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Lysergic acid diethylamide

January 31, 2023

"LSD" redirects here. For other uses, see LSD (disambiguation).
Not to be confused with LDS.

Lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD),[a] also known colloquially as acid, is a potent psychedelic drug.[12] Effects typically include intensified thoughts, emotions, and sensory perception.[13] At sufficiently high dosages LSD manifests primarily mental, visual, as well as auditory, hallucinations.[14][15] Dilated pupils, increased blood pressure, and increased body temperature are typical.[16] Effects typically begin within half an hour and can last for up to 20 hours.[16][17] LSD is also capable of causing mystical experiences and ego dissolution.[18][15] It is used mainly as a recreational drug or for spiritual reasons.[16][19] LSD is both the prototypical psychedelic and one of the "classical" psychedelics, being the psychedelics with the greatest scientific and cultural significance.[12] LSD is typically either swallowed or held under the tongue.[13] It is most often sold on blotter paper and less commonly as tablets, in a watery solution or in gelatin squares called panes.[16]

Lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD)
INN: Lysergide
Clinical data
Pronunciation/daɪ eθəl ˈæmaɪd/, /æmɪd/, or /eɪmaɪd/[1][2][3]
Other namesLSD, LSD-25, LAD, Acid, Delysid, others
AHFS/Drugs.comReference
Dependence
liability		Low[4]
Addiction
liability		None[5]
Routes of
administration		By mouth, under the tongue
Drug classHallucinogen (psychedelic)
ATC code
  • None
Legal status
Legal status
Pharmacokinetic data
Bioavailability71%[6]
Protein bindingUnknown[7]
MetabolismLiver (CYP450)[6]
Metabolites2-Oxo-3-hydroxy-LSD[6]
Onset of action30–40 minutes[8]
Elimination half-life3.6 hours[6][9]
Duration of action8–20 hours[10]
ExcretionKidneys[6][9]
Identifiers
  • (6aR,9R)-N,N-diethyl-7-methyl-4,6,6a,7,8,9-hexahydroindolo[4,3-fg]quinoline-9-carboxamide
CAS Number
  • 50-37-3 Y
PubChem CID
  • 5761
IUPHAR/BPS
  • 17
DrugBank
  • DB04829 Y
ChemSpider
  • 5558 Y
UNII
  • 8NA5SWF92O
ChEBI
  • CHEBI:6605 Y
ChEMBL
  • ChEMBL263881 Y
PDB ligand
  • 7LD (PDBe, RCSB PDB)
CompTox Dashboard (EPA)
  • DTXSID1023231
ECHA InfoCard100.000.031
Chemical and physical data
FormulaC20H25N3O
Molar mass323.440 g·mol−1
3D model (JSmol)
  • Interactive image
Melting point80 to 85 °C (176 to 185 °F)
Solubility in water7.034[11] mg/mL (20 °C)
  • CCN(CC)C(=O)[C@H]1CN([C@@H]2Cc3c[nH]c4c3c(ccc4)C2=C1)C
  • InChI=1S/C20H25N3O/c1-4-23(5-2)20(24)14-9-16-15-7-6-8-17-19(15)13(11-21-17)10-18(16)22(3)12-14/h6-9,11,14,18,21H,4-5,10,12H2,1-3H3/t14-,18-/m1/s1 Y
  • Key:VAYOSLLFUXYJDT-RDTXWAMCSA-N Y
  (verify)

LSD is considered to be non-addictive with low potential for abuse.[20][21] Frequent use rapidly builds tolerance, requiring exponentially larger doses to feel an effect. Adverse psychological reactions are possible, such as anxiety, paranoia, and delusions.[7] LSD is active in small amounts relative to other psychoactive compounds with doses measured in micrograms.[22] It is possible for LSD to induce either intermittent or chronic visual hallucinations, in spite of no further use. Common effects include visual snow and palinopsia. In cases where this causes distress or impairment it is diagnosed as hallucinogen persisting perception disorder (HPPD).[23][24] While overdose from LSD is unknown, LSD can cause injury and death as a result of accidents stemming from psychological impairment.[16][12] The effects of LSD are thought to stem primarily from it being an agonist at the 5-HT2A (serotonin) receptor, and while exactly how LSD exerts its effects by agonism at this receptor is still not fully known, corresponding increased glutamatergic neurotransmission and reduced default mode network activity are thought to be key mechanisms of action.[21][7][12][25][26] In addition to serotonin, LSD also binds to dopamine D1 and D2 receptors, which is why LSD tends to be more stimulating than compounds such as psilocybin.[27][28] In pure form, LSD is clear or white in color, has no smell, and is crystalline.[13] It breaks down with exposure to ultraviolet light.[16]

LSD was first synthesized by Swiss chemist Albert Hofmann in 1938 from lysergic acid, a chemical derived from the hydrolysis of ergotamine, an alkaloid found in ergot, a fungus that infects grain.[16][23] LSD was the 25th of various lysergamides Hofmann synthesized from lysergic acid while trying to develop a new analeptic, hence the alternate name LSD-25. Hofmann discovered its effects in humans in 1943, after unintentionally ingesting an unknown amount, possibly absorbing it through his skin.[29][30][31] LSD was subject to exceptional interest within the field of psychiatry in the 1950s and early 1960s, with Sandoz distributing LSD to researchers under the trademark name Delysid in an attempt to find a marketable use for it.[30]

LSD-assisted psychotherapy was used in the 1950s and early 1960s by psychiatrists such as Humphry Osmond, who pioneered the application of LSD to the treatment of alcoholism, with promising results.[32][30][33][34] Osmond coined the term "psychedelic" (lit. mind manifesting) as a term for LSD and related hallucinogens, superseding the previously held "psychotomimetic" model in which LSD was believed to mimic schizophrenia. In contrast to schizophrenia, LSD induces transcendental experiences with lasting psychological benefit.[12][30] During this time, the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) began using LSD in the research project Project MKUltra, which used psychoactive substances to aid interrogation. The CIA administered LSD to unwitting test subjects in order to observe how they would react, and the most well-known example of this is Operation Midnight Climax.[30] LSD was one of several psychoactive substances evaluated by the U.S. Army Chemical Corps as possible non-lethal incapacitants in the Edgewood Arsenal human experiments.[30]

In the 1960s, LSD and other psychedelics were adopted by, and became synonymous with, the counterculture movement due to their perceived ability to expand consciousness. This resulted in LSD being viewed as a cultural threat to American values and the Vietnam war effort, and it was designated as a Schedule I (illegal for medical as well as recreational use) substance in 1968.[35] It was listed as a Schedule 1 controlled substance by the United Nations in 1971 and currently has no approved medical uses.[16] As of 2017, about 10% of people in the United States have used LSD at some point in their lives, while 0.7% have used it in the last year.[36] It was most popular in the 1960s to 1980s.[16] The use of LSD among US adults increased 56.4% from 2015 to 2018.[37]

Uses

Recreational

LSD is commonly used as a recreational drug in the company of friends, in large crowds, or by oneself.[38]

Spiritual

LSD can catalyze intense spiritual experiences and is thus considered an entheogen. Some users have reported out of body experiences. In 1966, Timothy Leary established the League for Spiritual Discovery with LSD as its sacrament.[39][40] Stanislav Grof has written that religious and mystical experiences observed during LSD sessions appear to be phenomenologically indistinguishable from similar descriptions in the sacred scriptures of the great religions of the world and the texts of ancient civilizations.[41]

Medical

See also: Lysergic acid diethylamide § Research

LSD currently has no approved uses in medicine.[42][43] A meta analysis concluded that a single dose was effective at reducing alcohol consumption in alcoholism.[34] LSD has also been studied in depression, anxiety,[44][45] and drug dependence, with positive preliminary results.[46][47]

Effects

 
Some symptoms reported for LSD[48][49]

LSD is exceptionally potent, with as little as 20 μg capable of producing a noticeable effect.[16]

 
Patient with Mydriasis due to usage of LSD

Physical

LSD can cause pupil dilation, reduced appetite, profuse sweating and wakefulness. Other physical reactions to LSD are highly variable and nonspecific, some of which may be secondary to the psychological effects of LSD. Among the reported symptoms are elevated body temperature, blood sugar, and heart rate, alongside goose bumps, jaw clenching, mouth dryness, and hyperreflexia. In negative experiences, numbness, weakness, nausea, and tremors have also been exhibited.[16]

Psychological

The most common immediate psychological effects of LSD are visual hallucinations and illusions (colloquially known as "trips"), which vary depending on how much is used and how the dosage interacts with the brain. Trips usually start within 20–30 minutes of taking LSD orally (less if snorted or taken intravenously), peak three to four hours after ingestion, and can last up to 20 hours in high doses. Users may also experience an "afterglow" of improved mood or perceived mental state for days or even weeks after ingestion in some experiences.[50] Good trips are reportedly deeply stimulating and pleasurable, and typically involve intense joy or euphoria, a greater appreciation for life, reduced anxiety, a sense of spiritual enlightenment, and a sense of belonging or interconnectedness with the universe.[51][52] Negative experiences, colloquially known as "bad trips," evoke an array of dark emotions, such as irrational fear, anxiety, panic, paranoia, dread, distrustfulness, hopelessness, and even suicidal ideation.[53] While it is impossible to predict when a bad trip will occur, one's mood, surroundings, sleep, hydration, social setting, and other factors can be controlled (colloquially referred to as "set and setting") to minimize the risk of a bad trip.[54][55]

Sensory

LSD causes an animated sensory experience of senses, emotions, memories, time, and awareness for 6 to 20 hours, depending on dosage and tolerance.[17] Generally beginning within 30 to 90 minutes after ingestion, the user may experience anything from subtle changes in perception to overwhelming cognitive shifts. Changes in auditory and visual perception are also typical.[56][57]

Some sensory effects may include an experience of radiant or more vibrant colors, objects and surfaces appearing to ripple, "breathe," or otherwise move, spinning fractals superimposed on one's vision, colored patterns behind closed eyelids, an altered sense of time, geometric patterns emerging on walls and other textured objects, and morphing objects.[56] Some users also report a strong metallic taste for the duration of the effects.[58] Food's texture or taste may be different, and users may also have an aversion to foods that they would normally enjoy. Similar effects have also been found in rats.[59]

Some report that the inanimate world appears to animate in an inexplicable way; for instance, objects that are static in three dimensions can seem to be moving relative to one or more additional spatial dimensions.[60] Many of the basic visual effects resemble the phosphenes seen after applying pressure to the eye and have also been studied as form constants. Sometimes these effects and patterns can be changed when concentrated on, or can change based on thoughts, emotions or music.[61] The auditory effects of LSD may include echo-like distortions of sounds, changes in ability to discern concurrent auditory and visual stimuli, and a general intensification of the experience of music. Higher doses often cause intense and fundamental distortions of sensory perception such as synesthesia, the experience of additional spatial or temporal dimensions, and temporary dissociation.

Adverse effects

 
Addiction experts in psychiatry, chemistry, pharmacology, forensic science, epidemiology, and the police and legal services engaged in delphic analysis regarding 20 popular recreational drugs. LSD was ranked 14th in dependence, 15th in physical harm, and 13th in social harm.[62]

Out of the 20 drugs ranked in order of individual and societal harm by David Nutt, LSD was third to last, or approximately 1/10th as harmful as alcohol. The most significant adverse effect of LSD was impairment of mental functioning while intoxicated.[63]

Mental disorders

LSD may trigger panic attacks or feelings of extreme anxiety, known colloquially as a "bad trip". Although population studies have not found an increased incidence of mental illness in psychedelic drug users overall, with psychedelic users actually having lower rates of depression and substance abuse than the control group,[64][65] there is evidence that people with severe mental illnesses like schizophrenia have a higher likelihood of experiencing adverse effects from taking LSD.[66]

Suggestibility

While publicly available documents indicate that the CIA and Department of Defense have discontinued research into the use of LSD as a means of mind control,[67] research from the 1960s suggests that both mentally ill and healthy people are more suggestible while under its influence.[68][69][70]

Flashbacks

"Flashbacks" are a reported psychological phenomenon in which an individual experiences an episode of some of LSD's subjective effects after the drug has worn off, persisting for days or months after hallucinogen use.[71][72] Individuals with hallucinogen persisting perception disorder experience intermittent or chronic flashbacks that cause distress or impairment in life and work.[24]

The etiology of the "flashback" phenomenon appears to be varied. Some researchers such as Krebs and Johansen (2015[73]) attribute at least some of the cases to be related to somatic symptom disorder, when people fixate on normal somatic experiences and perceptions that they weren't aware of before consuming the drug. Other researchers relate it to an associative reaction to a contextual cue akin to what people that have faced trauma or strongly emotional experiences face when receiving a triggering stimulus (Holland and Passie 2011[74]). There is no consensus on what are the risk factors but some researchers theorize that pre-existing psychopathologies may be a significant contributor (Abraham and Duffy 1996[75])

The prevalence of HPPD is difficult to estimate but appears to be very rare (Halpern et al 2016[76]), with estimates ranging from 1 in 20 users for the transitory and less serious type 1 HPPD, to 1 in 50,000 users for the more concerning type 2 HPPD.[77]

Contrary to rumors circulating the internet that LSD is stored in the spinal cord or other parts of your body long-term,[78] the pharmacological evidence (Passie et all 2008[79]) shows LSD has a short half-life of 175 minutes, undergoing enzymatic metabolism into more polar and therefore water-soluble compounds such as 2-oxo-3-hydroxy-LSD that are eliminated through the urine. No evidence of long term storage of LSD in the body exists.

Cancer and pregnancy

The mutagenic potential of LSD is unclear. Overall, the evidence seems to point to limited or no effect at commonly used doses.[80] Studies showed no evidence of teratogenic or mutagenic effects.[7][81]

Addiction and tolerance

Tolerance to LSD builds up with consistent use[82] and cross-tolerance has been demonstrated between LSD, mescaline,[83] and psilocybin.[84] Researchers believe that tolerance returns to baseline after two weeks of not using psychedelics.[85]

The NIH states that LSD is addictive,[23] while most other sources state it is not.[20][86] A 2009 textbook states that it "rarely produce[s] compulsive use."[5] A 2006 review states it is readily abused, but does not result in addiction.[20] There are no recorded successful attempts to train animals to self-administer LSD in laboratory settings.[21]

Overdose

A report in 2008 stated that, though there was no "comprehensive review since the 1950s" and "almost no legal clinical research" since the 1970s, there had been "no documented human deaths from an LSD overdose". Eight individuals who accidentally consumed very high amounts by mistaking LSD for cocaine developed comatose states, hyperthermia, vomiting, gastric bleeding, and respiratory problems—all survived, however, with hospital treatment and without residual effects.[7] According to more recent reports, several behavioral-related fatalities and suicides have occurred due to LSD.[87][88] Reassurance in a calm, safe environment is beneficial. Agitation can be safely addressed with benzodiazepines such as lorazepam or diazepam. Neuroleptics such as haloperidol are not recommended because they may have adverse effects. LSD is rapidly absorbed, so activated charcoal and emptying of the stomach is of little benefit, unless done within 30–60 minutes of ingesting an overdose of LSD. Sedation or physical restraint is rarely required, and excessive restraint may cause complications such as hyperthermia (over-heating) or rhabdomyolysis.[89]

Massive doses "should be treated with supportive care, including respiratory support and endotracheal intubation if needed. Hypertension [high blood pressure], tachycardia [rapid heart-beat], and hyperthermia should be treated symptomatically. Hypotension [low blood pressure] should be treated initially with fluids and subsequently with pressors if required." "Intravenous administration of anticoagulants, vasodilators, and sympatholytics may be useful" when treating ergotism.[89]

Pharmacology

Pharmacodynamics

 
Binding affinities of LSD for various receptors. The lower the dissociation constant (Ki), the more strongly LSD binds to that receptor (i.e. with higher affinity). The horizontal line represents an approximate value for human plasma concentrations of LSD, and hence, receptor affinities that are above the line are unlikely to be involved in LSD's effect. Data averaged from data from the Ki Database
Dissociation constant of various serotonin receptors
Receptor Ki(nM)
5-HT1A 1.1
5-HT2A 2.9
5-HT2B 4.9
5-HT2C 23
5-HT5A 9
5-HT6 2.3

Most serotonergic psychedelics are not significantly dopaminergic, and LSD is therefore atypical in this regard. The agonism of the D2 receptor by LSD may contribute to its psychoactive effects in humans.[28][90]

LSD binds to most serotonin receptor subtypes except for the 5-HT3 and 5-HT4 receptors. However, most of these receptors are affected at too low affinity to be sufficiently activated by the brain concentration of approximately 10–20 nM.[86] In humans, recreational doses of LSD can affect 5-HT1A (Ki=1.1nM), 5-HT2A (Ki=2.9nM), 5-HT2B (Ki=4.9nM), 5-HT2C (Ki=23nM), 5-HT5A (Ki=9nM [in cloned rat tissues]), and 5-HT6 receptors (Ki=2.3nM).[91][92] Although not present in humans, 5-HT5B receptors found in rodents also have a high affinity for LSD.[93] The psychedelic effects of LSD are attributed to cross-activation of 5-HT2A receptor heteromers.[94] Many but not all 5-HT2A agonists are psychedelics and 5-HT2A antagonists block the psychedelic activity of LSD. LSD exhibits functional selectivity at the 5-HT2A and 5HT2C receptors in that it activates the signal transduction enzyme phospholipase A2 instead of activating the enzyme phospholipase C as the endogenous ligand serotonin does.[95]

Exactly how LSD produces its effects is unknown, but it is thought that it works by increasing glutamate release in the cerebral cortex[86] and therefore excitation in this area, specifically in layers IV and V.[96] LSD, like many other drugs of recreational use, has been shown to activate DARPP-32-related pathways.[97] The drug enhances dopamine D2 receptor protomer recognition and signaling of D2–5-HT2A receptor complexes,[27] which may contribute to its psychotropic effects.[27] LSD has been shown to have low affinity for H1 receptors, displaying antihistamine effects.[98][99][100]

LSD is a biased agonist that induces a conformation in serotonin receptors that preferentially recruits β-arrestin over activating G proteins.[101][102] LSD also has an exceptionally long residence time when bound to serotonin receptors lasting hours, consistent with the long lasting effects of LSD despite its relatively rapid clearance.[101][102] A crystal structure of 5-HT2B bound to LSD reveals an extracellular loop that forms a lid over the diethylamide end of the binding cavity which explains the slow rate of LSD unbinding from serotonin receptors.[103][104][105] The related lysergamide lysergic acid amide (LSA) that lacks the diethylamide moiety is far less hallucinogenic in comparison.[105]

Pharmacokinetics

The effects of LSD normally last between 6 and 12 hours depending on dosage, tolerance, and age.[106] The Sandoz prospectus for "Delysid" warned: "intermittent disturbances of affect may occasionally persist for several days."[107] Aghajanian and Bing (1964) found LSD had an elimination half-life of only 175 minutes (about 3 hours).[91] However, using more accurate techniques, Papac and Foltz (1990) reported that 1 µg/kg oral LSD given to a single male volunteer had an apparent plasma half-life of 5.1 hours, with a peak plasma concentration of 5 ng/mL at 3 hours post-dose.[108]

The pharmacokinetics of LSD were not properly determined until 2015, which is not surprising for a drug with the kind of low-μg potency that LSD possesses.[9][6] In a sample of 16 healthy subjects, a single mid-range 200 μg oral dose of LSD was found to produce mean maximal concentrations of 4.5 ng/mL at a median of 1.5 hours (range 0.5–4 hours) post-administration.[9][6] Concentrations of LSD decreased following first-order kinetics with a half-life of 3.6±0.9 hours and a terminal half-life of 8.9±5.9 hours.[9][6]

The effects of the dose of LSD given lasted for up to 12 hours and were closely correlated with the concentrations of LSD present in circulation over time, with no acute tolerance observed.[9][6] Only 1% of the drug was eliminated in urine unchanged, whereas 13% was eliminated as the major metabolite 2-oxo-3-hydroxy-LSD (O-H-LSD) within 24 hours.[9][6] O-H-LSD is formed by cytochrome P450 enzymes, although the specific enzymes involved are unknown, and it does not appear to be known whether O-H-LSD is pharmacologically active or not.[9][6] The oral bioavailability of LSD was crudely estimated as approximately 71% using previous data on intravenous administration of LSD.[9][6] The sample was equally divided between male and female subjects and there were no significant sex differences observed in the pharmacokinetics of LSD.[9][6]

Chemistry

 
The four possible stereoisomers of LSD. Only (+)-LSD is psychoactive.

LSD is a chiral compound with two stereocenters at the carbon atoms C-5 and C-8, so that theoretically four different optical isomers of LSD could exist. LSD, also called (+)-D-LSD,[citation needed] has the absolute configuration (5R,8R). The C-5 isomers of lysergamides do not exist in nature and are not formed during the synthesis from d-lysergic acid. Retrosynthetically, the C-5 stereocenter could be analysed as having the same configuration of the alpha carbon of the naturally occurring amino acid L-tryptophan, the precursor to all biosynthetic ergoline compounds.

However, LSD and iso-LSD, the two C-8 isomers, rapidly interconvert in the presence of bases, as the alpha proton is acidic and can be deprotonated and reprotonated. Non-psychoactive iso-LSD which has formed during the synthesis can be separated by chromatography and can be isomerized to LSD.

Pure salts of LSD are triboluminescent, emitting small flashes of white light when shaken in the dark.[106] LSD is strongly fluorescent and will glow bluish-white under UV light.

Synthesis

LSD is an ergoline derivative. It is commonly synthesized by reacting diethylamine with an activated form of lysergic acid. Activating reagents include phosphoryl chloride[109] and peptide coupling reagents.[100] Lysergic acid is made by alkaline hydrolysis of lysergamides like ergotamine, a substance usually derived from the ergot fungus on agar plate; or, theoretically possible, but impractical and uncommon, from ergine (lysergic acid amide, LSA) extracted from morning glory seeds.[110] Lysergic acid can also be produced synthetically, although these processes are not used in clandestine manufacture due to their low yields and high complexity.[111][112]

Research

The precursor for LSD, lysergic acid, has been produced by GMO baker's yeast.[113]

Dosage

 
White on White blotters (WoW) for sublingual administration

A single dose of LSD may be between 40 and 500 micrograms—an amount roughly equal to one-tenth the mass of a grain of sand. Threshold effects can be felt with as little as 25 micrograms of LSD.[114][115] The practice of using sub-threshold doses is called microdosing.[116] Dosages of LSD are measured in micrograms (µg), or millionths of a gram. By comparison, dosages of most drugs, both recreational and medicinal, are measured in milligrams (mg), or thousandths of a gram. For example, an active dose of mescaline, roughly 0.2 to 0.5 g, has effects comparable to 100 µg (0.0001 g) or less of LSD.[107]

In the mid-1960s, the most important black market LSD manufacturer (Owsley Stanley) distributed LSD at a standard concentration of 270 µg,[117] while street samples of the 1970s contained 30 to 300 µg. By the 1980s, the amount had reduced to between 100 and 125 µg, dropping more in the 1990s to the 20–80 µg range,[118] and even more in the 2000s (decade).[117][119]

Reactivity and degradation

"LSD," writes the chemist Alexander Shulgin, "is an unusually fragile molecule ... As a salt, in water, cold, and free from air and light exposure, it is stable indefinitely."[106]

LSD has two labile protons at the tertiary stereogenic C5 and C8 positions, rendering these centers prone to epimerisation. The C8 proton is more labile due to the electron-withdrawing carboxamide attachment, but removal of the chiral proton at the C5 position (which was once also an alpha proton of the parent molecule tryptophan) is assisted by the inductively withdrawing nitrogen and pi electron delocalisation with the indole ring.[citation needed]

LSD also has enamine-type reactivity because of the electron-donating effects of the indole ring. Because of this, chlorine destroys LSD molecules on contact; even though chlorinated tap water contains only a slight amount of chlorine, the small quantity of compound typical to an LSD solution will likely be eliminated when dissolved in tap water.[106] The double bond between the 8-position and the aromatic ring, being conjugated with the indole ring, is susceptible to nucleophilic attacks by water or alcohol, especially in the presence of UV or other kinds of light. LSD often converts to "lumi-LSD," which is inactive in human beings.[106]

A controlled study was undertaken to determine the stability of LSD in pooled urine samples.[120] The concentrations of LSD in urine samples were followed over time at various temperatures, in different types of storage containers, at various exposures to different wavelengths of light, and at varying pH values. These studies demonstrated no significant loss in LSD concentration at 25 °C for up to four weeks. After four weeks of incubation, a 30% loss in LSD concentration at 37 °C and up to a 40% at 45 °C were observed. Urine fortified with LSD and stored in amber glass or nontransparent polyethylene containers showed no change in concentration under any light conditions. Stability of LSD in transparent containers under light was dependent on the distance between the light source and the samples, the wavelength of light, exposure time, and the intensity of light. After prolonged exposure to heat in alkaline pH conditions, 10 to 15% of the parent LSD epimerized to iso-LSD. Under acidic conditions, less than 5% of the LSD was converted to iso-LSD. It was also demonstrated that trace amounts of metal ions in buffer or urine could catalyze the decomposition of LSD and that this process can be avoided by the addition of EDTA.

Detection

LSD may be quantified in urine as part of a drug abuse testing program, in plasma or serum to confirm a diagnosis of poisoning in hospitalized victims or in whole blood to assist in a forensic investigation of a traffic or other criminal violation or a case of sudden death. Both the parent drug and its major metabolite are unstable in biofluids when exposed to light, heat or alkaline conditions and therefore specimens are protected from light, stored at the lowest possible temperature and analyzed quickly to minimize losses.[121]

Maximum plasma concentrations were found to be 1.4 and 1.5 hours after oral administration of 100µg and 200µg respectively with a plasma half-life of 2.6 hours (ranging from 2.2–3.4 hours among 40 human test subjects).[122]

LSD can be detected using an Ehrlich's reagent and a Hofmann's reagent.

History

... affected by a remarkable restlessness, combined with a slight dizziness. At home I lay down and sank into a not unpleasant intoxicated-like condition, characterized by an extremely stimulated imagination. In a dreamlike state, with eyes closed (I found the daylight to be unpleasantly glaring), I perceived an uninterrupted stream of fantastic pictures, extraordinary shapes with intense, kaleidoscopic play of colors. After some two hours this condition faded away.

—Albert Hofmann, on his first experience with LSD[123]

Main article: History of lysergic acid diethylamide

LSD was first synthesized on November 16, 1938[124] by Swiss chemist Albert Hofmann at the Sandoz Laboratories in Basel, Switzerland as part of a large research program searching for medically useful ergot alkaloid derivatives. The abbreviation "LSD" is from the German "Lysergsäurediethylamid".[125]

LSD's psychedelic properties were discovered 5 years later when Hofmann himself accidentally ingested an unknown quantity of the chemical.[126] The first intentional ingestion of LSD occurred on April 19, 1943,[127] when Hofmann ingested 250 µg of LSD. He said this would be a threshold dose based on the dosages of other ergot alkaloids. Hofmann found the effects to be much stronger than he anticipated.[128] Sandoz Laboratories introduced LSD as a psychiatric drug in 1947 and marketed LSD as a psychiatric panacea, hailing it "as a cure for everything from schizophrenia to criminal behavior, 'sexual perversions', and alcoholism."[129] Sandoz would send the drug for free to researchers investigating its effects.[29]

 
Albert Hofmann in 2006
'Effects of Lysergic Acid Diethylamide (LSD) on Troops Marching' – 16mm film produced by the United States military circa 1958

Beginning in the 1950s, the US Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) began a research program code named Project MKUltra. The CIA introduced LSD to the United States, purchasing the entire world's supply for $240,000 and propagating the LSD through CIA front organizations to American hospitals, clinics, prisons and research centers.[130] Experiments included administering LSD to CIA employees, military personnel, doctors, other government agents, prostitutes, mentally ill patients, and members of the general public in order to study their reactions, usually without the subjects' knowledge. The project was revealed in the US congressional Rockefeller Commission report in 1975.

In 1963, the Sandoz patents on LSD expired[118] and the Czech company Spofa began to produce the substance.[29] Sandoz stopped the production and distribution in 1965.[29]

Several figures, including Aldous Huxley, Timothy Leary, and Al Hubbard, had begun to advocate the consumption of LSD. LSD became central to the counterculture of the 1960s.[131] In the early 1960s the use of LSD and other hallucinogens was advocated by new proponents of consciousness expansion such as Leary, Huxley, Alan Watts and Arthur Koestler,[132][133] and according to L. R. Veysey they profoundly influenced the thinking of the new generation of youth.[134]

On October 24, 1968, possession of LSD was made illegal in the United States.[135] The last FDA approved study of LSD in patients ended in 1980, while a study in healthy volunteers was made in the late 1980s. Legally approved and regulated psychiatric use of LSD continued in Switzerland until 1993.[136]

In November 2020, Oregon became the first US state to decriminalize possession of small amounts of LSD after voters approved Ballot Measure 110.[137]

Society and culture

Counterculture

 
Psychedelic art attempts to capture the visions experienced on a psychedelic trip.

By the mid-1960s, the youth countercultures in California, particularly in San Francisco, had adopted the use of hallucinogenic drugs, with the first major underground LSD factory established by Owsley Stanley.[138] From 1964, the Merry Pranksters, a loose group that developed around novelist Ken Kesey, sponsored the Acid Tests, a series of events primarily staged in or near San Francisco, involving the taking of LSD (supplied by Stanley), accompanied by light shows, film projection and discordant, improvised music known as the psychedelic symphony.[139][140] The Pranksters helped popularize LSD use, through their road trips across America in a psychedelically decorated converted school bus, which involved distributing the drug and meeting with major figures of the beat movement, and through publications about their activities such as Tom Wolfe's The Electric Kool-Aid Acid Test (1968).[141]

In San Francisco's Haight-Ashbury neighborhood, brothers Ron and Jay Thelin opened the Psychedelic Shop in January 1966.[142] The Thelins opened the store to promote safe use of LSD, which was then still legal in California. The Psychedelic Shop helped to further popularize LSD in the Haight and to make the neighborhood the unofficial capital of the hippie counterculture in the United States. Ron Thelin was also involved in organizing the Love Pageant rally, a protest held in Golden Gate park to protest California's newly adopted ban on LSD in October 1966. At the rally, hundreds of attendees took acid in unison. Although the Psychedelic Shop closed after barely a year-and-a-half in business, its role in popularizing LSD was considerable.[143]

 
"Lysergic Acid Diethylamide"
by Lambert P. Lambert and the Gorgettes, from the album Abbra Cadaver, 1967
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A similar and connected nexus of LSD use in the creative arts developed around the same time in London. A key figure in this phenomenon in the UK was British academic Michael Hollingshead, who first tried LSD in America in 1961 while he was the Executive Secretary for the Institute of British-American Cultural Exchange. After being given a large quantity of pure Sandoz LSD (which was still legal at the time) and experiencing his first "trip," Hollingshead contacted Aldous Huxley, who suggested that he get in touch with Harvard academic Timothy Leary, and over the next few years, in concert with Leary and Richard Alpert, Hollingshead played a major role in their famous LSD research at Millbrook before moving to New York City, where he conducted his own LSD experiments. In 1965 Hollingshead returned to the UK and founded the World Psychedelic Center in Chelsea, London.

Music and art

Main article: LSD art

In both music and art, the influence of LSD was soon being more widely seen and heard thanks to the bands that participated in the Acid Tests and related events, including the Grateful Dead, Jefferson Airplane and Big Brother and the Holding Company, and through the inventive poster and album art of San Francisco-based artists like Rick Griffin, Victor Moscoso, Bonnie MacLean, Stanley Mouse & Alton Kelley, and Wes Wilson, meant to evoke the visual experience of an LSD trip. LSD had a strong influence on the Grateful Dead and the culture of "Deadheads."[144]

Among the many famous people in the UK that Michael Hollingshead is reputed to have introduced to LSD are artist and Hipgnosis founder Storm Thorgerson, and musicians Donovan, Keith Richards, Paul McCartney, John Lennon, and George Harrison. Although establishment concern about the new drug led to it being declared an illegal drug by the Home Secretary in 1966, LSD was soon being used widely in the upper echelons of the British art and music scene, including members of the Beatles,[145] the Rolling Stones,[146] the Moody Blues,[147] the Small Faces,[148] Syd Barrett,[149] Jimi Hendrix and others, and the products of these experiences were soon being both heard and seen by the public with singles like the Small Faces' "Itchycoo Park" and LPs like the Beatles' Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band and Cream's Disraeli Gears, which featured music that showed the obvious influence of the musicians' recent psychedelic excursions, and which were packaged in elaborately-designed album covers that featured vividly-coloured psychedelic artwork by artists like Peter Blake, Martin Sharp, Hapshash and the Coloured Coat (Nigel Waymouth and Michael English) and art/music collective The Fool.

In the 1960s, musicians from psychedelic music and psychedelic rock bands began to refer (at first indirectly, and later explicitly) to the drug and attempted to recreate or reflect the experience of taking LSD in their music. A number of features are often included in psychedelic music. Exotic instrumentation, with a particular fondness for the sitar and tabla are common.[150] Electric guitars are used to create feedback, and are played through wah wah and fuzzbox effect pedals.[151] Elaborate studio effects are often used, such as backwards tapes, panning, phasing, long delay loops, and extreme reverb.[152] In the 1960s there was a use of primitive electronic instruments such as early synthesizers and the theremin.[153][154] Later forms of electronic psychedelia also employed repetitive computer-generated beats.[155] Songs allegedly referring to LSD include John Prine's "Illegal Smile" and the Beatles' song "Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds," although the authors of the latter song repeatedly denied this claim.[156][157][158]

In modern times, LSD has had a prominent influence on artists such as Keith Haring, electronic dance music, and the jam band Phish.

Legal status

The United Nations Convention on Psychotropic Substances (adopted in 1971) requires the signing parties to prohibit LSD. Hence, it is illegal in all countries that were parties to the convention, including the United States, Australia, New Zealand, and most of Europe. However, enforcement of those laws varies from country to country. Medical and scientific research with LSD in humans is permitted under the 1971 UN Convention.[159]

Australia

LSD is a Schedule 9 prohibited substance in Australia under the Poisons Standard (February 2017).[160] A Schedule 9 substance is defined as a substance which may be abused or misused, the manufacture, possession, sale or use of which should be prohibited by law except when required for medical or scientific research, or for analytical, teaching or training purposes with approval of Commonwealth and/or State or Territory Health Authorities.[160]

In Western Australia section 9 of the Misuse of Drugs Act 1981 provides for summary trial before a magistrate for possession of less than 0.004g; section 11 provides rebuttable presumptions of intent to sell or supply if the quantity is 0.002g or more, or of possession for the purpose of trafficking if 0.01g.[161]

Canada

In Canada, LSD is a controlled substance under Schedule III of the Controlled Drugs and Substances Act.[53] Every person who seeks to obtain the substance, without disclosing authorization to obtain such substances 30 days before obtaining another prescription from a practitioner, is guilty of an indictable offence and liable to imprisonment for a term not exceeding 3 years. Possession for purpose of trafficking is an indictable offence punishable by imprisonment for 10 years.

United Kingdom

In the United Kingdom, LSD is a Schedule 1 Class "A" drug. This means it has no recognized legitimate uses and possession of the drug without a licence is punishable with 7 years' imprisonment and/or an unlimited fine, and trafficking is punishable with life imprisonment and an unlimited fine (see main article on drug punishments Misuse of Drugs Act 1971).

In 2000, after consultation with members of the Royal College of Psychiatrists' Faculty of Substance Misuse, the UK Police Foundation issued the Runciman Report which recommended "the transfer of LSD from Class A to Class B."[162]

In November 2009, the UK Transform Drug Policy Foundation released in the House of Commons a guidebook to the legal regulation of drugs, After the War on Drugs: Blueprint for Regulation, which details options for regulated distribution and sale of LSD and other psychedelics.[163]

United States

LSD is Schedule I in the United States, according to the Controlled Substances Act of 1970.[164] This means LSD is illegal to manufacture, buy, possess, process, or distribute without a license from the Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA). By classifying LSD as a Schedule I substance, the DEA holds that LSD meets the following three criteria: it is deemed to have a high potential for abuse; it has no legitimate medical use in treatment; and there is a lack of accepted safety for its use under medical supervision. There are no documented deaths from chemical toxicity; most LSD deaths are a result of behavioral toxicity.[165]

There can also be substantial discrepancies between the amount of chemical LSD that one possesses and the amount of possession with which one can be charged in the US. This is because LSD is almost always present in a medium (e.g. blotter or neutral liquid), and in some contexts, the amount that can be considered with respect to sentencing is the total mass of the drug and its medium. This discrepancy was the subject of 1995 United States Supreme Court case, Neal v. United States, which determined that for finding minimum sentence lengths, the total medium weight is used, while for determining the severity of the offense, an estimation of the chemical mass is used.[166]

Lysergic acid and lysergic acid amide, LSD precursors, are both classified in Schedule III of the Controlled Substances Act.[167] Ergotamine tartrate, a precursor to lysergic acid, is regulated under the Chemical Diversion and Trafficking Act.

Personal possession of small amounts of drugs including LSD (40 units or less) was decriminalized in the U.S. state of Oregon on February 1, 2021.[168] This came as a result of the passing of 2020 Oregon Ballot Measure 110. The movement to decriminalize psychedelics in the United States includes LSD in the ongoing effort in California. In November 2020, California Senator Scott Wiener introduced a bill to decriminalize psychedelics such as psilocybin, ayahuasca, ibogaine, and LSD. In April 2021, the bill has been approved by the Senates Public Safety Committee and the Health Committee, in May 2021, it was cleared by the Senate Appropriations Committee and approved by the California Senate, and in June 2021, advanced by the Assembly Public Safety Committee.[169] In mid 2022, the bill was gutted by committee and limited to organizing a study. Wiener announced that he is planning to reintroduce the bill in 2023.[170]

Mexico

In April 2009, the Mexican Congress approved changes in the General Health Law that decriminalized the possession of illegal drugs for immediate consumption and personal use, allowing a person to possess a moderate amount of LSD. The only restriction is that people in possession of drugs should not be within a 300-meter radius of schools, police departments, or correctional facilities. Marijuana, along with cocaine, opium, heroin, and other drugs were also decriminalized; their possession is not considered a crime as long as the dose does not exceed the limit established in the General Health Law.[171] Many[vague] question this, as cocaine is as synthesised as heroin, and both are produced as extracts from plants. The law establishes very low amount thresholds and strictly defines personal dosage. For those arrested with more than the threshold allowed by the law this can result in heavy prison sentences, as they will be assumed to be small traffickers even if there are no other indications that the amount was meant for selling.[172]

Czech Republic

In the Czech Republic, until 31 December 1998, only drug possession "for other person" (i.e. intent to sell) was criminal (apart from production, importation, exportation, offering or mediation, which was and remains criminal) while possession for personal use remained legal.[173]

On 1 January 1999, an amendment of the Criminal Code, which was necessitated in order to align the Czech drug rules with the Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs, became effective, criminalizing possession of "amount larger than small" also for personal use (Art. 187a of the Criminal Code) while possession of small amounts for personal use became a misdemeanor.[173]

The judicial practice came to the conclusion that the "amount larger than small" must be five to ten times larger (depending on drug) than a usual single dose of an average consumer.[174]

Under the Regulation No. 467/2009 Coll, possession of less than 5 doses of LSD was to be considered smaller than large for the purposes of the Criminal Code and was to be treated as a misdemeanor subject to a fine equal to a parking ticket.[175]

Ecuador

According to the 2008 Constitution of Ecuador, in its Article 364, the Ecuadorian state does not see drug consumption as a crime but only as a health concern.[176] Since June 2013 the State drugs regulatory office CONSEP has published a table which establishes maximum quantities carried by persons so as to be considered in legal possession and that person as not a seller of drugs.[176][177][178] The "CONSEP established, at their latest general meeting, that the 0.020 milligrams of LSD shall be considered the maximum consumer amount.[179]

Economics

Price

The street price of a single dose of LSD can be anywhere from $2 to $50.[180] In Europe, as of 2011, the typical cost of a dose was between €4.50 and €25.[16]

Production

 
Glassware seized by the DEA

An active dose of LSD is very minute, allowing a large number of doses to be synthesized from a comparatively small amount of raw material. Twenty five kilograms of precursor ergotamine tartrate can produce 5–6 kg of pure crystalline LSD; this corresponds to around 50–60 million doses at 100 µg. Because the masses involved are so small, concealing and transporting illicit LSD is much easier than smuggling cocaine, cannabis, or other illegal drugs.[181]

Manufacturing LSD requires laboratory equipment and experience in the field of organic chemistry. It takes two to three days to produce 30 to 100 grams of pure compound. It is believed that LSD is not usually produced in large quantities, but rather in a series of small batches. This technique minimizes the loss of precursor chemicals in case a step does not work as expected.[181][dead link]

Forms
 
Five doses of LSD, often called a "five strip"

LSD is produced in crystalline form and is then mixed with excipients or redissolved for production in ingestible forms. Liquid solution is either distributed in small vials or, more commonly, sprayed onto or soaked into a distribution medium. Historically, LSD solutions were first sold on sugar cubes, but practical considerations forced a change to tablet form. Appearing in 1968 as an orange tablet measuring about 6 mm across, "Orange Sunshine" acid was the first largely available form of LSD after its possession was made illegal. Tim Scully, a prominent chemist, made some of these tablets, but said that most "Sunshine" in the USA came by way of Ronald Stark, who imported approximately thirty-five million doses from Europe.[182]

Over a period of time, tablet dimensions, weight, shape and concentration of LSD evolved from large (4.5–8.1 mm diameter), heavyweight (≥150 mg), round, high concentration (90–350 µg/tab) dosage units to small (2.0–3.5 mm diameter) lightweight (as low as 4.7 µg/tab), variously shaped, lower concentration (12–85 µg/tab, average range 30–40 µg/tab) dosage units. LSD tablet shapes have included cylinders, cones, stars, spacecraft, and heart shapes. The smallest tablets became known as "Microdots."[183]

After tablets came "computer acid" or "blotter paper LSD," typically made by dipping a preprinted sheet of blotting paper into an LSD/water/alcohol solution.[182][183] More than 200 types of LSD tablets have been encountered since 1969 and more than 350 blotter paper designs have been observed since 1975.[183] About the same time as blotter paper LSD came "Windowpane" (AKA "Clearlight"), which contained LSD inside a thin gelatin square a quarter of an inch (6 mm) across.[182] LSD has been sold under a wide variety of often short-lived and regionally restricted street names including Acid, Trips, Uncle Sid, Blotter, Lucy, Alice and doses, as well as names that reflect the designs on the sheets of blotter paper.[51][184] Authorities have encountered the drug in other forms—including powder or crystal, and capsule.[185]

Modern distribution

LSD manufacturers and traffickers in the United States can be categorized into two groups: A few large-scale producers, and an equally limited number of small, clandestine chemists, consisting of independent producers who, operating on a comparatively limited scale, can be found throughout the country.[186][187]

As a group, independent producers are of less concern to the Drug Enforcement Administration than the large-scale groups because their product reaches only local markets.[188]

Many LSD dealers and chemists describe a religious or humanitarian purpose that motivates their illicit activity. Nicholas Schou's book Orange Sunshine: The Brotherhood of Eternal Love and Its Quest to Spread Peace, Love, and Acid to the World describes one such group, the Brotherhood of Eternal Love. The group was a major American LSD trafficking group in the late 1960s and early 1970s.[189]

In the second half of the 20th century, dealers and chemists loosely associated with the Grateful Dead like Owsley Stanley, Nicholas Sand, Karen Horning, Sarah Maltzer, "Dealer McDope," and Leonard Pickard played an essential role in distributing LSD.[144]

Mimics
 
LSD blotter acid mimic actually containing DOC
 
Different blotters which could possibly be mimics

Since 2005, law enforcement in the United States and elsewhere has seized several chemicals and combinations of chemicals in blotter paper which were sold as LSD mimics, including DOB,[190][191] a mixture of DOC and DOI,[192] 25I-NBOMe,[193] and a mixture of DOC and DOB.[194] Many mimics are toxic in comparatively small doses, or have extremely different safety profiles. Many street users of LSD are often under the impression that blotter paper which is actively hallucinogenic can only be LSD because that is the only chemical with low enough doses to fit on a small square of blotter paper. While it is true that LSD requires lower doses than most other hallucinogens, blotter paper is capable of absorbing a much larger amount of material. The DEA performed a chromatographic analysis of blotter paper containing 2C-C which showed that the paper contained a much greater concentration of the active chemical than typical LSD doses, although the exact quantity was not determined.[195] Blotter LSD mimics can have relatively small dose squares; a sample of blotter paper containing DOC seized by Concord, California police had dose markings approximately 6 mm apart.[196] Several deaths have been attributed to 25I-NBOMe.[197][198][199][200]

Research

A number of organizations—including the Beckley Foundation, MAPS, Heffter Research Institute and the Albert Hofmann Foundation—exist to fund, encourage and coordinate research into the medicinal and spiritual uses of LSD and related psychedelics.[201] New clinical LSD experiments in humans started in 2009 for the first time in 35 years.[202] As it is illegal in many areas of the world, potential medical uses are difficult to study.[42]

In 2001 the United States Drug Enforcement Administration stated that LSD "produces no aphrodisiac effects, does not increase creativity, has no lasting positive effect in treating alcoholics or criminals, does not produce a "model psychosis", and does not generate immediate personality change."[203] More recently, experimental uses of LSD have included the treatment of alcoholism,[204] pain and cluster headache relief,[7] and prospective studies on depression.[205][206] There is evidence that psychedelics induce molecular and cellular adaptations related to neuroplasticity and that these could potentially underlie therapeutic benefits.[207][208][209]

Psychedelic therapy

See also: Psychedelic therapy

In the 1950s and 1960s LSD was used in psychiatry to enhance psychotherapy known as psychedelic therapy. Some psychiatrists, such as Ronald A. Sandison who pioneered its use at Powick Hospital in England, believed LSD was especially useful at helping patients to "unblock" repressed subconscious material through other psychotherapeutic methods,[210] and also for treating alcoholism.[211][212][213] One study concluded, "The root of the therapeutic value of the LSD experience is its potential for producing self-acceptance and self-surrender,"[33] presumably by forcing the user to face issues and problems in that individual's psyche.

Two recent reviews concluded that conclusions drawn from most of these early trials are unreliable due to serious methodological flaws. These include the absence of adequate control groups, lack of followup, and vague criteria for therapeutic outcome. In many cases studies failed to convincingly demonstrate whether the drug or the therapeutic interaction was responsible for any beneficial effects.[214][215]

In recent years organizations like the Multidisciplinary Association for Psychedelic Studies have renewed clinical research of LSD.[216]

It has been proposed that LSD be studied for use in the therapeutic setting particularly in anxiety.[217][218][44][45]

Other uses

In the 1950s and 1960s, some psychiatrists (e.g. Oscar Janiger) explored the potential effect of LSD on creativity. Experimental studies attempted to measure the effect of LSD on creative activity and aesthetic appreciation.[219][220][221][52]

Since 2008 there has been ongoing research into using LSD to alleviate anxiety for terminally ill cancer patients coping with their impending deaths.[222][223][44]

A 2012 meta-analysis found evidence that a single dose of LSD in conjunction with various alcoholism treatment programs was associated with a decrease in alcohol abuse, lasting for several months, but no effect was seen at one year. Adverse events included seizure, moderate confusion and agitation, nausea, vomiting, and acting in a bizarre fashion.[34]

LSD has been used as a treatment for cluster headaches with positive results in some small studies.[7]

Recently, researchers discovered that LSD is a potent psychoplastogen, a compound capable of promoting rapid and sustained neural plasticity that may have wide-ranging therapeutic benefit.[224] LSD has been shown to increase markers of neuroplasticity in human brain organoids and improve memory performance in human subjects.[225]

LSD may have analgesic properties related to pain in terminally ill patients and phantom pain and may be useful for treating inflammatory diseases including rheumatoid arthritis.[226]

Notable individuals

Some notable individuals have commented publicly on their experiences with LSD.[227][228] Some of these comments date from the era when it was legally available in the US and Europe for non-medical uses, and others pertain to psychiatric treatment in the 1950s and 1960s. Still others describe experiences with illegal LSD, obtained for philosophic, artistic, therapeutic, spiritual, or recreational purposes.

  • W. H. Auden, the poet, said, "I myself have taken mescaline once and L.S.D. once. Aside from a slight schizophrenic dissociation of the I from the Not-I, including my body, nothing happened at all."[229] He also said, "LSD was a complete frost. … What it does seem to destroy is the power of communication. I have listened to tapes done by highly articulate people under LSD, for example, and they talk absolute drivel. They may have seen something interesting, but they certainly lose either the power or the wish to communicate."[230] He also said, "Nothing much happened but I did get the distinct impression that some birds were trying to communicate with me."[231]
  • Daniel Ellsberg, an American peace activist, says he has had several hundred experiences with psychedelics.[232]
  • Richard Feynman, a notable physicist at California Institute of Technology, tried LSD during his professorship at Caltech. Feynman largely sidestepped the issue when dictating his anecdotes; he mentions it in passing in the "O Americano, Outra Vez" section.[233][234]
  • Jerry Garcia stated in a July 3, 1989 interview for Relix Magazine, in response to the question "Have your feelings about LSD changed over the years?," "They haven't changed much. My feelings about LSD are mixed. It's something that I both fear and that I love at the same time. I never take any psychedelic, have a psychedelic experience, without having that feeling of, "I don't know what's going to happen." In that sense, it's still fundamentally an enigma and a mystery."[235]
  • Bill Gates implied in an interview with Playboy that he tried LSD during his youth.[236]
  • Aldous Huxley, author of Brave New World, became a user of psychedelics after moving to Hollywood. He was at the forefront of the counterculture's use of psychedelic drugs, which led to his 1954 work The Doors of Perception. Dying from cancer, he asked his wife on 22 November 1963 to inject him with 100 µg of LSD. He died later that day.[237]
  • Steve Jobs, co-founder and former CEO of Apple Inc., said, "Taking LSD was a profound experience, one of the most important things in my life."[238]
  • Ernst Jünger, German writer and philosopher, throughout his life had experimented with drugs such as ether, cocaine, and hashish; and later in life he used mescaline and LSD. These experiments were recorded comprehensively in Annäherungen (1970, Approaches). The novel Besuch auf Godenholm (1952, Visit to Godenholm) is clearly influenced by his early experiments with mescaline and LSD. He met with LSD inventor Albert Hofmann and they took LSD together several times. Hofmann's memoir LSD, My Problem Child describes some of these meetings.[239]
  • In a 2004 interview, Paul McCartney said that The Beatles' songs "Day Tripper" and "Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds" were inspired by LSD trips.[240] Nonetheless, John Lennon consistently stated over the course of many years that the fact that the initials of "Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds" spelled out L-S-D was a coincidence (he stated that the title came from a picture drawn by his son Julian) and that the band members did not notice until after the song had been released, and Paul McCartney corroborated that story.[241] John Lennon, George Harrison, and Ringo Starr also used the drug, although McCartney cautioned that "it's easy to overestimate the influence of drugs on the Beatles' music."[242]
  • Michel Foucault had an LSD experience with Simeon Wade in the Death Valley and later wrote "it was the greatest experience of his life, and that it profoundly changed his life and his work."[243][244] According to Wade, as soon as he came back to Paris, Foucault scrapped the second History of Sexuality's manuscript, and totally rethought the whole project.[245]
  • Kary Mullis is reported to credit LSD with helping him develop DNA amplification technology, for which he received the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1993.[246]
  • Carlo Rovelli, an Italian theoretical physicist and writer, has credited his use of LSD with sparking his interest in theoretical physics.[247]
  • Oliver Sacks, a neurologist famous for writing best-selling case histories about his patients' disorders and unusual experiences, talks about his own experiences with LSD and other perception altering chemicals, in his book, Hallucinations.[248]
  • Matt Stone and Trey Parker, creators of the TV series South Park, claimed to have shown up at the 72nd Academy Awards, at which they were nominated for Best Original Song, under the influence of LSD.[249]

See also

Notes

  1. ^ From the German name Lysergsäure-diethylamid

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Further reading

  • Bebergal P (June 2, 2008). .
January 31, 2023
lysergic, acid, diethylamide, redirects, here, other, uses, disambiguation, confused, with, also, known, colloquially, acid, potent, psychedelic, drug, effects, typically, include, intensified, thoughts, emotions, sensory, perception, sufficiently, high, dosag. LSD redirects here For other uses see LSD disambiguation Not to be confused with LDS Lysergic acid diethylamide LSD a also known colloquially as acid is a potent psychedelic drug 12 Effects typically include intensified thoughts emotions and sensory perception 13 At sufficiently high dosages LSD manifests primarily mental visual as well as auditory hallucinations 14 15 Dilated pupils increased blood pressure and increased body temperature are typical 16 Effects typically begin within half an hour and can last for up to 20 hours 16 17 LSD is also capable of causing mystical experiences and ego dissolution 18 15 It is used mainly as a recreational drug or for spiritual reasons 16 19 LSD is both the prototypical psychedelic and one of the classical psychedelics being the psychedelics with the greatest scientific and cultural significance 12 LSD is typically either swallowed or held under the tongue 13 It is most often sold on blotter paper and less commonly as tablets in a watery solution or in gelatin squares called panes 16 Lysergic acid diethylamide LSD INN LysergideSkeletal formula of LSDBall and stick model of LSDClinical dataPronunciation daɪ e8el ˈaemaɪd aemɪd or eɪmaɪd 1 2 3 Other namesLSD LSD 25 LAD Acid Delysid othersAHFS Drugs comReferenceDependenceliabilityLow 4 AddictionliabilityNone 5 Routes ofadministrationBy mouth under the tongueDrug classHallucinogen psychedelic ATC codeNoneLegal statusLegal statusAU S9 Prohibited substance BR Class F Prohibited substances CA Schedule III DE Anlage I Authorized scientific use only NZ Class A UK Class A US Schedule I UN Psychotropic Schedule IPharmacokinetic dataBioavailability71 6 Protein bindingUnknown 7 MetabolismLiver CYP450 6 Metabolites2 Oxo 3 hydroxy LSD 6 Onset of action30 40 minutes 8 Elimination half life3 6 hours 6 9 Duration of action8 20 hours 10 ExcretionKidneys 6 9 IdentifiersIUPAC name 6aR 9R N N diethyl 7 methyl 4 6 6a 7 8 9 hexahydroindolo 4 3 fg quinoline 9 carboxamideCAS Number50 37 3 YPubChem CID5761IUPHAR BPS17DrugBankDB04829 YChemSpider5558 YUNII8NA5SWF92OChEBICHEBI 6605 YChEMBLChEMBL263881 YPDB ligand7LD PDBe RCSB PDB CompTox Dashboard EPA DTXSID1023231ECHA InfoCard100 000 031Chemical and physical dataFormulaC 20H 25N 3OMolar mass323 440 g mol 13D model JSmol Interactive imageMelting point80 to 85 C 176 to 185 F Solubility in water7 034 11 mg mL 20 C SMILES CCN CC C O C H 1CN C H 2Cc3c nH c4c3c ccc4 C2 C1 CInChI InChI 1S C20H25N3O c1 4 23 5 2 20 24 14 9 16 15 7 6 8 17 19 15 13 11 21 17 10 18 16 22 3 12 14 h6 9 11 14 18 21H 4 5 10 12H2 1 3H3 t14 18 m1 s1 YKey VAYOSLLFUXYJDT RDTXWAMCSA N Y verify LSD is considered to be non addictive with low potential for abuse 20 21 Frequent use rapidly builds tolerance requiring exponentially larger doses to feel an effect Adverse psychological reactions are possible such as anxiety paranoia and delusions 7 LSD is active in small amounts relative to other psychoactive compounds with doses measured in micrograms 22 It is possible for LSD to induce either intermittent or chronic visual hallucinations in spite of no further use Common effects include visual snow and palinopsia In cases where this causes distress or impairment it is diagnosed as hallucinogen persisting perception disorder HPPD 23 24 While overdose from LSD is unknown LSD can cause injury and death as a result of accidents stemming from psychological impairment 16 12 The effects of LSD are thought to stem primarily from it being an agonist at the 5 HT2A serotonin receptor and while exactly how LSD exerts its effects by agonism at this receptor is still not fully known corresponding increased glutamatergic neurotransmission and reduced default mode network activity are thought to be key mechanisms of action 21 7 12 25 26 In addition to serotonin LSD also binds to dopamine D1 and D2 receptors which is why LSD tends to be more stimulating than compounds such as psilocybin 27 28 In pure form LSD is clear or white in color has no smell and is crystalline 13 It breaks down with exposure to ultraviolet light 16 LSD was first synthesized by Swiss chemist Albert Hofmann in 1938 from lysergic acid a chemical derived from the hydrolysis of ergotamine an alkaloid found in ergot a fungus that infects grain 16 23 LSD was the 25th of various lysergamides Hofmann synthesized from lysergic acid while trying to develop a new analeptic hence the alternate name LSD 25 Hofmann discovered its effects in humans in 1943 after unintentionally ingesting an unknown amount possibly absorbing it through his skin 29 30 31 LSD was subject to exceptional interest within the field of psychiatry in the 1950s and early 1960s with Sandoz distributing LSD to researchers under the trademark name Delysid in an attempt to find a marketable use for it 30 LSD assisted psychotherapy was used in the 1950s and early 1960s by psychiatrists such as Humphry Osmond who pioneered the application of LSD to the treatment of alcoholism with promising results 32 30 33 34 Osmond coined the term psychedelic lit mind manifesting as a term for LSD and related hallucinogens superseding the previously held psychotomimetic model in which LSD was believed to mimic schizophrenia In contrast to schizophrenia LSD induces transcendental experiences with lasting psychological benefit 12 30 During this time the Central Intelligence Agency CIA began using LSD in the research project Project MKUltra which used psychoactive substances to aid interrogation The CIA administered LSD to unwitting test subjects in order to observe how they would react and the most well known example of this is Operation Midnight Climax 30 LSD was one of several psychoactive substances evaluated by the U S Army Chemical Corps as possible non lethal incapacitants in the Edgewood Arsenal human experiments 30 In the 1960s LSD and other psychedelics were adopted by and became synonymous with the counterculture movement due to their perceived ability to expand consciousness This resulted in LSD being viewed as a cultural threat to American values and the Vietnam war effort and it was designated as a Schedule I illegal for medical as well as recreational use substance in 1968 35 It was listed as a Schedule 1 controlled substance by the United Nations in 1971 and currently has no approved medical uses 16 As of 2017 update about 10 of people in the United States have used LSD at some point in their lives while 0 7 have used it in the last year 36 It was most popular in the 1960s to 1980s 16 The use of LSD among US adults increased 56 4 from 2015 to 2018 37 Contents 1 Uses 1 1 Recreational 1 2 Spiritual 1 3 Medical 2 Effects 2 1 Physical 2 2 Psychological 2 3 Sensory 3 Adverse effects 3 1 Mental disorders 3 2 Suggestibility 3 3 Flashbacks 3 4 Cancer and pregnancy 3 5 Addiction and tolerance 4 Overdose 5 Pharmacology 5 1 Pharmacodynamics 5 2 Pharmacokinetics 6 Chemistry 6 1 Synthesis 6 1 1 Research 6 2 Dosage 6 3 Reactivity and degradation 6 4 Detection 7 History 8 Society and culture 8 1 Counterculture 8 2 Music and art 8 3 Legal status 8 3 1 Australia 8 3 2 Canada 8 3 3 United Kingdom 8 3 4 United States 8 3 5 Mexico 8 3 6 Czech Republic 8 3 7 Ecuador 8 4 Economics 8 4 1 Price 8 4 2 Production 8 4 2 1 Forms 8 4 2 2 Modern distribution 8 4 2 3 Mimics 9 Research 9 1 Psychedelic therapy 9 2 Other uses 10 Notable individuals 11 See also 12 Notes 13 References 14 Further reading 15 External links 15 1 DocumentariesUses EditRecreational Edit LSD is commonly used as a recreational drug in the company of friends in large crowds or by oneself 38 Spiritual Edit LSD can catalyze intense spiritual experiences and is thus considered an entheogen Some users have reported out of body experiences In 1966 Timothy Leary established the League for Spiritual Discovery with LSD as its sacrament 39 40 Stanislav Grof has written that religious and mystical experiences observed during LSD sessions appear to be phenomenologically indistinguishable from similar descriptions in the sacred scriptures of the great religions of the world and the texts of ancient civilizations 41 Medical Edit See also Lysergic acid diethylamide Research LSD currently has no approved uses in medicine 42 43 A meta analysis concluded that a single dose was effective at reducing alcohol consumption in alcoholism 34 LSD has also been studied in depression anxiety 44 45 and drug dependence with positive preliminary results 46 47 Effects Edit Some symptoms reported for LSD 48 49 LSD is exceptionally potent with as little as 20 mg capable of producing a noticeable effect 16 Patient with Mydriasis due to usage of LSD Physical Edit LSD can cause pupil dilation reduced appetite profuse sweating and wakefulness Other physical reactions to LSD are highly variable and nonspecific some of which may be secondary to the psychological effects of LSD Among the reported symptoms are elevated body temperature blood sugar and heart rate alongside goose bumps jaw clenching mouth dryness and hyperreflexia In negative experiences numbness weakness nausea and tremors have also been exhibited 16 Psychological Edit The most common immediate psychological effects of LSD are visual hallucinations and illusions colloquially known as trips which vary depending on how much is used and how the dosage interacts with the brain Trips usually start within 20 30 minutes of taking LSD orally less if snorted or taken intravenously peak three to four hours after ingestion and can last up to 20 hours in high doses Users may also experience an afterglow of improved mood or perceived mental state for days or even weeks after ingestion in some experiences 50 Good trips are reportedly deeply stimulating and pleasurable and typically involve intense joy or euphoria a greater appreciation for life reduced anxiety a sense of spiritual enlightenment and a sense of belonging or interconnectedness with the universe 51 52 Negative experiences colloquially known as bad trips evoke an array of dark emotions such as irrational fear anxiety panic paranoia dread distrustfulness hopelessness and even suicidal ideation 53 While it is impossible to predict when a bad trip will occur one s mood surroundings sleep hydration social setting and other factors can be controlled colloquially referred to as set and setting to minimize the risk of a bad trip 54 55 Sensory Edit LSD causes an animated sensory experience of senses emotions memories time and awareness for 6 to 20 hours depending on dosage and tolerance 17 Generally beginning within 30 to 90 minutes after ingestion the user may experience anything from subtle changes in perception to overwhelming cognitive shifts Changes in auditory and visual perception are also typical 56 57 Some sensory effects may include an experience of radiant or more vibrant colors objects and surfaces appearing to ripple breathe or otherwise move spinning fractals superimposed on one s vision colored patterns behind closed eyelids an altered sense of time geometric patterns emerging on walls and other textured objects and morphing objects 56 Some users also report a strong metallic taste for the duration of the effects 58 Food s texture or taste may be different and users may also have an aversion to foods that they would normally enjoy Similar effects have also been found in rats 59 Some report that the inanimate world appears to animate in an inexplicable way for instance objects that are static in three dimensions can seem to be moving relative to one or more additional spatial dimensions 60 Many of the basic visual effects resemble the phosphenes seen after applying pressure to the eye and have also been studied as form constants Sometimes these effects and patterns can be changed when concentrated on or can change based on thoughts emotions or music 61 The auditory effects of LSD may include echo like distortions of sounds changes in ability to discern concurrent auditory and visual stimuli and a general intensification of the experience of music Higher doses often cause intense and fundamental distortions of sensory perception such as synesthesia the experience of additional spatial or temporal dimensions and temporary dissociation Adverse effects Edit Addiction experts in psychiatry chemistry pharmacology forensic science epidemiology and the police and legal services engaged in delphic analysis regarding 20 popular recreational drugs LSD was ranked 14th in dependence 15th in physical harm and 13th in social harm 62 Out of the 20 drugs ranked in order of individual and societal harm by David Nutt LSD was third to last or approximately 1 10th as harmful as alcohol The most significant adverse effect of LSD was impairment of mental functioning while intoxicated 63 Mental disorders Edit LSD may trigger panic attacks or feelings of extreme anxiety known colloquially as a bad trip Although population studies have not found an increased incidence of mental illness in psychedelic drug users overall with psychedelic users actually having lower rates of depression and substance abuse than the control group 64 65 there is evidence that people with severe mental illnesses like schizophrenia have a higher likelihood of experiencing adverse effects from taking LSD 66 Suggestibility Edit While publicly available documents indicate that the CIA and Department of Defense have discontinued research into the use of LSD as a means of mind control 67 research from the 1960s suggests that both mentally ill and healthy people are more suggestible while under its influence 68 69 70 Flashbacks Edit Flashbacks are a reported psychological phenomenon in which an individual experiences an episode of some of LSD s subjective effects after the drug has worn off persisting for days or months after hallucinogen use 71 72 Individuals with hallucinogen persisting perception disorder experience intermittent or chronic flashbacks that cause distress or impairment in life and work 24 The etiology of the flashback phenomenon appears to be varied Some researchers such as Krebs and Johansen 2015 73 attribute at least some of the cases to be related to somatic symptom disorder when people fixate on normal somatic experiences and perceptions that they weren t aware of before consuming the drug Other researchers relate it to an associative reaction to a contextual cue akin to what people that have faced trauma or strongly emotional experiences face when receiving a triggering stimulus Holland and Passie 2011 74 There is no consensus on what are the risk factors but some researchers theorize that pre existing psychopathologies may be a significant contributor Abraham and Duffy 1996 75 The prevalence of HPPD is difficult to estimate but appears to be very rare Halpern et al 2016 76 with estimates ranging from 1 in 20 users for the transitory and less serious type 1 HPPD to 1 in 50 000 users for the more concerning type 2 HPPD 77 Contrary to rumors circulating the internet that LSD is stored in the spinal cord or other parts of your body long term 78 the pharmacological evidence Passie et all 2008 79 shows LSD has a short half life of 175 minutes undergoing enzymatic metabolism into more polar and therefore water soluble compounds such as 2 oxo 3 hydroxy LSD that are eliminated through the urine No evidence of long term storage of LSD in the body exists Cancer and pregnancy Edit The mutagenic potential of LSD is unclear Overall the evidence seems to point to limited or no effect at commonly used doses 80 Studies showed no evidence of teratogenic or mutagenic effects 7 81 Addiction and tolerance Edit Tolerance to LSD builds up with consistent use 82 and cross tolerance has been demonstrated between LSD mescaline 83 and psilocybin 84 Researchers believe that tolerance returns to baseline after two weeks of not using psychedelics 85 The NIH states that LSD is addictive 23 while most other sources state it is not 20 86 A 2009 textbook states that it rarely produce s compulsive use 5 A 2006 review states it is readily abused but does not result in addiction 20 There are no recorded successful attempts to train animals to self administer LSD in laboratory settings 21 Overdose EditA report in 2008 stated that though there was no comprehensive review since the 1950s and almost no legal clinical research since the 1970s there had been no documented human deaths from an LSD overdose Eight individuals who accidentally consumed very high amounts by mistaking LSD for cocaine developed comatose states hyperthermia vomiting gastric bleeding and respiratory problems all survived however with hospital treatment and without residual effects 7 According to more recent reports several behavioral related fatalities and suicides have occurred due to LSD 87 88 Reassurance in a calm safe environment is beneficial Agitation can be safely addressed with benzodiazepines such as lorazepam or diazepam Neuroleptics such as haloperidol are not recommended because they may have adverse effects LSD is rapidly absorbed so activated charcoal and emptying of the stomach is of little benefit unless done within 30 60 minutes of ingesting an overdose of LSD Sedation or physical restraint is rarely required and excessive restraint may cause complications such as hyperthermia over heating or rhabdomyolysis 89 Massive doses should be treated with supportive care including respiratory support and endotracheal intubation if needed Hypertension high blood pressure tachycardia rapid heart beat and hyperthermia should be treated symptomatically Hypotension low blood pressure should be treated initially with fluids and subsequently with pressors if required Intravenous administration of anticoagulants vasodilators and sympatholytics may be useful when treating ergotism 89 Pharmacology EditPharmacodynamics Edit Binding affinities of LSD for various receptors The lower the dissociation constant Ki the more strongly LSD binds to that receptor i e with higher affinity The horizontal line represents an approximate value for human plasma concentrations of LSD and hence receptor affinities that are above the line are unlikely to be involved in LSD s effect Data averaged from data from the Ki Database Dissociation constant of various serotonin receptors Receptor Ki nM 5 HT1A 1 1 5 HT2A 2 9 5 HT2B 4 9 5 HT2C 23 5 HT5A 9 5 HT6 2 3 Most serotonergic psychedelics are not significantly dopaminergic and LSD is therefore atypical in this regard The agonism of the D2 receptor by LSD may contribute to its psychoactive effects in humans 28 90 LSD binds to most serotonin receptor subtypes except for the 5 HT3 and 5 HT4 receptors However most of these receptors are affected at too low affinity to be sufficiently activated by the brain concentration of approximately 10 20 nM 86 In humans recreational doses of LSD can affect 5 HT1A Ki 1 1nM 5 HT2A Ki 2 9nM 5 HT2B Ki 4 9nM 5 HT2C Ki 23nM 5 HT5A Ki 9nM in cloned rat tissues and 5 HT6 receptors Ki 2 3nM 91 92 Although not present in humans 5 HT5B receptors found in rodents also have a high affinity for LSD 93 The psychedelic effects of LSD are attributed to cross activation of 5 HT2A receptor heteromers 94 Many but not all 5 HT2A agonists are psychedelics and 5 HT2A antagonists block the psychedelic activity of LSD LSD exhibits functional selectivity at the 5 HT2A and 5HT2C receptors in that it activates the signal transduction enzyme phospholipase A2 instead of activating the enzyme phospholipase C as the endogenous ligand serotonin does 95 Exactly how LSD produces its effects is unknown but it is thought that it works by increasing glutamate release in the cerebral cortex 86 and therefore excitation in this area specifically in layers IV and V 96 LSD like many other drugs of recreational use has been shown to activate DARPP 32 related pathways 97 The drug enhances dopamine D2 receptor protomer recognition and signaling of D2 5 HT2A receptor complexes 27 which may contribute to its psychotropic effects 27 LSD has been shown to have low affinity for H1 receptors displaying antihistamine effects 98 99 100 LSD is a biased agonist that induces a conformation in serotonin receptors that preferentially recruits b arrestin over activating G proteins 101 102 LSD also has an exceptionally long residence time when bound to serotonin receptors lasting hours consistent with the long lasting effects of LSD despite its relatively rapid clearance 101 102 A crystal structure of 5 HT2B bound to LSD reveals an extracellular loop that forms a lid over the diethylamide end of the binding cavity which explains the slow rate of LSD unbinding from serotonin receptors 103 104 105 The related lysergamide lysergic acid amide LSA that lacks the diethylamide moiety is far less hallucinogenic in comparison 105 Pharmacokinetics Edit The effects of LSD normally last between 6 and 12 hours depending on dosage tolerance and age 106 The Sandoz prospectus for Delysid warned intermittent disturbances of affect may occasionally persist for several days 107 Aghajanian and Bing 1964 found LSD had an elimination half life of only 175 minutes about 3 hours 91 However using more accurate techniques Papac and Foltz 1990 reported that 1 µg kg oral LSD given to a single male volunteer had an apparent plasma half life of 5 1 hours with a peak plasma concentration of 5 ng mL at 3 hours post dose 108 The pharmacokinetics of LSD were not properly determined until 2015 which is not surprising for a drug with the kind of low mg potency that LSD possesses 9 6 In a sample of 16 healthy subjects a single mid range 200 mg oral dose of LSD was found to produce mean maximal concentrations of 4 5 ng mL at a median of 1 5 hours range 0 5 4 hours post administration 9 6 Concentrations of LSD decreased following first order kinetics with a half life of 3 6 0 9 hours and a terminal half life of 8 9 5 9 hours 9 6 The effects of the dose of LSD given lasted for up to 12 hours and were closely correlated with the concentrations of LSD present in circulation over time with no acute tolerance observed 9 6 Only 1 of the drug was eliminated in urine unchanged whereas 13 was eliminated as the major metabolite 2 oxo 3 hydroxy LSD O H LSD within 24 hours 9 6 O H LSD is formed by cytochrome P450 enzymes although the specific enzymes involved are unknown and it does not appear to be known whether O H LSD is pharmacologically active or not 9 6 The oral bioavailability of LSD was crudely estimated as approximately 71 using previous data on intravenous administration of LSD 9 6 The sample was equally divided between male and female subjects and there were no significant sex differences observed in the pharmacokinetics of LSD 9 6 Chemistry Edit The four possible stereoisomers of LSD Only LSD is psychoactive LSD is a chiral compound with two stereocenters at the carbon atoms C 5 and C 8 so that theoretically four different optical isomers of LSD could exist LSD also called D LSD citation needed has the absolute configuration 5R 8R The C 5 isomers of lysergamides do not exist in nature and are not formed during the synthesis from d lysergic acid Retrosynthetically the C 5 stereocenter could be analysed as having the same configuration of the alpha carbon of the naturally occurring amino acid L tryptophan the precursor to all biosynthetic ergoline compounds However LSD and iso LSD the two C 8 isomers rapidly interconvert in the presence of bases as the alpha proton is acidic and can be deprotonated and reprotonated Non psychoactive iso LSD which has formed during the synthesis can be separated by chromatography and can be isomerized to LSD Pure salts of LSD are triboluminescent emitting small flashes of white light when shaken in the dark 106 LSD is strongly fluorescent and will glow bluish white under UV light Synthesis Edit LSD is an ergoline derivative It is commonly synthesized by reacting diethylamine with an activated form of lysergic acid Activating reagents include phosphoryl chloride 109 and peptide coupling reagents 100 Lysergic acid is made by alkaline hydrolysis of lysergamides like ergotamine a substance usually derived from the ergot fungus on agar plate or theoretically possible but impractical and uncommon from ergine lysergic acid amide LSA extracted from morning glory seeds 110 Lysergic acid can also be produced synthetically although these processes are not used in clandestine manufacture due to their low yields and high complexity 111 112 Research Edit The precursor for LSD lysergic acid has been produced by GMO baker s yeast 113 Dosage Edit White on White blotters WoW for sublingual administration A single dose of LSD may be between 40 and 500 micrograms an amount roughly equal to one tenth the mass of a grain of sand Threshold effects can be felt with as little as 25 micrograms of LSD 114 115 The practice of using sub threshold doses is called microdosing 116 Dosages of LSD are measured in micrograms µg or millionths of a gram By comparison dosages of most drugs both recreational and medicinal are measured in milligrams mg or thousandths of a gram For example an active dose of mescaline roughly 0 2 to 0 5 g has effects comparable to 100 µg 0 0001 g or less of LSD 107 In the mid 1960s the most important black market LSD manufacturer Owsley Stanley distributed LSD at a standard concentration of 270 µg 117 while street samples of the 1970s contained 30 to 300 µg By the 1980s the amount had reduced to between 100 and 125 µg dropping more in the 1990s to the 20 80 µg range 118 and even more in the 2000s decade 117 119 Reactivity and degradation Edit LSD writes the chemist Alexander Shulgin is an unusually fragile molecule As a salt in water cold and free from air and light exposure it is stable indefinitely 106 LSD has two labile protons at the tertiary stereogenic C5 and C8 positions rendering these centers prone to epimerisation The C8 proton is more labile due to the electron withdrawing carboxamide attachment but removal of the chiral proton at the C5 position which was once also an alpha proton of the parent molecule tryptophan is assisted by the inductively withdrawing nitrogen and pi electron delocalisation with the indole ring citation needed LSD also has enamine type reactivity because of the electron donating effects of the indole ring Because of this chlorine destroys LSD molecules on contact even though chlorinated tap water contains only a slight amount of chlorine the small quantity of compound typical to an LSD solution will likely be eliminated when dissolved in tap water 106 The double bond between the 8 position and the aromatic ring being conjugated with the indole ring is susceptible to nucleophilic attacks by water or alcohol especially in the presence of UV or other kinds of light LSD often converts to lumi LSD which is inactive in human beings 106 A controlled study was undertaken to determine the stability of LSD in pooled urine samples 120 The concentrations of LSD in urine samples were followed over time at various temperatures in different types of storage containers at various exposures to different wavelengths of light and at varying pH values These studies demonstrated no significant loss in LSD concentration at 25 C for up to four weeks After four weeks of incubation a 30 loss in LSD concentration at 37 C and up to a 40 at 45 C were observed Urine fortified with LSD and stored in amber glass or nontransparent polyethylene containers showed no change in concentration under any light conditions Stability of LSD in transparent containers under light was dependent on the distance between the light source and the samples the wavelength of light exposure time and the intensity of light After prolonged exposure to heat in alkaline pH conditions 10 to 15 of the parent LSD epimerized to iso LSD Under acidic conditions less than 5 of the LSD was converted to iso LSD It was also demonstrated that trace amounts of metal ions in buffer or urine could catalyze the decomposition of LSD and that this process can be avoided by the addition of EDTA Detection Edit LSD may be quantified in urine as part of a drug abuse testing program in plasma or serum to confirm a diagnosis of poisoning in hospitalized victims or in whole blood to assist in a forensic investigation of a traffic or other criminal violation or a case of sudden death Both the parent drug and its major metabolite are unstable in biofluids when exposed to light heat or alkaline conditions and therefore specimens are protected from light stored at the lowest possible temperature and analyzed quickly to minimize losses 121 Maximum plasma concentrations were found to be 1 4 and 1 5 hours after oral administration of 100µg and 200µg respectively with a plasma half life of 2 6 hours ranging from 2 2 3 4 hours among 40 human test subjects 122 LSD can be detected using an Ehrlich s reagent and a Hofmann s reagent History Edit affected by a remarkable restlessness combined with a slight dizziness At home I lay down and sank into a not unpleasant intoxicated like condition characterized by an extremely stimulated imagination In a dreamlike state with eyes closed I found the daylight to be unpleasantly glaring I perceived an uninterrupted stream of fantastic pictures extraordinary shapes with intense kaleidoscopic play of colors After some two hours this condition faded away Albert Hofmann on his first experience with LSD 123 Main article History of lysergic acid diethylamide LSD was first synthesized on November 16 1938 124 by Swiss chemist Albert Hofmann at the Sandoz Laboratories in Basel Switzerland as part of a large research program searching for medically useful ergot alkaloid derivatives The abbreviation LSD is from the German Lysergsaurediethylamid 125 LSD s psychedelic properties were discovered 5 years later when Hofmann himself accidentally ingested an unknown quantity of the chemical 126 The first intentional ingestion of LSD occurred on April 19 1943 127 when Hofmann ingested 250 µg of LSD He said this would be a threshold dose based on the dosages of other ergot alkaloids Hofmann found the effects to be much stronger than he anticipated 128 Sandoz Laboratories introduced LSD as a psychiatric drug in 1947 and marketed LSD as a psychiatric panacea hailing it as a cure for everything from schizophrenia to criminal behavior sexual perversions and alcoholism 129 Sandoz would send the drug for free to researchers investigating its effects 29 Albert Hofmann in 2006 source source source source source source source source source source source source source source Effects of Lysergic Acid Diethylamide LSD on Troops Marching 16mm film produced by the United States military circa 1958 Beginning in the 1950s the US Central Intelligence Agency CIA began a research program code named Project MKUltra The CIA introduced LSD to the United States purchasing the entire world s supply for 240 000 and propagating the LSD through CIA front organizations to American hospitals clinics prisons and research centers 130 Experiments included administering LSD to CIA employees military personnel doctors other government agents prostitutes mentally ill patients and members of the general public in order to study their reactions usually without the subjects knowledge The project was revealed in the US congressional Rockefeller Commission report in 1975 In 1963 the Sandoz patents on LSD expired 118 and the Czech company Spofa began to produce the substance 29 Sandoz stopped the production and distribution in 1965 29 Several figures including Aldous Huxley Timothy Leary and Al Hubbard had begun to advocate the consumption of LSD LSD became central to the counterculture of the 1960s 131 In the early 1960s the use of LSD and other hallucinogens was advocated by new proponents of consciousness expansion such as Leary Huxley Alan Watts and Arthur Koestler 132 133 and according to L R Veysey they profoundly influenced the thinking of the new generation of youth 134 On October 24 1968 possession of LSD was made illegal in the United States 135 The last FDA approved study of LSD in patients ended in 1980 while a study in healthy volunteers was made in the late 1980s Legally approved and regulated psychiatric use of LSD continued in Switzerland until 1993 136 In November 2020 Oregon became the first US state to decriminalize possession of small amounts of LSD after voters approved Ballot Measure 110 137 Society and culture EditCounterculture Edit This article needs additional citations for verification Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources Unsourced material may be challenged and removed Find sources Lysergic acid diethylamide news newspapers books scholar JSTOR May 2020 Learn how and when to remove this template message Psychedelic art attempts to capture the visions experienced on a psychedelic trip By the mid 1960s the youth countercultures in California particularly in San Francisco had adopted the use of hallucinogenic drugs with the first major underground LSD factory established by Owsley Stanley 138 From 1964 the Merry Pranksters a loose group that developed around novelist Ken Kesey sponsored the Acid Tests a series of events primarily staged in or near San Francisco involving the taking of LSD supplied by Stanley accompanied by light shows film projection and discordant improvised music known as the psychedelic symphony 139 140 The Pranksters helped popularize LSD use through their road trips across America in a psychedelically decorated converted school bus which involved distributing the drug and meeting with major figures of the beat movement and through publications about their activities such as Tom Wolfe s The Electric Kool Aid Acid Test 1968 141 In San Francisco s Haight Ashbury neighborhood brothers Ron and Jay Thelin opened the Psychedelic Shop in January 1966 142 The Thelins opened the store to promote safe use of LSD which was then still legal in California The Psychedelic Shop helped to further popularize LSD in the Haight and to make the neighborhood the unofficial capital of the hippie counterculture in the United States Ron Thelin was also involved in organizing the Love Pageant rally a protest held in Golden Gate park to protest California s newly adopted ban on LSD in October 1966 At the rally hundreds of attendees took acid in unison Although the Psychedelic Shop closed after barely a year and a half in business its role in popularizing LSD was considerable 143 Lysergic Acid Diethylamide source source by Lambert P Lambert and the Gorgettes from the album Abbra Cadaver 1967 Problems playing this file See media help A similar and connected nexus of LSD use in the creative arts developed around the same time in London A key figure in this phenomenon in the UK was British academic Michael Hollingshead who first tried LSD in America in 1961 while he was the Executive Secretary for the Institute of British American Cultural Exchange After being given a large quantity of pure Sandoz LSD which was still legal at the time and experiencing his first trip Hollingshead contacted Aldous Huxley who suggested that he get in touch with Harvard academic Timothy Leary and over the next few years in concert with Leary and Richard Alpert Hollingshead played a major role in their famous LSD research at Millbrook before moving to New York City where he conducted his own LSD experiments In 1965 Hollingshead returned to the UK and founded the World Psychedelic Center in Chelsea London Music and art Edit Main article LSD art In both music and art the influence of LSD was soon being more widely seen and heard thanks to the bands that participated in the Acid Tests and related events including the Grateful Dead Jefferson Airplane and Big Brother and the Holding Company and through the inventive poster and album art of San Francisco based artists like Rick Griffin Victor Moscoso Bonnie MacLean Stanley Mouse amp Alton Kelley and Wes Wilson meant to evoke the visual experience of an LSD trip LSD had a strong influence on the Grateful Dead and the culture of Deadheads 144 Among the many famous people in the UK that Michael Hollingshead is reputed to have introduced to LSD are artist and Hipgnosis founder Storm Thorgerson and musicians Donovan Keith Richards Paul McCartney John Lennon and George Harrison Although establishment concern about the new drug led to it being declared an illegal drug by the Home Secretary in 1966 LSD was soon being used widely in the upper echelons of the British art and music scene including members of the Beatles 145 the Rolling Stones 146 the Moody Blues 147 the Small Faces 148 Syd Barrett 149 Jimi Hendrix and others and the products of these experiences were soon being both heard and seen by the public with singles like the Small Faces Itchycoo Park and LPs like the Beatles Sgt Pepper s Lonely Hearts Club Band and Cream s Disraeli Gears which featured music that showed the obvious influence of the musicians recent psychedelic excursions and which were packaged in elaborately designed album covers that featured vividly coloured psychedelic artwork by artists like Peter Blake Martin Sharp Hapshash and the Coloured Coat Nigel Waymouth and Michael English and art music collective The Fool In the 1960s musicians from psychedelic music and psychedelic rock bands began to refer at first indirectly and later explicitly to the drug and attempted to recreate or reflect the experience of taking LSD in their music A number of features are often included in psychedelic music Exotic instrumentation with a particular fondness for the sitar and tabla are common 150 Electric guitars are used to create feedback and are played through wah wah and fuzzbox effect pedals 151 Elaborate studio effects are often used such as backwards tapes panning phasing long delay loops and extreme reverb 152 In the 1960s there was a use of primitive electronic instruments such as early synthesizers and the theremin 153 154 Later forms of electronic psychedelia also employed repetitive computer generated beats 155 Songs allegedly referring to LSD include John Prine s Illegal Smile and the Beatles song Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds although the authors of the latter song repeatedly denied this claim 156 157 158 In modern times LSD has had a prominent influence on artists such as Keith Haring electronic dance music and the jam band Phish Legal status Edit The United Nations Convention on Psychotropic Substances adopted in 1971 requires the signing parties to prohibit LSD Hence it is illegal in all countries that were parties to the convention including the United States Australia New Zealand and most of Europe However enforcement of those laws varies from country to country Medical and scientific research with LSD in humans is permitted under the 1971 UN Convention 159 Australia Edit LSD is a Schedule 9 prohibited substance in Australia under the Poisons Standard February 2017 160 A Schedule 9 substance is defined as a substance which may be abused or misused the manufacture possession sale or use of which should be prohibited by law except when required for medical or scientific research or for analytical teaching or training purposes with approval of Commonwealth and or State or Territory Health Authorities 160 In Western Australia section 9 of the Misuse of Drugs Act 1981 provides for summary trial before a magistrate for possession of less than 0 004g section 11 provides rebuttable presumptions of intent to sell or supply if the quantity is 0 002g or more or of possession for the purpose of trafficking if 0 01g 161 Canada Edit In Canada LSD is a controlled substance under Schedule III of the Controlled Drugs and Substances Act 53 Every person who seeks to obtain the substance without disclosing authorization to obtain such substances 30 days before obtaining another prescription from a practitioner is guilty of an indictable offence and liable to imprisonment for a term not exceeding 3 years Possession for purpose of trafficking is an indictable offence punishable by imprisonment for 10 years United Kingdom Edit In the United Kingdom LSD is a Schedule 1 Class A drug This means it has no recognized legitimate uses and possession of the drug without a licence is punishable with 7 years imprisonment and or an unlimited fine and trafficking is punishable with life imprisonment and an unlimited fine see main article on drug punishments Misuse of Drugs Act 1971 In 2000 after consultation with members of the Royal College of Psychiatrists Faculty of Substance Misuse the UK Police Foundation issued the Runciman Report which recommended the transfer of LSD from Class A to Class B 162 In November 2009 the UK Transform Drug Policy Foundation released in the House of Commons a guidebook to the legal regulation of drugs After the War on Drugs Blueprint for Regulation which details options for regulated distribution and sale of LSD and other psychedelics 163 United States Edit LSD is Schedule I in the United States according to the Controlled Substances Act of 1970 164 This means LSD is illegal to manufacture buy possess process or distribute without a license from the Drug Enforcement Administration DEA By classifying LSD as a Schedule I substance the DEA holds that LSD meets the following three criteria it is deemed to have a high potential for abuse it has no legitimate medical use in treatment and there is a lack of accepted safety for its use under medical supervision There are no documented deaths from chemical toxicity most LSD deaths are a result of behavioral toxicity 165 There can also be substantial discrepancies between the amount of chemical LSD that one possesses and the amount of possession with which one can be charged in the US This is because LSD is almost always present in a medium e g blotter or neutral liquid and in some contexts the amount that can be considered with respect to sentencing is the total mass of the drug and its medium This discrepancy was the subject of 1995 United States Supreme Court case Neal v United States which determined that for finding minimum sentence lengths the total medium weight is used while for determining the severity of the offense an estimation of the chemical mass is used 166 Lysergic acid and lysergic acid amide LSD precursors are both classified in Schedule III of the Controlled Substances Act 167 Ergotamine tartrate a precursor to lysergic acid is regulated under the Chemical Diversion and Trafficking Act Personal possession of small amounts of drugs including LSD 40 units or less was decriminalized in the U S state of Oregon on February 1 2021 168 This came as a result of the passing of 2020 Oregon Ballot Measure 110 The movement to decriminalize psychedelics in the United States includes LSD in the ongoing effort in California In November 2020 California Senator Scott Wiener introduced a bill to decriminalize psychedelics such as psilocybin ayahuasca ibogaine and LSD In April 2021 the bill has been approved by the Senates Public Safety Committee and the Health Committee in May 2021 it was cleared by the Senate Appropriations Committee and approved by the California Senate and in June 2021 advanced by the Assembly Public Safety Committee 169 In mid 2022 the bill was gutted by committee and limited to organizing a study Wiener announced that he is planning to reintroduce the bill in 2023 170 Mexico Edit In April 2009 the Mexican Congress approved changes in the General Health Law that decriminalized the possession of illegal drugs for immediate consumption and personal use allowing a person to possess a moderate amount of LSD The only restriction is that people in possession of drugs should not be within a 300 meter radius of schools police departments or correctional facilities Marijuana along with cocaine opium heroin and other drugs were also decriminalized their possession is not considered a crime as long as the dose does not exceed the limit established in the General Health Law 171 Many vague question this as cocaine is as synthesised as heroin and both are produced as extracts from plants The law establishes very low amount thresholds and strictly defines personal dosage For those arrested with more than the threshold allowed by the law this can result in heavy prison sentences as they will be assumed to be small traffickers even if there are no other indications that the amount was meant for selling 172 Czech Republic Edit In the Czech Republic until 31 December 1998 only drug possession for other person i e intent to sell was criminal apart from production importation exportation offering or mediation which was and remains criminal while possession for personal use remained legal 173 On 1 January 1999 an amendment of the Criminal Code which was necessitated in order to align the Czech drug rules with the Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs became effective criminalizing possession of amount larger than small also for personal use Art 187a of the Criminal Code while possession of small amounts for personal use became a misdemeanor 173 The judicial practice came to the conclusion that the amount larger than small must be five to ten times larger depending on drug than a usual single dose of an average consumer 174 Under the Regulation No 467 2009 Coll possession of less than 5 doses of LSD was to be considered smaller than large for the purposes of the Criminal Code and was to be treated as a misdemeanor subject to a fine equal to a parking ticket 175 Ecuador Edit According to the 2008 Constitution of Ecuador in its Article 364 the Ecuadorian state does not see drug consumption as a crime but only as a health concern 176 Since June 2013 the State drugs regulatory office CONSEP has published a table which establishes maximum quantities carried by persons so as to be considered in legal possession and that person as not a seller of drugs 176 177 178 The CONSEP established at their latest general meeting that the 0 020 milligrams of LSD shall be considered the maximum consumer amount 179 Economics Edit Price Edit The street price of a single dose of LSD can be anywhere from 2 to 50 180 In Europe as of 2011 the typical cost of a dose was between 4 50 and 25 16 Production Edit Glassware seized by the DEA An active dose of LSD is very minute allowing a large number of doses to be synthesized from a comparatively small amount of raw material Twenty five kilograms of precursor ergotamine tartrate can produce 5 6 kg of pure crystalline LSD this corresponds to around 50 60 million doses at 100 µg Because the masses involved are so small concealing and transporting illicit LSD is much easier than smuggling cocaine cannabis or other illegal drugs 181 Manufacturing LSD requires laboratory equipment and experience in the field of organic chemistry It takes two to three days to produce 30 to 100 grams of pure compound It is believed that LSD is not usually produced in large quantities but rather in a series of small batches This technique minimizes the loss of precursor chemicals in case a step does not work as expected 181 dead link Forms Edit Five doses of LSD often called a five strip LSD is produced in crystalline form and is then mixed with excipients or redissolved for production in ingestible forms Liquid solution is either distributed in small vials or more commonly sprayed onto or soaked into a distribution medium Historically LSD solutions were first sold on sugar cubes but practical considerations forced a change to tablet form Appearing in 1968 as an orange tablet measuring about 6 mm across Orange Sunshine acid was the first largely available form of LSD after its possession was made illegal Tim Scully a prominent chemist made some of these tablets but said that most Sunshine in the USA came by way of Ronald Stark who imported approximately thirty five million doses from Europe 182 Over a period of time tablet dimensions weight shape and concentration of LSD evolved from large 4 5 8 1 mm diameter heavyweight 150 mg round high concentration 90 350 µg tab dosage units to small 2 0 3 5 mm diameter lightweight as low as 4 7 µg tab variously shaped lower concentration 12 85 µg tab average range 30 40 µg tab dosage units LSD tablet shapes have included cylinders cones stars spacecraft and heart shapes The smallest tablets became known as Microdots 183 After tablets came computer acid or blotter paper LSD typically made by dipping a preprinted sheet of blotting paper into an LSD water alcohol solution 182 183 More than 200 types of LSD tablets have been encountered since 1969 and more than 350 blotter paper designs have been observed since 1975 183 About the same time as blotter paper LSD came Windowpane AKA Clearlight which contained LSD inside a thin gelatin square a quarter of an inch 6 mm across 182 LSD has been sold under a wide variety of often short lived and regionally restricted street names including Acid Trips Uncle Sid Blotter Lucy Alice and doses as well as names that reflect the designs on the sheets of blotter paper 51 184 Authorities have encountered the drug in other forms including powder or crystal and capsule 185 Modern distribution Edit LSD manufacturers and traffickers in the United States can be categorized into two groups A few large scale producers and an equally limited number of small clandestine chemists consisting of independent producers who operating on a comparatively limited scale can be found throughout the country 186 187 As a group independent producers are of less concern to the Drug Enforcement Administration than the large scale groups because their product reaches only local markets 188 Many LSD dealers and chemists describe a religious or humanitarian purpose that motivates their illicit activity Nicholas Schou s book Orange Sunshine The Brotherhood of Eternal Love and Its Quest to Spread Peace Love and Acid to the World describes one such group the Brotherhood of Eternal Love The group was a major American LSD trafficking group in the late 1960s and early 1970s 189 In the second half of the 20th century dealers and chemists loosely associated with the Grateful Dead like Owsley Stanley Nicholas Sand Karen Horning Sarah Maltzer Dealer McDope and Leonard Pickard played an essential role in distributing LSD 144 Mimics Edit LSD blotter acid mimic actually containing DOC Different blotters which could possibly be mimics Since 2005 law enforcement in the United States and elsewhere has seized several chemicals and combinations of chemicals in blotter paper which were sold as LSD mimics including DOB 190 191 a mixture of DOC and DOI 192 25I NBOMe 193 and a mixture of DOC and DOB 194 Many mimics are toxic in comparatively small doses or have extremely different safety profiles Many street users of LSD are often under the impression that blotter paper which is actively hallucinogenic can only be LSD because that is the only chemical with low enough doses to fit on a small square of blotter paper While it is true that LSD requires lower doses than most other hallucinogens blotter paper is capable of absorbing a much larger amount of material The DEA performed a chromatographic analysis of blotter paper containing 2C C which showed that the paper contained a much greater concentration of the active chemical than typical LSD doses although the exact quantity was not determined 195 Blotter LSD mimics can have relatively small dose squares a sample of blotter paper containing DOC seized by Concord California police had dose markings approximately 6 mm apart 196 Several deaths have been attributed to 25I NBOMe 197 198 199 200 Research EditA number of organizations including the Beckley Foundation MAPS Heffter Research Institute and the Albert Hofmann Foundation exist to fund encourage and coordinate research into the medicinal and spiritual uses of LSD and related psychedelics 201 New clinical LSD experiments in humans started in 2009 for the first time in 35 years 202 As it is illegal in many areas of the world potential medical uses are difficult to study 42 In 2001 the United States Drug Enforcement Administration stated that LSD produces no aphrodisiac effects does not increase creativity has no lasting positive effect in treating alcoholics or criminals does not produce a model psychosis and does not generate immediate personality change 203 More recently experimental uses of LSD have included the treatment of alcoholism 204 pain and cluster headache relief 7 and prospective studies on depression 205 206 There is evidence that psychedelics induce molecular and cellular adaptations related to neuroplasticity and that these could potentially underlie therapeutic benefits 207 208 209 Psychedelic therapy Edit See also Psychedelic therapy In the 1950s and 1960s LSD was used in psychiatry to enhance psychotherapy known as psychedelic therapy Some psychiatrists such as Ronald A Sandison who pioneered its use at Powick Hospital in England believed LSD was especially useful at helping patients to unblock repressed subconscious material through other psychotherapeutic methods 210 and also for treating alcoholism 211 212 213 One study concluded The root of the therapeutic value of the LSD experience is its potential for producing self acceptance and self surrender 33 presumably by forcing the user to face issues and problems in that individual s psyche Two recent reviews concluded that conclusions drawn from most of these early trials are unreliable due to serious methodological flaws These include the absence of adequate control groups lack of followup and vague criteria for therapeutic outcome In many cases studies failed to convincingly demonstrate whether the drug or the therapeutic interaction was responsible for any beneficial effects 214 215 In recent years organizations like the Multidisciplinary Association for Psychedelic Studies have renewed clinical research of LSD 216 It has been proposed that LSD be studied for use in the therapeutic setting particularly in anxiety 217 218 44 45 Other uses Edit In the 1950s and 1960s some psychiatrists e g Oscar Janiger explored the potential effect of LSD on creativity Experimental studies attempted to measure the effect of LSD on creative activity and aesthetic appreciation 219 220 221 52 Since 2008 there has been ongoing research into using LSD to alleviate anxiety for terminally ill cancer patients coping with their impending deaths 222 223 44 A 2012 meta analysis found evidence that a single dose of LSD in conjunction with various alcoholism treatment programs was associated with a decrease in alcohol abuse lasting for several months but no effect was seen at one year Adverse events included seizure moderate confusion and agitation nausea vomiting and acting in a bizarre fashion 34 LSD has been used as a treatment for cluster headaches with positive results in some small studies 7 Recently researchers discovered that LSD is a potent psychoplastogen a compound capable of promoting rapid and sustained neural plasticity that may have wide ranging therapeutic benefit 224 LSD has been shown to increase markers of neuroplasticity in human brain organoids and improve memory performance in human subjects 225 LSD may have analgesic properties related to pain in terminally ill patients and phantom pain and may be useful for treating inflammatory diseases including rheumatoid arthritis 226 Notable individuals EditSome notable individuals have commented publicly on their experiences with LSD 227 228 Some of these comments date from the era when it was legally available in the US and Europe for non medical uses and others pertain to psychiatric treatment in the 1950s and 1960s Still others describe experiences with illegal LSD obtained for philosophic artistic therapeutic spiritual or recreational purposes W H Auden the poet said I myself have taken mescaline once and L S D once Aside from a slight schizophrenic dissociation of the I from the Not I including my body nothing happened at all 229 He also said LSD was a complete frost What it does seem to destroy is the power of communication I have listened to tapes done by highly articulate people under LSD for example and they talk absolute drivel They may have seen something interesting but they certainly lose either the power or the wish to communicate 230 He also said Nothing much happened but I did get the distinct impression that some birds were trying to communicate with me 231 Daniel Ellsberg an American peace activist says he has had several hundred experiences with psychedelics 232 Richard Feynman a notable physicist at California Institute of Technology tried LSD during his professorship at Caltech Feynman largely sidestepped the issue when dictating his anecdotes he mentions it in passing in the O Americano Outra Vez section 233 234 Jerry Garcia stated in a July 3 1989 interview for Relix Magazine in response to the question Have your feelings about LSD changed over the years They haven t changed much My feelings about LSD are mixed It s something that I both fear and that I love at the same time I never take any psychedelic have a psychedelic experience without having that feeling of I don t know what s going to happen In that sense it s still fundamentally an enigma and a mystery 235 Bill Gates implied in an interview with Playboy that he tried LSD during his youth 236 Aldous Huxley author of Brave New World became a user of psychedelics after moving to Hollywood He was at the forefront of the counterculture s use of psychedelic drugs which led to his 1954 work The Doors of Perception Dying from cancer he asked his wife on 22 November 1963 to inject him with 100 µg of LSD He died later that day 237 Steve Jobs co founder and former CEO of Apple Inc said Taking LSD was a profound experience one of the most important things in my life 238 Ernst Junger German writer and philosopher throughout his life had experimented with drugs such as ether cocaine and hashish and later in life he used mescaline and LSD These experiments were recorded comprehensively in Annaherungen 1970 Approaches The novel Besuch auf Godenholm 1952 Visit to Godenholm is clearly influenced by his early experiments with mescaline and LSD He met with LSD inventor Albert Hofmann and they took LSD together several times Hofmann s memoir LSD My Problem Child describes some of these meetings 239 In a 2004 interview Paul McCartney said that The Beatles songs Day Tripper and Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds were inspired by LSD trips 240 Nonetheless John Lennon consistently stated over the course of many years that the fact that the initials of Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds spelled out L S D was a coincidence he stated that the title came from a picture drawn by his son Julian and that the band members did not notice until after the song had been released and Paul McCartney corroborated that story 241 John Lennon George Harrison and Ringo Starr also used the drug although McCartney cautioned that it s easy to overestimate the influence of drugs on the Beatles music 242 Michel Foucault had an LSD experience with Simeon Wade in the Death Valley and later wrote it was the greatest experience of his life and that it profoundly changed his life and his work 243 244 According to Wade as soon as he came back to Paris Foucault scrapped the second History of Sexuality s manuscript and totally rethought the whole project 245 Kary Mullis is reported to credit LSD with helping him develop DNA amplification technology for which he received the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1993 246 Carlo Rovelli an Italian theoretical physicist and writer has credited his use of LSD with sparking his interest in theoretical physics 247 Oliver Sacks a neurologist famous for writing best selling case histories about his patients disorders and unusual experiences talks about his own experiences with LSD and other perception altering chemicals in his book Hallucinations 248 Matt Stone and Trey Parker creators of the TV series South Park claimed to have shown up at the 72nd Academy Awards at which they were nominated for Best Original Song under the influence of LSD 249 See also Edit 1960s portal1P LSD 1cP LSD LSD art Psychedelic microdosing Psychedelic therapy Owsley Stanley Urban legends about LSD PsychoplastogenNotes Edit From the German name Lysergsaure diethylamidReferences Edit Definition of amide Collins English Dictionary Archived from the original on April 2 2015 Retrieved January 31 2015 American Heritage Dictionary Entry amide Ahdictionary com Archived from the original on April 2 2015 Retrieved January 31 2015 amide definition of amide in English from the Oxford Dictionary Oxforddictionaries com Archived from the original on April 2 2015 Retrieved January 31 2015 Halpern JH Suzuki J Huertas PE Passie T June 7 2014 Hallucinogen Abuse and Dependence In Price LH Stolerman IP eds Encyclopedia of Psychopharmacology A Springer Live 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