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Wikipedia

Urine

January 26, 2023

Urine is a liquid by-product of metabolism in humans and in many other animals. Urine flows from the kidneys through the ureters to the urinary bladder. Urination results in urine being excreted from the body through the urethra.

Sample of human urine

Cellular metabolism generates many by-products that are rich in nitrogen and must be cleared from the bloodstream, such as urea, uric acid, and creatinine. These by-products are expelled from the body during urination, which is the primary method for excreting water-soluble chemicals from the body. A urinalysis can detect nitrogenous wastes of the mammalian body.

Urine plays an important role in the earth's nitrogen cycle. In balanced ecosystems, urine fertilizes the soil and thus helps plants to grow. Therefore, urine can be used as a fertilizer. Some animals use it to mark their territories. Historically, aged or fermented urine (known as lant) was also used for gunpowder production, household cleaning, tanning of leather and dyeing of textiles.

Human urine and feces are collectively referred to as human waste or human excreta, and are managed via sanitation systems. Livestock urine and feces also require proper management if the livestock population density is high.

Physiology

Main article: Renal physiology
 
The chemical structure of urea

Most animals have excretory systems for elimination of soluble toxic wastes. In humans, soluble wastes are excreted primarily by the urinary system and, to a lesser extent in terms of urea, removed by perspiration.[1] The urinary system consists of the kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, and urethra. The system produces urine by a process of filtration, reabsorption, and tubular secretion. The kidneys extract the soluble wastes from the bloodstream, as well as excess water, sugars, and a variety of other compounds. The resulting urine contains high concentrations of urea and other substances, including toxins. Urine flows from the kidneys through the ureter, bladder, and finally the urethra before passing from the body.

Duration

Research looking at the duration of urination in a range of mammal species found that nine larger species urinated for 21 ± 13 seconds irrespective of body size.[2] Smaller species, including rodents and bats, cannot produce steady streams of urine and instead urinate with a series of drops.[2]

Characteristics

Quantity

Average urine production in adult humans is around 1.4 L (0.31 imp gal; 0.37 US gal) of urine per person per day with a normal range of 0.6 to 2.6 L (0.13 to 0.57 imp gal; 0.16 to 0.69 US gal) per person per day, produced in around 6 to 8 urinations per day depending on state of hydration, activity level, environmental factors, weight, and the individual's health.[3] Producing too much or too little urine needs medical attention. Polyuria is a condition of excessive production of urine (> 2.5 L/day), oliguria when < 400 mL are produced, and anuria being < 100 mL per day.

Constituents

Further information: Urinalysis
 
Urine under the microscope

About 91–96% of urine consists of water.[3] The remainder can be broadly characterized into inorganic salts, urea, organic compounds, and organic ammonium salts.[3][4] Urine also contains proteins, hormones, and a wide range of metabolites,[5] varying by what is introduced into the body.[citation needed]

The total solids in urine are on average 59 g (2.1 oz) per day per person.[5] Urea is the largest constituent of the solids, constituting more than 50% of the total. The daily volume and composition of urine varies per person based on the amount of physical exertion, environmental conditions, as well as water, salt, and protein intakes.[3] In healthy persons, urine contains very little protein and an excess is suggestive of illness, as with sugar.[5] Organic matter, in healthy persons, also is reported to at most 1.7 times more matter than minerals.[4] However, any more than that is suggestive of illness.[4]

Typical design values for the concentrations of constituents in fresh urine, based on data in Sweden and Switzerland[6]: 12 [7]
Parameter Value
pH 6.2
Total nitrogen 8830 mg/L
Ammonium/ammonia-N 460 mg/L
Nitrate and nitrite 0.06 mg/L
Chemical oxygen demand 6000 mg/L
Total phosphorus 800 – 2000 mg/L
Potassium 2740 mg/L
Sulphate 1500 mg/L
Sodium 3450 mg/L
Magnesium 120 mg/L
Chloride 4970 mg/L
Calcium 230 mg/L

However, it is important to note that lesser amounts and concentrations of other compounds and ions are often present in urination of humans.[5]

Color

See also: Abnormal urine color
 
Medical experts have long connected urine colour with certain medical conditions. A medieval chart showing the medical implications of different urine color

Urine varies in appearance, depending principally upon a body's level of hydration, interactions with drugs, compounds and pigments or dyes found in food, or diseases.[5] Normally, urine is a transparent solution ranging from colorless to amber, but is usually a pale yellow.[5] Usually urination color comes primarily from the presence of urobilin.[8] Urobilin is a final waste product resulting from the breakdown of heme from hemoglobin during the destruction of aging blood cells.[citation needed]

Colorless urine indicates over-hydration. Colorless urine in drug tests can suggest an attempt to avoid detection of illicit drugs in the bloodstream through over-hydration.

  •  

    Dark urine due to low fluid intake.

  •  

    Dark red urine due to blood (hematuria).

  •  

    Dark red urine due to choluria.

  •  

    Pinkish urine due to consumption of beetroots.

  •  

    Green urine during long term infusion of the sedative propofol.

Odor

Sometime after leaving the body, urine may acquire a strong "fish-like" odor because of contamination with bacteria that break down urea into ammonia.[citation needed] This odor is not present in fresh urine of healthy individuals; its presence may be a sign of a urinary tract infection.[citation needed]

The odor of normal human urine can reflect what has been consumed or specific diseases.[5] For example, an individual with diabetes mellitus may present a sweetened urine odor. This can be due to kidney diseases as well, such as kidney stones.[citation needed] Additionally, the presence of amino acids in urine (diagnosed as maple syrup urine disease) can cause it to smell of maple syrup.[10]

Eating asparagus can cause a strong odor reminiscent of the vegetable caused by the body's breakdown of asparagusic acid.[11] Likewise consumption of saffron, alcohol, coffee, tuna fish, and onion can result in telltale scents.[12] Particularly spicy foods can have a similar effect, as their compounds pass through the kidneys without being fully broken down before exiting the body.[13][14]

pH

The pH normally is within the range of 5.5 to 7 with an average of 6.2.[3] In persons with hyperuricosuria, acidic urine can contribute to the formation of stones of uric acid in the kidneys, ureters, or bladder.[15] Urine pH can be monitored by a physician or at home.[16]

A diet which is high in protein from meat and dairy, as well as alcohol consumption can reduce urine pH, whilst potassium and organic acids, such as from diets high in fruit and vegetables, can increase the pH and make it more alkaline.[3]

Cranberries, popularly thought to decrease the pH of urine, have actually been shown not to acidify urine.[17] Drugs that can decrease urine pH include ammonium chloride, chlorothiazide diuretics, and methenamine mandelate.[18][19]

Density

Human urine has a specific gravity of 1.003–1.035.[3]

Bacteria and pathogens

Urine is not sterile, not even in the bladder.[20][21] In the urethra, epithelial cells lining the urethra are colonized by facultatively anaerobic Gram-negative rod and cocci bacteria.[22] One study conducted found total of 116 bacterial isolates were found in 77 healthy humans (ages 5–11) and 39 cows, a considerable amount being pathogens.[23] Pathogens identified and their percentages were:

Bacterial isolates in human urine and cows' [23]
Humans aged 5–11 Bacterial percentage in humans Bacterial percentage in cows
Bacillus 10.4% 5.1%
Staphylococcus 2.6% 2.6%
Citrobacter 3.9% 12.8%
Klebsiella 7.8% 12.8%
Escherichia coli 36.4% 23.1%
Proteus 18.2% 23.1%
Pseudomonas 9.1% 2.6%
Salmonella 3.9% 5.1%
Shigella 7.8% 12.8%

The study also states:

Multiple antibiotic resistance (MAR) rates recorded in children urinal bacterial species were 37.5–100% (Gram-positive) and 12.5–100% (Gram-negative), while MAR among the cow urinal bacteria was 12.5–75.0% (Gram-positive) and 25.0–100% (Gram-negative).

— Microbial evaluation and public health implications of urine as alternative therapy in clinical pediatric cases: health implication of urine therapy

Examination for medical purposes

 
A Doctor Examining Urine. Trophime Bigot.

Many physicians in ancient history resorted to the inspection and examination of the urine of their patients. Hermogenes wrote about the color and other attributes of urine as indicators of certain diseases. Abdul Malik Ibn Habib of Andalusia (d. 862 AD) mentions numerous reports of urine examination throughout the Umayyad empire.[24] Diabetes mellitus got its name because the urine is plentiful and sweet.[25] The name uroscopy refers to any visual examination of the urine,[26] including microscopy, although it often refers to the aforementioned prescientific or Proto-scientific forms of urine examination. Clinical urine tests today duly note the color, turbidity, and odor of urine but also include urinalysis, which chemically analyzes the urine and quantifies its constituents. A culture of the urine is performed when a urinary tract infection is suspected, as bacteriuria without symptoms doesn't require treatment.[27] A microscopic examination of the urine may be helpful to identify organic or inorganic substrates and help in the diagnosis.

The color and volume of urine can be reliable indicators of hydration level. Clear and copious urine is generally a sign of adequate hydration. Dark urine is a sign of dehydration. The exception occurs when diuretics are consumed, in which case urine can be clear and copious and the person still be dehydrated.

Uses

Further information: Lant
 
Urine of pregnant women in the first trimester is collected by a company which purifies the fertility hormone hCG from it (Ede, the Netherlands)

Source of medications

Urine contains proteins and other substances that are useful for medical therapy and are ingredients in many prescription drugs (e.g., Ureacin, Urecholine, Urowave).[citation needed] Urine from postmenopausal women is rich in gonadotropins that can yield follicle stimulating hormone and luteinizing hormone for fertility therapy.[28] One such commercial product is Pergonal.[29]

Urine from pregnant women contains enough human chorionic gonadotropins for commercial extraction and purification to produce hCG medication. Pregnant mare urine is the source of estrogens, namely Premarin.[28] Urine also contains antibodies, which can be used in diagnostic antibody tests for a range of pathogens, including HIV-1.[30]

 
Urine after four months of storage (note the color and turbidity change compared to fresh human urine). During storage, the urea in urine is rapidly hydrolyzed by urease, creating ammonia. Collected urine can be used as a fertilizer.
 
Fresh human urine after excretion

Urine can also be used to produce urokinase, which is used clinically as a thrombolytic agent.[citation needed]

Fertilizer

This section is an excerpt from Reuse of human excreta § Urine as a fertilizer.[edit]

Applying urine as fertilizer has been called "closing the cycle of agricultural nutrient flows" or ecological sanitation or ecosan. Urine fertilizer is usually applied diluted with water because undiluted urine can chemically burn the leaves or roots of some plants, causing plant injury,[31] particularly if the soil moisture content is low. The dilution also helps to reduce odor development following application. When diluted with water (at a 1:5 ratio for container-grown annual crops with fresh growing medium each season or a 1:8 ratio for more general use), it can be applied directly to soil as a fertilizer.[32][33] The fertilization effect of urine has been found to be comparable to that of commercial nitrogen fertilizers.[34][35] Urine may contain pharmaceutical residues (environmental persistent pharmaceutical pollutants).[36] Concentrations of heavy metals such as lead, mercury, and cadmium, commonly found in sewage sludge, are much lower in urine.[37]

Typical design values for nutrients excreted with urine are: 4 kg nitrogen per person per year, 0.36 kg phosphorus per person per year and 1.0 kg potassium per person per year.[38]: 5  Based on the quantity of 1.5 L urine per day (or 550 L per year), the concentration values of macronutrients as follows: 7.3 g/L N; .67 g/L P; 1.8 g/L K.[38]: 5 [39]: 11  These are design values but the actual values vary with diet.[40][a] Urine's nutrient content, when expressed with the international fertilizer convention of N:P2O5:K2O, is approximately 7:1.5:2.2.[39][b] Since urine is rather diluted as a fertilizer compared to dry manufactured nitrogen fertilizers such as di-ammonium-phosphate, the relative transport costs for urine are high as a lot of water needs to be transported.[39]

The general limitations to using urine as fertilizer depend mainly on the potential for buildup of excess nitrogen (due to the high ratio of that macronutrient),[32] and inorganic salts such as sodium chloride, which are also part of the wastes excreted by the renal system. Over-fertilization with urine or other nitrogen fertilizers can result in too much ammonia for plants to absorb, acidic conditions, or other phytotoxicity.[36] Important parameters to consider while fertilizing with urine include salinity tolerance of the plant, soil composition, addition of other fertilizing compounds, and quantity of rainfall or other irrigation.[42] It was reported in 1995 that urine nitrogen gaseous losses were relatively high and plant uptake lower than with labelled ammonium nitrate.[citation needed] In contrast, phosphorus was utilized at a higher rate than soluble phosphate.[43] Urine can also be used safely as a source of nitrogen in carbon-rich compost.[33]

Cleaning

Given that urea in urine breaks down into ammonia, urine has been used for cleaning. In pre-industrial times, urine was used – in the form of lant or aged urine – as a cleaning fluid.[44] Urine was also used for whitening teeth in Ancient Rome.[45]

Gunpowder

Main article: Potassium nitrate

Urine was used before the development of a chemical industry in the manufacture of gunpowder. Urine, a nitrogen source, was used to moisten straw or other organic material, which was kept moist and allowed to rot for several months to over a year. The resulting salts were washed from the heap with water, which was evaporated to allow collection of crude saltpeter crystals, that were usually refined before being used in making gunpowder.[46]

Survival uses

See also: Urophagia

Urophagia is the consumption of urine. Urine was used in several ancient cultures for various health, healing, and cosmetic purposes; urine drinking is still practiced today. In extreme cases, people may drink urine if no other fluids are available, although numerous credible sources (including the US Army Field Manual) advise against using it. Urine may also be consumed as a sexual activity. (Full article...)

The US Army Field Manual advises against drinking urine for survival. The manual explains that drinking urine tends to worsen rather than relieve dehydration due to the salts in it, and that urine should not be consumed in a survival situation, even when there is no other fluid available. In hot weather survival situations, where other sources of water are not available, soaking cloth (a shirt for example) in urine and putting it on the head can help cool the body.[47]

During World War I, Germans experimented with numerous poisonous gases as weapons. After the first German chlorine gas attacks, Allied troops were supplied with masks of cotton pads that had been soaked in urine. It was believed that the ammonia in the pad neutralized the chlorine. These pads were held over the face until the soldiers could escape from the poisonous fumes.[citation needed]

Urban legend states that urine works well against jellyfish stings.[48] This scenario has appeared many times in popular culture including in the Friends episode "The One With the Jellyfish", an early episode of Survivor, as well as the films The Real Cancun (2003), The Heartbreak Kid (2007) and The Paperboy (2012). However, at best it is ineffective, and in some cases this treatment may make the injury worse.[49][50][51]

Textiles

Urine has often been used as a mordant to help prepare textiles, especially wool, for dyeing. In the Scottish Highlands and Hebrides, the process of "waulking" (fulling) woven wool is preceded by soaking in urine, preferably infantile.[52]

Animal repellent

The urine of predator species is often used as a repellent against their prey species.[53] Urine plays a role in interspecific communication, since it contains semiochemicals that can act as kairomones.[54]

History

 
Medieval Welsh text from the Red Book of Hergest on uroscopy, called Ansoddau'r Trwnc (the 'Qualities of Urine'). Opening lines (translated):
"Since it is through the qualities of the urine that a person's faults and his dangers and his diseases and his illness can be identified..."
 
Image of two facing pages of the illuminated manuscript of "Isagoge", fols. 42b and 43a. On the top of the left hand page is an illuminated letter "D" – initial of De urinarum differencia negocium ('The matter of the differences of urines'). Inside the letter is a picture of a master on bench pointing at a raised flask while lecturing on the "Book on urines" of Theophilus. The right hand page is only shown in part. On its very bottom is an illuminated letter "U" – initial of Urina ergo est colamentum sanguinis ('Urine is the filtrate of the blood'). Inside the letter is a picture of a master holding up a flask while explaining the diagnostic significance of urine to a student or a patient. HMD Collection, MS E 78.

The fermentation of urine by bacteria produces a solution of ammonia; hence fermented urine was used in Classical Antiquity to wash cloth and clothing, to remove hair from hides in preparation for tanning, to serve as a mordant in dying cloth, and to remove rust from iron.[55] Ancient Romans used fermented human urine (in the form of lant) to cleanse grease stains from clothing.[56] The emperor Nero instituted a tax (Latin: vectigal urinae) on the urine industry, continued by his successor, Vespasian. The Latin saying Pecunia non olet ('money doesn't smell') is attributed to Vespasian – said to have been his reply to a complaint from his son about the unpleasant nature of the tax. Vespasian's name is still attached to public urinals in France (vespasiennes), Italy (vespasiani), and Romania (vespasiene).

Alchemists spent much time trying to extract gold from urine, which led to discoveries such as white phosphorus by German alchemist Hennig Brand when distilling fermented urine in 1669. In 1773 the French chemist Hilaire Rouelle discovered the organic compound urea by boiling urine dry.

Language

The English word urine (/ˈjuːrɪn/, /ˈjɜːrɪn/) comes from the Latin urina (-ae, f.), which is cognate with ancient words in various Indo-European languages that concern water, liquid, diving, rain, and urination (for example Sanskrit varṣati meaning 'it rains' or vār meaning 'water' and Greek ourein meaning 'to urinate').[57] The onomatopoetic term piss predates the word urine, but is now considered vulgar.[58][59] Urinate was at first used mostly in medical contexts.[citation needed] Piss is also used in such colloquialisms as to piss off,[58] piss poor, and the slang expression pissing down to mean heavy rain. Euphemisms and expressions used between parents and children (such as wee, pee, and many others) have long existed.

Lant is a word for aged urine, originating from the Old English word hland referring to urine in general.

See also

Notes

  1. ^ A formula for adjustment of excreta N and P values based on dietary characteristics is found in Jönsson 2004.[38]: 5 
  2. ^ For the amount of other elements in urine, see Rose 2015[40] and Rich Earth 2021.[41]

References

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  40. ^ a b Rose, C; Parker, A; Jefferson, B; Cartmell, E (2015). "The Characterization of Feces and Urine: A Review of the Literature to Inform Advanced Treatment Technology". Critical Reviews in Environmental Science and Technology. 45 (17): 1827–1879. doi:10.1080/10643389.2014.1000761. PMC 4500995. PMID 26246784.
  41. ^ "Urine in my garden" (PDF). Rich Earth Institute. Minimize odors by adding white vinegar or citric acid to the urine collection container before any urine is added. We use 1-2 cups of white vinegar or 1 tablespoon of citric acid per 5-gallon container. Adding vinegar also helps reduce nitrogen loss (via ammonia volatilization) during short-term storage.
  42. ^ Joensson, H., Richert Stintzing, A., Vinneras, B., Salomon, E. (2004). Guidelines on the Use of Urine and Faeces in Crop Production. Stockholm Environment Institute, Sweden
  43. ^ Kirchmann, H.; Pettersson, S. (1995). "Human urine - Chemical composition and fertilizer use efficiency". Fertilizer Research. 40 (2): 149–154. doi:10.1007/bf00750100. ISSN 0167-1731. S2CID 24528286.
  44. ^ Sueton, Vespasian 23 English 2021-07-13 at the Wayback Machine, Latin 2022-04-17 at the Wayback Machine. Cf. Dio Cassius, Roman History, Book 65, chapter 14,5 English 2022-04-17 at the Wayback Machine, Greek/French (66, 14) 2013-03-26 at the Wayback Machine
  45. ^ Geissberger, Marc (2010). Esthetic Dentistry in Clinical Practice. John Wiley & Son. p. 6. ISBN 9780813828251.
  46. ^ Joseph LeConte (1862). Instructions for the Manufacture of Saltpeter. Columbia, S.C.: South Carolina Military Department; printer: Charles P. Pelham. p. 14. from the original on 2007-10-13. Retrieved 2007-10-19.
  47. ^ Water Procurement 2009-06-12 at the Wayback Machine, US Army Field Manual
  48. ^ Castillo, M. (2017, June 20). Don't Pee On A Jellyfish Sting — It Won't Work | LittleThings.com. Littlethings. https://littlethings.com/entertainment/jellyfish-sting-news
  49. ^ Old Wives' Tale? Urine as Jellyfish Sting Remedy 2007-09-15 at the Wayback Machine. ABC News (2006-08-08). Retrieved on 2011-04-27.
  50. ^ Fact or Fiction?: Urinating on a Jellyfish Sting is an Effective Treatment 2007-10-11 at the Wayback Machine. Scientific American. 4 January 2007. Retrieved on 2011-04-27.
  51. ^ Jellyfish Sting Treatment – How to Treat a Jellyfish Sting 2008-09-29 at the Wayback Machine. Firstaid.about.com. 22 August 2010. Retrieved on 2011-04-27.
  52. ^ Mentioned by an interviewee in Lomax the Songhunter, a 2004 documentary film.
  53. ^ Swihart, Robert K., Joseph J. Pignatello, and Mary Jane I. Mattina. "Aversive responses of white-tailed deer, Odocoileus virginianus, to predator urines." 2021-10-18 at the Wayback Machine Journal of chemical ecology 17.4 (1991): 767-777.
  54. ^ Osada, Kazumi; Miyazono, Sadaharu; Kashiwayanagi, Makoto (2015). "The scent of wolves: Pyrazine analogs induce avoidance and vigilance behaviors in prey". Frontiers in Neuroscience. 9: 363. doi:10.3389/fnins.2015.00363. PMC 4595651. PMID 26500485.
  55. ^ See:
    • Forbes, R.J., Studies in Ancient Technology, vol. 5, 2nd ed. (Leiden, Netherlands: E.J. Brill, 1966), pp. 19 2021-07-05 at the Wayback Machine, 48 2021-07-05 at the Wayback Machine, and 65 2021-07-05 at the Wayback Machine.
    • Moeller, Walter O., The Wool Trade of Ancient Pompeii (Leiden, Netherlands: E.J. Brill, 1976), p. 20. 2021-07-05 at the Wayback Machine
    • Faber, G.A. (pseudonym of: Goldschmidt, Günther) (May 1938) "Dyeing and tanning in classical antiquity," Ciba Review, 9 : 277–312. Available at: Elizabethan Costume 2021-01-26 at the Wayback Machine
    • Smith, William, A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities (London, England: John Murray, 1875), article: "Fullo" (i.e., fullers or launderers), pp. 551–553. 2021-07-05 at the Wayback Machine
    • Rousset, Henri (31 March 1917) "The laundries of the Ancients," 2021-07-05 at the Wayback Machine Scientific American Supplement, 83 (2152) : 197.
    • Bond, Sarah E., Trade and Taboo: Disreputable Professions in the Roman Mediterranean (Ann Arbor, Michigan: University of Michigan Press, 2016), p. 112. 2021-07-05 at the Wayback Machine
    • Binz, Arthur (1936) "Altes und Neues über die technische Verwendung des Harnes" (Ancient and modern [information] about the technological use of urine), Zeitschrift für Angewandte Chemie, 49 (23) : 355–360. [in German]
    • Witty, Michael (December 2016) "Ancient Roman urine chemistry," Acta Archaeologica, 87 (1) : 179–191. Witty speculates that the Romans obtained ammonia in concentrated form by adding wood ash (impure potassium carbonate) to urine that had been fermented for several hours. Struvite (magnesium ammonium phosphate) is thereby precipitated, and the yield of struvite can be increased by then treating the solution with bittern, a magnesium-rich solution that is a byproduct of making salt from sea water. Roasting struvite releases ammonia vapors.
  56. ^ "Hygiene in Ancient Rome". from the original on 2010-10-18. Retrieved 2010-02-09.
  57. ^ "urine," Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/urine 2022-03-18 at the Wayback Machine. Accessed 3/17/2022.
  58. ^ a b Harper, D. (n.d.). Etymology of piss. Online Etymology Dictionary. Retrieved March 17, 2022, from https://www.etymonline.com/word/piss 2022-03-18 at the Wayback Machine
  59. ^ "piss," Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary, [[mwod:piss.|https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/piss 2021-08-05 at the Wayback Machine.]] Accessed 3/17/2022.

External links

 
Look up urine or piss in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
  • Urinanalysis 2007-01-17 at the Wayback Machine at the University of Utah Eccles Health Sciences Library
  • Urine Chemistry at drugs.com

January 26, 2023
urine, liquid, product, metabolism, humans, many, other, animals, flows, from, kidneys, through, ureters, urinary, bladder, urination, results, urine, being, excreted, from, body, through, urethra, sample, human, urine, cellular, metabolism, generates, many, p. Urine is a liquid by product of metabolism in humans and in many other animals Urine flows from the kidneys through the ureters to the urinary bladder Urination results in urine being excreted from the body through the urethra Sample of human urine Cellular metabolism generates many by products that are rich in nitrogen and must be cleared from the bloodstream such as urea uric acid and creatinine These by products are expelled from the body during urination which is the primary method for excreting water soluble chemicals from the body A urinalysis can detect nitrogenous wastes of the mammalian body Urine plays an important role in the earth s nitrogen cycle In balanced ecosystems urine fertilizes the soil and thus helps plants to grow Therefore urine can be used as a fertilizer Some animals use it to mark their territories Historically aged or fermented urine known as lant was also used for gunpowder production household cleaning tanning of leather and dyeing of textiles Human urine and feces are collectively referred to as human waste or human excreta and are managed via sanitation systems Livestock urine and feces also require proper management if the livestock population density is high Contents 1 Physiology 1 1 Duration 2 Characteristics 2 1 Quantity 2 2 Constituents 2 3 Color 2 4 Odor 2 5 pH 2 6 Density 2 7 Bacteria and pathogens 3 Examination for medical purposes 4 Uses 4 1 Source of medications 4 2 Fertilizer 4 3 Cleaning 4 4 Gunpowder 4 5 Survival uses 4 6 Textiles 4 7 Animal repellent 5 History 6 Language 7 See also 8 Notes 9 References 10 External linksPhysiologyMain article Renal physiology The chemical structure of urea Most animals have excretory systems for elimination of soluble toxic wastes In humans soluble wastes are excreted primarily by the urinary system and to a lesser extent in terms of urea removed by perspiration 1 The urinary system consists of the kidneys ureters urinary bladder and urethra The system produces urine by a process of filtration reabsorption and tubular secretion The kidneys extract the soluble wastes from the bloodstream as well as excess water sugars and a variety of other compounds The resulting urine contains high concentrations of urea and other substances including toxins Urine flows from the kidneys through the ureter bladder and finally the urethra before passing from the body Duration Research looking at the duration of urination in a range of mammal species found that nine larger species urinated for 21 13 seconds irrespective of body size 2 Smaller species including rodents and bats cannot produce steady streams of urine and instead urinate with a series of drops 2 CharacteristicsQuantity Average urine production in adult humans is around 1 4 L 0 31 imp gal 0 37 US gal of urine per person per day with a normal range of 0 6 to 2 6 L 0 13 to 0 57 imp gal 0 16 to 0 69 US gal per person per day produced in around 6 to 8 urinations per day depending on state of hydration activity level environmental factors weight and the individual s health 3 Producing too much or too little urine needs medical attention Polyuria is a condition of excessive production of urine gt 2 5 L day oliguria when lt 400 mL are produced and anuria being lt 100 mL per day Constituents Further information Urinalysis Urine under the microscope About 91 96 of urine consists of water 3 The remainder can be broadly characterized into inorganic salts urea organic compounds and organic ammonium salts 3 4 Urine also contains proteins hormones and a wide range of metabolites 5 varying by what is introduced into the body citation needed The total solids in urine are on average 59 g 2 1 oz per day per person 5 Urea is the largest constituent of the solids constituting more than 50 of the total The daily volume and composition of urine varies per person based on the amount of physical exertion environmental conditions as well as water salt and protein intakes 3 In healthy persons urine contains very little protein and an excess is suggestive of illness as with sugar 5 Organic matter in healthy persons also is reported to at most 1 7 times more matter than minerals 4 However any more than that is suggestive of illness 4 Typical design values for the concentrations of constituents in fresh urine based on data in Sweden and Switzerland 6 12 7 Parameter ValuepH 6 2Total nitrogen 8830 mg LAmmonium ammonia N 460 mg LNitrate and nitrite 0 06 mg LChemical oxygen demand 6000 mg LTotal phosphorus 800 2000 mg LPotassium 2740 mg LSulphate 1500 mg LSodium 3450 mg LMagnesium 120 mg LChloride 4970 mg LCalcium 230 mg LHowever it is important to note that lesser amounts and concentrations of other compounds and ions are often present in urination of humans 5 Color See also Abnormal urine color Medical experts have long connected urine colour with certain medical conditions A medieval chart showing the medical implications of different urine color Urine varies in appearance depending principally upon a body s level of hydration interactions with drugs compounds and pigments or dyes found in food or diseases 5 Normally urine is a transparent solution ranging from colorless to amber but is usually a pale yellow 5 Usually urination color comes primarily from the presence of urobilin 8 Urobilin is a final waste product resulting from the breakdown of heme from hemoglobin during the destruction of aging blood cells citation needed Colorless urine indicates over hydration Colorless urine in drug tests can suggest an attempt to avoid detection of illicit drugs in the bloodstream through over hydration Dark yellow urine is often indicative of dehydration Yellowing may be caused by removal of excess riboflavin from the bloodstream 9 Certain medications such as rifampin and phenazopyridine can cause orange urine Bloody urine is termed hematuria a symptom of a wide variety of medical conditions Dark orange to brown urine can be a symptom of jaundice rhabdomyolysis or Gilbert s syndrome Black or dark colored urine is referred to as melanuria and may be caused by a melanoma or non melanin acute intermittent porphyria Pinkish urine can result from the consumption of beets beeturia 5 Greenish urine can result from the consumption of asparagus or foods citation needed beverages with green pigments or from a urinary tract infection 5 Reddish or brown urine may be caused by porphyria not to be confused with the harmless 5 temporary pink or reddish tint caused by beeturia Blue urine can be caused by the ingestion of methylene blue e g in medications or foods or beverages with blue dyes Blue urine stains can be caused by blue diaper syndrome Purple urine may be due to purple urine bag syndrome Dark urine due to low fluid intake Dark red urine due to blood hematuria Dark red urine due to choluria Pinkish urine due to consumption of beetroots Green urine during long term infusion of the sedative propofol Odor Sometime after leaving the body urine may acquire a strong fish like odor because of contamination with bacteria that break down urea into ammonia citation needed This odor is not present in fresh urine of healthy individuals its presence may be a sign of a urinary tract infection citation needed The odor of normal human urine can reflect what has been consumed or specific diseases 5 For example an individual with diabetes mellitus may present a sweetened urine odor This can be due to kidney diseases as well such as kidney stones citation needed Additionally the presence of amino acids in urine diagnosed as maple syrup urine disease can cause it to smell of maple syrup 10 Eating asparagus can cause a strong odor reminiscent of the vegetable caused by the body s breakdown of asparagusic acid 11 Likewise consumption of saffron alcohol coffee tuna fish and onion can result in telltale scents 12 Particularly spicy foods can have a similar effect as their compounds pass through the kidneys without being fully broken down before exiting the body 13 14 pH The pH normally is within the range of 5 5 to 7 with an average of 6 2 3 In persons with hyperuricosuria acidic urine can contribute to the formation of stones of uric acid in the kidneys ureters or bladder 15 Urine pH can be monitored by a physician or at home 16 A diet which is high in protein from meat and dairy as well as alcohol consumption can reduce urine pH whilst potassium and organic acids such as from diets high in fruit and vegetables can increase the pH and make it more alkaline 3 Cranberries popularly thought to decrease the pH of urine have actually been shown not to acidify urine 17 Drugs that can decrease urine pH include ammonium chloride chlorothiazide diuretics and methenamine mandelate 18 19 Density Human urine has a specific gravity of 1 003 1 035 3 Bacteria and pathogens Urine is not sterile not even in the bladder 20 21 In the urethra epithelial cells lining the urethra are colonized by facultatively anaerobic Gram negative rod and cocci bacteria 22 One study conducted found total of 116 bacterial isolates were found in 77 healthy humans ages 5 11 and 39 cows a considerable amount being pathogens 23 Pathogens identified and their percentages were Bacterial isolates in human urine and cows 23 Humans aged 5 11 Bacterial percentage in humans Bacterial percentage in cowsBacillus 10 4 5 1 Staphylococcus 2 6 2 6 Citrobacter 3 9 12 8 Klebsiella 7 8 12 8 Escherichia coli 36 4 23 1 Proteus 18 2 23 1 Pseudomonas 9 1 2 6 Salmonella 3 9 5 1 Shigella 7 8 12 8 The study also states Multiple antibiotic resistance MAR rates recorded in children urinal bacterial species were 37 5 100 Gram positive and 12 5 100 Gram negative while MAR among the cow urinal bacteria was 12 5 75 0 Gram positive and 25 0 100 Gram negative Microbial evaluation and public health implications of urine as alternative therapy in clinical pediatric cases health implication of urine therapyExamination for medical purposes A Doctor Examining Urine Trophime Bigot Many physicians in ancient history resorted to the inspection and examination of the urine of their patients Hermogenes wrote about the color and other attributes of urine as indicators of certain diseases Abdul Malik Ibn Habib of Andalusia d 862 AD mentions numerous reports of urine examination throughout the Umayyad empire 24 Diabetes mellitus got its name because the urine is plentiful and sweet 25 The name uroscopy refers to any visual examination of the urine 26 including microscopy although it often refers to the aforementioned prescientific or Proto scientific forms of urine examination Clinical urine tests today duly note the color turbidity and odor of urine but also include urinalysis which chemically analyzes the urine and quantifies its constituents A culture of the urine is performed when a urinary tract infection is suspected as bacteriuria without symptoms doesn t require treatment 27 A microscopic examination of the urine may be helpful to identify organic or inorganic substrates and help in the diagnosis The color and volume of urine can be reliable indicators of hydration level Clear and copious urine is generally a sign of adequate hydration Dark urine is a sign of dehydration The exception occurs when diuretics are consumed in which case urine can be clear and copious and the person still be dehydrated UsesFurther information Lant Urine of pregnant women in the first trimester is collected by a company which purifies the fertility hormone hCG from it Ede the Netherlands Source of medications Urine contains proteins and other substances that are useful for medical therapy and are ingredients in many prescription drugs e g Ureacin Urecholine Urowave citation needed Urine from postmenopausal women is rich in gonadotropins that can yield follicle stimulating hormone and luteinizing hormone for fertility therapy 28 One such commercial product is Pergonal 29 Urine from pregnant women contains enough human chorionic gonadotropins for commercial extraction and purification to produce hCG medication Pregnant mare urine is the source of estrogens namely Premarin 28 Urine also contains antibodies which can be used in diagnostic antibody tests for a range of pathogens including HIV 1 30 Urine after four months of storage note the color and turbidity change compared to fresh human urine During storage the urea in urine is rapidly hydrolyzed by urease creating ammonia Collected urine can be used as a fertilizer Fresh human urine after excretion Urine can also be used to produce urokinase which is used clinically as a thrombolytic agent citation needed Fertilizer This section is an excerpt from Reuse of human excreta Urine as a fertilizer edit Applying urine as fertilizer has been called closing the cycle of agricultural nutrient flows or ecological sanitation or ecosan Urine fertilizer is usually applied diluted with water because undiluted urine can chemically burn the leaves or roots of some plants causing plant injury 31 particularly if the soil moisture content is low The dilution also helps to reduce odor development following application When diluted with water at a 1 5 ratio for container grown annual crops with fresh growing medium each season or a 1 8 ratio for more general use it can be applied directly to soil as a fertilizer 32 33 The fertilization effect of urine has been found to be comparable to that of commercial nitrogen fertilizers 34 35 Urine may contain pharmaceutical residues environmental persistent pharmaceutical pollutants 36 Concentrations of heavy metals such as lead mercury and cadmium commonly found in sewage sludge are much lower in urine 37 Typical design values for nutrients excreted with urine are 4 kg nitrogen per person per year 0 36 kg phosphorus per person per year and 1 0 kg potassium per person per year 38 5 Based on the quantity of 1 5 L urine per day or 550 L per year the concentration values of macronutrients as follows 7 3 g L N 67 g L P 1 8 g L K 38 5 39 11 These are design values but the actual values vary with diet 40 a Urine s nutrient content when expressed with the international fertilizer convention of N P2O5 K2O is approximately 7 1 5 2 2 39 b Since urine is rather diluted as a fertilizer compared to dry manufactured nitrogen fertilizers such as di ammonium phosphate the relative transport costs for urine are high as a lot of water needs to be transported 39 The general limitations to using urine as fertilizer depend mainly on the potential for buildup of excess nitrogen due to the high ratio of that macronutrient 32 and inorganic salts such as sodium chloride which are also part of the wastes excreted by the renal system Over fertilization with urine or other nitrogen fertilizers can result in too much ammonia for plants to absorb acidic conditions or other phytotoxicity 36 Important parameters to consider while fertilizing with urine include salinity tolerance of the plant soil composition addition of other fertilizing compounds and quantity of rainfall or other irrigation 42 It was reported in 1995 that urine nitrogen gaseous losses were relatively high and plant uptake lower than with labelled ammonium nitrate citation needed In contrast phosphorus was utilized at a higher rate than soluble phosphate 43 Urine can also be used safely as a source of nitrogen in carbon rich compost 33 Cleaning Given that urea in urine breaks down into ammonia urine has been used for cleaning In pre industrial times urine was used in the form of lant or aged urine as a cleaning fluid 44 Urine was also used for whitening teeth in Ancient Rome 45 Gunpowder Main article Potassium nitrate Urine was used before the development of a chemical industry in the manufacture of gunpowder Urine a nitrogen source was used to moisten straw or other organic material which was kept moist and allowed to rot for several months to over a year The resulting salts were washed from the heap with water which was evaporated to allow collection of crude saltpeter crystals that were usually refined before being used in making gunpowder 46 Survival uses See also Urophagia Urophagia is the consumption of urine Urine was used in several ancient cultures for various health healing and cosmetic purposes urine drinking is still practiced today In extreme cases people may drink urine if no other fluids are available although numerous credible sources including the US Army Field Manual advise against using it Urine may also be consumed as a sexual activity Full article The US Army Field Manual advises against drinking urine for survival The manual explains that drinking urine tends to worsen rather than relieve dehydration due to the salts in it and that urine should not be consumed in a survival situation even when there is no other fluid available In hot weather survival situations where other sources of water are not available soaking cloth a shirt for example in urine and putting it on the head can help cool the body 47 During World War I Germans experimented with numerous poisonous gases as weapons After the first German chlorine gas attacks Allied troops were supplied with masks of cotton pads that had been soaked in urine It was believed that the ammonia in the pad neutralized the chlorine These pads were held over the face until the soldiers could escape from the poisonous fumes citation needed Urban legend states that urine works well against jellyfish stings 48 This scenario has appeared many times in popular culture including in the Friends episode The One With the Jellyfish an early episode of Survivor as well as the films The Real Cancun 2003 The Heartbreak Kid 2007 and The Paperboy 2012 However at best it is ineffective and in some cases this treatment may make the injury worse 49 50 51 Textiles Urine has often been used as a mordant to help prepare textiles especially wool for dyeing In the Scottish Highlands and Hebrides the process of waulking fulling woven wool is preceded by soaking in urine preferably infantile 52 Animal repellent The urine of predator species is often used as a repellent against their prey species 53 Urine plays a role in interspecific communication since it contains semiochemicals that can act as kairomones 54 History Medieval Welsh text from the Red Book of Hergest on uroscopy called Ansoddau r Trwnc the Qualities of Urine Opening lines translated Since it is through the qualities of the urine that a person s faults and his dangers and his diseases and his illness can be identified Image of two facing pages of the illuminated manuscript of Isagoge fols 42b and 43a On the top of the left hand page is an illuminated letter D initial of De urinarum differencia negocium The matter of the differences of urines Inside the letter is a picture of a master on bench pointing at a raised flask while lecturing on the Book on urines of Theophilus The right hand page is only shown in part On its very bottom is an illuminated letter U initial of Urina ergo est colamentum sanguinis Urine is the filtrate of the blood Inside the letter is a picture of a master holding up a flask while explaining the diagnostic significance of urine to a student or a patient HMD Collection MS E 78 The fermentation of urine by bacteria produces a solution of ammonia hence fermented urine was used in Classical Antiquity to wash cloth and clothing to remove hair from hides in preparation for tanning to serve as a mordant in dying cloth and to remove rust from iron 55 Ancient Romans used fermented human urine in the form of lant to cleanse grease stains from clothing 56 The emperor Nero instituted a tax Latin vectigal urinae on the urine industry continued by his successor Vespasian The Latin saying Pecunia non olet money doesn t smell is attributed to Vespasian said to have been his reply to a complaint from his son about the unpleasant nature of the tax Vespasian s name is still attached to public urinals in France vespasiennes Italy vespasiani and Romania vespasiene Alchemists spent much time trying to extract gold from urine which led to discoveries such as white phosphorus by German alchemist Hennig Brand when distilling fermented urine in 1669 In 1773 the French chemist Hilaire Rouelle discovered the organic compound urea by boiling urine dry LanguageThe English word urine ˈ juː r ɪ n ˈ j ɜːr ɪ n comes from the Latin urina ae f which is cognate with ancient words in various Indo European languages that concern water liquid diving rain and urination for example Sanskrit varṣati meaning it rains or var meaning water and Greek ourein meaning to urinate 57 The onomatopoetic term piss predates the word urine but is now considered vulgar 58 59 Urinate was at first used mostly in medical contexts citation needed Piss is also used in such colloquialisms as to piss off 58 piss poor and the slang expression pissing down to mean heavy rain Euphemisms and expressions used between parents and children such as wee pee and many others have long existed Lant is a word for aged urine originating from the Old English word hland referring to urine in general See alsoDrinking urine urophagia Ureotelic Urine therapy Urolagnia an attraction to urineNotes A formula for adjustment of excreta N and P values based on dietary characteristics is found in Jonsson 2004 38 5 For the amount of other elements in urine see Rose 2015 40 and Rich Earth 2021 41 References Arthur C Guyton John Edward Hall 2006 25 Textbook of medical physiology 11 ed Elsevier Saunders ISBN 978 0 8089 2317 6 Archived from the original on 26 May 2013 Retrieved 26 September 2011 a b Yang P J Pham J Choo J Hu D L 26 June 2014 Duration of urination does not change with body size Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 111 33 11932 11937 Bibcode 2014PNAS 11111932Y doi 10 1073 pnas 1402289111 PMC 4143032 PMID 24969420 a b c d e f g Rose C Parker A Jefferson B Cartmell E 2015 The Characterization of Feces and Urine A Review of the Literature to Inform Advanced Treatment Technology Critical Reviews in Environmental Science and Technology 45 17 1827 1879 doi 10 1080 10643389 2014 1000761 ISSN 1064 3389 PMC 4500995 PMID 26246784 Text was copied from this source which is available under a Creative Commons Attribution 4 0 International License Archived 2017 10 16 at the Wayback Machine a b c Composition Of The Urine 1872 The British Medical Journal 1 579 133 133 http www jstor org stable 25231362 Archived 2022 03 18 at the Wayback Machine a b c d e f g h i j Helmenstine Anne Marie Ph D 2020 August 26 What Is the Chemical Composition of Urine Retrieved from https www thoughtco com the chemical composition of urine 603883 Archived 2021 10 28 at the Wayback Machine von Munch Elisabeth Winker Martina May 2011 Technology review of urine diversion components PDF Deutsche Gesellschaft furInternationale Zusammenarbeit GIZ GmbH p 12 Archived PDF from the original on 2020 10 28 Retrieved 2020 11 28 Udert K M Larsen T A Gujer W 2006 12 01 Fate of major compounds in source separated urine Water Science and Technology 54 11 12 413 420 doi 10 2166 wst 2006 921 ISSN 0273 1223 PMID 17302346 Archived from the original on 2022 03 08 Retrieved 2021 08 02 John E Hall 2016 The liver as an organ Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology 13th edition Elsevier p 885 ISBN 978 1455770052 Riboflavin Oral Route Mayo Clinic February 2021 Archived from the original on 28 October 2021 Retrieved 11 December 2021 Maple syrup urine disease National Library of Medicine Retrieved 2022 06 10 Lison M Blondheim SH Melmed RN 1980 A polymorphism of the ability to smell urinary metabolites of asparagus Br Med J 281 6256 1676 8 doi 10 1136 bmj 281 6256 1676 PMC 1715705 PMID 7448566 Hashemi Shervin Fate of Nitrogen in Urine Separated Toilet Systems PDF s space snu ac kr Archived PDF from the original on July 27 2021 Retrieved March 15 2021 Likewise consumption of saffron alcohol coffee tuna fish and onion can result in telltale scents Stefan Gates Max La Riviere Hedrick 15 March 2006 Gastronaut adventures in food for the romantic the foolhardy and the brave Houghton Mifflin Harcourt pp 87 ISBN 978 0 15 603097 7 Archived from the original on 26 May 2013 Retrieved 27 April 2011 Foods that Affect the Odor of Urine livestrong com December 27 2010 Martin Hernandez E Aparicio Lopez C Alvarez Calatayud G Garcia Herrera MA 2001 Vesical uric acid lithiasis in a child with renal hypouricemia An Esp Pediatr in Spanish 55 3 273 6 PMID 11676906 Archived from the original on 2009 03 27 Retrieved 2008 12 25 Urine pH MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia Archived from the original on December 17 2008 Retrieved December 26 2008 Avorn J Monane M Gurwitz JH Glynn RJ Choodnovskiy I Lipsitz LA 1994 Reduction of bacteriuria and pyuria after ingestion of cranberry juice JAMA The Journal of the American Medical Association 271 10 751 4 doi 10 1001 jama 1994 03510340041031 PMID 8093138 We did not find evidence that urinary acidification was responsible for the observed effect since the median pH of urine samples in the cranberry group 6 0 was actually higher than that in the experimental group 5 5 While cranberry juice has been advocated as a urinary acidifier to prevent urinary tract infections not all studies have shown a reduction in urine pH with cranberry juice ingestion even with consumption of 2000 mL per day Urine pH MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia Archived 2016 06 09 at the Wayback Machine Nlm nih gov 2011 03 28 Retrieved on 2011 04 27 Discovery Health Urine PH Medical Dictionary Archived 2010 03 30 at the Wayback Machine Healthguide howstuffworks com 2007 05 16 Retrieved on 2011 04 27 Hilt Evann E Kathleen McKinley Meghan M Pearce Amy B Rosenfeld Michael J Zilliox Elizabeth R Mueller Linda Brubaker Xiaowu Gai Alan J Wolfe Paul C Schreckenberger 26 December 2013 Urine Is Not Sterile Use of Enhanced Urine Culture Techniques To Detect Resident Bacterial Flora in the Adult Female Bladder Journal of Clinical Microbiology 52 3 871 876 doi 10 1128 JCM 02876 13 PMC 3957746 PMID 24371246 Engelhaupt Erika 22 May 2014 Urine is not sterile and neither is the rest of you Science News Archived from the original on 22 June 2018 Retrieved 22 June 2018 Michael T Madigan Thomas D Brock 2009 Brock biology of microorganisms Pearson Benjamin Cummings ISBN 978 0 13 232460 1 Retrieved 10 September 2011 a b Ogunshe Adenike Adedayo O Fawole Abosede Oyeyemi Ajayi Victoria Abosede 2010 05 25 Microbial evaluation and public health implications of urine as alternative therapy in clinical pediatric cases health implication of urine therapy The Pan African Medical Journal 5 12 doi 10 4314 pamj v5i1 56188 ISSN 1937 8688 PMC 3032614 PMID 21293739 Ibn Habib Abdul Malik d 862CE 283AH Kitaab Tib Al Arab The Book of Arabian Medicine Published by Dar Ibn Hazm Beirut Lebanon 2007 Arabic Ahmed A M 2002 History of diabetes mellitus Saudi medical journal 23 4 373 378 Merriam Webster n d Uroscopy In Merriam Webster com medical dictionary Retrieved March 17 2022 from https www merriam webster com medical uroscopy Archived 2022 03 18 at the Wayback Machine Koves B Cai T Veeratterapillay R Pickard R Seisen T Lam TB Yuan CY Bruyere F Wagenlehner F Bartoletti R Geerlings SE Pilatz A Pradere B Hofmann F Bonkat G Wullt B 25 July 2017 Benefits and Harms of Treatment of Asymptomatic Bacteriuria A Systematic Review and Meta analysis by the European Association of Urology Urological Infection Guidelines Panel European Urology 72 6 865 868 doi 10 1016 j eururo 2017 07 014 PMID 28754533 a b Carrell D T Peterson C M eds 2010 Artificial insemination intrauterine insemination 31 3 1 2 Gonadotropins New York New York Springer p 489 doi 10 1007 978 1 4419 1436 1 ISBN 9781441914361 Archived from the original on 2022 04 07 Retrieved 2013 03 26 a href Template Cite book html title Template Cite book cite book a first2 has generic name help Adelson Andrea Wall Street A Fertility Drug Grows Scarce https www nytimes com 1995 02 26 business wall street a fertility drug grows scarce html Archived 2017 09 01 at the Wayback Machine New York Times 1995 02 26 Retrieved 2013 03 27 Urine Antibody Tests New Insights into the Dynamics of HIV 1 Infection Urnovitz et al 45 9 1602 Clinical Chemistry Archived 2011 07 25 at the Wayback Machine Clinchem org Retrieved on 2011 04 27 H M Vines amp Wedding R T 1960 Some Effects of Ammonia on Plant Metabolism and a Possible Mechanism for Ammonia Toxicity Plant Physiology 35 6 820 825 http www jstor org stable 4259670 a b Morgan Peter 2004 10 The Usefulness of urine An Ecological Approach to Sanitation in Africa A Compilation of Experiences CD release ed Aquamor Harare Zimbabwe Retrieved 6 December 2011 a b Steinfeld Carol 2004 Liquid Gold The Lore and Logic of Using Urine to Grow Plants Ecowaters Books ISBN 978 0 9666783 1 4 page needed Johansson M Jonsson H Hoglund C Richert Stintzing A Rodhe L 2001 Urine Separation Closing the Nitrogen Cycle PDF Stockholm Water Company Pradhan Surendra K Nerg Anne Marja Sjoblom Annalena Holopainen Jarmo K Heinonen Tanski Helvi 2007 Use of Human Urine Fertilizer in Cultivation of Cabbage Brassica oleracea Impacts on Chemical Microbial and Flavor Quality Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 55 21 8657 8663 doi 10 1021 jf0717891 ISSN 0021 8561 PMID 17894454 S2CID 11255276 a b Winker M 2009 Pharmaceutical Residues in Urine and Potential Risks related to Usage as Fertiliser in Agriculture TUHH University Library https doi org 10 15480 882 481 Hakan Jonsson 2001 10 01 Urine Separation Swedish Experiences EcoEng Newsletter 1 Archived from the original on 2009 04 27 Retrieved 2009 04 19 a b c Jonsson H Richert Stintzing A Vinneras B and Salomon E 2004 Guidelines on the use of urine and faeces in crop production EcoSanRes Publications Series Report 2004 2 Sweden This source seems to truncate the Jonsson amp Vinneras 2004 table by omitting the potassium row The full version may be found at the original source at RG 285858813 a b c von Munch E Winker M 2011 Technology review of urine diversion components Overview on urine diversion components such as waterless urinals urine diversion toilets urine storage and reuse systems Gesellschaft fur Internationale Zusammenarbeit GmbH a b Rose C Parker A Jefferson B Cartmell E 2015 The Characterization of Feces and Urine A Review of the Literature to Inform Advanced Treatment Technology Critical Reviews in Environmental Science and Technology 45 17 1827 1879 doi 10 1080 10643389 2014 1000761 PMC 4500995 PMID 26246784 Urine in my garden PDF Rich Earth Institute Minimize odors by adding white vinegar or citric acid to the urine collection container before any urine is added We use 1 2 cups of white vinegar or 1 tablespoon of citric acid per 5 gallon container Adding vinegar also helps reduce nitrogen loss via ammonia volatilization during short term storage Joensson H Richert Stintzing A Vinneras B Salomon E 2004 Guidelines on the Use of Urine and Faeces in Crop Production Stockholm Environment Institute Sweden Kirchmann H Pettersson S 1995 Human urine Chemical composition and fertilizer use efficiency Fertilizer Research 40 2 149 154 doi 10 1007 bf00750100 ISSN 0167 1731 S2CID 24528286 Sueton Vespasian 23 English Archived 2021 07 13 at the Wayback Machine Latin Archived 2022 04 17 at the Wayback Machine Cf Dio Cassius Roman History Book 65 chapter 14 5 English Archived 2022 04 17 at the Wayback Machine Greek French 66 14 Archived 2013 03 26 at the Wayback Machine Geissberger Marc 2010 Esthetic Dentistry in Clinical Practice John Wiley amp Son p 6 ISBN 9780813828251 Joseph LeConte 1862 Instructions for the Manufacture of Saltpeter Columbia S C South Carolina Military Department printer Charles P Pelham p 14 Archived from the original on 2007 10 13 Retrieved 2007 10 19 Water Procurement Archived 2009 06 12 at the Wayback Machine US Army Field Manual Castillo M 2017 June 20 Don t Pee On A Jellyfish Sting It Won t Work LittleThings com Littlethings https littlethings com entertainment jellyfish sting news Old Wives Tale Urine as Jellyfish Sting Remedy Archived 2007 09 15 at the Wayback Machine ABC News 2006 08 08 Retrieved on 2011 04 27 Fact or Fiction Urinating on a Jellyfish Sting is an Effective Treatment Archived 2007 10 11 at the Wayback Machine Scientific American 4 January 2007 Retrieved on 2011 04 27 Jellyfish Sting Treatment How to Treat a Jellyfish Sting Archived 2008 09 29 at the Wayback Machine Firstaid about com 22 August 2010 Retrieved on 2011 04 27 Mentioned by an interviewee in Lomax the Songhunter a 2004 documentary film Swihart Robert K Joseph J Pignatello and Mary Jane I Mattina Aversive responses of white tailed deer Odocoileus virginianus to predator urines Archived 2021 10 18 at the Wayback Machine Journal of chemical ecology 17 4 1991 767 777 Osada Kazumi Miyazono Sadaharu Kashiwayanagi Makoto 2015 The scent of wolves Pyrazine analogs induce avoidance and vigilance behaviors in prey Frontiers in Neuroscience 9 363 doi 10 3389 fnins 2015 00363 PMC 4595651 PMID 26500485 See Forbes R J Studies in Ancient Technology vol 5 2nd ed Leiden Netherlands E J Brill 1966 pp 19 Archived 2021 07 05 at the Wayback Machine 48 Archived 2021 07 05 at the Wayback Machine and 65 Archived 2021 07 05 at the Wayback Machine Moeller Walter O The Wool Trade of Ancient Pompeii Leiden Netherlands E J Brill 1976 p 20 Archived 2021 07 05 at the Wayback Machine Faber G A pseudonym of Goldschmidt Gunther May 1938 Dyeing and tanning in classical antiquity Ciba Review 9 277 312 Available at Elizabethan Costume Archived 2021 01 26 at the Wayback Machine Smith William A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities London England John Murray 1875 article Fullo i e fullers or launderers pp 551 553 Archived 2021 07 05 at the Wayback Machine Rousset Henri 31 March 1917 The laundries of the Ancients Archived 2021 07 05 at the Wayback Machine Scientific American Supplement 83 2152 197 Bond Sarah E Trade and Taboo Disreputable Professions in the Roman Mediterranean Ann Arbor Michigan University of Michigan Press 2016 p 112 Archived 2021 07 05 at the Wayback Machine Binz Arthur 1936 Altes und Neues uber die technische Verwendung des Harnes Ancient and modern information about the technological use of urine Zeitschrift fur Angewandte Chemie 49 23 355 360 in German Witty Michael December 2016 Ancient Roman urine chemistry Acta Archaeologica 87 1 179 191 Witty speculates that the Romans obtained ammonia in concentrated form by adding wood ash impure potassium carbonate to urine that had been fermented for several hours Struvite magnesium ammonium phosphate is thereby precipitated and the yield of struvite can be increased by then treating the solution with bittern a magnesium rich solution that is a byproduct of making salt from sea water Roasting struvite releases ammonia vapors Hygiene in Ancient Rome Archived from the original on 2010 10 18 Retrieved 2010 02 09 urine Merriam Webster com Dictionary https www merriam webster com dictionary urine Archived 2022 03 18 at the Wayback Machine Accessed 3 17 2022 a b Harper D n d Etymology of piss Online Etymology Dictionary Retrieved March 17 2022 from https www etymonline com word piss Archived 2022 03 18 at the Wayback Machine piss Merriam Webster com Dictionary mwod piss https www merriam webster com dictionary piss Archived 2021 08 05 at the Wayback Machine Accessed 3 17 2022 External links Look up urine or piss in Wiktionary the free dictionary Urinanalysis Archived 2007 01 17 at the Wayback Machine at the University of Utah Eccles Health Sciences Library Urine Chemistry at drugs com Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Urine amp oldid 1131924941, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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