fbpx
Wikipedia

White-bellied sea eagle

December 03, 2023

The white-bellied sea eagle (Icthyophaga leucogaster), also known as the white-breasted sea eagle, is a large diurnal bird of prey in the family Accipitridae. Originally described by Johann Friedrich Gmelin in 1788, it is closely related to Sanford's sea eagle of the Solomon Islands, and the two are considered a superspecies. A distinctive bird, the adult white-bellied sea eagle has a white head, breast, under-wing coverts and tail. The upper parts are grey and the black under-wing flight feathers contrast with the white coverts. The tail is short and wedge-shaped as in all Haliaeetinae species. Like many raptors, the female is larger than the male, and can measure up to 90 cm (35 in) long with a wingspan of up to 2.2 m (7.2 ft), and weigh 4.5 kg (9.9 lb). Immature birds have brown plumage, which is gradually replaced by white until the age of five or six years. The call is a loud goose-like honking.

White-bellied sea eagle
In Tasmania
CITES Appendix II (CITES)[2]
Scientific classification
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Aves
Order: Accipitriformes
Family: Accipitridae
Genus: Icthyophaga
Species:
I. leucogaster
Binomial name
Icthyophaga leucogaster
(Gmelin, JF, 1788)
Range of both this species and Sanford's sea eagle shown in green, but the latter demarcated within a paler blue circle
Synonyms

Ichthyaetus blagrus Blyth, 1843

Resident from India and Sri Lanka through Southeast Asia to Australia on coasts and major waterways, the white-bellied sea eagle breeds and hunts near water, and fish form around half of its diet. Opportunistic, it consumes carrion and a wide variety of animals. Although rated as Least Concern globally, it has declined in parts of southeast Asia such as Thailand, and southeastern Australia. It is ranked as Threatened in Victoria and Vulnerable in South Australia and Tasmania. Human disturbance to its habitat is the main threat, both from direct human activity near nests which impacts on breeding success, and from removal of suitable trees for nesting. The white-bellied sea eagle is revered by indigenous people in many parts of Australia, and is the subject of various folk tales throughout its range.

Taxonomy

The white-bellied sea eagle was formally described by the German naturalist Johann Friedrich Gmelin in 1788 under the binomial name Falco leucogaster.[3] Gmelin based his account on the "white-bellied eagle" that had been described in 1781 by John Latham from a specimen in the Leverian collection that had been obtained in February 1780 at Princes Island off the westernmost cape of Java during Captain Cook's last voyage.[4][5] It is now one of six eagles placed in the genus Icthyophaga that was introduced in 1843 by the French naturalist Marie Jules César Savigny.[6] Its specific name is derived from the Ancient Greek leuko- 'white',[7] and gaster 'belly'.[8] Its closest relative is the little-known Sanford's sea eagle of the Solomon Islands. These form a superspecies, and as is usual in other sea eagle superspecies, one (the white-bellied sea eagle) has a white head, as opposed to the other species' dark head. The bill and eyes are dark, and the talons are dark yellow as in all Southern Hemisphere sea eagles. Both these species have at least some dark colouration in their tails, though this may not always be clearly visible in the white-bellied sea eagle. The nucleotide sequences of the cytochrome b gene of the two sea eagles were among those analysed in a 1996 study. Although they differ greatly in appearance and ecology, their genetic divergence of 0.3% indicates that the ancestors of the two forms might have diverged as recently as 150,000 years ago. The study authors conclude that although the genetic divergence is more consistent with subspecies, the distinctness in appearance and behaviour warrants the two being retained as separate species.[9] Mitochondrial sequence of the cytochrome b locus differs very slightly from that of Sanford's sea eagle suggesting a relatively recent divergence after New Guinea-based white-bellied sea eagles colonised the Solomon Islands.[10][11]

The white-bellied sea eagle's affinities beyond the Sanford's sea eagle are a little less clear; molecular data indicate that it is one of four species of tropical sea eagle (along with the African fish eagle and the Madagascar fish eagle), while allozyme data indicate it might have a closer relationship with the sea eagles of the northern hemisphere.[10][12] A further molecular study published in 2005 showed the white-bellied and Sanford's sea eagles to be basal to the four fish eagles (the two mentioned above plus the two hitherto untested species of the genus Ichthyophaga).[13]

As well as white-bellied sea eagle and white-breasted sea eagle, other recorded names include white-bellied fish-hawk, white-eagle,[14] and grey-backed sea eagle.[15]

Description

 
Adult flying in Bundala National Park, Sri Lanka, the black flight feathers contrasting with the wing lining clearly visible
 
Adult in captivity at Arignar Anna Zoological Park, Chennai

The white-bellied sea eagle has a white head, rump and underparts, and dark or slate-grey back and wings. In flight, the black flight feathers on the wings are easily seen when the bird is viewed from below. The large, hooked bill is a leaden blue-grey with a darker tip, and the irides are dark brown. The cere is also lead grey. The legs and feet are yellow or grey, with long black talons (claws). Unlike those of eagles of the genus Aquila, the legs are not feathered. The sexes are similar. Males are 66–80 cm (26–31 in) long and weigh 1.8–3 kg (4.0–6.6 lb). Females are slightly larger, at 80–90 cm (31–35 in) and 2.5–4.5 kg (5.5–9.9 lb). The wingspan ranges from 1.78 to 2.2 m (5.8 to 7.2 ft).[16][17][18] A 2004 study on 37 birds from Australia and Papua New Guinea (3 °S to 50 °S) found that birds could be sexed reliably on size, and that birds from latitudes further south were larger than those from the north.[19] There is no seasonal variation in plumage.[20] The moulting pattern of the white-bellied sea eagle is poorly known. It appears to take longer than a year to complete, and can be interrupted and later resumed from the point of interruption.[21]

The wings are modified when gliding so that they rise from the body at an angle, but are closer to horizontal further along the wingspan. In silhouette, the comparatively long neck, head and beak stick out from the front almost as far as the tail does behind. For active flight, the white-bellied sea eagle alternates strong deep wing-beats with short periods of gliding.[20]

 
A juvenile from Sundarbans National Park, West Bengal, India.

A young white-bellied sea eagle in its first year is predominantly brown,[16] with pale cream-streaked plumage on their head, neck, nape and rump areas.[20] The plumage becomes more infiltrated with white until it acquires the complete adult plumage by the fourth or fifth year.[16] The species breeds from around six years of age onwards.[22] The lifespan is thought to be around 30 years.[23]

The loud goose-like honking call is a familiar sound, particularly during the breeding season; pairs often honk in unison,[24] and often carry on for some time when perched. The male's call is higher-pitched and more rapid than that of the female. Australian naturalist David Fleay observed that the call is among the loudest and furthest-carrying of all Australian bird calls, in stark contrast to the relatively quiet calls of the wedge-tailed eagle.[25]

Adult white-bellied sea eagles are unmistakable and unlikely to be confused with any other bird. Immature birds can be confused with wedge-tailed eagles. However, the plumage of the latter is darker, the tail longer, and the legs feathered. They might also be confused with the black-breasted buzzard (Hamirostra melanosternon), but this species is much smaller, has white patches on the wings, and has a more undulating flight.[26] In India, the Egyptian vulture has white plumage, but is smaller and has a whiter back and wings. The white tail of the white-bellied sea eagle in flight distinguishes it from other species of large eagles.[27] In the Philippines, it can be confused with the Philippine eagle, which can be distinguished by its crest; immature white-bellied sea eagles resemble immature grey-headed fish eagles, but can be identified by their more wholly dark brown underparts and flight feathers, and wedge-shaped tail.[28]

Distribution and habitat

 
In Gippsland, Victoria, Australia

The white-bellied sea eagle is found regularly from Mumbai (sometimes north to Gujarat,[29] and in the past in the Lakshadweep Islands) eastwards in India,[30][31] Bangladesh, and Sri Lanka in southern Asia, through all of coastal Southeast Asia including Burma, Thailand, Malaysia, Indonesia, Indochina,[24] the main and offshore islands of the Philippines,[28] and southern China including Hong Kong,[24] Hainan and Fuzhou,[15] eastwards through New Guinea and the Bismarck Archipelago,[32] and Australia. In the northern Solomons it is restricted to Nissan Island,[33] and replaced elsewhere by Sanford's sea eagle.[32] In Victoria, where it is otherwise scarce, it is locally more common at Corner Inlet and Gippsland Lakes.[34] Similarly in South Australia, it is most abundant along the north coast of Kangaroo Island.[35] The range extends to the islands of Bass Strait and Tasmania, and it is thought able to move between the islands and the mainland.[36] There is one unconfirmed record from Lord Howe Island and several from New Zealand.[37]

They are a common sight in coastal areas, but may also be seen well inland (It is reportedly seen at the Panna Tiger Reserve in central India, nearly 1,000 km (621 mi) away from the sea shore)[38][39] The white-bellied sea eagle is generally sedentary and territorial, although it may travel long distances. They have been reported travelling upriver to hunt for flying foxes (Pteropus). Populations in inland Australia move around as inland bodies of water appear and then dry up.[37] In one instance, a pair came to breed at Lake Albacutya in northwestern Victoria after the lake had been empty for 30 years.[40] The species is easily disturbed by humans, especially when nesting, and may desert nesting sites as a result. It is found in greater numbers in areas with little or no human impact or interference.[41]

Behaviour

 
composite of 4 images showing take off

The white-bellied sea eagle is generally territorial; some birds form permanent pairs that inhabit territories throughout the year, while others are nomadic. The species is monogamous, with pairs remaining together until one bird dies, after which the surviving bird quickly seeks a new mate. This can lead to some nest sites being continuously occupied for many years (one site in Mallacoota was occupied for over fifty years).[22] Immature birds are generally dispersive, with many moving over 50 km (31 mi) away from the area they were raised. One juvenile raised in Cowell, South Australia was reported 3,000 km (1,900 mi) away at Fraser Island in Queensland.[42] A study of the species in Jervis Bay showed increases in the numbers of immature and subadult birds in autumn, although it was unclear whether these were locally fledged or (as was considered more likely) an influx of young birds born and raised elsewhere in Australia.[43] Birds are often seen perched high in a tree, or soaring over waterways and adjacent land. They are most commonly encountered singly or in pairs. Small groups of white-bellied sea eagles sometimes gather if there is a plentiful source of food such as a carcass or fish offal on a ship.[22] Much of the white-bellied sea eagle's behaviour, particularly breeding, remains poorly known.[44]

Breeding

The breeding season varies according to location—it has been recorded in the dry season in the Trans-Fly region and Central Province of Papua New Guinea,[32] and from June to August in Australia.[45] A pair of white-bellied sea eagles performs skilful displays of flying before copulation: diving, gliding and chasing each other while calling loudly. They may mirror each other, flying 2–3 m (6.6–9.8 ft) apart and copying each other swooping and swerving. A talon-grappling display has been recorded where the pair will fly high before one flips upside down and tries to grapple the other's talons with its own. If successful, the two then plunge cartwheeling before separating as they approach the ground.[46][16] This behaviour has also been recorded as an aggressive display against a wedge-tailed eagle.[47]

The white-bellied sea eagle usually chooses tall trees or man-made pylons to nest in.[26] Often, locations are sought where there is a tall dead tree or high branch with good visibility which can be used as a perch to survey the surrounding area,[26] which is generally a low-lying locale near water with some forest cover.[48] The perch becomes covered in faeces and pellets and animal remains litter the immediate surrounding area.[22] The nest is a large deep bowl constructed of sticks and branches, and lined with such materials as grass or seaweed. Yearly renovations result in nests getting gradually bigger. Nests are generally sited in the forks of large trees overlooking bodies of water.[49] Old nests of wedge-tailed eagles or whistling kites have been renovated and used.[34] Cliffs are also suitable nesting sites, and on islands nests are sometimes built directly on the ground. A breeding pair, with the male being more active, spends three to six weeks building or renovating the nest before laying eggs.[44] Normally a clutch of two dull, white, oval eggs are laid. Measuring 73×55 mm,[45] they are incubated over six weeks before hatching. The young are semi-altricial, and covered in white down when they emerge from the egg. Initially, the male brings food and the female feeds the chicks, but both parents feed the chicks as they grow larger. Although two eggs are laid, it is unusual for two young to be reared successfully to fledging (leaving the nest). One egg may be infertile, or the second chick may die in the nest.[50] If the first clutch is lost, the parents may attempt a second brood.[51] Nestlings have been recorded fledging when 70 to 80 days old, and remaining around the parents' territory for up to six months or until the following breeding season.[44]

Feeding

 
An adult bird with fish catch from Sundarban, India.

The white-bellied sea eagle is an opportunistic carnivore and consumes a wide variety of animal prey, including carrion.[42] It often catches a fish by flying low over the water and grasping it in its talons.[16] It prepares for the strike by holding its feet far forward (almost under its chin) and then strikes backward while simultaneously beating its wings to lift upwards. Generally only one foot is used to seize prey.[42] The white-bellied sea eagle may also dive at a 45-degree angle from its perch and briefly submerge to catch fish near the water surface.[42] While hunting over water on sunny days, it often flies directly into the sun or at right angles to it, seemingly to avoid casting shadows over the water and hence alerting potential prey.[51]

 
Seizing waterborne prey

Main fish prey is usually catfish and barramundi. and the eagles frequently hunt both small and large specimens, which can exceed 50 cm (20 in).[52] Other important fish prey includes needlefish and wrasses.[53] Along with osprey, white-bellied sea-eagles sometimes take fish that are toxic, including some porcupinefish and Tetraodontidae fish.[53]

Reptilian prey include northern snake-necked turtles (Macrochelodina rugosa), Arafura file snakes (Acrochordus arafura), and various sea snakes.[52][54] Turtles are especially important and the eagles can prey upon turtles of various ages and sizes, up to large adult Murray turtles (Emydura macquarii).[52][55] In one case, the fish eagle attempted to prey on an adult Asian water monitor (Varanus salvator). The eagle attacked the 1.5m long lizard and delivered a fatal injury, though it couldn't carry it due to the lizard's weight.[56]

They frequently take waterbirds, such as little penguins, Eurasian coots, and shearwaters.[16] Mammals such as flying foxes are occasionally taken.[57] In the Bismarck Archipelago, it has been reported feeding on domestic dogs, cats, and two species of possum, the northern common cuscus and common spotted cuscus.[58][59] It is a skilled hunter, and will attack prey up to the size of a swan. They also feed on carrion such as dead sheep, birds, and fish found along the waterline, as well as raiding fishing nets and following cane harvesters.[16][42]

They harass smaller raptors such as swamp harriers, whistling kites, brahminy kites, and ospreys, forcing them to drop any food that they are carrying.[16][42] Other birds victimised include silver and Pacific gulls, cormorants and Australasian gannets. There is one record of a white-bellied sea eagle seizing a gannet when unsuccessful in obtaining its prey. They may even steal food from their own species, including their mates. The white-bellied sea eagle attacks these birds by striking them with outstretched talons from above or by flying upside down underneath the smaller predator and snatching the prey, all the while screeching shrilly.[42] Southern fur seals have also been targeted for their fish.[60]

White-bellied sea eagles feed alone, in pairs, or in family groups. A pair may cooperate to hunt.[42] Prey can be eaten while the bird is flying or when it lands on a raised platform such as its nest. The white-bellied sea eagle skins the victim as it eats it.[42] It is exceptionally efficient at digesting its food and disgorges only tiny pellets of fragmented bone, fur, and feathers.[25]

A 2006 study of inland bodies of water around Canberra where wedge-tailed eagles and white-bellied sea eagles share territories showed little overlap in the range of prey taken. Wedge-tailed eagles took rabbits, various macropods, terrestrial birds such as cockatoos and parrots, and various passerines including magpies and starlings. White-bellied sea eagles caught fish, water-dwelling reptiles such as the eastern long-necked turtle and Australian water dragon, and waterbirds such as ducks, grebes and coots. Both species preyed on the maned duck. Rabbits constituted only a small fraction of the white-bellied sea eagle's diet. Despite nesting near each other, the two species seldom interacted, as the wedge-tailed eagles hunted away from water and the white-bellied sea eagles foraged along the lake shores.[59] However, conflict with wedge-tailed eagles over nesting sites in remnant trees has been recorded in Tasmania.[43]

Conservation status

 
Juvenile in flight

The white-bellied sea eagle is listed as being of Least Concern by the IUCN.[1] There are an estimated 10 thousand to 100 thousand individuals, although there seems to be a decline in numbers. They have become rare in Thailand and some other parts of southeast Asia.[15] They are relatively abundant in Hong Kong, where the population increased from 39 to 57 birds between 2002 and 2009.[61] A field study on Kangaroo Island in South Australia showed that nesting pairs in areas of high human disturbance (as defined by clearing of landscape and high human activity) had lower breeding success rates.[62] In the Eyre Peninsula in South Australia, nests have been vacated as human activities have encroached on the eagles' territories.[63] Elsewhere, the clearing of trees suitable for nesting has seen it largely disappear locally, such as the removal of stands of Casuarina equisetifolia in Visakhapatnam district in Andhra Pradesh in India.[64] In India, nest densities of about one per 4.32 km of coastline have been noted in Sindhudurg and one per 3.57 km (45 nests along 161 km) in Ratnagiri district of Maharashtra.[65][66] They also nest on Netrani Island, where about a 100 birds were noted in 1875 (then known as Pigeon Island) by Allan Octavian Hume who noted that this was perhaps the largest breeding colony of the species.[67] In 2000, the disturbance to the island from torpedo-firing exercises conducted by the Indian navy was noted as a threat.[68] Nearly 100 nests have been noted in 2004 on this island.[69]

DDT was a widely used pesticide in agriculture that was found to have significant adverse effects on wildlife, particularly egg thinning and subsequent breakage in birds of prey. A review of DDT's impact on Australian raptors between 1947 and 1993 found that the average egg-shell thickness had decreased by 6%. This average level of thinning was not thought likely to result in significantly more breakage overall, however individual clutches that had been even thinner might have broken. The white-bellied sea eagle was one of the more affected species, probably due to its feeding in areas heavily treated with pesticide such as swamps. DDT use peaked in 1973, but was no longer approved after 1987 and its use had effectively ceased by 1989.[70]

Australia

The white-bellied sea eagle is listed under the marine and migratory categories which give it protected status under Australia's federal Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999. As a mainly coastal species, it is vulnerable to habitat destruction in Australia's increasingly populated and urbanised coastal areas, particularly in the south and east of the country, where it appears to have declined in numbers. However, there may have been an increase in population inland, secondary to the creation of reservoirs, dams and weirs, and the spread of the introduced common carp (Cyprinus carpio). However, it is rare along the Murray River where it was once common.[41] It is also listed as Threatened under Victoria's Flora and Fauna Guarantee Act (1988), with possibly fewer than 100 breeding pairs remaining in the state.[34] On the 2007 advisory list of threatened vertebrate fauna in Victoria, the white-bellied sea eagle is listed as vulnerable.[71]

There are fewer than 1000 adult birds in Tasmania, where the species is listed as Vulnerable under Schedule 3.1 of the Tasmanian Threatened Species Protection Act 1995. In Tasmania it is threatened by nest disturbance, loss of suitable nesting habitat, shooting, poisoning, trapping, and collision with power lines and wind turbines, as well as entanglement and environmental pollution. Estuaries are a favoured habitat, and these are often subject to environmental disturbance.[72] white-bellied sea eagles have been observed to increase their hunting ranges to include salmon fish farms, but the effect of this on breeding success is unknown.[73]

Cultural significance

 
Adult flying in Tasmania

The white-bellied sea eagle was important to different tribes of indigenous people across Australia. The guardian animal of the Wreck Bay aboriginal community, it is also the official emblem of the Booderee National Park and Botanic Gardens in the Jervis Bay Territory. The community considered localities around Booderee National Park to be connected with it.[14] A local Sydney name was gulbi, and the bird was the totem of Colebee, the late 18th century indigenous leader of the Cadigal people.[74] The white-bellied sea eagle is important to the Mak Mak people of the floodplains to the southwest of Darwin in the northern Territory, who recognised its connection with "good country". It is their totem and integrally connected to their land.[75] The term Mak Mak is their name for both the species and themselves.[76] The Umbrawarra Gorge Nature Park was a Dreaming site of the bird, in this area known as Kuna-ngarrk-ngarrk.[77] It was similarly symbolic to the Tasmanian indigenous people—Nairanaa was one name used there.[78]

Known as Manulab to the people of Nissan Island, the white-bellied sea eagle is considered special and killing it is forbidden. Its calls at night are said to foretell danger, and seeing a group of calling eagles flying overhead is a sign that someone has died.[79] Local Malay folk tales tell of the white-bellied sea eagle screaming to warn the shellfish of the turning of tides, and a local name burung hamba siput translates as "slave of the shellfish".[80] Called Kaulo in the recently extinct Aka-Bo language, the white-bellied sea eagle was held to be the ancestor of all birds in one Andaman Islands folk tale.[81] On the Maharashtra coast, their name is kakan and its call is said to indicate the presence of fish in the sea. They sometimes nest on coconut trees. Owners of the trees destroy the nest to avoid attacks when harvesting the coconuts.[65]

The white-bellied sea eagle is featured on the $10,000 Singapore note,[80] which was introduced into circulation on 1 February 1980.[82] It is the emblem of the Malaysian state of Selangor.[80] Malay magnate Loke Wan Tho had a 40-metre-high (130 ft) tower built for the sole purpose of observing a white-bellied sea eagle nest in the palace gardens of Istana Bukit Serene in Johor Bahru.[83] Taken in February 1949, the resulting photographs appeared in The Illustrated London News in 1954.[84] The bird is the emblem of the Manly-Warringah Sea Eagles rugby league team,[14] chosen at the club's inception in 1947.[85] From 2010, a nesting pair of white-bellied sea eagles have had their attempts at raising chicks filmed live on "EagleCam", with footage on display at the nearby Birds Australia Discovery Centre in Sydney Olympic Park, New South Wales. After raising one brood, however, their nest collapsed in February 2011.[86] The story attracted statewide attention.[87]

References

  1. ^ a b IUCN Red List 2012.
  2. ^ "Appendices | CITES". cites.org. Retrieved 14 January 2022.
  3. ^ Gmelin, Johann Friedrich (1788). Systema naturae per regna tria naturae : secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis (in Latin). Vol. 1, Part 1 (13th ed.). Lipsiae [Leipzig]: Georg. Emanuel. Beer. p. 257.
  4. ^ Latham, John (1781). A General Synopsis of Birds. Vol. 1, Part 1. London: Printed for Leigh and Sotheby. p. 33*, No. 7a.
  5. ^ Stresemann, Erwin (1950). "Birds collected during Capt. James Cook's last expedition (1776–1780)". Auk. 67 (1): 66–88 [82]. doi:10.2307/4080770. JSTOR 4080770.
  6. ^ Gill, Frank; Donsker, David; Rasmussen, Pamela, eds. (August 2022). "Hoatzin, New World vultures, Secretarybird, raptors". IOC World Bird List Version 12.2. International Ornithologists' Union. Retrieved 6 December 2022.
  7. ^ Liddell & Scott 1980, p. 411.
  8. ^ Liddell & Scott 1980, p. 138.
  9. ^ Wink, Heidrich & Fentzloff 1996, pp. 783–91.
  10. ^ a b Seibold & Helbig 1996, pp. 103–12.
  11. ^ Wink, Michael & Sauer-Gurth, H (2004). "Phylogenetic relationships in diurnal raptors based on nucleotide sequences of mitochondrial and nuclear marker genes". In Chancellor, RD & B U Meyburg (eds.). Raptors Worldwide (PDF). Berlin: WWGBP. pp. 483–98.
  12. ^ Schreiber & Weitzel 1995.
  13. ^ Lerner & Mindell 2005.
  14. ^ a b c Baldwin, Amanda (2010). The White-bellied Sea Eagle in the Jervis Bay region: an exploration of the cultural, ecological and conservation significance (Master of Science thesis thesis). School of Earth & Environmental Sciences, University of Wollongong. Retrieved 2 May 2011.
  15. ^ a b c Ferguson-Lees & Christie 2001, p. 390.
  16. ^ a b c d e f g h Hollands 2003, p. 196.
  17. ^ Raptors of the World by Ferguson-Lees, Christie, Franklin, Mead & Burton. Houghton Mifflin (2001), ISBN 0-618-12762-3.
  18. ^ Ali, S. (1993). The Book of Indian Birds. Bombay: Bombay Natural History Society. ISBN 0-19-563731-3.
  19. ^ Shephard, Jill M.; Catterall, Carla P.; Hughes, Jane M. (2004). "Discrimination of sex in the White-bellied Sea-Eagle, Haliaeetus leucogaster, using genetic and morphometric techniques". Emu. 104: 83–87. doi:10.1071/MU03043. S2CID 83751943.
  20. ^ a b c Marchant & Higgins 1993, p. 82.
  21. ^ Marchant & Higgins 1993, p. 92.
  22. ^ a b c d Marchant & Higgins 1993, p. 87.
  23. ^ Biodiversity Conservation Branch, DPIW (2011). "White-bellied Sea Eagle Haliaeetus leucogaster". Hobart, Tasmania: Department of Primary Industries and Water, Tasmanian Government.
  24. ^ a b c Strange 2000, p. 73.
  25. ^ a b Fleay 1948.
  26. ^ a b c Marchant & Higgins 1993, p. 83.
  27. ^ Ferguson-Lees & Christie 2001, p. 392.
  28. ^ a b Kennedy 2000, p. 54.
  29. ^ Acharya, Hari Narayan G (1936). "The Whitebellied Sea-Eagle (Haliaeetus leucogaster Gmelin) in North Gujarat". Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society. 38 (4): 828.
  30. ^ Rasmussen & Anderton 2005, p. 86.
  31. ^ Ali, S.; Ripley, S. D. (1978). Handbook of the Birds of India and Pakistan: Volume 1 (2nd ed.). New Delhi, India: Oxford University Press. pp. 287–89. ISBN 0-19-565506-0.
  32. ^ a b c Coates 1985, pp. 116–17.
  33. ^ Hadden 2004, p. 63.
  34. ^ a b c Clunie, Pam (2003). (PDF). East Melbourne, Victoria: Department of Sustainability and Environment, State Government of Victoria. Archived from the original (PDF) on 20 March 2012. Retrieved 19 May 2011.
  35. ^ Dennis, Terry E.; Kinloch, Martine A.; Pisanu, Phil; King, Cameron (2005). . Kingscote, Kangaroo Island: Kangaroo Island Resources Board, Government of South Australia. Archived from the original on 23 April 2011. Retrieved 18 May 2011.
  36. ^ Threatened Species Section, DPIW 2006, p. 13.
  37. ^ a b Marchant & Higgins 1993, p. 84.
  38. ^ Sadvi, K. M. (2009). . Indian Birds. 5 (2): 50. ISSN 0973-1407. Archived from the original on 20 July 2011.
  39. ^ Sriram, Mythili; Sriram, Tara; Anand, M. O. (2008). . Indian Birds. 4 (2): 71. ISSN 0973-1407. Archived from the original on 20 July 2011.
  40. ^ Tarr, H.E. (1962). "Observations on the White-breasted Sea-Eagle". Australian Bird Watcher. 1: 194–97.
  41. ^ a b Department of Sustainability, Environment, Water, Population and Communities (2011). "Species Profile and Threats Database: Haliaeetus leucogaster — White-bellied Sea Eagle". Canberra, ACT: Australian Government. Retrieved 19 May 2011.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  42. ^ a b c d e f g h i Marchant & Higgins 1993, p. 85.
  43. ^ a b Spencer, Jennifer A.; Lynch, Tim P. (2005). "Patterns in the abundance of White-bellied Sea-Eagles (Haliaeetus leucogaster) in Jervis Bay, south-eastern Australia". Emu. 105 (3): 211–16. doi:10.1071/MU04030. S2CID 82502532.
  44. ^ a b c Debus 2008.
  45. ^ a b Beruldsen 2003, p. 200.
  46. ^ Lindgren 1972.
  47. ^ Simmons & Mendelsohn 1993.
  48. ^ Thurstans, Shaun D. (2009). "Modelling the nesting habitat of the White-bellied Sea Eagle Haliaeetus leucogaster in Tasmania". Corella. 33 (3): 51–65.
  49. ^ Marchant & Higgins 1993, p. 89.
  50. ^ Marchant & Higgins 1993, p. 90.
  51. ^ a b Favaloro 1944.
  52. ^ a b c Corbett, Laurie, and Tony Hertog. "Diet and breeding of White-bellied Sea-Eagles Haliaeetus leucogaster in subtropical river habitats in the Northern Territory, Australia." Corella 35 (2011): 41-48.
  53. ^ a b Smith, Geoffrey C. "An analysis of prey remnants from Osprey Pandion haliaetus and White-bellied Sea-Eagle Haliaetus leucogaster feeding roosts." Emu-Austral Ornithology 85.3 (1985): 198-200.
  54. ^ Gopi, G. V.; Pandav, Bivash (2006). (PDF). Indian Birds. 2 (6): 171. ISSN 0973-1407. Archived from the original (PDF) on 20 July 2011.
  55. ^ Debus, Stephen JS. "Biology and diet of the White-bellied Sea-Eagle Haliaeetus leucogaster breeding in northern inland New South Wales." Australian Field Ornithology 25.4 (2008): 165-193.
  56. ^ Iqbal, Muhammad, Christoph Zockler, and Evgeny Syroechkovskiy. "White-bellied Sea-Eagle'Haliaeetus leucogaster' attempting to prey on water monitor 'Varanus salvator'." Australian Field Ornithology 30.4 (2013): 206-209.
  57. ^ Mikula, P.; Morelli, F.; Lučan, R. K.; Jones, D. N.; Tryjanowski, P. (2016). "Bats as prey of diurnal birds: a global perspective". Mammal Review. 46 (3): 160–174. doi:10.1111/mam.12060.
  58. ^ Heinsohn 2000, pp. 245–46.
  59. ^ a b Olsen, Jerry; Fuentes, Esteban; Rose, A. B. (2006). "Trophic relationships between neighbouring White-bellied Sea-Eagles (Haliaeetus leucogaster) and Wedge-tailed Eagles (Aquila audax) breeding on rivers and dams near Canberra". Emu. 106 (3): 193–201. doi:10.1071/MU05046. S2CID 83978072.
  60. ^ Dennis, Terry E.; Brittain, Ross (2006). (PDF). South Australian Ornithologist. 35 (1–2): 68. Archived from the original (PDF) on 19 June 2012.
  61. ^ So, Ivy W. Y.; Lee, W. H. (2010). "Breeding ecology of White-bellied Sea Eagle (Haliaeetus leucogaster) in Hong Kong – a review and update" (PDF). Hong Kong Biodiversity (18): 1–8.
  62. ^ Dennis, Terry E.; McIntosh, Rebecca R.; Shaughnessy, Peter D. (2011). "Effects of human disturbance on productivity of White-bellied Sea Eagles (Haliaeetus leucogaster)". Emu. 111 (2): 179–85. doi:10.1071/MU10044. S2CID 56253536.
  63. ^ Dennis, Terry E. (2004). (PDF). South Australian Ornithologist. 34: 222–28. Archived from the original (PDF) on 19 June 2012.
  64. ^ Sekhar, P.S. Raja; Kumar, P. Kanna; Anil, K.; Babu, A. Suresh (2004). (PDF). Zoos' Print Journal. 19 (5): 20. Archived from the original (PDF) on 21 March 2012. Retrieved 29 June 2011.
  65. ^ a b Katdare, Vishwas; Mone, Ram; Joshi, Pramod (2004). "Status of White-bellied Sea Eagle Haliaeetus leucogaster in Sindhudurg District, Maharashtra". Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society. 101 (2): 314–16.
  66. ^ Katdare, Vishwas; Mone, Ram (2003). "Status of the White-bellied Sea Eagle in Ratnagiri District, Maharashtra". Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society. 100 (1): 113–16.
  67. ^ Hume, A. O. (1876). "The Laccadives and the west coast". Stray Feathers. 4: 413–483.
  68. ^ Gadgil, Madhav (2004). (PDF). ENVIS, CES, IISc, Bangalore. p. 10. Archived from the original (PDF) on 4 March 2009. Retrieved 2 July 2011.
  69. ^ Madhyastha, N.A. (2004). "A paradise for White-bellied Sea Eagle: Netrani Island". Newsletter for Birdwatchers. 44 (1): 14.
  70. ^ Olsen, P.; Fuller, P.; Marples, T. (1993). "Pesticide-related Eggshell Thinning in Australian Raptors". Emu. 93: 1–11. doi:10.1071/MU9930001.
  71. ^ Victorian Department of Sustainability and Environment (2007). Advisory List of Threatened Vertebrate Fauna in Victoria – 2007. East Melbourne, Victoria: Department of Sustainability and Environment. p. 15. ISBN 978-1-74208-039-0.
  72. ^ Threatened Species Section, DPIW 2006, p. 14.
  73. ^ Wiersma, Jason M.; Richardson, Alastair (2009). "Foraging of White-bellied Sea Eagles ( Haliaeetus leucogaster) in relation to marine fish farms in Tasmania" (PDF). Corella. 33 (3): 71–79.
  74. ^ Smith, Keith Vincent (July 2005). "Port Jackson People". NLA News. National Library of Australia. XV (10). ISSN 1444-1845. Retrieved 8 May 2011.
  75. ^ Rose, Deborah Bird (1996), Nourishing Terrains: Australian Aboriginal Views of Landscape and Wilderness (PDF), Canberra, ACT: Australian Heritage Commission, p. 29, ISBN 978-0-642-23561-9, OCLC 221843038, retrieved 24 May 2011
  76. ^ Daiyi, Linda Ford; Rose, Nancy Deborah (2002). "Life in Country:Ecological Restoration on Aboriginal Homelands". Cambridge, Massachusetts: Cultural Survival.org. Retrieved 24 May 2011.
  77. ^ Farfor, Susannah; Andrew, David; Finlay, Hugh (2003). Northern Territory. Lonely Planet. p. 140. ISBN 9781740591997.
  78. ^ Threatened Species Section, DPIW 2006, p. 9.
  79. ^ Hadden 2004, p. 265.
  80. ^ a b c Pwee, Timothy (2002). . National Library Board Singapore. Archived from the original on 6 April 2012. Retrieved 31 July 2009.
  81. ^ Abbi 2010.
  82. ^ . Monetary Authority of Singapore. 31 May 2011. Archived from the original on 21 March 2008. Retrieved 1 July 2011.
  83. ^ Sanger 1995, p. 316.
  84. ^ The Illustrated London News. 225 (6011–6023): 296. 1954. {{cite journal}}: Missing or empty |title= (help)
  85. ^ Fagan, Sean (2011). . Archived from the original on 30 July 2011.
  86. ^ . Birds Australia. 8 February 2011. Archived from the original on 25 June 2009. Retrieved 4 May 2011.
  87. ^ Huxley, John (18 October 2010). "When baby eagles dare, we will be watching". The Sydney Morning Herald. Fairfax Publications. Retrieved 4 May 2011.

General references

  • Abbi, Anvita (22 March 2010). "Maya Jiro Mithe". Salt Spring Island, British Columbia: Terralingua. Retrieved 7 June 2011.
  • Beruldsen, Gordon (2003). Australian Birds: Their Nests and Eggs. Kenmore Hills, Queensland: self. p. 200.
  • BirdLife International (2020). "Haliaeetus leucogaster". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2020: e.T22695097A175531008. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2020-3.RLTS.T22695097A175531008.en. Retrieved 12 November 2021.
  • Coates, Brian J. (1985). The Birds of Papua New Guinea. Vol. 1. Alderley, Queensland: Dove Publications.
  • Debus, Stephen D. J. (2008). (PDF). Australian Field Ornithology. 25: 165–93. ISSN 1448-0107. Archived from the original (PDF) on 4 March 2012.
  • Favaloro, N. (1944). "The White-breasted Sea-eagle along the Murray Valley". Emu. 43 (4): 233–242. doi:10.1071/MU943233.
  • Ferguson-Lees, James; Christie, David A. (2001). Raptors of the World. Chicago, Illinois: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. ISBN 0618127623.
  • Fleay, David (1948). "Notes on the White-breasted Sea-Eagle". Emu. 48: 20–31. doi:10.1071/MU948020.
  • Rasmussen, P. C.; Anderton, J. C. (2005). Birds of South Asia. The Ripley Guide. Vol. 2. Washington DC and Barcelona: Smithsonian Institution and Lynx Edicions.
  • Hadden, Don (2004). Birds and Bird Lore of Bougainville and the North Solomons. Alderley, Queensland: Dove Publications.
  • Heinsohn, Tom (2000). "Predation by the White-breasted Sea Eagle Haliaeetus leucogaster on phalangerid possums in New Ireland, Papua New Guinea". Emu. 100 (3): 245–46. doi:10.1071/MU00913. S2CID 88999816.
  • Hollands, David (2003). Eagles, Hawks and Falcons of Australia. Melbourne, Victoria: Bloomings Books.
  • Lerner, Heather R. L.; Mindell, David P. (November 2005). "Phylogeny of eagles, Old World vultures, and other Accipitridae based on nuclear and mitochondrial DNA" (PDF). Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution. 37 (2): 327–346. doi:10.1016/j.ympev.2005.04.010. ISSN 1055-7903. PMID 15925523. Retrieved 31 May 2011.
  • Kennedy, Robert S. (2000). A Guide to the Birds of the Philippines. Oxford, United Kingdom: Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780198546689.
  • Liddell, Henry George; Scott, Robert (1980) [1871]. A Greek-English Lexicon (abridged ed.). Oxford, United Kingdom: Oxford University Press.
  • Lindgren, E. (1972). "Courtship display of the White-breasted Sea Eagle Haliaeetus leucogaster". Australian Bird Watcher. 4: 132.
  • Marchant, S.; Higgins, P. J., eds. (1993). Handbook of Australian, New Zealand and Antarctic Birds. Vol. 2. Melbourne, Victoria: Oxford University Press.
  • Schreiber, Arnd; Weitzel, Thomas (1995). "Biochemical systematics of sea eagles (genus Haliaeetus Savigny 1809), with a note on allozyme differentiation between black and red kites (genus Milvus L. 1758)". Biochemical Systematics and Ecology. 23 (3): 235–244. doi:10.1016/0305-1978(95)00001-B.
  • Sanger, Clyde (1995). Malcolm MacDonald: Bringing an End to Empire. Montreal, Quebec: McGill-Queen's Press. p. 316. ISBN 9780773513037.
  • Seibold, Ingrid; Helbig, Andreas J. (1996). "Phylogenetic relationships of the sea eagles (genus Haliaeetus): reconstructions based on morphology, allozymes and mitochondrial DNA sequences". Journal of Zoological Systematics and Evolutionary Research. 34 (2): 103–112. doi:10.1111/j.1439-0469.1996.tb00815.x. ISSN 0947-5745.
  • Simmons, R. E.; Mendelsohn, J. M. (1993). "A critical review of cartwheeling flights of raptors". Ostrich. 64: 13–24. doi:10.1080/00306525.1993.9634190.
  • Strange, Morten (2000). Photographic Guide to the Birds of Southeast Asia. Singapore: Periplus.
  • Threatened Species Section, DPIW (2006). (PDF). Hobart, Tasmania: iDepartment of Primary Industries and Water, Tasmanian Government. Archived from the original (PDF) on 6 June 2011.
  • Wink, M.; Heidrich, P.; Fentzloff, C. (1996). "A mtDNA phylogeny of sea eagles (genus Haliaeetus) based on nucleotide sequences of the cytochrome b gene" (PDF). Biochemical Systematics and Ecology. 24 (7–8): 783–791. doi:10.1016/S0305-1978(96)00049-X.

External links

 
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Haliaeetus leucogaster.
 
Wikispecies has information related to Haliaeetus leucogaster.
  • White-bellied Sea Eagle at Animal Diversity Web, University of Michigan

December 03, 2023
white, bellied, eagle, white, bellied, eagle, icthyophaga, leucogaster, also, known, white, breasted, eagle, large, diurnal, bird, prey, family, accipitridae, originally, described, johann, friedrich, gmelin, 1788, closely, related, sanford, eagle, solomon, is. The white bellied sea eagle Icthyophaga leucogaster also known as the white breasted sea eagle is a large diurnal bird of prey in the family Accipitridae Originally described by Johann Friedrich Gmelin in 1788 it is closely related to Sanford s sea eagle of the Solomon Islands and the two are considered a superspecies A distinctive bird the adult white bellied sea eagle has a white head breast under wing coverts and tail The upper parts are grey and the black under wing flight feathers contrast with the white coverts The tail is short and wedge shaped as in all Haliaeetinae species Like many raptors the female is larger than the male and can measure up to 90 cm 35 in long with a wingspan of up to 2 2 m 7 2 ft and weigh 4 5 kg 9 9 lb Immature birds have brown plumage which is gradually replaced by white until the age of five or six years The call is a loud goose like honking White bellied sea eagleIn TasmaniaConservation statusLeast Concern IUCN 3 1 1 CITES Appendix II CITES 2 Scientific classificationDomain EukaryotaKingdom AnimaliaPhylum ChordataClass AvesOrder AccipitriformesFamily AccipitridaeGenus IcthyophagaSpecies I leucogasterBinomial nameIcthyophaga leucogaster Gmelin JF 1788 Range of both this species and Sanford s sea eagle shown in green but the latter demarcated within a paler blue circleSynonymsIchthyaetus blagrus Blyth 1843Resident from India and Sri Lanka through Southeast Asia to Australia on coasts and major waterways the white bellied sea eagle breeds and hunts near water and fish form around half of its diet Opportunistic it consumes carrion and a wide variety of animals Although rated as Least Concern globally it has declined in parts of southeast Asia such as Thailand and southeastern Australia It is ranked as Threatened in Victoria and Vulnerable in South Australia and Tasmania Human disturbance to its habitat is the main threat both from direct human activity near nests which impacts on breeding success and from removal of suitable trees for nesting The white bellied sea eagle is revered by indigenous people in many parts of Australia and is the subject of various folk tales throughout its range Contents 1 Taxonomy 2 Description 3 Distribution and habitat 4 Behaviour 4 1 Breeding 4 2 Feeding 5 Conservation status 5 1 Australia 6 Cultural significance 7 References 8 General references 9 External linksTaxonomyThe white bellied sea eagle was formally described by the German naturalist Johann Friedrich Gmelin in 1788 under the binomial name Falco leucogaster 3 Gmelin based his account on the white bellied eagle that had been described in 1781 by John Latham from a specimen in the Leverian collection that had been obtained in February 1780 at Princes Island off the westernmost cape of Java during Captain Cook s last voyage 4 5 It is now one of six eagles placed in the genus Icthyophaga that was introduced in 1843 by the French naturalist Marie Jules Cesar Savigny 6 Its specific name is derived from the Ancient Greek leuko white 7 and gaster belly 8 Its closest relative is the little known Sanford s sea eagle of the Solomon Islands These form a superspecies and as is usual in other sea eagle superspecies one the white bellied sea eagle has a white head as opposed to the other species dark head The bill and eyes are dark and the talons are dark yellow as in all Southern Hemisphere sea eagles Both these species have at least some dark colouration in their tails though this may not always be clearly visible in the white bellied sea eagle The nucleotide sequences of the cytochrome b gene of the two sea eagles were among those analysed in a 1996 study Although they differ greatly in appearance and ecology their genetic divergence of 0 3 indicates that the ancestors of the two forms might have diverged as recently as 150 000 years ago The study authors conclude that although the genetic divergence is more consistent with subspecies the distinctness in appearance and behaviour warrants the two being retained as separate species 9 Mitochondrial sequence of the cytochrome b locus differs very slightly from that of Sanford s sea eagle suggesting a relatively recent divergence after New Guinea based white bellied sea eagles colonised the Solomon Islands 10 11 The white bellied sea eagle s affinities beyond the Sanford s sea eagle are a little less clear molecular data indicate that it is one of four species of tropical sea eagle along with the African fish eagle and the Madagascar fish eagle while allozyme data indicate it might have a closer relationship with the sea eagles of the northern hemisphere 10 12 A further molecular study published in 2005 showed the white bellied and Sanford s sea eagles to be basal to the four fish eagles the two mentioned above plus the two hitherto untested species of the genus Ichthyophaga 13 As well as white bellied sea eagle and white breasted sea eagle other recorded names include white bellied fish hawk white eagle 14 and grey backed sea eagle 15 Description nbsp Adult flying in Bundala National Park Sri Lanka the black flight feathers contrasting with the wing lining clearly visible nbsp Adult in captivity at Arignar Anna Zoological Park ChennaiThe white bellied sea eagle has a white head rump and underparts and dark or slate grey back and wings In flight the black flight feathers on the wings are easily seen when the bird is viewed from below The large hooked bill is a leaden blue grey with a darker tip and the irides are dark brown The cere is also lead grey The legs and feet are yellow or grey with long black talons claws Unlike those of eagles of the genus Aquila the legs are not feathered The sexes are similar Males are 66 80 cm 26 31 in long and weigh 1 8 3 kg 4 0 6 6 lb Females are slightly larger at 80 90 cm 31 35 in and 2 5 4 5 kg 5 5 9 9 lb The wingspan ranges from 1 78 to 2 2 m 5 8 to 7 2 ft 16 17 18 A 2004 study on 37 birds from Australia and Papua New Guinea 3 S to 50 S found that birds could be sexed reliably on size and that birds from latitudes further south were larger than those from the north 19 There is no seasonal variation in plumage 20 The moulting pattern of the white bellied sea eagle is poorly known It appears to take longer than a year to complete and can be interrupted and later resumed from the point of interruption 21 The wings are modified when gliding so that they rise from the body at an angle but are closer to horizontal further along the wingspan In silhouette the comparatively long neck head and beak stick out from the front almost as far as the tail does behind For active flight the white bellied sea eagle alternates strong deep wing beats with short periods of gliding 20 nbsp A juvenile from Sundarbans National Park West Bengal India A young white bellied sea eagle in its first year is predominantly brown 16 with pale cream streaked plumage on their head neck nape and rump areas 20 The plumage becomes more infiltrated with white until it acquires the complete adult plumage by the fourth or fifth year 16 The species breeds from around six years of age onwards 22 The lifespan is thought to be around 30 years 23 The loud goose like honking call is a familiar sound particularly during the breeding season pairs often honk in unison 24 and often carry on for some time when perched The male s call is higher pitched and more rapid than that of the female Australian naturalist David Fleay observed that the call is among the loudest and furthest carrying of all Australian bird calls in stark contrast to the relatively quiet calls of the wedge tailed eagle 25 Adult white bellied sea eagles are unmistakable and unlikely to be confused with any other bird Immature birds can be confused with wedge tailed eagles However the plumage of the latter is darker the tail longer and the legs feathered They might also be confused with the black breasted buzzard Hamirostra melanosternon but this species is much smaller has white patches on the wings and has a more undulating flight 26 In India the Egyptian vulture has white plumage but is smaller and has a whiter back and wings The white tail of the white bellied sea eagle in flight distinguishes it from other species of large eagles 27 In the Philippines it can be confused with the Philippine eagle which can be distinguished by its crest immature white bellied sea eagles resemble immature grey headed fish eagles but can be identified by their more wholly dark brown underparts and flight feathers and wedge shaped tail 28 Distribution and habitat nbsp In Gippsland Victoria AustraliaThe white bellied sea eagle is found regularly from Mumbai sometimes north to Gujarat 29 and in the past in the Lakshadweep Islands eastwards in India 30 31 Bangladesh and Sri Lanka in southern Asia through all of coastal Southeast Asia including Burma Thailand Malaysia Indonesia Indochina 24 the main and offshore islands of the Philippines 28 and southern China including Hong Kong 24 Hainan and Fuzhou 15 eastwards through New Guinea and the Bismarck Archipelago 32 and Australia In the northern Solomons it is restricted to Nissan Island 33 and replaced elsewhere by Sanford s sea eagle 32 In Victoria where it is otherwise scarce it is locally more common at Corner Inlet and Gippsland Lakes 34 Similarly in South Australia it is most abundant along the north coast of Kangaroo Island 35 The range extends to the islands of Bass Strait and Tasmania and it is thought able to move between the islands and the mainland 36 There is one unconfirmed record from Lord Howe Island and several from New Zealand 37 They are a common sight in coastal areas but may also be seen well inland It is reportedly seen at the Panna Tiger Reserve in central India nearly 1 000 km 621 mi away from the sea shore 38 39 The white bellied sea eagle is generally sedentary and territorial although it may travel long distances They have been reported travelling upriver to hunt for flying foxes Pteropus Populations in inland Australia move around as inland bodies of water appear and then dry up 37 In one instance a pair came to breed at Lake Albacutya in northwestern Victoria after the lake had been empty for 30 years 40 The species is easily disturbed by humans especially when nesting and may desert nesting sites as a result It is found in greater numbers in areas with little or no human impact or interference 41 Behaviour nbsp composite of 4 images showing take offThe white bellied sea eagle is generally territorial some birds form permanent pairs that inhabit territories throughout the year while others are nomadic The species is monogamous with pairs remaining together until one bird dies after which the surviving bird quickly seeks a new mate This can lead to some nest sites being continuously occupied for many years one site in Mallacoota was occupied for over fifty years 22 Immature birds are generally dispersive with many moving over 50 km 31 mi away from the area they were raised One juvenile raised in Cowell South Australia was reported 3 000 km 1 900 mi away at Fraser Island in Queensland 42 A study of the species in Jervis Bay showed increases in the numbers of immature and subadult birds in autumn although it was unclear whether these were locally fledged or as was considered more likely an influx of young birds born and raised elsewhere in Australia 43 Birds are often seen perched high in a tree or soaring over waterways and adjacent land They are most commonly encountered singly or in pairs Small groups of white bellied sea eagles sometimes gather if there is a plentiful source of food such as a carcass or fish offal on a ship 22 Much of the white bellied sea eagle s behaviour particularly breeding remains poorly known 44 Breeding The breeding season varies according to location it has been recorded in the dry season in the Trans Fly region and Central Province of Papua New Guinea 32 and from June to August in Australia 45 A pair of white bellied sea eagles performs skilful displays of flying before copulation diving gliding and chasing each other while calling loudly They may mirror each other flying 2 3 m 6 6 9 8 ft apart and copying each other swooping and swerving A talon grappling display has been recorded where the pair will fly high before one flips upside down and tries to grapple the other s talons with its own If successful the two then plunge cartwheeling before separating as they approach the ground 46 16 This behaviour has also been recorded as an aggressive display against a wedge tailed eagle 47 The white bellied sea eagle usually chooses tall trees or man made pylons to nest in 26 Often locations are sought where there is a tall dead tree or high branch with good visibility which can be used as a perch to survey the surrounding area 26 which is generally a low lying locale near water with some forest cover 48 The perch becomes covered in faeces and pellets and animal remains litter the immediate surrounding area 22 The nest is a large deep bowl constructed of sticks and branches and lined with such materials as grass or seaweed Yearly renovations result in nests getting gradually bigger Nests are generally sited in the forks of large trees overlooking bodies of water 49 Old nests of wedge tailed eagles or whistling kites have been renovated and used 34 Cliffs are also suitable nesting sites and on islands nests are sometimes built directly on the ground A breeding pair with the male being more active spends three to six weeks building or renovating the nest before laying eggs 44 Normally a clutch of two dull white oval eggs are laid Measuring 73 55 mm 45 they are incubated over six weeks before hatching The young are semi altricial and covered in white down when they emerge from the egg Initially the male brings food and the female feeds the chicks but both parents feed the chicks as they grow larger Although two eggs are laid it is unusual for two young to be reared successfully to fledging leaving the nest One egg may be infertile or the second chick may die in the nest 50 If the first clutch is lost the parents may attempt a second brood 51 Nestlings have been recorded fledging when 70 to 80 days old and remaining around the parents territory for up to six months or until the following breeding season 44 Feeding nbsp An adult bird with fish catch from Sundarban India The white bellied sea eagle is an opportunistic carnivore and consumes a wide variety of animal prey including carrion 42 It often catches a fish by flying low over the water and grasping it in its talons 16 It prepares for the strike by holding its feet far forward almost under its chin and then strikes backward while simultaneously beating its wings to lift upwards Generally only one foot is used to seize prey 42 The white bellied sea eagle may also dive at a 45 degree angle from its perch and briefly submerge to catch fish near the water surface 42 While hunting over water on sunny days it often flies directly into the sun or at right angles to it seemingly to avoid casting shadows over the water and hence alerting potential prey 51 nbsp Seizing waterborne preyMain fish prey is usually catfish and barramundi and the eagles frequently hunt both small and large specimens which can exceed 50 cm 20 in 52 Other important fish prey includes needlefish and wrasses 53 Along with osprey white bellied sea eagles sometimes take fish that are toxic including some porcupinefish and Tetraodontidae fish 53 Reptilian prey include northern snake necked turtles Macrochelodina rugosa Arafura file snakes Acrochordus arafura and various sea snakes 52 54 Turtles are especially important and the eagles can prey upon turtles of various ages and sizes up to large adult Murray turtles Emydura macquarii 52 55 In one case the fish eagle attempted to prey on an adult Asian water monitor Varanus salvator The eagle attacked the 1 5m long lizard and delivered a fatal injury though it couldn t carry it due to the lizard s weight 56 They frequently take waterbirds such as little penguins Eurasian coots and shearwaters 16 Mammals such as flying foxes are occasionally taken 57 In the Bismarck Archipelago it has been reported feeding on domestic dogs cats and two species of possum the northern common cuscus and common spotted cuscus 58 59 It is a skilled hunter and will attack prey up to the size of a swan They also feed on carrion such as dead sheep birds and fish found along the waterline as well as raiding fishing nets and following cane harvesters 16 42 They harass smaller raptors such as swamp harriers whistling kites brahminy kites and ospreys forcing them to drop any food that they are carrying 16 42 Other birds victimised include silver and Pacific gulls cormorants and Australasian gannets There is one record of a white bellied sea eagle seizing a gannet when unsuccessful in obtaining its prey They may even steal food from their own species including their mates The white bellied sea eagle attacks these birds by striking them with outstretched talons from above or by flying upside down underneath the smaller predator and snatching the prey all the while screeching shrilly 42 Southern fur seals have also been targeted for their fish 60 White bellied sea eagles feed alone in pairs or in family groups A pair may cooperate to hunt 42 Prey can be eaten while the bird is flying or when it lands on a raised platform such as its nest The white bellied sea eagle skins the victim as it eats it 42 It is exceptionally efficient at digesting its food and disgorges only tiny pellets of fragmented bone fur and feathers 25 A 2006 study of inland bodies of water around Canberra where wedge tailed eagles and white bellied sea eagles share territories showed little overlap in the range of prey taken Wedge tailed eagles took rabbits various macropods terrestrial birds such as cockatoos and parrots and various passerines including magpies and starlings White bellied sea eagles caught fish water dwelling reptiles such as the eastern long necked turtle and Australian water dragon and waterbirds such as ducks grebes and coots Both species preyed on the maned duck Rabbits constituted only a small fraction of the white bellied sea eagle s diet Despite nesting near each other the two species seldom interacted as the wedge tailed eagles hunted away from water and the white bellied sea eagles foraged along the lake shores 59 However conflict with wedge tailed eagles over nesting sites in remnant trees has been recorded in Tasmania 43 Conservation status nbsp Juvenile in flightThe white bellied sea eagle is listed as being of Least Concern by the IUCN 1 There are an estimated 10 thousand to 100 thousand individuals although there seems to be a decline in numbers They have become rare in Thailand and some other parts of southeast Asia 15 They are relatively abundant in Hong Kong where the population increased from 39 to 57 birds between 2002 and 2009 61 A field study on Kangaroo Island in South Australia showed that nesting pairs in areas of high human disturbance as defined by clearing of landscape and high human activity had lower breeding success rates 62 In the Eyre Peninsula in South Australia nests have been vacated as human activities have encroached on the eagles territories 63 Elsewhere the clearing of trees suitable for nesting has seen it largely disappear locally such as the removal of stands of Casuarina equisetifolia in Visakhapatnam district in Andhra Pradesh in India 64 In India nest densities of about one per 4 32 km of coastline have been noted in Sindhudurg and one per 3 57 km 45 nests along 161 km in Ratnagiri district of Maharashtra 65 66 They also nest on Netrani Island where about a 100 birds were noted in 1875 then known as Pigeon Island by Allan Octavian Hume who noted that this was perhaps the largest breeding colony of the species 67 In 2000 the disturbance to the island from torpedo firing exercises conducted by the Indian navy was noted as a threat 68 Nearly 100 nests have been noted in 2004 on this island 69 DDT was a widely used pesticide in agriculture that was found to have significant adverse effects on wildlife particularly egg thinning and subsequent breakage in birds of prey A review of DDT s impact on Australian raptors between 1947 and 1993 found that the average egg shell thickness had decreased by 6 This average level of thinning was not thought likely to result in significantly more breakage overall however individual clutches that had been even thinner might have broken The white bellied sea eagle was one of the more affected species probably due to its feeding in areas heavily treated with pesticide such as swamps DDT use peaked in 1973 but was no longer approved after 1987 and its use had effectively ceased by 1989 70 Australia The white bellied sea eagle is listed under the marine and migratory categories which give it protected status under Australia s federal Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 As a mainly coastal species it is vulnerable to habitat destruction in Australia s increasingly populated and urbanised coastal areas particularly in the south and east of the country where it appears to have declined in numbers However there may have been an increase in population inland secondary to the creation of reservoirs dams and weirs and the spread of the introduced common carp Cyprinus carpio However it is rare along the Murray River where it was once common 41 It is also listed as Threatened under Victoria s Flora and Fauna Guarantee Act 1988 with possibly fewer than 100 breeding pairs remaining in the state 34 On the 2007 advisory list of threatened vertebrate fauna in Victoria the white bellied sea eagle is listed as vulnerable 71 There are fewer than 1000 adult birds in Tasmania where the species is listed as Vulnerable under Schedule 3 1 of the Tasmanian Threatened Species Protection Act 1995 In Tasmania it is threatened by nest disturbance loss of suitable nesting habitat shooting poisoning trapping and collision with power lines and wind turbines as well as entanglement and environmental pollution Estuaries are a favoured habitat and these are often subject to environmental disturbance 72 white bellied sea eagles have been observed to increase their hunting ranges to include salmon fish farms but the effect of this on breeding success is unknown 73 Cultural significance nbsp Adult flying in TasmaniaThe white bellied sea eagle was important to different tribes of indigenous people across Australia The guardian animal of the Wreck Bay aboriginal community it is also the official emblem of the Booderee National Park and Botanic Gardens in the Jervis Bay Territory The community considered localities around Booderee National Park to be connected with it 14 A local Sydney name was gulbi and the bird was the totem of Colebee the late 18th century indigenous leader of the Cadigal people 74 The white bellied sea eagle is important to the Mak Mak people of the floodplains to the southwest of Darwin in the northern Territory who recognised its connection with good country It is their totem and integrally connected to their land 75 The term Mak Mak is their name for both the species and themselves 76 The Umbrawarra Gorge Nature Park was a Dreaming site of the bird in this area known as Kuna ngarrk ngarrk 77 It was similarly symbolic to the Tasmanian indigenous people Nairanaa was one name used there 78 Known as Manulab to the people of Nissan Island the white bellied sea eagle is considered special and killing it is forbidden Its calls at night are said to foretell danger and seeing a group of calling eagles flying overhead is a sign that someone has died 79 Local Malay folk tales tell of the white bellied sea eagle screaming to warn the shellfish of the turning of tides and a local name burung hamba siput translates as slave of the shellfish 80 Called Kaulo in the recently extinct Aka Bo language the white bellied sea eagle was held to be the ancestor of all birds in one Andaman Islands folk tale 81 On the Maharashtra coast their name is kakan and its call is said to indicate the presence of fish in the sea They sometimes nest on coconut trees Owners of the trees destroy the nest to avoid attacks when harvesting the coconuts 65 The white bellied sea eagle is featured on the 10 000 Singapore note 80 which was introduced into circulation on 1 February 1980 82 It is the emblem of the Malaysian state of Selangor 80 Malay magnate Loke Wan Tho had a 40 metre high 130 ft tower built for the sole purpose of observing a white bellied sea eagle nest in the palace gardens of Istana Bukit Serene in Johor Bahru 83 Taken in February 1949 the resulting photographs appeared in The Illustrated London News in 1954 84 The bird is the emblem of the Manly Warringah Sea Eagles rugby league team 14 chosen at the club s inception in 1947 85 From 2010 a nesting pair of white bellied sea eagles have had their attempts at raising chicks filmed live on EagleCam with footage on display at the nearby Birds Australia Discovery Centre in Sydney Olympic Park New South Wales After raising one brood however their nest collapsed in February 2011 86 The story attracted statewide attention 87 References a b IUCN Red List 2012 Appendices CITES cites org Retrieved 14 January 2022 Gmelin Johann Friedrich 1788 Systema naturae per regna tria naturae secundum classes ordines genera species cum characteribus differentiis synonymis locis in Latin Vol 1 Part 1 13th ed Lipsiae Leipzig Georg Emanuel Beer p 257 Latham John 1781 A General Synopsis of Birds Vol 1 Part 1 London Printed for Leigh and Sotheby p 33 No 7a Stresemann Erwin 1950 Birds collected during Capt James Cook s last expedition 1776 1780 Auk 67 1 66 88 82 doi 10 2307 4080770 JSTOR 4080770 Gill Frank Donsker David Rasmussen Pamela eds August 2022 Hoatzin New World vultures Secretarybird raptors IOC World Bird List Version 12 2 International Ornithologists Union Retrieved 6 December 2022 Liddell amp Scott 1980 p 411 Liddell amp Scott 1980 p 138 Wink Heidrich amp Fentzloff 1996 pp 783 91 a b Seibold amp Helbig 1996 pp 103 12 Wink Michael amp Sauer Gurth H 2004 Phylogenetic relationships in diurnal raptors based on nucleotide sequences of mitochondrial and nuclear marker genes In Chancellor RD amp B U Meyburg eds Raptors Worldwide PDF Berlin WWGBP pp 483 98 Schreiber amp Weitzel 1995 Lerner amp Mindell 2005 a b c Baldwin Amanda 2010 The White bellied Sea Eagle in the Jervis Bay region an exploration of the cultural ecological and conservation significance Master of Science thesis thesis School of Earth amp Environmental Sciences University of Wollongong Retrieved 2 May 2011 a b c Ferguson Lees amp Christie 2001 p 390 a b c d e f g h Hollands 2003 p 196 Raptors of the World by Ferguson Lees Christie Franklin Mead amp Burton Houghton Mifflin 2001 ISBN 0 618 12762 3 Ali S 1993 The Book of Indian Birds Bombay Bombay Natural History Society ISBN 0 19 563731 3 Shephard Jill M Catterall Carla P Hughes Jane M 2004 Discrimination of sex in the White bellied Sea Eagle Haliaeetus leucogaster using genetic and morphometric techniques Emu 104 83 87 doi 10 1071 MU03043 S2CID 83751943 a b c Marchant amp Higgins 1993 p 82 Marchant amp Higgins 1993 p 92 a b c d Marchant amp Higgins 1993 p 87 Biodiversity Conservation Branch DPIW 2011 White bellied Sea Eagle Haliaeetus leucogaster Hobart Tasmania Department of Primary Industries and Water Tasmanian Government a b c Strange 2000 p 73 a b Fleay 1948 a b c Marchant amp Higgins 1993 p 83 Ferguson Lees amp Christie 2001 p 392 a b Kennedy 2000 p 54 Acharya Hari Narayan G 1936 The Whitebellied Sea Eagle Haliaeetus leucogaster Gmelin in North Gujarat Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society 38 4 828 Rasmussen amp Anderton 2005 p 86 Ali S Ripley S D 1978 Handbook of the Birds of India and Pakistan Volume 1 2nd ed New Delhi India Oxford University Press pp 287 89 ISBN 0 19 565506 0 a b c Coates 1985 pp 116 17 Hadden 2004 p 63 a b c Clunie Pam 2003 Flora and Fauna Guarantee Action Statement White bellied Sea Eagle Haliaeetus leucogaster PDF East Melbourne Victoria Department of Sustainability and Environment State Government of Victoria Archived from the original PDF on 20 March 2012 Retrieved 19 May 2011 Dennis Terry E Kinloch Martine A Pisanu Phil King Cameron 2005 The distribution and breeding status of White bellied Sea Eagle and Osprey populations on Kangaroo Island in 2005 Kingscote Kangaroo Island Kangaroo Island Resources Board Government of South Australia Archived from the original on 23 April 2011 Retrieved 18 May 2011 Threatened Species Section DPIW 2006 p 13 a b Marchant amp Higgins 1993 p 84 Sadvi K M 2009 Occurrence of the White bellied Sea Eagle Haliaeetus leucogaster in inland waters Indian Birds 5 2 50 ISSN 0973 1407 Archived from the original on 20 July 2011 Sriram Mythili Sriram Tara Anand M O 2008 Sighting of the White bellied Sea Eagle Haliaeetus leucogaster at the Lakkavalli Dam Indian Birds 4 2 71 ISSN 0973 1407 Archived from the original on 20 July 2011 Tarr H E 1962 Observations on the White breasted Sea Eagle Australian Bird Watcher 1 194 97 a b Department of Sustainability Environment Water Population and Communities 2011 Species Profile and Threats Database Haliaeetus leucogaster White bellied Sea Eagle Canberra ACT Australian Government Retrieved 19 May 2011 a href Template Cite web html title Template Cite web cite web a CS1 maint multiple names authors list link a b c d e f g h i Marchant amp Higgins 1993 p 85 a b Spencer Jennifer A Lynch Tim P 2005 Patterns in the abundance of White bellied Sea Eagles Haliaeetus leucogaster in Jervis Bay south eastern Australia Emu 105 3 211 16 doi 10 1071 MU04030 S2CID 82502532 a b c Debus 2008 a b Beruldsen 2003 p 200 Lindgren 1972 Simmons amp Mendelsohn 1993 Thurstans Shaun D 2009 Modelling the nesting habitat of the White bellied Sea Eagle Haliaeetus leucogaster in Tasmania Corella 33 3 51 65 Marchant amp Higgins 1993 p 89 Marchant amp Higgins 1993 p 90 a b Favaloro 1944 a b c Corbett Laurie and Tony Hertog Diet and breeding of White bellied Sea Eagles Haliaeetus leucogaster in subtropical river habitats in the Northern Territory Australia Corella 35 2011 41 48 a b Smith Geoffrey C An analysis of prey remnants from Osprey Pandion haliaetus and White bellied Sea Eagle Haliaetus leucogaster feeding roosts Emu Austral Ornithology 85 3 1985 198 200 Gopi G V Pandav Bivash 2006 White bellied Sea Eagle Haliaeetus leucogaster preying on salt water crocodile Crocodylus porosus PDF Indian Birds 2 6 171 ISSN 0973 1407 Archived from the original PDF on 20 July 2011 Debus Stephen JS Biology and diet of the White bellied Sea Eagle Haliaeetus leucogaster breeding in northern inland New South Wales Australian Field Ornithology 25 4 2008 165 193 Iqbal Muhammad Christoph Zockler and Evgeny Syroechkovskiy White bellied Sea Eagle Haliaeetus leucogaster attempting to prey on water monitor Varanus salvator Australian Field Ornithology 30 4 2013 206 209 Mikula P Morelli F Lucan R K Jones D N Tryjanowski P 2016 Bats as prey of diurnal birds a global perspective Mammal Review 46 3 160 174 doi 10 1111 mam 12060 Heinsohn 2000 pp 245 46 a b Olsen Jerry Fuentes Esteban Rose A B 2006 Trophic relationships between neighbouring White bellied Sea Eagles Haliaeetus leucogaster and Wedge tailed Eagles Aquila audax breeding on rivers and dams near Canberra Emu 106 3 193 201 doi 10 1071 MU05046 S2CID 83978072 Dennis Terry E Brittain Ross 2006 Attempted kleptoparasitism by White bellied Sea Eagles on fur seal PDF South Australian Ornithologist 35 1 2 68 Archived from the original PDF on 19 June 2012 So Ivy W Y Lee W H 2010 Breeding ecology of White bellied Sea Eagle Haliaeetus leucogaster in Hong Kong a review and update PDF Hong Kong Biodiversity 18 1 8 Dennis Terry E McIntosh Rebecca R Shaughnessy Peter D 2011 Effects of human disturbance on productivity of White bellied Sea Eagles Haliaeetus leucogaster Emu 111 2 179 85 doi 10 1071 MU10044 S2CID 56253536 Dennis Terry E 2004 Conservation status of the White bellied Sea Eagle osprey and peregrine falcon on western Eyre Peninsula and adjacent offshore islands in South Australia PDF South Australian Ornithologist 34 222 28 Archived from the original PDF on 19 June 2012 Sekhar P S Raja Kumar P Kanna Anil K Babu A Suresh 2004 Sighting of the White bellied Sea Eagle Haliaeetus leucogaster in Andhra University Campus Visakhapatnam Andhra Pradesh PDF Zoos Print Journal 19 5 20 Archived from the original PDF on 21 March 2012 Retrieved 29 June 2011 a b Katdare Vishwas Mone Ram Joshi Pramod 2004 Status of White bellied Sea Eagle Haliaeetus leucogaster in Sindhudurg District Maharashtra Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society 101 2 314 16 Katdare Vishwas Mone Ram 2003 Status of the White bellied Sea Eagle in Ratnagiri District Maharashtra Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society 100 1 113 16 Hume A O 1876 The Laccadives and the west coast Stray Feathers 4 413 483 Gadgil Madhav 2004 Karnataka State of Environment Report and Action Plan Biodiversity Sector ENVIS Technical Report No 16 PDF ENVIS CES IISc Bangalore p 10 Archived from the original PDF on 4 March 2009 Retrieved 2 July 2011 Madhyastha N A 2004 A paradise for White bellied Sea Eagle Netrani Island Newsletter for Birdwatchers 44 1 14 Olsen P Fuller P Marples T 1993 Pesticide related Eggshell Thinning in Australian Raptors Emu 93 1 11 doi 10 1071 MU9930001 Victorian Department of Sustainability and Environment 2007 Advisory List of Threatened Vertebrate Fauna in Victoria 2007 East Melbourne Victoria Department of Sustainability and Environment p 15 ISBN 978 1 74208 039 0 Threatened Species Section DPIW 2006 p 14 Wiersma Jason M Richardson Alastair 2009 Foraging of White bellied Sea Eagles Haliaeetus leucogaster in relation to marine fish farms in Tasmania PDF Corella 33 3 71 79 Smith Keith Vincent July 2005 Port Jackson People NLA News National Library of Australia XV 10 ISSN 1444 1845 Retrieved 8 May 2011 Rose Deborah Bird 1996 Nourishing Terrains Australian Aboriginal Views of Landscape and Wilderness PDF Canberra ACT Australian Heritage Commission p 29 ISBN 978 0 642 23561 9 OCLC 221843038 retrieved 24 May 2011 Daiyi Linda Ford Rose Nancy Deborah 2002 Life in Country Ecological Restoration on Aboriginal Homelands Cambridge Massachusetts Cultural Survival org Retrieved 24 May 2011 Farfor Susannah Andrew David Finlay Hugh 2003 Northern Territory Lonely Planet p 140 ISBN 9781740591997 Threatened Species Section DPIW 2006 p 9 Hadden 2004 p 265 a b c Pwee Timothy 2002 White bellied Sea Eagle National Library Board Singapore Archived from the original on 6 April 2012 Retrieved 31 July 2009 Abbi 2010 Bird Series 10000 Monetary Authority of Singapore 31 May 2011 Archived from the original on 21 March 2008 Retrieved 1 July 2011 Sanger 1995 p 316 The Illustrated London News 225 6011 6023 296 1954 a href Template Cite journal html title Template Cite journal cite journal a Missing or empty title help Fagan Sean 2011 Manly Warringah Sea Eagles History Archived from the original on 30 July 2011 EagleCam Birds Australia 8 February 2011 Archived from the original on 25 June 2009 Retrieved 4 May 2011 Huxley John 18 October 2010 When baby eagles dare we will be watching The Sydney Morning Herald Fairfax Publications Retrieved 4 May 2011 General referencesAbbi Anvita 22 March 2010 Maya Jiro Mithe Salt Spring Island British Columbia Terralingua Retrieved 7 June 2011 Beruldsen Gordon 2003 Australian Birds Their Nests and Eggs Kenmore Hills Queensland self p 200 BirdLife International 2020 Haliaeetus leucogaster IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2020 e T22695097A175531008 doi 10 2305 IUCN UK 2020 3 RLTS T22695097A175531008 en Retrieved 12 November 2021 Coates Brian J 1985 The Birds of Papua New Guinea Vol 1 Alderley Queensland Dove Publications Debus Stephen D J 2008 Biology and diet of the White bellied Sea Eagle Haliaeetus leucogaster breeding in northern inland New South Wales PDF Australian Field Ornithology 25 165 93 ISSN 1448 0107 Archived from the original PDF on 4 March 2012 Favaloro N 1944 The White breasted Sea eagle along the Murray Valley Emu 43 4 233 242 doi 10 1071 MU943233 Ferguson Lees James Christie David A 2001 Raptors of the World Chicago Illinois Houghton Mifflin Harcourt ISBN 0618127623 Fleay David 1948 Notes on the White breasted Sea Eagle Emu 48 20 31 doi 10 1071 MU948020 Rasmussen P C Anderton J C 2005 Birds of South Asia The Ripley Guide Vol 2 Washington DC and Barcelona Smithsonian Institution and Lynx Edicions Hadden Don 2004 Birds and Bird Lore of Bougainville and the North Solomons Alderley Queensland Dove Publications Heinsohn Tom 2000 Predation by the White breasted Sea Eagle Haliaeetus leucogaster on phalangerid possums in New Ireland Papua New Guinea Emu 100 3 245 46 doi 10 1071 MU00913 S2CID 88999816 Hollands David 2003 Eagles Hawks and Falcons of Australia Melbourne Victoria Bloomings Books Lerner Heather R L Mindell David P November 2005 Phylogeny of eagles Old World vultures and other Accipitridae based on nuclear and mitochondrial DNA PDF Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 37 2 327 346 doi 10 1016 j ympev 2005 04 010 ISSN 1055 7903 PMID 15925523 Retrieved 31 May 2011 Kennedy Robert S 2000 A Guide to the Birds of the Philippines Oxford United Kingdom Oxford University Press ISBN 9780198546689 Liddell Henry George Scott Robert 1980 1871 A Greek English Lexicon abridged ed Oxford United Kingdom Oxford University Press Lindgren E 1972 Courtship display of the White breasted Sea Eagle Haliaeetus leucogaster Australian Bird Watcher 4 132 Marchant S Higgins P J eds 1993 Handbook of Australian New Zealand and Antarctic Birds Vol 2 Melbourne Victoria Oxford University Press Schreiber Arnd Weitzel Thomas 1995 Biochemical systematics of sea eagles genus Haliaeetus Savigny 1809 with a note on allozyme differentiation between black and red kites genus Milvus L 1758 Biochemical Systematics and Ecology 23 3 235 244 doi 10 1016 0305 1978 95 00001 B Sanger Clyde 1995 Malcolm MacDonald Bringing an End to Empire Montreal Quebec McGill Queen s Press p 316 ISBN 9780773513037 Seibold Ingrid Helbig Andreas J 1996 Phylogenetic relationships of the sea eagles genus Haliaeetus reconstructions based on morphology allozymes and mitochondrial DNA sequences Journal of Zoological Systematics and Evolutionary Research 34 2 103 112 doi 10 1111 j 1439 0469 1996 tb00815 x ISSN 0947 5745 Simmons R E Mendelsohn J M 1993 A critical review of cartwheeling flights of raptors Ostrich 64 13 24 doi 10 1080 00306525 1993 9634190 Strange Morten 2000 Photographic Guide to the Birds of Southeast Asia Singapore Periplus Threatened Species Section DPIW 2006 Threatened Tasmanian Eagles Recovery Plan 2006 2010 PDF Hobart Tasmania iDepartment of Primary Industries and Water Tasmanian Government Archived from the original PDF on 6 June 2011 Wink M Heidrich P Fentzloff C 1996 A mtDNA phylogeny of sea eagles genus Haliaeetus based on nucleotide sequences of the cytochrome b gene PDF Biochemical Systematics and Ecology 24 7 8 783 791 doi 10 1016 S0305 1978 96 00049 X External links nbsp Wikimedia Commons has media related to Haliaeetus leucogaster nbsp Wikispecies has information related to Haliaeetus leucogaster White bellied Sea Eagle at Animal Diversity Web University of MichiganPortals nbsp Birds nbsp Animals nbsp Biology Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title White bellied sea eagle amp oldid 1165633489, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

article

, read, download, free, free download, mp3, video, mp4, 3gp, jpg, jpeg, gif, png, picture, music, song, movie, book, game, games.