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Political history of the Philippines

March 05, 2023

Early polities in what is now the Philippines were small entities known as barangays, although some larger states were established following the arrival of Hinduism and Islam through regional trade networks. The arrival of Spanish settlers began a period of Spanish expansion which led to the creation of the Captaincy General of the Philippines, governed out of Manila. While technically part of New Spain, the Philippines functioned mostly autonomously. The reliance on native leaders to help govern led to the creation of an elite class known as the principalia. Spanish control was never firmly established over much of its claimed territory, with some inland and Islamic regions remaining effectively independent.

Emilio Aguinaldo, who led the Philippine Revolution against Spain, and Manuel L. Quezon, President of the autonomous Commonwealth of the Philippines under the United States

The 19th century saw a significant social change, and the development of a distinct Filipino identity among the mestizo elite. Members of the educated Ilustrado class, influenced by liberal ideas, launched the Propaganda Movement. Rejection by Spanish authorities led to a national awakening, the emergence of an independence movement, and a revolution which became entwined with the Spanish–American War. While the revolutionaries declared independence, Spain ceded the Philippines to the United States in 1898. Through the subsequent Philippine–American War and later actions, the United States established effective administration over the entire archipelago and introduced political structures that reflected those of the United States.

The pre-existing elite was entrenched within the new political system, and the dominant Nacionalista Party steadily gained more control over its institutions. In 1935 the autonomous Commonwealth of the Philippines was established, giving the Philippines its own constitution and a powerful President. Plans for independence were interrupted by Japanese invasion during World War II. The Japanese established the nominally independent Second Philippine Republic, but American and Allied reconquest restored the Commonwealth and led to full independence in 1946. This period saw the emergence of a two-party system, with the Liberal Party and the Nacionalistas exchanging control of the country. Both parties were led by elites and shared similar politics. Early presidents had to contend with the left-wing rural Hukbalahap Rebellion.

The two-party system came to an end under President Ferdinand Marcos, who declared martial law in 1976. Despite strengthening Communist and Islamic separatist rebellions, Marcos retained firm control of the country until economic issues and disenchantment with corruption led to greater opposition. Opponents consolidated around Corazon Aquino, the widow of an assassinated opposition politician. After Marcos was declared winner of a snap election in 1986, military and public protests led to the People Power Revolution which removed Marcos and installed Aquino. A new constitution increased the limits of Presidential power, including creating a single-term limit. Since then, an unstable multi-party system has emerged on the national level, which has been challenged by a series of crises including several attempted coups, a presidential impeachment, and two more public mass movements. This period also saw some political power decentralized to local government and the establishment of the autonomous Bangsamoro region in Muslim Mindanao.

Pre-Spanish era

Main article: History of the Philippines (900–1521)
 
Explorer Ferdinand Magellan was killed during the Battle of Mactan, as he fought the forces of Datu Lapulapu on behalf of Rajah Humabon.

Before the arrival of Ferdinand Magellan, the Philippines was split into numerous barangays, small states that were linked through region-wide trade networks.[1]: 26–27  The name "barangay" is thought to come from the word balangay, which refers to boats used by the Austronesian people to reach the Philippines.[2] These societies had three classes: the nobility, freemen, and serfs and slaves.[3]: 14  They were led by powerful individuals now called datus,[4]: 40 [3]: 16  although different cultures used different terms.[5] The arrival of Hindu influence increased the power of Indianized datus.[1]: 24–25  The first large state was Sulu, which adopted Islam in the 15th century.[1]: 43–44  This system then spread to the nearby Sultanate of Maguindanao and the Kingdom of Maynila.[5] Ferdinand Magellan's death in 1521 can be partly attributed to a dispute between Lapu-Lapu and Rajah Humabon for control of Cebu.[6]: 74  Spanish Captain-General Miguel López de Legazpi established a settlement in Cebu in 1565. Maynila was conquered in 1571, and Manila subsequently became the center of Spanish administration. Spain gradually conquered the majority of the modern Philippines, although full control was never established over some Muslim areas in the south and in the Cordillera highlands.[7]: 1076 

Spanish era

Main article: History of the Philippines (1521–1898)

Colonization and governance

Under Spanish rule barangays were consolidated into urban towns, aiding with control[1]: 53  and a shift to a sedentary agricultural society.[1]: 61  Nonetheless, the barangay structures were retained (becoming known as barrio), and used as a means to record community identity.[2] Rule during the Spanish era was dominated by the Church, especially friars from Spanish religious orders.[1]: 53  Local priests often held powers in towns, carrying out Spanish orders and collecting taxes.[7]: 1077  In areas where the population had not been consolidated into towns, priests travelled between villages.[8]: 27  Ultimate power was held by the King and the Council of the Indies, with the Philippines being part of New Spain.[7]: 1077  However, due to their distance from both New Spain and Spain itself, the Captaincy General of the Philippines functioned practically autonomously and royal decrees had limited effect.[8]: 25  The Philippines had their own Governor,[7]: 1077  and a judicial body was established in 1583.[8]: 25 

 
The Spanish established Manila as the capital of the Captaincy General of the Philippines.

Direct Spanish rule did not extend far beyond Manila.[9]: 208  Due to the small number of Spanish officials on the islands, which numbered in the tens, locals were relied upon for administration. Existing datus were co-opted to manage barangays and nominate individuals for provincial government.[8]: 24–26  Representatives of the Catholic Church continued to be the most significant direct Spanish presence.[9]: 208  Several revolts erupted against Spain, but all were defeated.[6]: 110–126  Some revolts, such as the Tondo Conspiracy, led to greater local participation in the bureaucracy,[10]: 143  and the bringing of local elites into a patronage system to prevent further rebellion.[10]: 146  The establishment of towns created administrative positions local elites could fill.[3]: 19–20  Traditional native elites, along with some native officeholders and high-value tax payers, became part of a group known as the principalia. This group could make recommendations to the Spanish governor regarding administrative appointments, although they held no direct power. While they were just municipal office-holders, for some their status allowed them to avail of government patronage, and gain special permits and exemptions.[11]: 51 [12]: 16–17  Over time, this elite class became more culturally distinct, gaining an education unavailable to most and intermarrying with Spanish officials and Chinese merchants.[3]: 20–21 

Pre-existing trading networks were blocked by Spanish authorities, with all trade instead going to Spanish colonies in the New World.[10]: 143  Despite increasing economic activity, the archipelago remained divided by regional identity and language.[1]: 83–84  Some areas remained out of effective Spanish control, including much of Mindanao, the Sulu archipelago, and Palawan. There was conflict between these areas and the Spanish throughout the Spanish period.[8]: 31–34  In the Cordillera highlands, firm Spanish control was limited to the lowland fringes. Inward migration to escape Spanish control and an increase in trade saw settlements in interior areas increase in population and political complexity.[13]

 
Under the short-lived Spanish Constitution of 1812, the Philippines had direct representation in the Cortes of Cádiz.

In a process beginning in the late 18th century that would continue for the remainder of Spanish rule, the government tried to shift power from the friars of independent religious orders towards the "secular clergy" of Catholic priests. These priests included local mestizos, and even indios.[14]: 103–104  In the 19th century, Philippine ports opened to world trade and shifts started occurring within Filipino society.[15][16] In 1808, when Joseph Bonaparte became king of Spain, the liberal constitution of Cadiz was adopted, giving the Philippines representation in the Spanish Cortes. However, once the Spanish overthrew the Bonapartes, the Philippine, and indeed colonial, representation in the Spanish Cortes was rescinded.[17]: 95  From 1836, the Philippines were directly governed by the Ministry of Overseas.[7]: 1077 

Political turmoil in Spain led to 24 governors being appointed to the Philippines from 1800 to 1860,[1]: 85  often lacking any experience with the country.[10]: 144  Significant political reforms began in the 1860s, with a couple of decades seeing the creation of a cabinet under the Governor-General and the division of executive and judicial power.[14]: 85–87  Societal changes in Spain and the Philippines led to an expansion of the Philippine bureaucracy and its civil service positions, predominantly for the educated living in urban areas, although the highest levels continued to remain in the hand of those born in Spain. This, combined with a shifting economy, saw more complex social structures emerge with new upper and middle classes.[12]: 12–14  A changing economy also brought poverty, which led to raiding and the founding of the Civil Guard. Education reforms in the 1860s expanded access to higher education.[10]: 144  The 19th century also saw further attempts to establish control of the mountain tribes of the interior, although success remained limited. Better success was had in the south, where the Spanish gained control over the seas and coasts, and obtained the surrender of the Sultanate of Sulu in 1878.[14]: 95–96 

National awakening and revolution

The Latin American wars of independence and renewed immigration led to shifts in social identity, with the term Filipino shifting from referring to Spaniards born in the Iberian Peninsula and in the Philippines to a term encompassing all people in the archipelago. This identity shift was driven by wealthy families of mixed ancestry, for which it developed into a national identity,[18][19] and served as a claim to status equal to Spanish peninsulares and insulares.[11]: 41  Spanish served as a common language for the growing local elite, who shared a Western educational background despite varied ethnolinguistic origins. Most came from Manila.[12]: 2, 30  A class of educated individuals became known as the Ilustrados. This group included individuals who had studied at both local universities and Spanish ones, and came from a variety of socioeconomic backgrounds. They gained prominence in Philippine administration, and became increasingly involved in politics.[12]: 26–34  This added a third group of elites to the two existing groups of the urban bureaucracy and the municipal elites.[12]: 35 

 
The Ilustrados in Madrid

Liberal reforms and ideas that had taken root in Spain were resisted by the conservative religious orders that had influence throughout the Philippines.[9]: 209  In the 1880s, some prominent Ilustrados, especially those who had studied in Spain, launched the Propaganda Movement. This loose movement sought to reform Spanish administration of the Philippines.[12]: 35–36  The restoration of Philippine representation to the Cortes was one of the grievances raised by the Ilustrados. For the most part it was a campaign for secular self-government as a full part of Spain,[1]: 105–107  as well as equality between those born in Spain and those born in the Philippines. Much of the campaigning took place in Madrid rather than in the Philippines. With liberal reforms rejected, some saw the movement as the beginning of a national awakening,[12]: 36  as its members began to return to the Philippines.[9]: 209  A small change occurred in 1893, when Spain passed the Maura Law, providing a limited measure of local autonomy.[4]: 40–41 

An authoritarian backlash against the Propaganda Movement led to official suppression.[1]: 105–107  In the 1890s divisions emerged among those that supported the ideals of the movement. One group that emerged from this was the Katipunan, created in 1892 predominantly by members of Manila's urban middle class rather than by Ilustrados.[12]: 39  These individuals were often less wealthy than those who made up the Ilustrados, and less invested in the existing political structures.[12]: 42  The Katipunan advocated complete Philippine independence, and began the Philippine Revolution in 1896.[6]: 137, 145  This revolution gained the support of the municipal elite outside of the major cities, who found themselves with significantly greater control as Spanish administrative and religious authorities were forced out by the revolutionaries.[12]: 46 

 
The execution of José Rizal exacerbated the rebellion against Spain.

Despite most Ilustrados opposing the revolution, many were implicated by the Spanish authorities and were arrested and imprisoned.[12]: 39  After the execution of José Rizal on December 30, 1896, the leader of the Ilustrados who disapproved of the revolution, the rebellion intensified.[20]: 140–141  The Katipunan in Cavite had won several battles against the Spaniards, but was split into the Magdiwang and Magdalo factions. A conference was held in 1897 to unite the two factions, but instead caused further division that led to the execution of Andres Bonifacio, who was then the leader of the Katipunan; Bonifacio's death passed the control of the Katipunan to Emilio Aguinaldo.[20]: 145–147  This was part of a shift from middle class to elite leadership within the rebellion.[21]: 104  Nonetheless, Spanish military superiority was unable to overcome growing political support for the revolution that emerged outside of Manila throughout the archipelago.[14]: 112–113  A provisional constitution was set up to last two years, but was soon superseded by an agreement between the Spaniards and the revolutionaries, the Pact of Biak-na-Bato.[22]: 1  This pact provided for Aguinaldo's surrender and exile to Hong Kong, and amnesty and payment of indemnities by the Spaniards to the revolutionaries. However, both sides eventually violated the agreement.[9]: 216 

The Spanish–American War reached the Philippines on May 1 with the Battle of Manila Bay. Aguinaldo returned from exile, set up a new government, and proclaimed the independence of the Philippines on June 12, 1898, in Kawit, Cavite.[23] Aguilnaldo gained support even from Ilustrados who had opposed the initial revolution.[12]: 40 [3]: 32  War with the Americans prompted the Spanish Governor to offer an autonomous government,[11]: 45  however the Americans defeated the Spanish on August 13 in a mock battle in Manila and took control of the city.[24][25] Aguinaldo proclaimed a revolutionary government, and convened a congress on September 15, 1898, in Barasoain Church in Malolos. This unicameral congress was aimed at enticing support to the revolutionaries. It approved the declaration of independence, and in 1899 approved the Malolos Constitution to inaugurate the First Philippine Republic.[26]: 123  The First Philippine Republic reflected the liberal ideas of the time, valuing private property rights and limiting voting to high-class men, reflecting the growing influence of the elite in the initially anti-elite movement.[1]: 115  Discussions about this first constitution saw calls from the Visayas for federalism. However, this idea was not included in the final constitution, and the constitutional questions were overtaken by centralizing forces and military events.[27]: 178–179 [28]: 31 [29] On December 10, 1898, Spain ceded sovereignty of the Philippines to the United States in the Treaty of Paris that ended the short war between those powers.[30]

American era

Main article: History of the Philippines (1898–1946)

Conquest and consolidation

The Philippine–American War erupted in February 1899 with a skirmish in Manila. The United States set up military and civil governments in the capital and other areas as they were pacified.[31] Just nine days after the conquest of Manila, civil administration was initiated with the involvement of local Ilustrados.[11]: 46–47  In rural areas, the co-opting of municipal elites that had taken over from the Spanish removed resistance to American rule.[12]: 46  Aguinaldo was captured on April 1, 1901, at Palanan, Isabela.[7]: 1076  While they rejected proposals for a federal system or autonomy in favor of a more easily controlled centralized system,[27]: 179 [28]: 48  the Americans gave Filipinos limited self-government at the local level by 1901,[32]: 150–151  holding the first municipal elections,[33] and passed the Philippine Organic Act in 1902 to introduce a national government[34]: 110–111  and regularize civilian rule, designating the Philippine Commission as a legislative body, with membership consisting of Americans appointed by the U.S. President.[26]: 123–124  The first provincial elections took place in 1902.[35]: 17  The judicial system saw Cayetano Arellano appointed as the first Filipino Chief Justice of the Supreme Court.[17]: 95–96  The judicial system as a whole was modelled the American system, and American judges shaped early case law.[36]: 11–12 

 
Following the end of the Spanish–American War, the Schurman Commission was tasked with assessing the situation in the Philippines by United States President William McKinley.

U.S. President Theodore Roosevelt ended U.S. hostilities and proclaimed a full and complete pardon and amnesty to revolutionaries on July 4, 1902, and abolished the office of U.S. Military Governor in the Philippines.[7]: 1076 [37] On April 9, 2002, Philippine President Gloria Macapagal Arroyo proclaimed that the Philippine–American War had ended on April 16, 1902, with the surrender of General Miguel Malvar.[38]

American belief in the importance of the rule of law defined its political approach to the Philippines, with its laws and constitutional traditions replicated in their new possessions and applying to Americans and natives alike. It also served as a justification for taking possession of the islands, along with the theory they were as of yet incapable of democratic self-governance.[11]: 25–26  The Schurman Commission, in assessing the islands, reported to the President that the various peoples of the islands lacked a common nationhood. However, a small number of elites, such as those who led the independence movement, were considered "highly-educated and able".[11]: 30–31  Those with wealth and education were considered more likely to acquiesce to American rule compared to those in the middle class.[12]: 46–47 

This elite minority was seen as the key to gaining acceptance of American rule, and the Americans appropriated selected narratives such as the veneration of José Rizal.[11]: 45–46  The hierarchical social structure that existed under Spanish rule was co-opted by the United States, with democracy introduced in a manner which did not threaten the power of the existing elites.[39] Actions which included Filipinos within government structures were taken as demonstrations of American commitment to local involvement in governance.[11]: 47  The elites further benefited from the redistribution of friar lands.[40]: 66  In turn, ilustrado views of Filipino society influenced the Americans.[12]: 47  Initial American policy favored local governance,[14]: 135  and so they introduced elections at a local level and later built upwards. This had the effect of entrenching local elites into the national system,[32]: 151  who were often relied upon to help govern by the American administration.[1]: 126  This process meant that politicians who built provincial power bases in these early years were able to compete at a national level with politicians from Manila.[12]: 6–7  In some rural areas, support for the revolution and opposition to American rule persisted among the poorer population, which would later shift into support for socialist ideas[14]: 128–130  and conflict with both American and elite rule.[21]: 104–105  However, the Anti-Sedition Law of 1901 limited the early development of these political ideas.[39]

American forces continued to secure and extend their control over the islands, suppressing an attempted extension of the Philippine Republic,[20]: 200–202  securing the Sultanate of Sulu,[41] and establishing control over interior mountainous areas that had resisted Spanish conquest.[42] The last military resistance outside of Mindanao was ended by 1906.[7]: 1076  Military rule over the Muslim Moro Province and the animist Mountain Province ended in 1913, with them then coming under the control of the civilian government in Manila.[14]: 125  This wove southern Mindanao into the country more tightly that it had ever been previously, although its inhabitants remained a distinct minority.[1]: 125  Divisions between Christians and Muslims (known as Moros) in the archipelago coincided with American economic interest in Mindanao.[43]: 258–259  American proposals to split most of Mindanao, the Sulu archipelago, and Palawan from the rest of the islands were supported by some Moro political leaders.[43]: 266–267  Some Moro leaders believed all of Mindanao to be rightfully theirs, in spite of a large Christian minority.[43]: 260  Moros remained concerned that rule by Americans would be replaced with rule by Christian Filipinos. Proposals to divide the colony were strongly opposed by the predominantly Christian Philippine legislature.[44]: 83–85  The Bureau of Non-Christian Tribes was created in 1920,[44]: 110  replacing direct rule by an American Governor,[45]: 174  and the Philippine government pursued a policy of gradually strengthening government in Mindanao, supported by immigration from Christian areas.[43]: 269–270  By 1935 these areas were fully integrated into the Philippine administrative structure.[44]: 97  Despite this, the traditional political structures of Sultanates and Datus continued as a parallel structure in Mindanao and Sulu throughout the American period, and beyond.[44]: 93 

Development of political institutions

 
William Howard Taft, who served as Governor-General of the Philippines from 1901 to 1903, addressing the opening of the Philippine Assembly in 1907

Americans expanded local participation in governance beyond that which had been allowed under Spanish rule,[1]: 119–121  expanding representative government beyond the merely advisory system that existed under the Spanish. Political participation remained limited by pre-existing criteria on status and wealth, with the addition of literacy as another consideration.[11]: 51 [3]: 41  The Federalist Party, formed in 1900 by landed elites, advocated for autonomy under American rule, although its leaders hoped to become a state of the United States.[1]: 126–127  These individuals were considered traitors by the ongoing Philippine revolution, but their alliance with the American military led members of the party to be placed in positions of power at all levels and branches of government.[3]: 32–34  Opposition began to consolidate under the banner of the Nacionalista Party, which advocated for independence and regarded itself as the heir of the First Philippine Republic.[1]: 126–127  On July 30, 1907, the first election of the Philippine Assembly was held. Led by Sergio Osmeña, the assembly was held predominantly by the Nacionalista Party; they were opposed by the Federalists, who were by then renamed the Progresista Party.[32]: 151–152  The Nacionalistas ended up with a majority of 80 seats.[26]: 124  Due to the tight restrictions of the voting franchise, only 1.4% of the population participated in this election.[46]: 15  The Nacionalista party would maintain electoral dominance until independence, and even came to include several former Federalistas.[3]: 42 

Legislation involving immigration, currency and coinage, and timber and mining required approval by the United States President.[26]: 124  Despite their ambitions for independence, Nacionalista leaders developed collaborative relationships with American officials.[12]: 4  The election of United States President Woodrow Wilson, and his appointment of Governor-General Francis Burton Harrison,[47] led to the policy of Filipinization being introduced in 1913 as part of a policy to accelerate decolonization.[14]: 139  In 1913 Filipinos were included in the commission, shifting its membership to five Filipinos and four Americans.[26]: 124  Efforts were also made to bring locals into the civil service.[7]: 1081 [48]

 
The 1916 Jones Law envisioned eventual independence for the Philippines.

The commission was replaced by the Philippine Senate through the 1916 Jones Law.[34]: 111  This body had 24 members elected for six-year terms, with two from each of the 12 senatorial districts. Most were elected; however those from the district consisting of the non-Christian areas of Mindanao and the Cordilleras were appointed by the Governor-General.[26]: 124  The appointed senators had no fixed terms. This legislative body had the power to confirm appointments to the executive and judicial branches.[47] The Jones Law envisioned eventual Philippine independence, once the territory had achieved stable governance.[34]: 103  Some American legislators continued to disagree with this aim,[43]: 262  believing American rule could be indefinite.[43]: 270–271  1916 also saw the voting franchise expand from just educated English and Spanish speakers to include educated speakers of native languages,[1]: 147  and the removal of the requirement to own property, leading to the electorate including 6–7% of the population.[3]: 42  By 1921, the Filipinization policy had resulted in 96% of the civil service staff being Filipinos.[7]: 1081 [49]

The Nacionalista-dominated Philippine Assembly, and later the Philippine Senate, were often at odds with the Governor-General.[1]: 139 [43]: 271 [7]: 1117  Its leadership grew more powerful, seizing state bodies and using nationalism to weaken American oversight.[1]: 141–142  The establishment of the senate led to the Nacionalistas forming opposing camps loyal to Osmeña (the Unipersonalistas) and Senate President Manuel L. Quezon (the Colectavistas).[3]: 44  Despite this division, several independence missions were sent to Washington, D.C.[1]: 146  The onset of the Great Depression strengthened American desire to grant independence to the Philippines, as it would reduce American liability to the territory.[43]: 273 [50][51] The OsRox Mission led by Osmeña and House Speaker Manuel Roxas resulted in the Hare–Hawes–Cutting Act. However, the Senate rejected this; a new law, the Tydings–McDuffie Act which was marginally different and, more importantly, was supported by Quezon,[7]: 1117  was approved and paved the way for the Commonwealth of the Philippines and mandated U.S. recognition of independence of the Philippine Islands after a ten-year transition period.[52]

The institutionalization of the elite's role in politics under the American system, combined with an increase in the Philippine population and an accruing of land into elite hands, led to a breakdown in transitional social relationships between the elite and the rest of the populace. In rural areas, especially central Luzon, class consciousness-based political organization developed, leading to eventually to peasant revolts in the 1930s.[53]: 21–22 

Commonwealth era

 
United States President Franklin D. Roosevelt signs the 1935 Constitution of the Philippines in the presence of then Philippine Senate President Manuel L. Quezon.

The new constitution created under this act was approved on January 31, 1935,[54]: 43  and was adopted the next day. The first elections were held on September 17.[54]: 44  Quezon and Osmeña reconciled,[1]: 147 [3]: 44  and both were elected as president and vice president, respectively, in 1935.[36]: 12  The Nacionalistas controlled the now unicameral National Assembly for the entirety of the Commonwealth, with the understanding that the Americans would grant independence in the near future.[7]: 1117–1118  In 1937 the voting franchise was expanded to include literate women,[1]: 147  and this period saw participation in elections reach 14%.[46]: 15  Local elections were held in different years to legislative and presidential elections.[33] Under the Commonwealth religious freedom was guaranteed, although government and national identity remained Christian and Manila-centric.[44]: 108–109  A national curriculum similarly sought to impose a single vision of a Filipino identity across the diverse ethnolinguistic groups of the islands.[44]: 110  Alongside this, Tagalog was established as a national language.[55]

The Presidential system of the Commonwealth government was based on that of the United States.[32]: 154  However, while dividing power between three branches similarly with the constitution of the United States, the 1935 constitution gave the Philippine President significantly more power both politically and economically than that accorded to the President of the United States.[46]: 16  Tensions between the executive and legislature, especially over passing budgets, were immediately apparent under the new system.[40]: 71  Control over budgets and political appointments were the two biggest ways that the legislature could influence the executive. Budgetary control also provided members of Congress of means to generate political patronage through pork barrel politics.[46]: 17  Seats in the legislature provided valuable access to the Philippine National Bank, and the ability to influence export quotas (most valuably that of sugar). Often one family member became involved in politics, while another managed the family business.[40]: 66–67 

Having sought the restriction of executive power under American Governors, as President Quezon now moved to expand its power.[14]: 153  The peasant-led Sakdal uprising and the fear of a newly formed communist party were used to justify centralizing power.[14]: 153  Originally a unicameral legislature was created,[32]: 154  however Quezon pressed for constitutional amendments that would allow him to obtain a second term and for the restoration of a bicameral legislature. Both amendments were passed,[7]: 1117–1118  with the newly restored Senate now being elected at-large instead of per district, as what was done during the pre-Commonwealth era. Quezon, Osmeña, and the Nacionalista Party as a whole won the elections in 1941 with greatly increased margins.[26]: 125  Through patronage, Quezon was able to maintain strong support among local elites. This clout allowed him to pass several significant reforms aimed at improving the economic situation of the poor and middle classes, failing only in his attempts at land reform.[14]: 154 

The transition to the Commonwealth government from American rule led to civil service positions that had previously been held by Americans being filled by political appointees, a practice explicitly allowed by the 1935 constitution.[40]: 67  The constitution also served to protect American interests in the Philippines, effectively giving them greater economic access than other foreign countries, and the Philippine economy remained tied to the American one even after independence.[40]: 67–68  Defence and foreign affairs remained under the control of the United States,[36]: 12  while legislation and judicial decisions could be reviewed in the United States. Treatment of the Commonwealth by the United States was inconsistent, with it sometimes being treated as a separate country and sometimes being treated as under United States jurisdiction. Nonetheless, internationally they had gained some acceptance as a distinct country. The Philippines already had membership within the Universal Postal Union, which was continued by the Commonwealth. After World War II, the Commonwealth became a founding member of the International Monetary Fund, the World Bank, the International Civil Aviation Organization, the Food and Agriculture Organization, and the United Nations.[56]: 37–40 

 
The inauguration of Jose P. Laurel as President of the Second Philippine Republic during the Japanese occupation of the Philippines

The Japanese invasion of 1941 at the onset of World War II forced the Commonwealth government to go into exile,[7]: 1118  and subjected the country to a puppet government. All existing political parties merged into the KALIBAPI party, created by Proclamation No. 109 on December 8, 1942.[57] KALIBAPI became the sole legal political party, and Jose P. Laurel was declared president of an independent Second Philippine Republic[36]: 14–15 [58] on October 14, 1943.[59] Some municipal and tax laws from the 1935 Constitution remained in force during this period,[54]: 43  and there was continuity in state bureaucracy from the Commonwealth to the Second Republic.[14]: 160  Under Japanese rule, governing policy was to win the populace over to the Japanese cause and thus reduce support for the United States, but this was unsuccessful.[36]: 15  In rural areas, a sudden vacuum of elite power led to the formation of new local governments by the remaining populace, beginning the Hukbalahap Rebellion.[21]: 105  Exiled leaders of the previous first Commonwealth government provided limited support to the U.S.; President President Quezon was a member of the Pacific War Council and participated, along with Vice President Osmeña and members of his cabinet, in civic and social activities, promoting the sale of war bonds, etc.[60]

The Americans reconquered the country in 1944, and Osmeña, who had succeeded Quezon upon the latter's death, restored the Commonwealth government.[36]: 15  Those attending the congress were the remaining living and free members of the 1941 congress.[36]: 15–16 [47] The Nacionalistas were divided following the war, with a leadership struggle leading to Manuel Roxas setting up what would later be the Liberal Party.[33] Roxas defeated Osmeña in the 1946 presidential election, and became the last president of the Commonwealth.[10]: 145  A left-wing political movement that spawned from the Hukbalahap fight against the Japanese was suppressed by the former elite with American support, leading to the continuation of the rebellion against the new government.[21]: 105  The Americans granted independence on July 4, 1946, and Roxas became the first president of the new Republic of the Philippines.[10]: 145  The 1935 Commonwealth constitution continued in effect,[33] as did existing membership in international organizations.[56]: 41 

Post-independence era

Main article: History of the Philippines (1946–1965)
 
President Manuel Roxas' inauguration as the first president of an independent Philippines

The impact of the war led to a weaker civil service and a reduction in the dominance of Manila, with provincial politicians gaining political power and in some cases de facto autonomy. Many leveraged their provincial power to engage in national politics.[61]: 19–20  Muslim leaders who had resisted Japanese occupation were rewarded with local political office, and others successfully ran for Congress.[45]: 178  Eventually, many throughout the country who had collaborated with the Japanese were pardoned in 1948 and 1953.[36]: 16–17  Universal suffrage saw an expansion of voter participation, although power remained concentrated in the hands of a small elite. Despite the landed elite continuing to dominate the legislature,[46]: 14–15  a diversifying post-war economy saw politicians who were not primarily from agricultural backgrounds come to executive power. By the late 1960s this had largely brought an end to the land-based cacique democracy patronage system. Political offices became lucrative by themselves, and patronage became more reliant on access to government funds.[40]: 69  Continued American economic and military support lessened the dependence of the executive on the legislature.[46]: 17  These changes did not shift the overall shape of Filipino politics, which remained a two-party system dominated by a narrow elite.[46]: 15  The winner of the Presidency tended to also take control of both houses of Congress.[32]: 155–158  There was little policy difference between the two parties,[35]: 17  and defections were common.[36]: 16  Patronage, fraud, and voter suppression were common methods of maintaining power.[46]: 17–18 

Roxas succumbed to a heart attack in 1948, allowing Vice President Elpidio Quirino to rule the country for the next six years, after winning in 1949.[36]: 16  The continuing threat of the Hukbalahap led Defence Secretary Ramon Magsaysay to use the military to guard polling stations in the 1951 Senate election, an election which was as a result considered quite fair.[62]: 62  During his term in office, Quirino sought to significantly expand executive power.[46]: 18  Election concerns led to the National Citizens' Movement for Free Elections being formed, an early example of civil society organization that prominently included World War II veterans. This movement was supported by the United States, who desired the Philippines to be an example of democracy as the Cold War reached Asia, and by the Catholic Church.[35]: 48–51  Quirino's Liberal government was widely seen as corrupt and was easily beaten by Ramon Magsaysay in the 1953 election. Magsaysay, who oversaw the surrender of the Hukbalahap, was massively popular.[63][64] Magsaysay implemented a plan to settle surrendered Hukbalahap rebels in Mindanao.[44]: 111  This cemented a demographic shift in Mindanao from having a Muslim majority to having a Christian majority.[45]: 177, 180  The expression of class-based politics shifted towards more moderate groups, such as the Federation of Free Farmers and the Federation of Free Workers.[53]: 22–23  During his rule, Magsaysay also expanded the role of the military in his administration, believing them to be reliable.[62]: 63 

 
President Elpidio Quirino meets leaders of the Hukbalahap Rebellion.

Before the 1957 election, Magsaysay was killed in a plane crash.[65] His vice president, Carlos P. Garcia, succeeded him and won the election.[66] The military distrusted Garcia, but plans to remove him from office never reached fruition. The removal of many officers from the administration, to be replaced by often corrupt civilians, fermented a distrust of the democratic process within some parts of the military.[62]: 63  Garcia continued Magsaysay's "Filipino First" policy[67]: 69  and implemented an austerity program.[68] Garcia was defeated by his vice president, Diosdado Macapagal of the Liberal Party, in 1961. Macapagal initiated a return to a system of free enterprise, and sought land reform and electrification. However, Macapagal's policies faced stiff opposition in Congress, where the Nacionalistas held the majority.[7]: 808  The Philippine civil service in the late 1950s and 60s was becaming more technocratic, and Macapagal established the Program Implementation Agency directly under the President. This body was used to manage projects relatively free from Congressional oversight.[40]: 69  Macapagal was defeated in 1965 by Senator Ferdinand Marcos.[69]

The growing and diversifying economy of the 1960s led to a growth in private business power[35]: 78  and an expansion in mass media.[35]: 80  Marcos' infrastructure projects were the feature policy of his term,[70] he was the first president to be re-elected, in 1969, although the election was tainted by violence and allegations of fraud and vote buying.[35]: 87  The 1969 election saw a similar election observation effort to 1953, although it did not receive as much backing or have as much impact. Marcos was not opposed by the church, business, or the United States. Significant protests, such as the First Quarter Storm,[35]: 85–87  and civil unrest heightened after the election.[35]: 87  While Marcos initially distrusted the military, who were suspected of planning a coup following successful coups elsewhere in Asia, he eventually co-opted the military into his re-election campaign, and began to heavily rely on the military during his second term.[62]: 64  Communist rebellion strengthened during Marcos' rule,[1]: 219–220  and a Moro insurgency emerged in Mindanao as tensions surrounding Christian immigration combined with a more empowered national government.[1]: 216  Local elections in 1971 overturned Muslim political dominance in Mindanao, as Christian settlers who had previously voted for traditional Muslim leaders switched to voting for Christian representatives.[45]: 185 

Marcos dictatorship

Main article: History of the Philippines (1965–1986)

Despite initiating a constitutional convention in 1971,[22]: 12  Marcos declared martial law in 1972.[35]: 87  While this was likely to justify arresting political opponents,[45]: 186  Marcos cited the communist insurgency[71][72] and Muslim separatism as the reasons for the move.[45]: 186  At one point, communist rebels were present in one fifth of the country's villages.[46]: 1  Meanwhile, the imposition of military rule only increased Muslim resistance in Mindanao.[45]: 187–188  Attempts to end the war in Mindanao led Marcos to alter the political situation in the area. He introduced a code of Muslim personal laws, and formally recognized a number of sultans in Mindanao and Sulu. Negotiations led the insurgency to replace demands for independence with demands for autonomy. While peace talks ultimately failed, the level of violence subsided from its peak in the early 1970s.[45]: 190–197 

 
President Ferdinand Marcos declares martial law.

Marcos framed his government as fighting against the rich landed elite that traditionally dominated politics. He relied on the growing technocratic civil service, who were receptive to such arguments, to effectively run the country under martial law. The first large-scale government reorganization since independence shortly followed, including a purge of the existing civil service.[40]: 69–71  Marcos also relied on the military, which gained increased power and resources during the martial law period. By the end of the Marcos' rule, it had quadrupled in size. Much of this was funded through U.S. military assistance, which doubled during this period.[46]: 46–47  Military training also shifted, with an increasing emphasis on humanities, in order to allow officers to more effectively handle civilian administrative roles.[62]: 65 

The convention finalized the new constitution in November 1972.[73] It called for a semi-presidential government was approved in 1973[33] through shows of hands in citizen assemblies,[26]: 125  a process that did not meet the requirements of the 1935 constitution for constitutional change.[22]: 10  The Supreme Court ruled that although this procedure was improper, the constitution had come into force.[74]: 6  "Amendment No. 6" of 1976 gave the executive the law-making powers of the legislature.[22]: 11–13  Beginning with these referendums, the voting age was lowered from 21 to 15.[75][76][77]

In a 1974 Presidential Decree, the barrio subdivisions were renamed barangays.[78] The Integrated National Police was formed in 1975, extending national control of policing to the local level.[46]: 46  Marcos continued to rule by decree without elections until 1978, when the Interim Batasang Pambansa (IBP) legislature was elected.[33] Marcos had complete control over the bureaucracy, local governments, military, the press, and COMELEC. The 1978 parliamentary and the 1980 local elections were dominated by Marcos' Kilusang Bagong Lipunan party.[33][35]: 88  The unicameral IBP had little power, unable to repeal Presidential decrees or declare no confidence in the government.[26]: 125  The Supreme Court affirmed the expansive executive powers claimed under martial law.[22]: 10–11 

Marcos laid out a vision of a "new society", which would represent an end to old oligarchies.[67]: 70  The changes implemented by Marcos sought to eliminate regional power centers and instead strengthen links between his national government and the general public. This was only partially successful, and Marcos relied on local allies to enforce martial law.[79] Some political dynasties who were not allied with Marcos were stripped of assets and power,[61]: 41  in many cases replaced in local politics by Marcos allies.[61]: 437  Marcos ended martial law in 1981, shortly before a visit to the country by Pope John Paul II, although he retained immense executive powers.[22]: 12–13  Opposition groups still boycotted the 1981 presidential election,[80][81] which Marcos easily won while maintaining tight control of the election process.[82]: 1151  As martial law was repealed Marcos implemented a system of nominal autonomy in some regions of Mindanao. This was, however, seen as largely toothless, and the Moro Islamic Liberation Front operated as a shadow government in some areas.[45]: 198 

Opponents to Marcos were able to consolidate under the United Nationalist Democratic Organization.[67]: 70  Opposition leader Benigno Aquino Jr. was assassinated upon his return to the country in 1983.[17]: 97  By this time, the government was marred by a weak economy, rampant corruption, and a loss of political support.[82]: 1153–1154  A united opposition participated in the 1984 parliamentary election, and made gains including defections from the ruling party.[21]: 108  Meanwhile, the economy had entered a period of contraction.[35]: 89  Divisions within the military emerged during this period. As elements of the military became more involved in governing, including abetting Marcos in increasing his control, morale decreased among those continuing to fight the rebellion. As crisis deepened, some officers began to believe the survival of the political system required the removal of Marcos.[62]: 65–66 

In 1985, to counter growing opposition, Marcos called for a snap election that had no constitutional basis.[22]: 11  The opposition nominated Benigno's widow Corazon as their candidate.[67]: 70  Marcos was declared the winner of the 1986 election, but the opposition refused to accept the result, alleging that the election was rigged.[17]: 98  This opposition included disaffected members of the military, who when their plans for a coup after the election were disrupted, instead declared support for Aquino.[62]: 66  The resulting People Power Revolution drove Marcos from power, and Aquino became president[17]: 98  following Congress officially declaring her the election winner.[83]

Post–People Power era

Main article: History of the Philippines (1986–present)
 
Corazon Aquino was inaugurated president on February 25, 1986; it was one of two presidential inaugurations that day.

Initially Aquino governed under a "freedom constitution", while setting up a constitutional commission to replace the 1973 constitution.[26]: 125 [22]: 6  This "freedom constitution" declared the Aquino Government to have been installed through a direct exercise of the power of the Filipino people assisted by units of the New Armed Forces of the Philippines.[22]: 6  The military's perceived role in this overthrowing of President Marcos created a precedent for direct intervention into politics.[84]: 82 [22]: 11  With the IBP abolished,[73] Aquino exercised both executive and legislative powers. This power was used to modify the Family Code to increase gender equality.[26]: 125 

The 1987 constitution, approved via plebiscite,[26]: 125  restored democracy along the lines of the 1935 constitution, although local elections became synchronized with national elections, term limits were put in place, and a multi-party system replaced the previous two-party system.[33] Checks and balances were put in place to limit executive power, and many laws established during martial law were repealed.[22]: 13  The Senate was re-created,[32]: 164  and active members of the military were barred from government.[62]: 67  Written in the aftermath of the people power movement, the new constitution introduced some elements of direct democracy, such as the possibility of constitutional amendments though "initiative and referendum", recall of local elected officials, and provisions guaranteeing the right for civil society groups to organize.[22]: 6 

The new constitution did not cancel the effect of the previous one, and unless otherwise stated laws established under the 1973 constitution remained in effect.[22]: 14  Economic property that had been expropriated from elite families under the dictatorship was returned to them.[61]: 19  The 1987 constitution kept the 1973 text on civilian rule over the military, although it added that the armed forces were the "protector of the people and the state".[84]: 83 [22]: 8  It also separated the Philippine Constabulary from the military, while shifting response for internal security from the military to the police.[84]: 86–87  The military as a whole had mostly voted against the new constitution, and three coups were attempted between July 1986 and August 1987.[62]: 67  The practice of recruiting retired military officers for some executive branch roles, such as ambassadorships, or within cabinet, that was started by Marcos and continued after the restoration of democracy.[84]: 81, 93  The separation between the police and the military was impeded by the continuing communist and Islamic rebellions.[84]: 91 

The 1987 legislative election, which saw elections for all 24 Senate seats instead of the usual 12, saw pro-Aquino parties win most of the seats in Congress. The electoral system meant that the 200 members of the House had together received only 34% of votes.[32]: 164  While local officials were initially appointed directly by Aquino,[85]: 28  divisions in left-leaning groups who had opposed Marcos, and a related lack of participation in the 1988 local elections, contributed to the traditional elite recapturing elected office.[21]: 112 [86] Political reform movements that had grown under Marcos and played a significant role in the revolution lost their strength over the next few years.[85]: 28 [87]: 282 [88]: 91  Aquino's government was mired by coup attempts,[59] high inflation and unemployment,[89] and natural calamities,[89][90] but introduced limited land reform[1]: 235 [91][92][93] and market liberalization.[94][95] Communist rebels, who had broken with other anti-Marcos groups, continued a low-intensity rebellion. Islamic separatists similarly continued their campaign in the south.[21]: 109  Although there were some initial peace negotiations which saw limited success,[45]: 200  Aquino eventually undertook a "total war" policy against these insurrections.[21]: 113  The establishment of the Autonomous Region in Muslim Mindanao (ARMM) saw little change on the ground.[45]: 202  Aquino's administration also saw the pullout of the U.S. bases in Subic Bay and Clark.[96][97] In 1991, a new Local Government Code shifted some power and resources to lower levels of government.[21]: 115 

 
The Office of the Regional Governor building held the government of the Autonomous Region in Muslim Mindanao.

Aquino did not wish to run for re-election,[98] and leading up to the 1992 presidential election she supported Fidel V. Ramos, who had left her party to form his own, rather than the nominated leader of her party, Ramon Mitra.[99][100] Ramos won, albeit under controversial circumstances and allegations of electoral fraud.[101][102][103] The 1992 elections was the first synchronized election, where presidential, legislative, and local elections were held simultaneously. This election also saw 24 senators elected,[32]: 167–169  with the twelve with the lowest votes being elected only for three years. Following this election, the system of 12 senators being elected for six-year terms every three years began.[104] Ramos, facing an ongoing energy crisis inherited from the Aquino administration, resolved the issue by issuing contracts favorable to power producers.[20]: 343 [105] The Ramos administration privatized government monopolies,[20]: 343  lowered economic regulation,[59] hosted the 1996 APEC summit,[106] reinstated the death penalty,[107][108] signed the party list system act,[109][110][111] repealed the anti-subversion law,[110][112] devolved power away from the national government through the Local Government Code,[1]: 251  signed a peace agreement with the Moro National Liberation Front,[113] and bore the brunt of the 1997 Asian financial crisis.[114] While Ramos actively cooperated with civil society groups, his social reform agenda did not bring about serious reform.[88]: 91–92  He was unable to fulfil his desire to amend the constitution, following opposition from Aquino and other sectors.[20]: 343 

With the Asian financial crisis damaging the image of economy liberalism, and with no clear successor to Ramos,[115]: 252–253  Ramos' vice president Joseph Estrada defeated the former's party mate Jose de Venecia and several others in the 1998 election with a comfortable margin, running a populist campaign that appealed directly to poorer voters.[88]: 95–97  Meanwhile, de Venecia's running mate Gloria Macapagal Arroyo was elected vice president.[116] Estrada wanted to amend the constitution to reduce economic protectionism, but was opposed by Aquino and the Catholic Church.[117] The administration launched an "all-out war" against the Moro Islamic Liberation Front that saw the government retaking Camp Abubakar, the main rebel encampment.[115]: 257–258 [118] Despite the popular anti-rebel stance, the administration was embroiled in charges of cronyism and corruption; a scandal involving jueteng gambling led to his impeachment by the House of Representatives.[1]: 274–276  In the impeachment trial, Estrada's allies in the Senate successfully prevented evidence to be presented; this triggered massive protests.[119][120] Days later, in what would be called the EDSA II,[121] the Armed Forces of the Philippines withdrew their support from Estrada and transferred their allegiance to Vice President Arroyo; the Supreme Court later ruled the presidency as vacant, and Estrada left Malacañang Palace.[122][123]

Arroyo was sworn in as president on January 20, 2001. Four months later, after Estrada was officially charged with "plundering", his supporters launched their own mass movement, laying siege to the presidential palace. However, the movement did not succeed, and the protestors were later expelled.[88]: 101–103 [124] Arroyo's People Power Coalition won a majority of seats in the 2001 elections and therefore consolidated power. In 2003, Arroyo put down a coup attempt in the central business district.[125] As Arroyo had served less than four years as president, she was eligible for re-election.[74]: 7  She faced Fernando Poe Jr., a friend of Estrada, along with three others in 2004, and won on a slim plurality. Months after Poe died in December, it was exposed, via wiretapped conversations, that Arroyo rigged the election.[126] On a national address, Arroyo said that she was "sorry on a lapse of judgment." The opposition did not let up, and she had to put down two more coup attempts.[127][128] Following her election, Arroyo attempted to change the constitution and create a parliamentary system. This gained significant momentum and support from the House, but Senate opposition, a close Supreme Court ruling, and civil society opposition led to its failure.[74]: 8–21  The opposition united in the 2007 Senate election and won easily, but Arroyo's allies still held the House of Representatives.[129] By the end of her presidency, Arroyo was the most unpopular president since the 1986 People Power Revolution,[130] with her administration being widely viewed as deeply corrupt.[131][129] Despite this unpopularity there was no mass movement to replace Arroyo. In part this was due to fatigue from previous people power movements, which were regarded as having failed to cause enough change to the political system.[88]: 205 

Before the 2010 election, Arroyo's party nominated Gilberto Teodoro for president; however, some quarters suggested that Arroyo was secretly supporting Manny Villar, who was the front-runner at the time.[132] The race changed following the death of former president Aquino, which led to her son Benigno Aquino III launching a campaign. Allegations of scandal led to Villar dropping in the polls, falling first behind Aquino, and then behind Estrada, who was running again following a pardon from Arroyo.[133][134] Aquino embarked on an anti-corruption drive,[135] saw the economy grow, and maintained high levels of popularity.[136] It also sought to strengthen independent bodies, such as the Supreme Court and the Ombudsman.[137]: 8  Overall, the Benigno Aquino administration was politically stable, seen as relatively clean, and had the highest ratings since Marcos.[138]: 42–43  However, natural calamities,[139] along with scams on the use of pork barrel and other discretionary funds coming to light, led to rising opposition in the final years of the administration.[140] Such opposition became linked to perceptions about the failure of change within the wider political system, rather than to Aquino himself.[138]: 45 

In 2016, Aquino's handpicked successor, Mar Roxas, was decisively defeated by Davao City mayor Rodrigo Duterte in the 2016 Presidential Election.[141] Duterte ran on a populist platform, winning votes from various socioeconomic classes, with particularly strong appeal to the middle classes.[137]: 18  His election victory was propelled by growing public frustration over the tumultuous post-EDSA democratic governance, which favored political and economic elite over ordinary Filipinos.[142][143] Duterte implemented a massive War on Drugs that resulted as of February 2022 in more than half of all barangays cleared of drugs[144] but led to thousands of deaths. The opposition, now primarily Liberal Party, pro-Aquino figures, opposed the killings, branding them as human rights abuses.[145] Duterte then prioritized infrastructure spending,[146][147][148] and sought to end the communist insurgency,[149] formally declaring the Communist Party of the Philippines-New Peoples Army (CPP-NPA) as a terrorist group,[150][151] creating a reintegration program for former rebels,[152][153] and granting amnesty to eligible members.[154][155] The administration made peace with the Moro Islamic Liberation Front, agreeing to expand and empower autonomy in Muslim areas, replacing the ARMM with the more powerful Bangsamoro region.[156] The opposition was wiped out in the 2019 midterms, where all of its senatorial candidates lost, and only a handful of winners in the lower house.[157][158] The Duterte government has largely continued Aquino's economic policies, including those focused on the poor. Its political policies have shown a shift towards illiberal democracy, with the politicization of legal institutions and less regard for checks and balances.[137]: 26–28 

Former senator and son of the late Ferdinand Marcos, Ferdinand Marcos Jr won the 2022 elections. This marked the family's return to Malacañang 36 years after the People Power Revolution which drove their family to exile. Duterte's daughter Sara Duterte also won as vice president. [159] On 30 June 2022, Marcos was sworn in as the Philippine president and Sara Duterte was sworn in as vice-president.[160]

See also

References

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Further reading

  • Kalaw, Maximo M. (1927). The development of Philippine politics (1882–1920). Oriental commercial.

March 05, 2023
political, history, philippines, early, polities, what, philippines, were, small, entities, known, barangays, although, some, larger, states, were, established, following, arrival, hinduism, islam, through, regional, trade, networks, arrival, spanish, settlers. Early polities in what is now the Philippines were small entities known as barangays although some larger states were established following the arrival of Hinduism and Islam through regional trade networks The arrival of Spanish settlers began a period of Spanish expansion which led to the creation of the Captaincy General of the Philippines governed out of Manila While technically part of New Spain the Philippines functioned mostly autonomously The reliance on native leaders to help govern led to the creation of an elite class known as the principalia Spanish control was never firmly established over much of its claimed territory with some inland and Islamic regions remaining effectively independent Emilio Aguinaldo who led the Philippine Revolution against Spain and Manuel L Quezon President of the autonomous Commonwealth of the Philippines under the United States The 19th century saw a significant social change and the development of a distinct Filipino identity among the mestizo elite Members of the educated Ilustrado class influenced by liberal ideas launched the Propaganda Movement Rejection by Spanish authorities led to a national awakening the emergence of an independence movement and a revolution which became entwined with the Spanish American War While the revolutionaries declared independence Spain ceded the Philippines to the United States in 1898 Through the subsequent Philippine American War and later actions the United States established effective administration over the entire archipelago and introduced political structures that reflected those of the United States The pre existing elite was entrenched within the new political system and the dominant Nacionalista Party steadily gained more control over its institutions In 1935 the autonomous Commonwealth of the Philippines was established giving the Philippines its own constitution and a powerful President Plans for independence were interrupted by Japanese invasion during World War II The Japanese established the nominally independent Second Philippine Republic but American and Allied reconquest restored the Commonwealth and led to full independence in 1946 This period saw the emergence of a two party system with the Liberal Party and the Nacionalistas exchanging control of the country Both parties were led by elites and shared similar politics Early presidents had to contend with the left wing rural Hukbalahap Rebellion The two party system came to an end under President Ferdinand Marcos who declared martial law in 1976 Despite strengthening Communist and Islamic separatist rebellions Marcos retained firm control of the country until economic issues and disenchantment with corruption led to greater opposition Opponents consolidated around Corazon Aquino the widow of an assassinated opposition politician After Marcos was declared winner of a snap election in 1986 military and public protests led to the People Power Revolution which removed Marcos and installed Aquino A new constitution increased the limits of Presidential power including creating a single term limit Since then an unstable multi party system has emerged on the national level which has been challenged by a series of crises including several attempted coups a presidential impeachment and two more public mass movements This period also saw some political power decentralized to local government and the establishment of the autonomous Bangsamoro region in Muslim Mindanao Contents 1 Pre Spanish era 2 Spanish era 2 1 Colonization and governance 2 2 National awakening and revolution 3 American era 3 1 Conquest and consolidation 3 2 Development of political institutions 4 Commonwealth era 5 Post independence era 6 Marcos dictatorship 7 Post People Power era 8 See also 9 References 10 Further readingPre Spanish era EditMain article History of the Philippines 900 1521 Explorer Ferdinand Magellan was killed during the Battle of Mactan as he fought the forces of Datu Lapulapu on behalf of Rajah Humabon Before the arrival of Ferdinand Magellan the Philippines was split into numerous barangays small states that were linked through region wide trade networks 1 26 27 The name barangay is thought to come from the word balangay which refers to boats used by the Austronesian people to reach the Philippines 2 These societies had three classes the nobility freemen and serfs and slaves 3 14 They were led by powerful individuals now called datus 4 40 3 16 although different cultures used different terms 5 The arrival of Hindu influence increased the power of Indianized datus 1 24 25 The first large state was Sulu which adopted Islam in the 15th century 1 43 44 This system then spread to the nearby Sultanate of Maguindanao and the Kingdom of Maynila 5 Ferdinand Magellan s death in 1521 can be partly attributed to a dispute between Lapu Lapu and Rajah Humabon for control of Cebu 6 74 Spanish Captain General Miguel Lopez de Legazpi established a settlement in Cebu in 1565 Maynila was conquered in 1571 and Manila subsequently became the center of Spanish administration Spain gradually conquered the majority of the modern Philippines although full control was never established over some Muslim areas in the south and in the Cordillera highlands 7 1076 Spanish era EditMain article History of the Philippines 1521 1898 Colonization and governance Edit Under Spanish rule barangays were consolidated into urban towns aiding with control 1 53 and a shift to a sedentary agricultural society 1 61 Nonetheless the barangay structures were retained becoming known as barrio and used as a means to record community identity 2 Rule during the Spanish era was dominated by the Church especially friars from Spanish religious orders 1 53 Local priests often held powers in towns carrying out Spanish orders and collecting taxes 7 1077 In areas where the population had not been consolidated into towns priests travelled between villages 8 27 Ultimate power was held by the King and the Council of the Indies with the Philippines being part of New Spain 7 1077 However due to their distance from both New Spain and Spain itself the Captaincy General of the Philippines functioned practically autonomously and royal decrees had limited effect 8 25 The Philippines had their own Governor 7 1077 and a judicial body was established in 1583 8 25 The Spanish established Manila as the capital of the Captaincy General of the Philippines Direct Spanish rule did not extend far beyond Manila 9 208 Due to the small number of Spanish officials on the islands which numbered in the tens locals were relied upon for administration Existing datus were co opted to manage barangays and nominate individuals for provincial government 8 24 26 Representatives of the Catholic Church continued to be the most significant direct Spanish presence 9 208 Several revolts erupted against Spain but all were defeated 6 110 126 Some revolts such as the Tondo Conspiracy led to greater local participation in the bureaucracy 10 143 and the bringing of local elites into a patronage system to prevent further rebellion 10 146 The establishment of towns created administrative positions local elites could fill 3 19 20 Traditional native elites along with some native officeholders and high value tax payers became part of a group known as the principalia This group could make recommendations to the Spanish governor regarding administrative appointments although they held no direct power While they were just municipal office holders for some their status allowed them to avail of government patronage and gain special permits and exemptions 11 51 12 16 17 Over time this elite class became more culturally distinct gaining an education unavailable to most and intermarrying with Spanish officials and Chinese merchants 3 20 21 Pre existing trading networks were blocked by Spanish authorities with all trade instead going to Spanish colonies in the New World 10 143 Despite increasing economic activity the archipelago remained divided by regional identity and language 1 83 84 Some areas remained out of effective Spanish control including much of Mindanao the Sulu archipelago and Palawan There was conflict between these areas and the Spanish throughout the Spanish period 8 31 34 In the Cordillera highlands firm Spanish control was limited to the lowland fringes Inward migration to escape Spanish control and an increase in trade saw settlements in interior areas increase in population and political complexity 13 Under the short lived Spanish Constitution of 1812 the Philippines had direct representation in the Cortes of Cadiz In a process beginning in the late 18th century that would continue for the remainder of Spanish rule the government tried to shift power from the friars of independent religious orders towards the secular clergy of Catholic priests These priests included local mestizos and even indios 14 103 104 In the 19th century Philippine ports opened to world trade and shifts started occurring within Filipino society 15 16 In 1808 when Joseph Bonaparte became king of Spain the liberal constitution of Cadiz was adopted giving the Philippines representation in the Spanish Cortes However once the Spanish overthrew the Bonapartes the Philippine and indeed colonial representation in the Spanish Cortes was rescinded 17 95 From 1836 the Philippines were directly governed by the Ministry of Overseas 7 1077 Political turmoil in Spain led to 24 governors being appointed to the Philippines from 1800 to 1860 1 85 often lacking any experience with the country 10 144 Significant political reforms began in the 1860s with a couple of decades seeing the creation of a cabinet under the Governor General and the division of executive and judicial power 14 85 87 Societal changes in Spain and the Philippines led to an expansion of the Philippine bureaucracy and its civil service positions predominantly for the educated living in urban areas although the highest levels continued to remain in the hand of those born in Spain This combined with a shifting economy saw more complex social structures emerge with new upper and middle classes 12 12 14 A changing economy also brought poverty which led to raiding and the founding of the Civil Guard Education reforms in the 1860s expanded access to higher education 10 144 The 19th century also saw further attempts to establish control of the mountain tribes of the interior although success remained limited Better success was had in the south where the Spanish gained control over the seas and coasts and obtained the surrender of the Sultanate of Sulu in 1878 14 95 96 National awakening and revolution Edit The Latin American wars of independence and renewed immigration led to shifts in social identity with the term Filipino shifting from referring to Spaniards born in the Iberian Peninsula and in the Philippines to a term encompassing all people in the archipelago This identity shift was driven by wealthy families of mixed ancestry for which it developed into a national identity 18 19 and served as a claim to status equal to Spanish peninsulares and insulares 11 41 Spanish served as a common language for the growing local elite who shared a Western educational background despite varied ethnolinguistic origins Most came from Manila 12 2 30 A class of educated individuals became known as the Ilustrados This group included individuals who had studied at both local universities and Spanish ones and came from a variety of socioeconomic backgrounds They gained prominence in Philippine administration and became increasingly involved in politics 12 26 34 This added a third group of elites to the two existing groups of the urban bureaucracy and the municipal elites 12 35 The Ilustrados in Madrid Liberal reforms and ideas that had taken root in Spain were resisted by the conservative religious orders that had influence throughout the Philippines 9 209 In the 1880s some prominent Ilustrados especially those who had studied in Spain launched the Propaganda Movement This loose movement sought to reform Spanish administration of the Philippines 12 35 36 The restoration of Philippine representation to the Cortes was one of the grievances raised by the Ilustrados For the most part it was a campaign for secular self government as a full part of Spain 1 105 107 as well as equality between those born in Spain and those born in the Philippines Much of the campaigning took place in Madrid rather than in the Philippines With liberal reforms rejected some saw the movement as the beginning of a national awakening 12 36 as its members began to return to the Philippines 9 209 A small change occurred in 1893 when Spain passed the Maura Law providing a limited measure of local autonomy 4 40 41 An authoritarian backlash against the Propaganda Movement led to official suppression 1 105 107 In the 1890s divisions emerged among those that supported the ideals of the movement One group that emerged from this was the Katipunan created in 1892 predominantly by members of Manila s urban middle class rather than by Ilustrados 12 39 These individuals were often less wealthy than those who made up the Ilustrados and less invested in the existing political structures 12 42 The Katipunan advocated complete Philippine independence and began the Philippine Revolution in 1896 6 137 145 This revolution gained the support of the municipal elite outside of the major cities who found themselves with significantly greater control as Spanish administrative and religious authorities were forced out by the revolutionaries 12 46 The execution of Jose Rizal exacerbated the rebellion against Spain Despite most Ilustrados opposing the revolution many were implicated by the Spanish authorities and were arrested and imprisoned 12 39 After the execution of Jose Rizal on December 30 1896 the leader of the Ilustrados who disapproved of the revolution the rebellion intensified 20 140 141 The Katipunan in Cavite had won several battles against the Spaniards but was split into the Magdiwang and Magdalo factions A conference was held in 1897 to unite the two factions but instead caused further division that led to the execution of Andres Bonifacio who was then the leader of the Katipunan Bonifacio s death passed the control of the Katipunan to Emilio Aguinaldo 20 145 147 This was part of a shift from middle class to elite leadership within the rebellion 21 104 Nonetheless Spanish military superiority was unable to overcome growing political support for the revolution that emerged outside of Manila throughout the archipelago 14 112 113 A provisional constitution was set up to last two years but was soon superseded by an agreement between the Spaniards and the revolutionaries the Pact of Biak na Bato 22 1 This pact provided for Aguinaldo s surrender and exile to Hong Kong and amnesty and payment of indemnities by the Spaniards to the revolutionaries However both sides eventually violated the agreement 9 216 The Spanish American War reached the Philippines on May 1 with the Battle of Manila Bay Aguinaldo returned from exile set up a new government and proclaimed the independence of the Philippines on June 12 1898 in Kawit Cavite 23 Aguilnaldo gained support even from Ilustrados who had opposed the initial revolution 12 40 3 32 War with the Americans prompted the Spanish Governor to offer an autonomous government 11 45 however the Americans defeated the Spanish on August 13 in a mock battle in Manila and took control of the city 24 25 Aguinaldo proclaimed a revolutionary government and convened a congress on September 15 1898 in Barasoain Church in Malolos This unicameral congress was aimed at enticing support to the revolutionaries It approved the declaration of independence and in 1899 approved the Malolos Constitution to inaugurate the First Philippine Republic 26 123 The First Philippine Republic reflected the liberal ideas of the time valuing private property rights and limiting voting to high class men reflecting the growing influence of the elite in the initially anti elite movement 1 115 Discussions about this first constitution saw calls from the Visayas for federalism However this idea was not included in the final constitution and the constitutional questions were overtaken by centralizing forces and military events 27 178 179 28 31 29 On December 10 1898 Spain ceded sovereignty of the Philippines to the United States in the Treaty of Paris that ended the short war between those powers 30 American era EditMain article History of the Philippines 1898 1946 Conquest and consolidation Edit The Philippine American War erupted in February 1899 with a skirmish in Manila The United States set up military and civil governments in the capital and other areas as they were pacified 31 Just nine days after the conquest of Manila civil administration was initiated with the involvement of local Ilustrados 11 46 47 In rural areas the co opting of municipal elites that had taken over from the Spanish removed resistance to American rule 12 46 Aguinaldo was captured on April 1 1901 at Palanan Isabela 7 1076 While they rejected proposals for a federal system or autonomy in favor of a more easily controlled centralized system 27 179 28 48 the Americans gave Filipinos limited self government at the local level by 1901 32 150 151 holding the first municipal elections 33 and passed the Philippine Organic Act in 1902 to introduce a national government 34 110 111 and regularize civilian rule designating the Philippine Commission as a legislative body with membership consisting of Americans appointed by the U S President 26 123 124 The first provincial elections took place in 1902 35 17 The judicial system saw Cayetano Arellano appointed as the first Filipino Chief Justice of the Supreme Court 17 95 96 The judicial system as a whole was modelled the American system and American judges shaped early case law 36 11 12 Following the end of the Spanish American War the Schurman Commission was tasked with assessing the situation in the Philippines by United States President William McKinley U S President Theodore Roosevelt ended U S hostilities and proclaimed a full and complete pardon and amnesty to revolutionaries on July 4 1902 and abolished the office of U S Military Governor in the Philippines 7 1076 37 On April 9 2002 Philippine President Gloria Macapagal Arroyo proclaimed that the Philippine American War had ended on April 16 1902 with the surrender of General Miguel Malvar 38 American belief in the importance of the rule of law defined its political approach to the Philippines with its laws and constitutional traditions replicated in their new possessions and applying to Americans and natives alike It also served as a justification for taking possession of the islands along with the theory they were as of yet incapable of democratic self governance 11 25 26 The Schurman Commission in assessing the islands reported to the President that the various peoples of the islands lacked a common nationhood However a small number of elites such as those who led the independence movement were considered highly educated and able 11 30 31 Those with wealth and education were considered more likely to acquiesce to American rule compared to those in the middle class 12 46 47 This elite minority was seen as the key to gaining acceptance of American rule and the Americans appropriated selected narratives such as the veneration of Jose Rizal 11 45 46 The hierarchical social structure that existed under Spanish rule was co opted by the United States with democracy introduced in a manner which did not threaten the power of the existing elites 39 Actions which included Filipinos within government structures were taken as demonstrations of American commitment to local involvement in governance 11 47 The elites further benefited from the redistribution of friar lands 40 66 In turn ilustrado views of Filipino society influenced the Americans 12 47 Initial American policy favored local governance 14 135 and so they introduced elections at a local level and later built upwards This had the effect of entrenching local elites into the national system 32 151 who were often relied upon to help govern by the American administration 1 126 This process meant that politicians who built provincial power bases in these early years were able to compete at a national level with politicians from Manila 12 6 7 In some rural areas support for the revolution and opposition to American rule persisted among the poorer population which would later shift into support for socialist ideas 14 128 130 and conflict with both American and elite rule 21 104 105 However the Anti Sedition Law of 1901 limited the early development of these political ideas 39 American forces continued to secure and extend their control over the islands suppressing an attempted extension of the Philippine Republic 20 200 202 securing the Sultanate of Sulu 41 and establishing control over interior mountainous areas that had resisted Spanish conquest 42 The last military resistance outside of Mindanao was ended by 1906 7 1076 Military rule over the Muslim Moro Province and the animist Mountain Province ended in 1913 with them then coming under the control of the civilian government in Manila 14 125 This wove southern Mindanao into the country more tightly that it had ever been previously although its inhabitants remained a distinct minority 1 125 Divisions between Christians and Muslims known as Moros in the archipelago coincided with American economic interest in Mindanao 43 258 259 American proposals to split most of Mindanao the Sulu archipelago and Palawan from the rest of the islands were supported by some Moro political leaders 43 266 267 Some Moro leaders believed all of Mindanao to be rightfully theirs in spite of a large Christian minority 43 260 Moros remained concerned that rule by Americans would be replaced with rule by Christian Filipinos Proposals to divide the colony were strongly opposed by the predominantly Christian Philippine legislature 44 83 85 The Bureau of Non Christian Tribes was created in 1920 44 110 replacing direct rule by an American Governor 45 174 and the Philippine government pursued a policy of gradually strengthening government in Mindanao supported by immigration from Christian areas 43 269 270 By 1935 these areas were fully integrated into the Philippine administrative structure 44 97 Despite this the traditional political structures of Sultanates and Datus continued as a parallel structure in Mindanao and Sulu throughout the American period and beyond 44 93 Development of political institutions Edit William Howard Taft who served as Governor General of the Philippines from 1901 to 1903 addressing the opening of the Philippine Assembly in 1907 Americans expanded local participation in governance beyond that which had been allowed under Spanish rule 1 119 121 expanding representative government beyond the merely advisory system that existed under the Spanish Political participation remained limited by pre existing criteria on status and wealth with the addition of literacy as another consideration 11 51 3 41 The Federalist Party formed in 1900 by landed elites advocated for autonomy under American rule although its leaders hoped to become a state of the United States 1 126 127 These individuals were considered traitors by the ongoing Philippine revolution but their alliance with the American military led members of the party to be placed in positions of power at all levels and branches of government 3 32 34 Opposition began to consolidate under the banner of the Nacionalista Party which advocated for independence and regarded itself as the heir of the First Philippine Republic 1 126 127 On July 30 1907 the first election of the Philippine Assembly was held Led by Sergio Osmena the assembly was held predominantly by the Nacionalista Party they were opposed by the Federalists who were by then renamed the Progresista Party 32 151 152 The Nacionalistas ended up with a majority of 80 seats 26 124 Due to the tight restrictions of the voting franchise only 1 4 of the population participated in this election 46 15 The Nacionalista party would maintain electoral dominance until independence and even came to include several former Federalistas 3 42 Legislation involving immigration currency and coinage and timber and mining required approval by the United States President 26 124 Despite their ambitions for independence Nacionalista leaders developed collaborative relationships with American officials 12 4 The election of United States President Woodrow Wilson and his appointment of Governor General Francis Burton Harrison 47 led to the policy of Filipinization being introduced in 1913 as part of a policy to accelerate decolonization 14 139 In 1913 Filipinos were included in the commission shifting its membership to five Filipinos and four Americans 26 124 Efforts were also made to bring locals into the civil service 7 1081 48 The 1916 Jones Law envisioned eventual independence for the Philippines The commission was replaced by the Philippine Senate through the 1916 Jones Law 34 111 This body had 24 members elected for six year terms with two from each of the 12 senatorial districts Most were elected however those from the district consisting of the non Christian areas of Mindanao and the Cordilleras were appointed by the Governor General 26 124 The appointed senators had no fixed terms This legislative body had the power to confirm appointments to the executive and judicial branches 47 The Jones Law envisioned eventual Philippine independence once the territory had achieved stable governance 34 103 Some American legislators continued to disagree with this aim 43 262 believing American rule could be indefinite 43 270 271 1916 also saw the voting franchise expand from just educated English and Spanish speakers to include educated speakers of native languages 1 147 and the removal of the requirement to own property leading to the electorate including 6 7 of the population 3 42 By 1921 the Filipinization policy had resulted in 96 of the civil service staff being Filipinos 7 1081 49 The Nacionalista dominated Philippine Assembly and later the Philippine Senate were often at odds with the Governor General 1 139 43 271 7 1117 Its leadership grew more powerful seizing state bodies and using nationalism to weaken American oversight 1 141 142 The establishment of the senate led to the Nacionalistas forming opposing camps loyal to Osmena the Unipersonalistas and Senate President Manuel L Quezon the Colectavistas 3 44 Despite this division several independence missions were sent to Washington D C 1 146 The onset of the Great Depression strengthened American desire to grant independence to the Philippines as it would reduce American liability to the territory 43 273 50 51 The OsRox Mission led by Osmena and House Speaker Manuel Roxas resulted in the Hare Hawes Cutting Act However the Senate rejected this a new law the Tydings McDuffie Act which was marginally different and more importantly was supported by Quezon 7 1117 was approved and paved the way for the Commonwealth of the Philippines and mandated U S recognition of independence of the Philippine Islands after a ten year transition period 52 The institutionalization of the elite s role in politics under the American system combined with an increase in the Philippine population and an accruing of land into elite hands led to a breakdown in transitional social relationships between the elite and the rest of the populace In rural areas especially central Luzon class consciousness based political organization developed leading to eventually to peasant revolts in the 1930s 53 21 22 Commonwealth era Edit United States President Franklin D Roosevelt signs the 1935 Constitution of the Philippines in the presence of then Philippine Senate President Manuel L Quezon The new constitution created under this act was approved on January 31 1935 54 43 and was adopted the next day The first elections were held on September 17 54 44 Quezon and Osmena reconciled 1 147 3 44 and both were elected as president and vice president respectively in 1935 36 12 The Nacionalistas controlled the now unicameral National Assembly for the entirety of the Commonwealth with the understanding that the Americans would grant independence in the near future 7 1117 1118 In 1937 the voting franchise was expanded to include literate women 1 147 and this period saw participation in elections reach 14 46 15 Local elections were held in different years to legislative and presidential elections 33 Under the Commonwealth religious freedom was guaranteed although government and national identity remained Christian and Manila centric 44 108 109 A national curriculum similarly sought to impose a single vision of a Filipino identity across the diverse ethnolinguistic groups of the islands 44 110 Alongside this Tagalog was established as a national language 55 The Presidential system of the Commonwealth government was based on that of the United States 32 154 However while dividing power between three branches similarly with the constitution of the United States the 1935 constitution gave the Philippine President significantly more power both politically and economically than that accorded to the President of the United States 46 16 Tensions between the executive and legislature especially over passing budgets were immediately apparent under the new system 40 71 Control over budgets and political appointments were the two biggest ways that the legislature could influence the executive Budgetary control also provided members of Congress of means to generate political patronage through pork barrel politics 46 17 Seats in the legislature provided valuable access to the Philippine National Bank and the ability to influence export quotas most valuably that of sugar Often one family member became involved in politics while another managed the family business 40 66 67 Having sought the restriction of executive power under American Governors as President Quezon now moved to expand its power 14 153 The peasant led Sakdal uprising and the fear of a newly formed communist party were used to justify centralizing power 14 153 Originally a unicameral legislature was created 32 154 however Quezon pressed for constitutional amendments that would allow him to obtain a second term and for the restoration of a bicameral legislature Both amendments were passed 7 1117 1118 with the newly restored Senate now being elected at large instead of per district as what was done during the pre Commonwealth era Quezon Osmena and the Nacionalista Party as a whole won the elections in 1941 with greatly increased margins 26 125 Through patronage Quezon was able to maintain strong support among local elites This clout allowed him to pass several significant reforms aimed at improving the economic situation of the poor and middle classes failing only in his attempts at land reform 14 154 The transition to the Commonwealth government from American rule led to civil service positions that had previously been held by Americans being filled by political appointees a practice explicitly allowed by the 1935 constitution 40 67 The constitution also served to protect American interests in the Philippines effectively giving them greater economic access than other foreign countries and the Philippine economy remained tied to the American one even after independence 40 67 68 Defence and foreign affairs remained under the control of the United States 36 12 while legislation and judicial decisions could be reviewed in the United States Treatment of the Commonwealth by the United States was inconsistent with it sometimes being treated as a separate country and sometimes being treated as under United States jurisdiction Nonetheless internationally they had gained some acceptance as a distinct country The Philippines already had membership within the Universal Postal Union which was continued by the Commonwealth After World War II the Commonwealth became a founding member of the International Monetary Fund the World Bank the International Civil Aviation Organization the Food and Agriculture Organization and the United Nations 56 37 40 The inauguration of Jose P Laurel as President of the Second Philippine Republic during the Japanese occupation of the Philippines The Japanese invasion of 1941 at the onset of World War II forced the Commonwealth government to go into exile 7 1118 and subjected the country to a puppet government All existing political parties merged into the KALIBAPI party created by Proclamation No 109 on December 8 1942 57 KALIBAPI became the sole legal political party and Jose P Laurel was declared president of an independent Second Philippine Republic 36 14 15 58 on October 14 1943 59 Some municipal and tax laws from the 1935 Constitution remained in force during this period 54 43 and there was continuity in state bureaucracy from the Commonwealth to the Second Republic 14 160 Under Japanese rule governing policy was to win the populace over to the Japanese cause and thus reduce support for the United States but this was unsuccessful 36 15 In rural areas a sudden vacuum of elite power led to the formation of new local governments by the remaining populace beginning the Hukbalahap Rebellion 21 105 Exiled leaders of the previous first Commonwealth government provided limited support to the U S President President Quezon was a member of the Pacific War Council and participated along with Vice President Osmena and members of his cabinet in civic and social activities promoting the sale of war bonds etc 60 The Americans reconquered the country in 1944 and Osmena who had succeeded Quezon upon the latter s death restored the Commonwealth government 36 15 Those attending the congress were the remaining living and free members of the 1941 congress 36 15 16 47 The Nacionalistas were divided following the war with a leadership struggle leading to Manuel Roxas setting up what would later be the Liberal Party 33 Roxas defeated Osmena in the 1946 presidential election and became the last president of the Commonwealth 10 145 A left wing political movement that spawned from the Hukbalahap fight against the Japanese was suppressed by the former elite with American support leading to the continuation of the rebellion against the new government 21 105 The Americans granted independence on July 4 1946 and Roxas became the first president of the new Republic of the Philippines 10 145 The 1935 Commonwealth constitution continued in effect 33 as did existing membership in international organizations 56 41 Post independence era EditMain article History of the Philippines 1946 1965 President Manuel Roxas inauguration as the first president of an independent Philippines The impact of the war led to a weaker civil service and a reduction in the dominance of Manila with provincial politicians gaining political power and in some cases de facto autonomy Many leveraged their provincial power to engage in national politics 61 19 20 Muslim leaders who had resisted Japanese occupation were rewarded with local political office and others successfully ran for Congress 45 178 Eventually many throughout the country who had collaborated with the Japanese were pardoned in 1948 and 1953 36 16 17 Universal suffrage saw an expansion of voter participation although power remained concentrated in the hands of a small elite Despite the landed elite continuing to dominate the legislature 46 14 15 a diversifying post war economy saw politicians who were not primarily from agricultural backgrounds come to executive power By the late 1960s this had largely brought an end to the land based cacique democracy patronage system Political offices became lucrative by themselves and patronage became more reliant on access to government funds 40 69 Continued American economic and military support lessened the dependence of the executive on the legislature 46 17 These changes did not shift the overall shape of Filipino politics which remained a two party system dominated by a narrow elite 46 15 The winner of the Presidency tended to also take control of both houses of Congress 32 155 158 There was little policy difference between the two parties 35 17 and defections were common 36 16 Patronage fraud and voter suppression were common methods of maintaining power 46 17 18 Roxas succumbed to a heart attack in 1948 allowing Vice President Elpidio Quirino to rule the country for the next six years after winning in 1949 36 16 The continuing threat of the Hukbalahap led Defence Secretary Ramon Magsaysay to use the military to guard polling stations in the 1951 Senate election an election which was as a result considered quite fair 62 62 During his term in office Quirino sought to significantly expand executive power 46 18 Election concerns led to the National Citizens Movement for Free Elections being formed an early example of civil society organization that prominently included World War II veterans This movement was supported by the United States who desired the Philippines to be an example of democracy as the Cold War reached Asia and by the Catholic Church 35 48 51 Quirino s Liberal government was widely seen as corrupt and was easily beaten by Ramon Magsaysay in the 1953 election Magsaysay who oversaw the surrender of the Hukbalahap was massively popular 63 64 Magsaysay implemented a plan to settle surrendered Hukbalahap rebels in Mindanao 44 111 This cemented a demographic shift in Mindanao from having a Muslim majority to having a Christian majority 45 177 180 The expression of class based politics shifted towards more moderate groups such as the Federation of Free Farmers and the Federation of Free Workers 53 22 23 During his rule Magsaysay also expanded the role of the military in his administration believing them to be reliable 62 63 President Elpidio Quirino meets leaders of the Hukbalahap Rebellion Before the 1957 election Magsaysay was killed in a plane crash 65 His vice president Carlos P Garcia succeeded him and won the election 66 The military distrusted Garcia but plans to remove him from office never reached fruition The removal of many officers from the administration to be replaced by often corrupt civilians fermented a distrust of the democratic process within some parts of the military 62 63 Garcia continued Magsaysay s Filipino First policy 67 69 and implemented an austerity program 68 Garcia was defeated by his vice president Diosdado Macapagal of the Liberal Party in 1961 Macapagal initiated a return to a system of free enterprise and sought land reform and electrification However Macapagal s policies faced stiff opposition in Congress where the Nacionalistas held the majority 7 808 The Philippine civil service in the late 1950s and 60s was becaming more technocratic and Macapagal established the Program Implementation Agency directly under the President This body was used to manage projects relatively free from Congressional oversight 40 69 Macapagal was defeated in 1965 by Senator Ferdinand Marcos 69 The growing and diversifying economy of the 1960s led to a growth in private business power 35 78 and an expansion in mass media 35 80 Marcos infrastructure projects were the feature policy of his term 70 he was the first president to be re elected in 1969 although the election was tainted by violence and allegations of fraud and vote buying 35 87 The 1969 election saw a similar election observation effort to 1953 although it did not receive as much backing or have as much impact Marcos was not opposed by the church business or the United States Significant protests such as the First Quarter Storm 35 85 87 and civil unrest heightened after the election 35 87 While Marcos initially distrusted the military who were suspected of planning a coup following successful coups elsewhere in Asia he eventually co opted the military into his re election campaign and began to heavily rely on the military during his second term 62 64 Communist rebellion strengthened during Marcos rule 1 219 220 and a Moro insurgency emerged in Mindanao as tensions surrounding Christian immigration combined with a more empowered national government 1 216 Local elections in 1971 overturned Muslim political dominance in Mindanao as Christian settlers who had previously voted for traditional Muslim leaders switched to voting for Christian representatives 45 185 Marcos dictatorship EditMain article History of the Philippines 1965 1986 Despite initiating a constitutional convention in 1971 22 12 Marcos declared martial law in 1972 35 87 While this was likely to justify arresting political opponents 45 186 Marcos cited the communist insurgency 71 72 and Muslim separatism as the reasons for the move 45 186 At one point communist rebels were present in one fifth of the country s villages 46 1 Meanwhile the imposition of military rule only increased Muslim resistance in Mindanao 45 187 188 Attempts to end the war in Mindanao led Marcos to alter the political situation in the area He introduced a code of Muslim personal laws and formally recognized a number of sultans in Mindanao and Sulu Negotiations led the insurgency to replace demands for independence with demands for autonomy While peace talks ultimately failed the level of violence subsided from its peak in the early 1970s 45 190 197 President Ferdinand Marcos declares martial law Marcos framed his government as fighting against the rich landed elite that traditionally dominated politics He relied on the growing technocratic civil service who were receptive to such arguments to effectively run the country under martial law The first large scale government reorganization since independence shortly followed including a purge of the existing civil service 40 69 71 Marcos also relied on the military which gained increased power and resources during the martial law period By the end of the Marcos rule it had quadrupled in size Much of this was funded through U S military assistance which doubled during this period 46 46 47 Military training also shifted with an increasing emphasis on humanities in order to allow officers to more effectively handle civilian administrative roles 62 65 The convention finalized the new constitution in November 1972 73 It called for a semi presidential government was approved in 1973 33 through shows of hands in citizen assemblies 26 125 a process that did not meet the requirements of the 1935 constitution for constitutional change 22 10 The Supreme Court ruled that although this procedure was improper the constitution had come into force 74 6 Amendment No 6 of 1976 gave the executive the law making powers of the legislature 22 11 13 Beginning with these referendums the voting age was lowered from 21 to 15 75 76 77 In a 1974 Presidential Decree the barrio subdivisions were renamed barangays 78 The Integrated National Police was formed in 1975 extending national control of policing to the local level 46 46 Marcos continued to rule by decree without elections until 1978 when the Interim Batasang Pambansa IBP legislature was elected 33 Marcos had complete control over the bureaucracy local governments military the press and COMELEC The 1978 parliamentary and the 1980 local elections were dominated by Marcos Kilusang Bagong Lipunan party 33 35 88 The unicameral IBP had little power unable to repeal Presidential decrees or declare no confidence in the government 26 125 The Supreme Court affirmed the expansive executive powers claimed under martial law 22 10 11 Marcos laid out a vision of a new society which would represent an end to old oligarchies 67 70 The changes implemented by Marcos sought to eliminate regional power centers and instead strengthen links between his national government and the general public This was only partially successful and Marcos relied on local allies to enforce martial law 79 Some political dynasties who were not allied with Marcos were stripped of assets and power 61 41 in many cases replaced in local politics by Marcos allies 61 437 Marcos ended martial law in 1981 shortly before a visit to the country by Pope John Paul II although he retained immense executive powers 22 12 13 Opposition groups still boycotted the 1981 presidential election 80 81 which Marcos easily won while maintaining tight control of the election process 82 1151 As martial law was repealed Marcos implemented a system of nominal autonomy in some regions of Mindanao This was however seen as largely toothless and the Moro Islamic Liberation Front operated as a shadow government in some areas 45 198 Opponents to Marcos were able to consolidate under the United Nationalist Democratic Organization 67 70 Opposition leader Benigno Aquino Jr was assassinated upon his return to the country in 1983 17 97 By this time the government was marred by a weak economy rampant corruption and a loss of political support 82 1153 1154 A united opposition participated in the 1984 parliamentary election and made gains including defections from the ruling party 21 108 Meanwhile the economy had entered a period of contraction 35 89 Divisions within the military emerged during this period As elements of the military became more involved in governing including abetting Marcos in increasing his control morale decreased among those continuing to fight the rebellion As crisis deepened some officers began to believe the survival of the political system required the removal of Marcos 62 65 66 In 1985 to counter growing opposition Marcos called for a snap election that had no constitutional basis 22 11 The opposition nominated Benigno s widow Corazon as their candidate 67 70 Marcos was declared the winner of the 1986 election but the opposition refused to accept the result alleging that the election was rigged 17 98 This opposition included disaffected members of the military who when their plans for a coup after the election were disrupted instead declared support for Aquino 62 66 The resulting People Power Revolution drove Marcos from power and Aquino became president 17 98 following Congress officially declaring her the election winner 83 Post People Power era EditMain article History of the Philippines 1986 present Corazon Aquino was inaugurated president on February 25 1986 it was one of two presidential inaugurations that day Initially Aquino governed under a freedom constitution while setting up a constitutional commission to replace the 1973 constitution 26 125 22 6 This freedom constitution declared the Aquino Government to have been installed through a direct exercise of the power of the Filipino people assisted by units of the New Armed Forces of the Philippines 22 6 The military s perceived role in this overthrowing of President Marcos created a precedent for direct intervention into politics 84 82 22 11 With the IBP abolished 73 Aquino exercised both executive and legislative powers This power was used to modify the Family Code to increase gender equality 26 125 The 1987 constitution approved via plebiscite 26 125 restored democracy along the lines of the 1935 constitution although local elections became synchronized with national elections term limits were put in place and a multi party system replaced the previous two party system 33 Checks and balances were put in place to limit executive power and many laws established during martial law were repealed 22 13 The Senate was re created 32 164 and active members of the military were barred from government 62 67 Written in the aftermath of the people power movement the new constitution introduced some elements of direct democracy such as the possibility of constitutional amendments though initiative and referendum recall of local elected officials and provisions guaranteeing the right for civil society groups to organize 22 6 The new constitution did not cancel the effect of the previous one and unless otherwise stated laws established under the 1973 constitution remained in effect 22 14 Economic property that had been expropriated from elite families under the dictatorship was returned to them 61 19 The 1987 constitution kept the 1973 text on civilian rule over the military although it added that the armed forces were the protector of the people and the state 84 83 22 8 It also separated the Philippine Constabulary from the military while shifting response for internal security from the military to the police 84 86 87 The military as a whole had mostly voted against the new constitution and three coups were attempted between July 1986 and August 1987 62 67 The practice of recruiting retired military officers for some executive branch roles such as ambassadorships or within cabinet that was started by Marcos and continued after the restoration of democracy 84 81 93 The separation between the police and the military was impeded by the continuing communist and Islamic rebellions 84 91 The 1987 legislative election which saw elections for all 24 Senate seats instead of the usual 12 saw pro Aquino parties win most of the seats in Congress The electoral system meant that the 200 members of the House had together received only 34 of votes 32 164 While local officials were initially appointed directly by Aquino 85 28 divisions in left leaning groups who had opposed Marcos and a related lack of participation in the 1988 local elections contributed to the traditional elite recapturing elected office 21 112 86 Political reform movements that had grown under Marcos and played a significant role in the revolution lost their strength over the next few years 85 28 87 282 88 91 Aquino s government was mired by coup attempts 59 high inflation and unemployment 89 and natural calamities 89 90 but introduced limited land reform 1 235 91 92 93 and market liberalization 94 95 Communist rebels who had broken with other anti Marcos groups continued a low intensity rebellion Islamic separatists similarly continued their campaign in the south 21 109 Although there were some initial peace negotiations which saw limited success 45 200 Aquino eventually undertook a total war policy against these insurrections 21 113 The establishment of the Autonomous Region in Muslim Mindanao ARMM saw little change on the ground 45 202 Aquino s administration also saw the pullout of the U S bases in Subic Bay and Clark 96 97 In 1991 a new Local Government Code shifted some power and resources to lower levels of government 21 115 The Office of the Regional Governor building held the government of the Autonomous Region in Muslim Mindanao Aquino did not wish to run for re election 98 and leading up to the 1992 presidential election she supported Fidel V Ramos who had left her party to form his own rather than the nominated leader of her party Ramon Mitra 99 100 Ramos won albeit under controversial circumstances and allegations of electoral fraud 101 102 103 The 1992 elections was the first synchronized election where presidential legislative and local elections were held simultaneously This election also saw 24 senators elected 32 167 169 with the twelve with the lowest votes being elected only for three years Following this election the system of 12 senators being elected for six year terms every three years began 104 Ramos facing an ongoing energy crisis inherited from the Aquino administration resolved the issue by issuing contracts favorable to power producers 20 343 105 The Ramos administration privatized government monopolies 20 343 lowered economic regulation 59 hosted the 1996 APEC summit 106 reinstated the death penalty 107 108 signed the party list system act 109 110 111 repealed the anti subversion law 110 112 devolved power away from the national government through the Local Government Code 1 251 signed a peace agreement with the Moro National Liberation Front 113 and bore the brunt of the 1997 Asian financial crisis 114 While Ramos actively cooperated with civil society groups his social reform agenda did not bring about serious reform 88 91 92 He was unable to fulfil his desire to amend the constitution following opposition from Aquino and other sectors 20 343 With the Asian financial crisis damaging the image of economy liberalism and with no clear successor to Ramos 115 252 253 Ramos vice president Joseph Estrada defeated the former s party mate Jose de Venecia and several others in the 1998 election with a comfortable margin running a populist campaign that appealed directly to poorer voters 88 95 97 Meanwhile de Venecia s running mate Gloria Macapagal Arroyo was elected vice president 116 Estrada wanted to amend the constitution to reduce economic protectionism but was opposed by Aquino and the Catholic Church 117 The administration launched an all out war against the Moro Islamic Liberation Front that saw the government retaking Camp Abubakar the main rebel encampment 115 257 258 118 Despite the popular anti rebel stance the administration was embroiled in charges of cronyism and corruption a scandal involving jueteng gambling led to his impeachment by the House of Representatives 1 274 276 In the impeachment trial Estrada s allies in the Senate successfully prevented evidence to be presented this triggered massive protests 119 120 Days later in what would be called the EDSA II 121 the Armed Forces of the Philippines withdrew their support from Estrada and transferred their allegiance to Vice President Arroyo the Supreme Court later ruled the presidency as vacant and Estrada left Malacanang Palace 122 123 Arroyo was sworn in as president on January 20 2001 Four months later after Estrada was officially charged with plundering his supporters launched their own mass movement laying siege to the presidential palace However the movement did not succeed and the protestors were later expelled 88 101 103 124 Arroyo s People Power Coalition won a majority of seats in the 2001 elections and therefore consolidated power In 2003 Arroyo put down a coup attempt in the central business district 125 As Arroyo had served less than four years as president she was eligible for re election 74 7 She faced Fernando Poe Jr a friend of Estrada along with three others in 2004 and won on a slim plurality Months after Poe died in December it was exposed via wiretapped conversations that Arroyo rigged the election 126 On a national address Arroyo said that she was sorry on a lapse of judgment The opposition did not let up and she had to put down two more coup attempts 127 128 Following her election Arroyo attempted to change the constitution and create a parliamentary system This gained significant momentum and support from the House but Senate opposition a close Supreme Court ruling and civil society opposition led to its failure 74 8 21 The opposition united in the 2007 Senate election and won easily but Arroyo s allies still held the House of Representatives 129 By the end of her presidency Arroyo was the most unpopular president since the 1986 People Power Revolution 130 with her administration being widely viewed as deeply corrupt 131 129 Despite this unpopularity there was no mass movement to replace Arroyo In part this was due to fatigue from previous people power movements which were regarded as having failed to cause enough change to the political system 88 205 Presidents Joseph Estrada Gloria Macapagal Arroyo Rodrigo Duterte Fidel V Ramos and Benigno Aquino III Before the 2010 election Arroyo s party nominated Gilberto Teodoro for president however some quarters suggested that Arroyo was secretly supporting Manny Villar who was the front runner at the time 132 The race changed following the death of former president Aquino which led to her son Benigno Aquino III launching a campaign Allegations of scandal led to Villar dropping in the polls falling first behind Aquino and then behind Estrada who was running again following a pardon from Arroyo 133 134 Aquino embarked on an anti corruption drive 135 saw the economy grow and maintained high levels of popularity 136 It also sought to strengthen independent bodies such as the Supreme Court and the Ombudsman 137 8 Overall the Benigno Aquino administration was politically stable seen as relatively clean and had the highest ratings since Marcos 138 42 43 However natural calamities 139 along with scams on the use of pork barrel and other discretionary funds coming to light led to rising opposition in the final years of the administration 140 Such opposition became linked to perceptions about the failure of change within the wider political system rather than to Aquino himself 138 45 In 2016 Aquino s handpicked successor Mar Roxas was decisively defeated by Davao City mayor Rodrigo Duterte in the 2016 Presidential Election 141 Duterte ran on a populist platform winning votes from various socioeconomic classes with particularly strong appeal to the middle classes 137 18 His election victory was propelled by growing public frustration over the tumultuous post EDSA democratic governance which favored political and economic elite over ordinary Filipinos 142 143 Duterte implemented a massive War on Drugs that resulted as of February 2022 in more than half of all barangays cleared of drugs 144 but led to thousands of deaths The opposition now primarily Liberal Party pro Aquino figures opposed the killings branding them as human rights abuses 145 Duterte then prioritized infrastructure spending 146 147 148 and sought to end the communist insurgency 149 formally declaring the Communist Party of the Philippines New Peoples Army CPP NPA as a terrorist group 150 151 creating a reintegration program for former rebels 152 153 and granting amnesty to eligible members 154 155 The administration made peace with the Moro Islamic Liberation Front agreeing to expand and empower autonomy in Muslim areas replacing the ARMM with the more powerful Bangsamoro region 156 The opposition was wiped out in the 2019 midterms where all of its senatorial candidates lost and only a handful of winners in the lower house 157 158 The Duterte government has largely continued Aquino s economic policies including those focused on the poor Its political policies have shown a shift towards illiberal democracy with the politicization of legal institutions and less regard for checks and balances 137 26 28 Former senator and son of the late Ferdinand Marcos Ferdinand Marcos Jr won the 2022 elections This marked the family s return to Malacanang 36 years after the People Power Revolution which drove their family to exile Duterte s daughter Sara Duterte also won as vice president 159 On 30 June 2022 Marcos was sworn in as the Philippine president and Sara Duterte was sworn in as vice president 160 See also EditPolitics of the Philippines Timeline of Philippine political historyReferences Edit a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa Abinales P N Amoroso Donna J 2005 State and Society in the Philippines Rowman amp Littlefield ISBN 978 0 7425 1024 1 Archived from the original on January 3 2014 Retrieved June 7 2021 a b Scott William Henry 1994 Barangay Sixteenth century Philippine Culture and Society Ateneo University Press pp 4 6 ISBN 978 971 550 135 4 Archived from the original on May 22 2021 Retrieved June 7 2021 a b c d e f g h i j k Simbulan Dante C 2005 The Modern Principalia The Historical Evolution of the Philippine Ruling Oligarchy University of the Philippines Press ISBN 978 971 542 496 7 Archived from the original on May 9 2021 Retrieved June 7 2021 a b Brillantes Alex B Jr April 1998 Decentralized Democratic Governance Under the Local Government Code A Governmental Perspective PDF Philippine Journal of Public Administration 42 1 2 Archived PDF from the original on May 9 2001 Retrieved December 4 2020 a b Tan Samuel K April 16 2015 Politico Diplomatic History of 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10 1007 s10761 016 0342 9 S2CID 147472482 Archived from the original on May 16 2021 Retrieved June 7 2021 a b c d e f g h i j k l Abinales Patricio N Amoroso Donna J July 6 2017 State and Society in the Philippines Second ed Rowman amp Littlefield ISBN 978 1 5381 0395 1 Archived from the original on May 17 2021 Retrieved June 7 2021 Hall Daniel George Edward 1981 History of South East Asia Macmillan International Higher Education p 757 ISBN 978 1 349 16521 6 Archived from the original on April 17 2021 Retrieved July 30 2020 Bacareza Hermogenes E 2003 The German Connection A Modern History Hermogenes E Bacareza p 10 ISBN 978 971 93095 4 3 Archived from the original on April 17 2021 Retrieved July 30 2020 a b c d e Miranda Felipe B Rivera Temario C Ronas Malaya C Holmes Ronald D 2011 Chasing the Wind Assessing Philippine Democracy PDF Quezon City Commission on Human Rights Philippines ISBN 978 971 93106 4 8 Archived PDF from the original on May 9 2021 Retrieved June 7 2021 Hedman Eva Lotta Sidel John 2005 Philippine Politics and Society in the Twentieth Century Colonial Legacies Post Colonial Trajectories Routledge p 71 ISBN 978 1 134 75421 2 Archived from the original on April 17 2021 Retrieved July 30 2020 Steinberg David Joel 2018 Chapter 3 A Singular and a Plural Folk The Philippines A Singular and a Plural Place Routledge p 47 doi 10 4324 9780429494383 ISBN 978 0 8133 3755 5 Archived from the original on April 17 2021 Retrieved June 7 2021 The cultural identity of the mestizos was challenged as they became increasingly aware that they were true members of neither the indio nor the Chinese community Increasingly powerful but adrift they linked with the Spanish mestizos who were also being challenged because after the Latin American revolutions broke the Spanish Empire many of the settlers from the New World Caucasian Creoles born in Mexico or Peru became suspect in the eyes of the Iberian Spanish The Spanish Empire had lost its universality a b c d e f Duka Cecilio D 2008 Struggle for Freedom Rex Bookstore Inc ISBN 978 971 23 5045 0 Archived from the original on April 17 2021 Retrieved June 7 2021 a b c d e f g h i Franco Jennifer C 2004 The Philippines Fractious Civil Society and Competing Visions of Democracy In Alagappa Muthiah ed Civil Society and Political Change in Asia Expanding and Contracting Democratic Space Stanford University Press ISBN 978 0 8047 5097 4 Archived from the original on May 24 2021 Retrieved June 7 2021 a b c d e f g h i j k l m n Bernas Joaquin G 2003 A Living Constitution The Abbreviated Estrada Presidency Ateneo University Press ISBN 978 971 550 433 1 The Malolos Congress The National Historical Institute 1999 pp 13 15 ISBN 978 971 538 122 2 Treasury Decisions Under Customs and Other Laws U S Government Printing Office 1904 p 834 Archived from the original on April 16 2021 Retrieved April 16 2021 Young Louis Stanley Northrop Henry Davenport 1899 Life and Heroic Deeds of Admiral Dewey Including Battles in the Philippines Together with Thrilling Accounts of Our Great Victories in the Philippines the Climate Products and Rich Resources of These Islands Together with the Manners and Customs of the People Their Cities Towns Natural Scenery Etc Globe Bible publishing Company p 174 Archived from the original on April 16 2021 Retrieved April 16 2021 a b c d e f g h i j k l Aguiling Pangalangan Elizabeth October 23 2013 Promoting reproductive health in the Philippines In Zheng Yongnian Lye Liang Fook Wilhelm Hofmeister eds Parliaments in Asia Institution Building and Political Development Routledge ISBN 978 1 134 46965 9 a b Cureg Elyzabeth F Matunding Jennifer F 2006 Federalism Initiatives in the Philippines PDF Federalism and Multiculturalism University of the Philippines pp 177 204 Archived from the original on September 6 2021 Retrieved September 6 2021 a b Filomeno V Aguilar Jr 2000 The Republic of Negros Philippine Studies 48 1 26 52 JSTOR 42634352 Manuel L Quezon III June 12 2017 The 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7 2021 Greenberg Lawrence M 1987 The Hukbalahap Insurrection A Case Study of a Successful Anti insurgency Operation in the Philippines 1946 1955 Analysis Branch U S Army Center of Military History pp 64 133 Archived from the original on April 16 2021 Retrieved April 16 2021 Magsaysay Philippine President Dies in Crash of Private Plane Israel Blames U N for Gaza Crisis The Harvard Crimson Associated Press March 18 1957 Archived from the original on April 22 2018 Retrieved April 16 2021 Republic of the Philippines Background Office of Armed Forces Information amp Education 1961 p 7 Archived from the original on May 12 2021 Retrieved May 12 2021 a b c d White III Lynn T December 17 2014 Philippine Politics Possibilities and Problems in a Localist Democracy Routledge ISBN 978 1 317 57422 4 Archived from the original on May 9 2021 Retrieved June 7 2021 Antonio Eleanor D Dallo Evangeline M Imperial Consuelo M Samson Maria Carmelita B Soriano Celia D 2005 Kayamanan I Kasaysayan ng Pilipinas 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amp oldid 1128483669, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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