of Crocodylus porosus and Crocodylus n novaguineae on the Middle Sepik Papua New Guinea Amphibia Reptilia 1 3 353 358 doi 10 1163 156853881X00456 Messel H amp Vorlicek G C 1986 Population Dynamics and Status of Crocodylus porosus in the Tidal Waterways of Northern Australia Wildlife Research 13 1 71 111 doi 10 1071 WR9860071 Read M A Miller J D Bell I P amp Felton A 2005 The distribution and abundance of the estuarine crocodile Crocodylus porosus in Queensland PDF Wildlife Research 31 5 527 534 doi 10 1071 WR02025 dead link West Alligator River Northern Territory Land Information System Northern Territory Government Retrieved 25 September 2012 a b Campbell H A Watts M E Sullivan S Read M A Choukroun S Irwin S R amp Franklin C E 2010 Estuarine crocodiles ride surface currents to facilitate long distance travel Journal of Animal Ecology 79 5 955 964 doi 10 1111 j 1365 2656 2010 01709 x PMID 20546063 Spennemann D H R 2021 Cruising the currents observations of extra limital Saltwater Crocodiles Crocodylus porosus Schneider 1801 in the Pacific Region Supplemental Pacific Science 74 3 211 227 doi 10 2984 74 3 1 S2CID 231875504 a b c d e f g Ross C A Garnett S eds 1989 Crocodiles and Alligators Checkmark Books ISBN 978 0816021741 Schmidt Nielsen K 1997 Marine air breathing vertebrates Animal physiology adaptation and environment Cambridge Cambridge University Press pp 343 354 ISBN 9780521570985 Grigg G C Seebacherd F Beard L A Morris D 1998 Thermal relations of large crocodiles Crocodylus porosus free ranging in a naturalistic situation Proceedings of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences 265 1407 1793 1799 doi 10 1098 rspb 1998 0504 PMC 1689355 Lepas anatifera Linnaeus 1758 WallaWalla Archived from the original on 18 October 2007 Retrieved 2 December 2011 Big Gecko Crocodile Management Research and Filming Crocodilian com Retrieved 25 July 2013 Crocodile Communication Crocodiles Caimans Alligators Gharials Flmnh ufl edu 5 March 1996 Retrieved 25 July 2013 Cott H B 1961 Scientific results of an inquiry into the ecology and economic status of the Nile crocodile Crocodilus niloticus in Uganda and Northern Rhodesia Transactions of the Zoological Society of London 29 4 211 356 doi 10 1111 j 1096 3642 1961 tb00220 x Graham A amp Beard P 1973 Eyelids of Mornings A amp W Visual Library Greenwich CT 113 Webb G J Hollis G J Manolis S C 1991 Feeding growth and food conversion rates of wild juvenile saltwater crocodiles Crocodylus porosus Journal of Herpetology 25 4 462 473 doi 10 2307 1564770 JSTOR 1564770 a b c Davenport J Grove D J Cannon J Ellis T R Stables R 1990 Food capture appetite digestion rate and efficiency in hatchling and juvenile Crocodylus porosus Journal of Zoology 220 4 569 592 doi 10 1111 j 1469 7998 1990 tb04736 x Webb G J Messel H 1977 Crocodile capture techniques The Journal of Wildlife Management 41 3 572 575 doi 10 2307 3800531 JSTOR 3800531 Taylor J A 1979 The foods and feeding habits of subadult Crocodylus porosus Schneider in northern Australia Wildlife Research 6 3 347 359 doi 10 1071 WR9790347 Emu Dromaius Novaehollandiae Animals A Z Animals Animal Facts Information Pictures Videos Resources and Links A Z Animals Retrieved 25 July 2013 a b c d e f g Messel H amp Vorlicek G C 1989 Ecology of Crocodylus porosus in northern Australia pp 164 183 in Crocodiles Their Ecology Management and Conservation IUCN ISBN 2880329876 Yalden D Dougall T 2004 Production Survival and Catchability of Chicks of Common Sandpipers Actitis hypoleucos Wader Study Group Bulletin 104 82 84 Cramb R A Sujang P S 2013 The mouse deer and the crocodile oil palm smallholders and livelihood strategies in Sarawak Malaysia The Journal of Peasant Studies 40 1 129 154 doi 10 1080 03066150 2012 750241 S2CID 126939848 Galdikas B M Yeager C P 1984 Brief report Crocodile predation on a crab eating macaque in Borneo American Journal of Primatology 6 1 49 51 doi 10 1002 ajp 1350060106 PMID 31986847 S2CID 84208150 Otani Y Tuuga A Bernard H and Matsuda I 2012 Opportunistic predation and predation related events on long tailed macaque and proboscis monkey in Kinabatangan Sabah Malaysia Journal of Tropical Biology and Conservation 9 214 218 a href Template Cite journal html title Template Cite journal cite journal a CS1 maint multiple names authors list link Blumstein D T Daniel J C Sims R A 2003 Group size but not distance to cover influences agile wallaby Macropus agilis time allocation Journal of Mammalogy 84 1 197 204 doi 10 1644 1545 1542 2003 084 lt 0197 GSBNDT gt 2 0 CO 2 Kruuk H 1995 Wild Otters New York New York Oxford University Press a b Corlett R T 2011 Vertebrate carnivores and predation in the Oriental Indomalayan region Raffles Bulletin of Zoology 59 325 360 Samarasinghe D J S Alwis D September 2017 Crocodylus porosus Saltwater Crocodile diet Herpetological Review 48 3 630 631 Letnic M Webb J K Shine R 2008 Invasive cane toads Bufo marinus cause mass mortality of freshwater crocodiles Crocodylus johnstoni in tropical Australia Biological Conservation 141 7 1773 1782 doi 10 1016 j biocon 2008 04 031 Kar S K Bustard H R 1983 Saltwater crocodile attacks on man Biological Conservation 25 4 377 382 doi 10 1016 0006 3207 83 90071 X Kar S K Bustard H R 1983 Attacks on domestic livestock by juvenile saltwater crocodile Crocodylus porosus in Bhitarkanika Wildlife Sanctuary Orissa India Amphibia Reptilia 4 1 81 83 doi 10 1163 156853883X00283 Hanson J O Salisbury S W Campbell H A Dwyer R G Jardine T D Franklin C E 2015 Feeding across the food web The interaction between diet movement and body size in estuarine crocodiles Crocodylus porosus Austral Ecology 40 3 275 286 doi 10 1111 aec 12212 S2CID 85858989 Swine dining crocodiles are thriving in the NT and it could be because of feral pigs the Guardian 26 April 2022 Retrieved 27 April 2022 Dean Nelson Fifteen foot Bengali crocodile claims king of jungle title from tiger The Telegraph Archived from the original on 11 January 2022 Retrieved 8 March 2016 Collins B 2005 Crocodiles Inside Out A Guide to the Crocodilians and Their Functional Morphology Austral Ecology 30 4 487 508 doi 10 1111 j 1442 9993 2005 01448 x Russon A E Kuncoro P Ferisa A Handayani D P 2010 How orangutans Pongo pygmaeus innovate for water Journal of Comparative Psychology 124 1 14 28 doi 10 1037 a0017929 PMID 20175593 NG M amp Mendyk R W 2012 Predation of an Adult Malaysian Water monitor Varanus salvator macromaculatus by an Estuarine Crocodile Crocodylus porosus Biawak 6 1 34 38 Butler J R Linnell J D Morrant D Athreya V Lescureux N McKeown A 2013 Dog eat dog cat eat dog social ecological dimensions of dog predation by wild carnivores Free Ranging Dogs and Wildlife Conservation Oxford University Press p 117 De Silva M Dissanayake S Santiapillai C 1994 Aspects of the population dynamics of the wild Asiatic water buffalo Bubalus bubalis in Ruhuna National Park Sri Lanka PDF Journal of South Asian Natural History 1 1 65 76 Darwin Charles 2022 Change in diet may contribute to rapid recovery of apex predator new research reveals Biology Letters Phys org 18 4 doi 10 1098 rsbl 2021 0676 PMC 9042529 PMID 35472283 S2CID 248396446 Retrieved 25 May 2022 FLMNH Ichthyology Department Green Sawfish www flmnh ufl edu Retrieved 22 October 2015 Walker P Wood E 2009 The Saltwater Wetland Infobase Publishing ISBN 9781438122359 Significant Trade in Wildlife a review of selected species in CITES Appendix II Volume 2 reptiles and invertebrates Luxmoore R Groombridge B Broad S IUCN Conservation Monitoring Centre Free Download amp Streaming Internet Archive IUCN CITES 1988 ISBN 9782880329549 Retrieved 22 October 2015 Reid R 2011 Shark Killer Tales from the Dangerous Depths Killer Tales from the Dangerous Depths Large Print 16pt ReadHowYouWant com ISBN 9781459613287 No Bull Saltwater Crocodile Eats Shark UnderwaterTimes com 2007 Retrieved 30 April 2011 Whiting S D Whiting A U 2011 Predation by the Saltwater Crocodile Crocodylus porosus on sea turtle adults eggs and hatchlings Chelonian Conservation and Biology 10 2 198 205 doi 10 2744 CCB 0881 1 S2CID 85816270 Crocodiles Have Strongest Bite Ever Measured Hands on Tests Show News nationalgeographic com 15 March 2012 Retrieved 12 June 2013 Saltwater Crocodiles Crocodylus porosus Marinebio org 14 January 2013 Retrieved 25 July 2013 Doody J S 2009 Eyes bigger than stomach prey caching and retrieval in the saltwater crocodile Crocodylus porosus Herpetological Review 40 1 26 Erickson Gregory M Lappin A Kristopher Parker Trevor Vliet Kent A 2004 Comparison of bite force performance between long term captive and wild American alligators Alligator mississippiensis PDF Journal of Zoology 262 1 21 28 doi 10 1017 S0952836903004400 a b Erickson GM Gignac PM Steppan SJ Lappin AK Vliet KA et al 2012 Insights into the Ecology and Evolutionary Success of Crocodilians Revealed through Bite Force and Tooth Pressure Experimentation PLOS ONE 7 3 e31781 Bibcode 2012PLoSO 731781E doi 10 1371 journal pone 0031781 PMC 3303775 PMID 22431965 Cogger H G 1996 Reptiles and Amphibians of Australia Chatswood NSW Reed Books Somaweera R Shine R 2013 Nest site selection by crocodiles at a rocky site in the Australian tropics Making the best of a bad lot Austral Ecology 38 3 313 325 doi 10 1111 j 1442 9993 2012 02406 x Magnusson W E 1980 Habitat required for nesting by Crocodylus porosus Reptilia Crocodilidae in northern Australia Austrealian Wildlife Research 7 1 149 156 doi 10 1071 WR9800149 Seymour R S Ackerman R A 1980 Adaptations to underground nesting in birds and reptiles American Zoologist 20 2 437 447 doi 10 1093 icb 20 2 437 a b Gopi G V ANGOM S 2007 Aspects of nesting biology of Crocodylus porosus at Bhitarkanika Orissa Eastern India Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society 104 3 328 333 Lang J W Andrews H V 1994 Temperature dependent sex determination in crocodilians Journal of Experimental Zoology 270 1 28 44 doi 10 1002 jez 1402700105 a b Magnusson W E 1982 Mortality of eggs of the crocodile Crocodylus porosus in northern Australia Journal of Herpetology 16 2 121 130 doi 10 2307 1563804 JSTOR 1563804 a b Crocodilian Species Australian Saltwater Crocodile Crocodylus porosus Flmnh ufl edu Retrieved 26 December 2010 Brien M L Webb G J Lang J W McGuinness K A Christian K A 2013 Born to be bad agonistic behaviour in hatchling saltwater crocodiles Crocodylus porosus Behaviour 150 7 737 762 doi 10 1163 1568539x 00003078 Lang J W 1987 Crocodilian behaviour implications for management pp 273 294 in Wildlife management crocodiles and alligators UNEP WCMC Estuarine Crocodile Archived from the original on 14 August 2001 Retrieved 25 July 2013 Webb G J W Manolis S C Buckworth R Sack G C 1983 An examination of Crocodylus porosus nests in two northern Australian freshwater swamps with an analysis of embryo mortality Wildlife Research 10 3 571 605 doi 10 1071 WR9830571 Somaweera R Brien M Shine R 2013 The role of predation in shaping crocodilian natural history Herpetological Monographs 27 1 23 51 doi 10 1655 HERPMONOGRAPHS D 11 00001 S2CID 86167446 Whitaker R 1982 Status of Asian crocodilians In Crocodile Specialist Group ed Crocodiles Proceedings of the 5th Working Meeting of the Crocodile Specialist Group of the Species Survival Commission of the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources Convened at the Florida State Museum Gainesville Florida USA 12 to 16 August 1980 Gland IUCN p 237 Crocodylus porosus Salt water Crocodile Estuarine Crocodile Environment gov au Retrieved 8 August 2013 Gramantez D 2008 A case study of the Saltwater Crocodile Crocodylus porosus in Muthurajawela Marsh Sri Lanka Considerations for conservation IUCN Crocodile Specialist Group Brazaitis P Eberdong J Brazaitis P J Watkins Colwell G J 2009 Notes on the saltwater crocodile Crocodylus porosus in the Republic of Palau Bulletin of the Peabody Museum of Natural History 50 1 27 48 doi 10 3374 014 050 0103 S2CID 84984946 Kar S K 1992 Conservation research and management of estuarine crocodiles Crocodylus porosus Schneider in Bhitarkania Wildlife Sanctuary Orissa India during the last 17 years PDF In Crocodile Specialist Group ed Crocodiles Proceedings of the 11th Working Meeting of the Crocodile Specialist Group of the IUCN Species Survival Commission convened at Victoria Falls Zimbabwe 2 to 7 August 1992 Vol 1 Gland IUCN pp 222 242 Tisdell C Nantha H S Wilson C 2007 Endangerment and likeability of wildlife species How important are they for payments proposed for conservation Ecological Economics 60 3 627 633 doi 10 1016 j ecolecon 2006 01 007 a b Sideleau B amp Britton A R C 2012 A preliminary analysis of worldwide crocodilian attacks pp 111 114 in Crocodiles Proceedings of the 21st Working Meeting of the IUCN SSC Crocodile Specialist Group Gland Switzerland IUCN Crocodile Management PDF Northern Territory Government Retrieved 6 May 2016 a b Caldicott David G E Croser D Manolis C Webb G Britton A September 2005 Crocodile attack in Australia an analysis of its incidence and review of the pathology and management of crocodilian attacks in general Wilderness amp Environmental Medicine 16 3 143 159 doi 10 1580 1080 6032 2005 16 143 CAIAAA 2 0 CO 2 PMID 16209470 Manolis S C amp Webb G J September 2013 Assessment of saltwater crocodile Crocodylus porosus attacks in Australia 1971 2013 implications for management pp 97 104 in Crocodiles Proceedings of the 22nd Working Meeting of the IUCN SSC Crocodile Specialist Group Gland Switzerland IUCN Nichols T Letnic M 2008 Problem crocodiles reducing the risk of attacks by Crocodylus porosus in Darwin Harbour Northern Territory Australia Urban herpetology Vol 3 pp 503 511 Rise in Borneo crocodile attacks may be linked to Malaysia s logging palm oil expert says Associated Press via International Herald Tribune 25 April 2007 Archived from the original on 11 August 2007 Retrieved 18 August 2010 Woman saves daughter from crocodile Telegraph 14 March 2008 Archived from the original on 11 January 2022 Retrieved 25 July 2013 KalingaTimes com Two injured in crocodile attack in Orissa 7 June 2008 Archived from the original on 7 June 2008 Retrieved 25 July 2013 Croc kills woman 4 years after her sister s death TODAY com Today msnbc msn com 5 October 2010 Archived from the original on 13 May 2010 Retrieved 25 July 2013 Crocodile kills man accused of illegal logging in Myanmar wildlife sanctuary Associated Press via International Herald Tribune 20 April 2008 Archived from the original on 17 May 2008 Retrieved 18 August 2010 a b c d Crocodile Specialist Group Crocodilian Attacks Archived from the original on 3 May 2009 Retrieved 25 July 2013 Walsh B Whitehead P J 1993 Problem crocodiles Crocodylus porosus at Nhulunbuy Northern Territory an assessment of relocation as a management strategy Wildlife Research 20 1 127 135 doi 10 1071 WR9930127 Delaney R Fukuda Y amp Saalfeld K 2009 SALTWATER CROCODILE Crocodylus porosus MANAGEMENT PROGRAM Northern Territory Government Department of Natural Resources Environment the Arts and Sport Webb G J W Messel H 1979 Wariness in Crocodylus porosus Reptilia Crocodilidae Wildlife Research 6 2 227 234 doi 10 1071 WR9790227 Somaweera R amp A de Silva 2013 Using traditional knowledge to minimize human crocodile conflict in Sri Lanka pp 257 In Crocodiles Proceedings of the 22nd Working Meeting of the IUCN SSC Crocodile Specialist Group IUCN Gland Switzerland Sivaperuman C 2014 Saltwater Crocodiles in Andaman and Nicobar Islands with Special Reference to Human Crocodile Conflict Marine Faunal Diversity in India Taxonomy Ecology and Conservation 453 Platt S G W K Ko M Kalyar Myo L L Khaing T Rainwater 2001 Man eating by estuarine crocodiles the Ramree Island massacre revisited Herpetological Bulletin 75 15 18 National Museum of Australia Val Plumwood canoe Nma gov au Retrieved 25 July 2013 Val Plumwood Prey to a Crocodile Aislingmagazine com Retrieved 25 July 2013 Wootson Cleve R Jr 16 July 2018 A crocodile killed an Indonesian man so his village slaughtered nearly 300 crocodiles Washington Post Historical Feature Aboriginal Dreamtime Legends Australianstamp com 2007 Archived from the original on 16 October 2013 Retrieved 8 August 2013 Fijn N 2013 Living with crocodiles engagement with a powerful reptilian being Animal Studies Journal 2 2 1 27 Two decades of fierce determination Office of the Registrar of Indigenous Corporations Retrieved 16 January 2021 Rawlinson C 2012 Learning Larrakia totem animal Dungalaba ABC Radio Darwin Monster croc Welcome to my nightmare The Sunday Mail news com au 28 November 2010 Archived from the original on 7 June 2012 Reid Robert 28 November 2008 Death of a monster The Australian Retrieved 2 April 2011 QLD NORMANTON Home of largest Crocodile ever shot Give An Aussie A Go Retrieved 25 July 2013 Krys the crocodile Normanton Queensland Backyard abc net au 6 January 2004 Archived from the original on 13 February 2009 Saltwater Crocodiles Saltwater Crocodile Pictures Saltwater Crocodile Facts National Geographic Animals nationalgeographic com Retrieved 25 July 2013 a b Guinness India Park Home to World s Largest Crocodile UnderwaterTimes com Retrieved 30 April 2011 Crocodilian Biology Database FAQ Crocodilian com Retrieved 24 May 2012 Bayliss P 1987 Survey methods and monitoring within crocodile management programmes Surrey Beatty amp Sons Chipping Norton pages 157 175 Mishra Braja Kishore 14 June 2006 World s Largest Reptile Found in India ohmynews com External links Wikispecies has information related to Crocodylus porosus Wikimedia Commons has media related to Crocodylus porosus Fisheries Western Australia Estuarine Crocodile Fact Sheet Saltwater crocodiles in freedom Authentic pictures and descriptions Comprehensive Saltwater Crocodile web site unique information plentiful images and video presentations Saltwater crocodile calls from Dr Britton s crocodilian com site Brief discussion from Dr Britton and others discussing dromaeosaurid intelligence Naish D 2012 The Saltwater Crocodile and all that it implies crocodiles part III Tetrapod Zoology Scientific American Retrieved 12 June 2015 Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Saltwater crocodile amp oldid 1135243935, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

article

, read, download, free, free download, mp3, video, mp4, 3gp, jpg, jpeg, gif, png, picture, music, song, movie, book, game, games.