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Wikipedia

LSD

February 16, 2024

"Lsd" redirects here. Not to be confused with £sd.
For other uses, see LSD (disambiguation).

Lysergic acid diethylamide, commonly known as LSD (from German Lysergsäure-diethylamid), and known colloquially as acid or lucy is a potent psychedelic drug.[12] Effects typically include intensified thoughts, emotions, and sensory perception.[13] At sufficiently high dosages LSD manifests primarily mental, visual, and auditory hallucinations.[14][15] Dilated pupils, increased blood pressure, and increased body temperature are typical.[16] Effects typically begin within half an hour and can last for up to 20 hours (although on average, experiences last 8–12 hours).[16][17] LSD is also capable of causing mystical experiences and ego dissolution.[15][18] It is used mainly as a recreational drug or for spiritual reasons.[16][19] LSD is both the prototypical psychedelic and one of the "classical" psychedelics, being the psychedelic with the greatest scientific and cultural significance.[12] LSD is synthesized as a solid compound, typically in the form of a powder or a crystalline material. This solid LSD is then dissolved in a liquid solvent, such as ethanol or distilled water, to create a solution. The liquid serves as a carrier for the LSD, allowing for accurate dosage and administration onto small pieces of blotter paper called tabs. LSD is typically either swallowed or held under the tongue.[13] In pure form, LSD is clear or white in color, has no smell, and is crystalline.[13] It breaks down with exposure to ultraviolet light.[16]

Lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD)
INN: Lysergide
Clinical data
Pronunciation/daɪ eθəl ˈæmaɪd/, /æmɪd/, or /eɪmaɪd/[1][2][3]
Trade namesDelysid
Other namesLSD, LSD-25, LAD, Acid, others
AHFS/Drugs.comReference
Pregnancy
category
  • C
Dependence
liability		Low[4]
Addiction
liability		None[5]
Routes of
administration		By mouth, under the tongue
Drug classHallucinogen (psychedelic)
ATC code
  • None
Legal status
Legal status
Pharmacokinetic data
Bioavailability71%[6]
Protein bindingUnknown[7]
MetabolismLiver (CYP450)[6]
Metabolites2-Oxo-3-hydroxy-LSD[6]
Onset of action30–40 minutes[8]
Elimination half-life3.6 hours[6][9]
Duration of action8–20 hours[10]
ExcretionKidneys[6][9]
Identifiers
  • (6aR,9R)-N,N-diethyl-7-methyl-4,6,6a,7,8,9-hexahydroindolo[4,3-fg]quinoline-9-carboxamide
CAS Number
  • 50-37-3 Y
PubChem CID
  • 5761
IUPHAR/BPS
  • 17
DrugBank
  • DB04829 Y
ChemSpider
  • 5558 Y
UNII
  • 8NA5SWF92O
KEGG
  • C07542 Y
ChEBI
  • CHEBI:6605 Y
ChEMBL
  • ChEMBL263881 Y
PDB ligand
  • 7LD (PDBe, RCSB PDB)
CompTox Dashboard (EPA)
  • DTXSID1023231
ECHA InfoCard100.000.031
Chemical and physical data
FormulaC20H25N3O
Molar mass323.440 g·mol−1
3D model (JSmol)
  • Interactive image
Melting point80 to 85 °C (176 to 185 °F)
Solubility in water67.02[11] mg/mL (20 °C)
  • CCN(CC)C(=O)[C@H]1CN([C@@H]2Cc3c[nH]c4c3c(ccc4)C2=C1)C
  • InChI=1S/C20H25N3O/c1-4-23(5-2)20(24)14-9-16-15-7-6-8-17-19(15)13(11-21-17)10-18(16)22(3)12-14/h6-9,11,14,18,21H,4-5,10,12H2,1-3H3/t14-,18-/m1/s1 Y
  • Key:VAYOSLLFUXYJDT-RDTXWAMCSA-N Y
  (verify)

LSD is pharmacologically considered to be non-addictive with a low potential for abuse. Adverse psychological reactions are possible, such as anxiety, paranoia, and delusions.[7] In rare cases, LSD can induce "flashbacks", known as hallucinogen persisting perception disorder, in which a person experiences apparent lasting or persistent visual hallucinations or perceptual distortions, such as visual snow and palinopsia.[20][21]

LSD is structurally related to substituted tryptamines, a class of compounds that includes psilocybin, the active compound found in psychedelic mushrooms. Thus, LSD shares some mechanisms of action and psychedelic effects with psilocybin and other tryptamines.[22][23][24]

The effects of LSD are thought to stem primarily from it being an agonist at the 5-HT2A serotonin receptor. While exactly how LSD exerts its effects by agonism at this receptor is not fully understood, corresponding increased glutamatergic neurotransmission and reduced default mode network activity are thought to be key mechanisms of action.[7][12][25][26][27] LSD also binds to dopamine D1 and D2 receptors, which is thought to contribute to reports of LSD being more stimulating than compounds such as psilocybin.[28][29]

LSD was first synthesized by Swiss chemist Albert Hofmann in 1938 from lysergic acid, a chemical derived from the hydrolysis of ergotamine, an alkaloid found in ergot, a fungus that infects grain.[16][20] LSD was the 25th of various lysergamides Hofmann synthesized from lysergic acid while trying to develop a new analeptic, hence the alternate name LSD-25. Hofmann discovered its effects in humans in 1943, after unintentionally ingesting an unknown amount, possibly absorbing it through his skin.[30][31][32] LSD was subject to exceptional interest within the field of psychiatry in the 1950s and early 1960s, with Sandoz distributing LSD to researchers under the trademark name Delysid in an attempt to find a marketable use for it.[31]

LSD-assisted psychotherapy was used in the 1950s and early 1960s by psychiatrists such as Humphry Osmond, who pioneered the application of LSD to the treatment of alcoholism, with promising results.[31][33][34][35] Osmond coined the term "psychedelic" (lit. mind manifesting) as a term for LSD and related hallucinogens, superseding the previously held "psychotomimetic" model in which LSD was believed to mimic schizophrenia. In contrast to schizophrenia, LSD can induce transcendent experiences, or mental states that transcend the experience of everyday consciousness, with lasting psychological benefit.[12][31] During this time, the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) began using LSD in the research project Project MKUltra, which used psychoactive substances to aid interrogation. The CIA administered LSD to unwitting test subjects in order to observe how they would react, the most well-known example of this being Operation Midnight Climax.[31] LSD was one of several psychoactive substances evaluated by the U.S. Army Chemical Corps as possible non-lethal incapacitants in the Edgewood Arsenal human experiments.[31]

In the 1960s, LSD and other psychedelics were adopted by, and became synonymous with, the counterculture movement due to their perceived ability to expand consciousness. This resulted in LSD being viewed as a cultural threat to American values and the Vietnam war effort, and it was designated as a Schedule I (illegal for medical as well as recreational use) substance in 1968.[36] It was listed as a Schedule 1 controlled substance by the United Nations in 1971 and currently has no approved medical uses.[16] As of 2017, about 10% of people in the United States have used LSD at some point in their lives, while 0.7% have used it in the last year.[37] It was most popular in the 1960s to 1980s.[16] The use of LSD among US adults increased 56.4% from 2015 to 2018.[38]

Uses edit

Recreational edit

LSD is commonly used as a recreational drug.[39]

Spiritual edit

LSD can catalyze intense spiritual experiences and is thus considered an entheogen. Some users have reported out of body experiences. In 1966, Timothy Leary established the League for Spiritual Discovery with LSD as its sacrament.[40][41] Stanislav Grof has written that religious and mystical experiences observed during LSD sessions appear to be phenomenologically indistinguishable from similar descriptions in the sacred scriptures of the great religions of the world and the texts of ancient civilizations.[42]

Medical edit

See also: Lysergic acid diethylamide § Research

LSD currently has no approved uses in medicine.[43][44] A meta analysis concluded that a single dose was shown to be effective at reducing alcohol consumption in people suffering from alcoholism.[35] LSD has also been studied in depression, anxiety,[45][46] and drug dependence, with positive preliminary results.[47][48]

Effects edit

LSD is exceptionally potent, with as little as 20 μg capable of producing a noticeable effect.[16]

Physical edit

 
Some symptoms reported for LSD[49][50]
 
Patient with mydriasis (pupil dilation) due to usage of LSD

LSD can induce physical effects such as pupil dilation, decreased appetite, increased sweating, and wakefulness. The physical reactions to LSD vary greatly and some may be a result of its psychological effects. Commonly observed symptoms include increased body temperature, blood sugar, and heart rate, as well as goose bumps, jaw clenching, dry mouth, and hyperreflexia. In cases of adverse reactions, users may experience numbness, weakness, nausea, and tremors.[16]

Psychological edit

The primary immediate psychological effects of LSD are visual hallucinations and illusions, often referred to as "trips". These effects typically begin within 20–30 minutes of oral ingestion, peak three to four hours after ingestion, and can last up to 20 hours, particularly with higher doses. An "afterglow" effect, characterized by an improved mood or perceived mental state, may persist for days or weeks following ingestion.[51] Positive experiences, or "good trips", are described as intensely pleasurable and can include feelings of joy, euphoria, an increased appreciation for life, decreased anxiety, a sense of spiritual enlightenment, and a feeling of interconnectedness with the universe.[52][53]

Conversely, negative experiences, known as "bad trips," can induce feelings of fear, anxiety, panic, paranoia, and even suicidal ideation.[54] While the occurrence of a bad trip is unpredictable, factors such as mood, surroundings, sleep, hydration, and social setting, collectively referred to as "set and setting", can influence the risk and are considered important in minimizing the likelihood of a negative experience.[55][56]

Sensory edit

LSD induces an animated sensory experience affecting senses, emotions, memories, time, and awareness, lasting from 6 to 20 hours, with the duration dependent on dosage and individual tolerance. Effects typically commence within 30 to 90 minutes post-ingestion, ranging from subtle perceptual changes to profound cognitive shifts. Alterations in auditory and visual perception are common.[57][58]

Users may experience enhanced visual phenomena, such as vibrant colors, objects appearing to morph, ripple or move, and geometric patterns on various surfaces. Changes in the perception of food's texture and taste are also noted, sometimes leading to aversion towards certain foods.[57][59]

There are reports of inanimate objects appearing animated, with static objects seeming to move in additional spatial dimensions.[60] The auditory effects of LSD may include echo-like distortions of sounds. Basic visual effects often resemble phosphenes and can be influenced by concentration, thoughts, emotions, or music.[61] Auditory effects may include echo-like distortions and an intensified experience of music. Higher doses can lead to more intense sensory perception alterations, including synesthesia, perception of additional dimensions, and temporary dissociation.

Adverse effects edit

 
Addiction experts in psychiatry, chemistry, pharmacology, forensic science, epidemiology, and the police and legal services engaged in delphic analysis regarding 20 popular recreational drugs. LSD was ranked 14th in dependence, 15th in physical harm, and 13th in social harm.[62]

LSD, a classical psychedelic, is deemed physiologically safe at standard dosages (50–200 μg) and its primary risks lie in psychological effects rather than physiological harm.[25][63] A 2010 study by David Nutt ranked LSD as significantly less harmful than alcohol, placing it near the bottom of a list assessing the harm of 20 drugs.[64]

Psychological effects edit

Mental disorders edit

LSD can induce panic attacks or extreme anxiety, colloquially termed a "bad trip". Despite lower rates of depression and substance abuse found in psychedelic drug users compared to controls, LSD presents heightened risks for individuals with severe mental illnesses like schizophrenia.[65][66] These hallucinogens can catalyze psychiatric disorders in predisposed individuals, although they do not tend to induce illness in emotionally healthy people.[25] Several behavioral-related fatalities and suicides have been associated with LSD.[67]

Suggestibility edit

While research from the 1960s indicated increased suggestibility under the influence of LSD among both mentally ill and healthy individuals, recent documents suggest that the CIA and Department of Defense have discontinued research into LSD as a means of mind control.[68][69][70][non-primary source needed]

Flashbacks edit

Flashbacks are psychological episodes where individuals re-experience some of LSD's subjective effects after the drug has worn off, persisting for days or months post-hallucinogen use.[71][72] These experiences are associated with hallucinogen persisting perception disorder, where flashbacks occur intermittently or chronically, causing distress or functional impairment.[21]

The etiology of flashbacks is varied. Some cases are attributed to somatic symptom disorder, where individuals fixate on normal somatic experiences previously unnoticed prior to drug consumption.[73] Other instances are linked to associative reactions to contextual cues, similar to responses observed in individuals with past trauma or emotional experiences.[74] The risk factors for flashbacks remain unclear, but pre-existing psychopathologies may be significant contributors.[75]

Estimating the prevalence of HPPD is challenging. It is considered rare, with occurrences ranging from 1 in 20 users experiencing the transient and less severe type 1 HPPD, to 1 in 50,000 for the more concerning type 2 HPPD.[21] Contrary to internet rumors, LSD is not stored long-term in the spinal cord or other body parts. Pharmacological evidence indicates LSD has a half-life of 175 minutes and is metabolized into water-soluble compounds like 2-oxo-3-hydroxy-LSD, eliminated through urine without evidence of long-term storage.[7] Clinical evidence also suggests that chronic use of SSRIs can potentiate LSD-induced flashbacks, even months after stopping LSD use.[76]: 145 

Drug-interactions edit

Several psychedelics, including LSD, are metabolized by CYP2D6. Concurrent use of SSRIs, potent inhibitors of CYP2D6, with LSD may heighten the risk of serotonin syndrome.[76]: 145  Chronic usage of SSRIs, TCAs, and MAOIs is believed to diminish the subjective effects of psychedelics, likely due to SSRI-induced 5-HT2A receptor downregulation and MAOI-induced 5-HT2A receptor desensitization.[7][76]: 145  Interactions between psychedelics and antipsychotics or anticonvulsants are not well-documented; however, co-use with mood stabilizers like lithium may induce seizures and dissociative effects, particularly in individuals with bipolar disorder.[76]: 146 [77][78] Lithium notably intensifies LSD reactions, potentially leading to acute comatose states when combined.[7]

Fatal dose edit

Lethal oral dose of LSD in humans is estimated at 100 mg, based on LD50 and lethal blood concentrations observed in rodent studies.[63]

Tolerance edit

LSD shows significant tachyphylaxis, with tolerance developing 24 hours after administration. The progression of tolerance at intervals shorter than 24 hours remains largely unknown.[79] Tolerance typically resets to baseline after 3–4 days of abstinence.[80][81] Cross-tolerance occurs between LSD, mescaline, psilocybin,[82][83] and to some degree DMT.[a] Tolerance to LSD also builds up with consistent use,[86] and is believed to result from serotonin 5-HT2A receptor downregulation.[80] Researchers believe that tolerance returns to baseline after two weeks of not using psychedelics.[87]

Addiction and dependence liability edit

The NIH states that LSD is addictive,[20] while most other sources state it is not.[63][88] A 2009 textbook states that it "rarely produce[s] compulsive use."[5] A 2006 review states it is readily abused, but does not result in addiction.[88] There are no recorded successful attempts to train animals to self-administer LSD in laboratory settings.[25] A study reports that although tolerance to LSD builds up rapidly, a withdrawal syndrome does not appear, suggesting that a potential syndrome does not necessarily relate to the possibility of acquiring rapid tolerance to a substance.[89] A report examining substance use disorder for DSM-IV noted that almost no hallucinogens produced dependence, unlike psychoactive drugs of other classes such as stimulants and depressants.[90][91]

Cancer and pregnancy edit

The mutagenic potential of LSD is unclear. Overall, the evidence seems to point to limited or no effect at commonly used doses.[92] Studies showed no evidence of teratogenic or mutagenic effects.[7]

Overdose edit

There have been no documented fatal human overdoses from LSD,[7][93] although there has been no "comprehensive review since the 1950s" and "almost no legal clinical research since the 1970s".[7] Eight individuals who had accidentally consumed an exceedingly high amount of LSD, mistaking it for cocaine, had plasma levels of 1000–7000 μg per 100 mL blood plasma had suffered from comatose states, vomiting, respiratory problems, hyperthermia, and light gastrointestinal bleeding; however, all of them survived without residual effects upon hospital intervention.[7]

Individuals experiencing a bad trip after LSD intoxication may be presented with severe anxiety, tachycardia, often accompanied by phases of psychotic agitation and varying degrees of delusions.[63] Cases of death on a bad trip have been reported due to prone maximal restraint (PMR) and positional asphyxia when the individuals were held restraint by law enforcement personnel.[63]

Massive doses are largely managed by symptomatic treatments, and agitation can be addressed with benzodiazepines.[94][95] Reassurance in a calm, safe environment is beneficial.[96] Antipsychotic agents such as neuroleptics and haloperidol are not recommended as they may have adverse psychotomimetic effects.[94] Gastrointestinal decontamination with activated charcoal is of little use due to the rapid absorption of LSD, unless done within 30–60 minutes of ingesting exceedingly huge amounts.[94] Administration of anticoagulants, vasodilators, and sympatholytics may be useful for treating ergotism.[94]

Designer drug overdose edit

Many novel psychoactive substances of 25-NB (NBOMe) series, such as 25I-NBOMe and 25B-NBOMe, are regularly sold as LSD in blotter papers.[97][98] NBOMe compounds are often associated with life-threatening toxicity and death.[97][99] Fatalities involved in NBOMe intoxication suggest that a significant number of individuals ingested the substance which they believed was LSD,[100] and researchers report that "users familiar with LSD may have a false sense of security when ingesting NBOMe inadvertently".[93] Researchers state that the alleged physiological toxicity of LSD is likely due to psychoactive substances other than LSD.[63] NBOMe compounds are reported to have a bitter taste,[93] and are not active orally,[b] and are usually taken sublingually.[102] When NBOMes are administered sublingually, numbness of the tongue and mouth followed by a metallic chemical taste was observed, and researchers describe this physical side effect as one of the main discriminants between NBOMe compounds and LSD.[103][104][105] Despite high potency, recreational doses of LSD have only produced low incidents of acute toxicity, but NBOMe compounds have extremely different safety profiles.[93][99] Ehrlich's reagent can be used to test for the presence of LSD.[106]

Pharmacology edit

Pharmacodynamics edit

 
Binding affinities of LSD for various receptors. The lower the dissociation constant (Ki), the more strongly LSD binds to that receptor (i.e. with higher affinity). The horizontal line represents an approximate value for human plasma concentrations of LSD, and hence, receptor affinities that are above the line are unlikely to be involved in LSD's effect. Data averaged from data from the Ki Database
Binding affinity for various serotonin receptors
Receptor Ki (nM)
5-HT1A 1.1
5-HT2A 2.9
5-HT2B 4.9
5-HT2C 23
5-HT5A 9
5-HT6 2.3

Most serotonergic psychedelics are not significantly dopaminergic, and LSD is therefore atypical in this regard. The agonism of the D2 receptor by LSD may contribute to its psychoactive effects in humans.[29]

LSD binds to most serotonin receptor subtypes except for the 5-HT3 and 5-HT4 receptors. However, most of these receptors are affected at too low affinity to be sufficiently activated by the brain concentration of approximately 10–20 nM.[25] In humans, recreational doses of LSD can affect 5-HT1A (Ki = 1.1 nM), 5-HT2A (Ki = 2.9 nM), 5-HT2B (Ki = 4.9 nM), 5-HT2C (Ki = 23 nM), 5-HT5A (Ki = 9 nM [in cloned rat tissues]), and 5-HT6 receptors (Ki = 2.3 nM).[107] Although not present in humans, 5-HT5B receptors found in rodents also have a high affinity for LSD.[108] The psychedelic effects of LSD are attributed to cross-activation of 5-HT2A receptor heteromers.[109] Many but not all 5-HT2A agonists are psychedelics and 5-HT2A antagonists block the psychedelic activity of LSD. LSD exhibits functional selectivity at the 5-HT2A and 5-HT2C receptors in that it activates the signal transduction enzyme phospholipase A2 instead of activating the enzyme phospholipase C as the endogenous ligand serotonin does.[110]

Exactly how LSD produces its effects is unknown, but it is thought that it works by increasing glutamate release in the cerebral cortex[25] and therefore excitation in this area, specifically in layer V.[111] LSD, like many other drugs of recreational use, has been shown to activate DARPP-32-related pathways.[112] The drug enhances dopamine D2 receptor protomer recognition and signaling of D2–5-HT2A receptor complexes,[28] which may contribute to its psychotropic effects.[28] LSD has been shown to have low affinity for H1 receptors, displaying antihistamine effects.[113][114]

LSD is a biased agonist that induces a conformation in serotonin receptors that preferentially recruits β-arrestin over activating G proteins.[115] LSD also has an exceptionally long residence time when bound to serotonin receptors lasting hours, consistent with the long lasting effects of LSD despite its relatively rapid clearance.[115] A crystal structure of 5-HT2B bound to LSD reveals an extracellular loop that forms a lid over the diethylamide end of the binding cavity which explains the slow rate of LSD unbinding from serotonin receptors.[116] The related lysergamide lysergic acid amide (LSA) that lacks the diethylamide moiety is far less hallucinogenic in comparison.[116]

Pharmacokinetics edit

 
Resting state fMRI BOLD-contrast imaging shows increased primary visual cortex (V1) cerebral blood flow (CBF) and increased V1 resting state functional connectivity (RSFC), which correlated more strongly with the visual hallucinatory aspect of the LSD experience. Increased V1 RSFC also correlated with visual analogue scale (VAS) ratings of simple hallucinations and the magnitude of CBF observed in visual cortex correlated positively with ratings of complex imagery on the LSD-induced altered state of consciousness (ASC).[27]
 
Resting state fMRI BOLD-contrast imaging shows decreased bilateral parahippocampal (PH) resting state functional connectivity (RSFC), which correlated with the ego-dissolution aspect of the LSD experience. A significant relationship was also found between decreased posterior cingulate cortex (PCC) alpha power and default mode network (DMN) disintegration with ego-dissolution.[27]

The effects of LSD normally last between 6 and 12 hours depending on dosage, tolerance, and age.[medical citation needed][117] Aghajanian and Bing (1964) found LSD had an elimination half-life of only 175 minutes (about 3 hours).[107] However, using more accurate techniques, Papac and Foltz (1990) reported that 1 µg/kg oral LSD given to a single male volunteer had an apparent plasma half-life of 5.1 hours, with a peak plasma concentration of 5 ng/mL at 3 hours post-dose.[118]

The pharmacokinetics of LSD were not properly determined until 2015, which is not surprising for a drug with the kind of low-μg potency that LSD possesses.[6][9] In a sample of 16 healthy subjects, a single mid-range 200 μg oral dose of LSD was found to produce mean maximal concentrations of 4.5 ng/mL at a median of 1.5 hours (range 0.5–4 hours) post-administration.[6][9] Concentrations of LSD decreased following first-order kinetics with a half-life of 3.6±0.9 hours and a terminal half-life of 8.9±5.9 hours.[6][9]

The effects of the dose of LSD given lasted for up to 12 hours and were closely correlated with the concentrations of LSD present in circulation over time, with no acute tolerance observed.[6][9] Only 1% of the drug was eliminated in urine unchanged, whereas 13% was eliminated as the major metabolite 2-oxo-3-hydroxy-LSD (O-H-LSD) within 24 hours.[6][9] O-H-LSD is formed by cytochrome P450 enzymes, although the specific enzymes involved are unknown, and it does not appear to be known whether O-H-LSD is pharmacologically active or not.[6][9] The oral bioavailability of LSD was crudely estimated as approximately 71% using previous data on intravenous administration of LSD.[6][9] The sample was equally divided between male and female subjects and there were no significant sex differences observed in the pharmacokinetics of LSD.[6][9]

Mechanisms of action edit

Neuroimaging studies using resting state fMRI recently suggested that LSD changes the cortical functional architecture.[119] These modifications spatially overlap with the distribution of serotoninergic receptors. In particular, increased connectivity and activity were observed in regions with high expression of 5-HT2A receptor, while a decrease in activity and connectivity was observed in cortical areas that are dense with 5-HT1A receptor.[120] Experimental data suggest that subcortical structures, particularly the thalamus, play a synergistic role with the cerebral cortex in mediating the psychedelic experience. LSD, through its binding to cortical 5-HT2A receptor, may enhance excitatory neurotransmission along frontostriatal projections and, consequently, reduce thalamic filtering of sensory stimuli towards the cortex.[121] This phenomenon appears to selectively involve ventral, intralaminar, and pulvinar nuclei.[121]

Chemistry edit

 
The four possible stereoisomers of LSD. Only (+)-LSD is psychoactive.

LSD is a chiral compound with two stereocenters at the carbon atoms C-5 and C-8, so that theoretically four different optical isomers of LSD could exist. LSD, also called (+)-D-LSD,[citation needed] has the absolute configuration (5R,8R). 5S stereoisomers of lysergamides do not exist in nature and are not formed during the synthesis from d-lysergic acid. Retrosynthetically, the C-5 stereocenter could be analysed as having the same configuration of the alpha carbon of the naturally occurring amino acid L-tryptophan, the precursor to all biosynthetic ergoline compounds.

However, LSD and iso-LSD, the two C-8 isomers, rapidly interconvert in the presence of bases, as the alpha proton is acidic and can be deprotonated and reprotonated. Non-psychoactive iso-LSD which has formed during the synthesis can be separated by chromatography and can be isomerized to LSD.

Pure salts of LSD are triboluminescent, emitting small flashes of white light when shaken in the dark.[117] LSD is strongly fluorescent and will glow bluish-white under UV light.

Synthesis edit

LSD is an ergoline derivative. It is commonly synthesized by reacting diethylamine with an activated form of lysergic acid. Activating reagents include phosphoryl chloride[122] and peptide coupling reagents.[114] Lysergic acid is made by alkaline hydrolysis of lysergamides like ergotamine, a substance usually derived from the ergot fungus on agar plate; or, theoretically possible, but impractical and uncommon, from ergine (lysergic acid amide, LSA) extracted from morning glory seeds.[123] Lysergic acid can also be produced synthetically, although these processes are not used in clandestine manufacture due to their low yields and high complexity.[124][125]

Research edit

The precursor for LSD, lysergic acid, has been produced by GMO baker's yeast.[126]

Dosage edit

 
White on White blotters (WoW) for sublingual administration

A single dose of LSD may be between 40 and 500 micrograms—an amount roughly equal to one-tenth the mass of a grain of sand. Threshold effects can be felt with as little as 25 micrograms of LSD.[127][128] The practice of using sub-threshold doses is called microdosing.[129] Dosages of LSD are measured in micrograms (µg), or millionths of a gram.

In the mid-1960s, the most important black market LSD manufacturer (Owsley Stanley) distributed LSD at a standard concentration of 270 µg,[130] while street samples of the 1970s contained 30 to 300 µg. By the 1980s, the amount had reduced to between 100 and 125 µg, dropping more in the 1990s to the 20–80 µg range,[131] and even more in the 2000s (decade).[130][132]

Reactivity and degradation edit

"LSD," writes the chemist Alexander Shulgin, "is an unusually fragile molecule ... As a salt, in water, cold, and free from air and light exposure, it is stable indefinitely."[117]

LSD has two labile protons at the tertiary stereogenic C5 and C8 positions, rendering these centers prone to epimerisation. The C8 proton is more labile due to the electron-withdrawing carboxamide attachment, but removal of the chiral proton at the C5 position (which was once also an alpha proton of the parent molecule tryptophan) is assisted by the inductively withdrawing nitrogen and pi electron delocalisation with the indole ring.[citation needed]

LSD also has enamine-type reactivity because of the electron-donating effects of the indole ring. Because of this, chlorine destroys LSD molecules on contact; even though chlorinated tap water contains only a slight amount of chlorine, the small quantity of compound typical to an LSD solution will likely be eliminated when dissolved in tap water.[117] The double bond between the 8-position and the aromatic ring, being conjugated with the indole ring, is susceptible to nucleophilic attacks by water or alcohol, especially in the presence of UV or other kinds of light. LSD often converts to "lumi-LSD," which is inactive in human beings.[117]

A controlled study was undertaken to determine the stability of LSD in pooled urine samples.[133] The concentrations of LSD in urine samples were followed over time at various temperatures, in different types of storage containers, at various exposures to different wavelengths of light, and at varying pH values. These studies demonstrated no significant loss in LSD concentration at 25 °C for up to four weeks. After four weeks of incubation, a 30% loss in LSD concentration at 37 °C and up to a 40% at 45 °C were observed. Urine fortified with LSD and stored in amber glass or nontransparent polyethylene containers showed no change in concentration under any light conditions. Stability of LSD in transparent containers under light was dependent on the distance between the light source and the samples, the wavelength of light, exposure time, and the intensity of light. After prolonged exposure to heat in alkaline pH conditions, 10 to 15% of the parent LSD epimerized to iso-LSD. Under acidic conditions, less than 5% of the LSD was converted to iso-LSD. It was also demonstrated that trace amounts of metal ions in buffer or urine could catalyze the decomposition of LSD and that this process can be avoided by the addition of EDTA.

Detection edit

 
Ehrlich's reagent can be used to test for the presence of LSD in a sample, turning purple upon reaction.[106]

LSD can be detected in concentrations larger than approximately 10% in a sample using Ehrlich's reagent and Hofmann's reagent. However, detecting LSD in human tissues is more challenging due to its active dosage being significantly lower (in micrograms) compared to most other drugs (in milligrams).[134]

LSD may be quantified in urine for drug abuse testing programs, in plasma or serum to confirm poisoning in hospitalized victims, or in whole blood for forensic investigations. The parent drug and its major metabolite are unstable in biofluids when exposed to light, heat, or alkaline conditions, necessitating protection from light, low-temperature storage, and quick analysis to minimize losses.[135] Maximum plasma concentrations are typically observed 1.4 to 1.5 hours after oral administration of 100 µg and 200 µg, respectively, with a plasma half-life of approximately 2.6 hours (ranging from 2.2 to 3.4 hours among test subjects).[136]

Due to its potency in microgram quantities, LSD is often not included in standard pre-employment urine or hair analyses.[134][137] However, advanced liquid chromatography–mass spectrometry methods can detect LSD in biological samples even after a single use.[137]

History edit

... affected by a remarkable restlessness, combined with a slight dizziness. At home I lay down and sank into a not unpleasant intoxicated-like condition, characterized by an extremely stimulated imagination. In a dreamlike state, with eyes closed (I found the daylight to be unpleasantly glaring), I perceived an uninterrupted stream of fantastic pictures, extraordinary shapes with intense, kaleidoscopic play of colors. After some two hours this condition faded away.

—Albert Hofmann, on his first experience with LSD[138]: 15 

Main article: History of LSD

LSD was first synthesized on November 16, 1938[139] by Swiss chemist Albert Hofmann at the Sandoz Laboratories in Basel, Switzerland as part of a large research program searching for medically useful ergot alkaloid derivatives. The abbreviation "LSD" is from the German "Lysergsäurediethylamid".[140]

 
Albert Hofmann in 2006

LSD's psychedelic properties were discovered 5 years later when Hofmann himself accidentally ingested an unknown quantity of the chemical.[141] The first intentional ingestion of LSD occurred on April 19, 1943,[138] when Hofmann ingested 250 µg of LSD. He said this would be a threshold dose based on the dosages of other ergot alkaloids. Hofmann found the effects to be much stronger than he anticipated.[142] Sandoz Laboratories introduced LSD as a psychiatric drug in 1947 and marketed LSD as a psychiatric panacea, hailing it "as a cure for everything from schizophrenia to criminal behavior, 'sexual perversions', and alcoholism."[143] Sandoz would send the drug for free to researchers investigating its effects.[30]

'Effects of Lysergic Acid Diethylamide (LSD) on Troops Marching' – 16mm film produced by the United States military circa 1958

Beginning in the 1950s, the US Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) began a research program code named Project MKUltra. The CIA introduced LSD to the United States, purchasing the entire world's supply for $240,000 and propagating the LSD through CIA front organizations to American hospitals, clinics, prisons and research centers.[144] Experiments included administering LSD to CIA employees, military personnel, doctors, other government agents, prostitutes, mentally ill patients, and members of the general public in order to study their reactions, usually without the subjects' knowledge. The project was revealed in the US congressional Rockefeller Commission report in 1975.

In 1963, the Sandoz patents on LSD expired[131] and the Czech company Spofa began to produce the substance.[30] Sandoz stopped the production and distribution in 1965.[30]

Several figures, including Aldous Huxley, Timothy Leary, and Al Hubbard, had begun to advocate the consumption of LSD. LSD became central to the counterculture of the 1960s.[145] In the early 1960s the use of LSD and other hallucinogens was advocated by new proponents of consciousness expansion such as Leary, Huxley, Alan Watts and Arthur Koestler,[146][147] and according to L. R. Veysey they profoundly influenced the thinking of the new generation of youth.[148]

On October 24, 1968, possession of LSD was made illegal in the United States.[149] The last FDA approved study of LSD in patients ended in 1980, while a study in healthy volunteers was made in the late 1980s. Legally approved and regulated psychiatric use of LSD continued in Switzerland until 1993.[150]

In November 2020, Oregon became the first US state to decriminalize possession of small amounts of LSD after voters approved Ballot Measure 110.[151]

Society and culture edit

Counterculture edit

By the mid-1960s, the youth countercultures in California, particularly in San Francisco, had widely adopted the use of hallucinogenic drugs, including LSD. The first major underground LSD factory was established by Owsley Stanley.[152] Around this time, the Merry Pranksters, associated with novelist Ken Kesey, organized the Acid Tests, events in San Francisco involving LSD consumption, accompanied by light shows and improvised music.[153][154] Their activities, including cross-country trips in a psychedelically decorated bus and interactions with major figures of the beat movement, were later documented in Tom Wolfe's The Electric Kool-Aid Acid Test (1968).[155]

In San Francisco's Haight-Ashbury neighborhood, the Psychedelic Shop was opened in January 1966 by brothers Ron and Jay Thelin to promote safe use of LSD. This shop played a significant role in popularizing LSD in the area and establishing Haight-Ashbury as the epicenter of the hippie counterculture. The Thelins also organized the Love Pageant Rally in Golden Gate Park in October 1966, protesting against California's ban on LSD.[156][157]

A similar movement developed in London, led by British academic Michael Hollingshead, who first tried LSD in America in 1961. After experiencing LSD and interacting with notable figures such as Aldous Huxley, Timothy Leary, and Richard Alpert, Hollingshead played a key role in the famous LSD research at Millbrook before moving to New York City for his own experiments. In 1965, he returned to the UK and founded the World Psychedelic Center in Chelsea, London.[158]

Music and Art edit

 
Psychedelic art aims to capture the experiences of psychedelic trips.

The influence of LSD in the realms of music and art became pronounced in the 1960s, especially through the Acid Tests and related events involving bands like the Grateful Dead, Jefferson Airplane, and Big Brother and the Holding Company. San Francisco-based artists such as Rick Griffin, Victor Moscoso, and Wes Wilson contributed to this movement through their psychedelic poster and album art. The Grateful Dead, in particular, became central to the culture of "Deadheads," with their music heavily influenced by LSD.[159]

In the United Kingdom, Michael Hollingshead, reputed for introducing LSD to various artists and musicians like Storm Thorgerson, Donovan, Keith Richards, and members of the Beatles, played a significant role in the drug's proliferation in the British art and music scene. Despite LSD's illegal status from 1966, it was widely used by groups including the Beatles, the Rolling Stones, and the Moody Blues. Their experiences influenced works such as the Beatles' Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band and Cream's Disraeli Gears, featuring psychedelic-themed music and artwork.[160]

Psychedelic music of the 1960s often sought to replicate the LSD experience, incorporating exotic instrumentation, electric guitars with effects pedals, and elaborate studio techniques. Artists and bands utilized instruments like sitars and tablas, and employed studio effects such as backwards tapes, panning, and phasing.[161][162] Songs such as John Prine's "Illegal Smile" and the Beatles' "Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds" have been associated with LSD, although the latter's authors denied such claims.[163][page needed][164]

Contemporary artists influenced by LSD include Keith Haring in the visual arts,[165] various electronic dance music creators,[166] and the jam band Phish.[167] The 2018 Leo Butler play All You Need is LSD is inspired by the author's interest in the history of LSD.[168]

Legal status edit

The United Nations Convention on Psychotropic Substances of 1971 mandates that signing parties, including the United States, Australia, New Zealand, and most of Europe, prohibit LSD. Enforcement of these laws varies by country. The convention allows medical and scientific research with LSD.[169]

Australia edit

In Australia, LSD is classified as a Schedule 9 prohibited substance under the Poisons Standard (February 2017), indicating it may be abused or misused and its manufacture, possession, sale, or use should be prohibited except for approved research purposes.[170] In Western Australia, the Misuse of Drugs Act 1981 provides guidelines for possession and trafficking of substances like LSD.[171]

Canada edit

In Canada, LSD is listed under Schedule III of the Controlled Drugs and Substances Act. Unauthorized possession and trafficking of the substance can lead to significant legal penalties.[54]

United Kingdom edit

In the United Kingdom, LSD is a Class A drug under the Misuse of Drugs Act 1971, making unauthorized possession and trafficking punishable by severe penalties. The Runciman Report and Transform Drug Policy Foundation have made recommendations and proposals regarding the legal regulation of LSD and other psychedelics.[172][173]

United States edit

In the United States, LSD is classified as a Schedule I controlled substance under the Controlled Substances Act of 1970, making its manufacture, possession, and distribution illegal without a DEA license. The law considers LSD to have a high potential for abuse, no legitimate medical use, and to be unsafe even under medical supervision. The US Supreme Court case Neal v. United States (1995) clarified the sentencing guidelines related to LSD possession.[174]

Oregon decriminalized personal possession of small amounts of drugs, including LSD, in February 2021, and California has seen legislative efforts to decriminalize psychedelics.[175]

Mexico edit

Mexico decriminalized the possession of small amounts of drugs, including LSD, for personal use in 2009. The law specifies possession limits and establishes that possession is not a crime within designated quantities.[176]

Czech Republic edit

In the Czech Republic, possession of "amount larger than small" of LSD is criminalized, while possession of smaller amounts is a misdemeanor. The definition of "amount larger than small" is determined by judicial practice and specific regulations.[177][178]

Economics edit

Production edit

 
Glassware seized by the DEA

An active dose of LSD is very minute, allowing a large number of doses to be synthesized from a comparatively small amount of raw material. Twenty five kilograms of precursor ergotamine tartrate can produce 5–6 kg of pure crystalline LSD; this corresponds to around 50–60 million doses at 100 µg. Because the masses involved are so small, concealing and transporting illicit LSD is much easier than smuggling cocaine, cannabis, or other illegal drugs.[179]

Manufacturing LSD requires laboratory equipment and experience in the field of organic chemistry. It takes two to three days to produce 30 to 100 grams of pure compound. It is believed that LSD is not usually produced in large quantities, but rather in a series of small batches. This technique minimizes the loss of precursor chemicals in case a step does not work as expected.[179]

Forms edit
 
Five doses of LSD, often called a "five strip"

LSD is produced in crystalline form and is then mixed with excipients or redissolved for production in ingestible forms. Liquid solution is either distributed in small vials or, more commonly, sprayed onto or soaked into a distribution medium. Historically, LSD solutions were first sold on sugar cubes, but practical considerations forced a change to tablet form. Appearing in 1968 as an orange tablet measuring about 6 mm across, "Orange Sunshine" acid was the first largely available form of LSD after its possession was made illegal. Tim Scully, a prominent chemist, made some of these tablets, but said that most "Sunshine" in the USA came by way of Ronald Stark, who imported approximately thirty-five million doses from Europe.[180]

Over a period of time, tablet dimensions, weight, shape and concentration of LSD evolved from large (4.5–8.1 mm diameter), heavyweight (≥150 mg), round, high concentration (90–350 µg/tab) dosage units to small (2.0–3.5 mm diameter) lightweight (as low as 4.7 mg/tab), variously shaped, lower concentration (12–85 µg/tab, average range 30–40 µg/tab) dosage units. LSD tablet shapes have included cylinders, cones, stars, spacecraft, and heart shapes. The smallest tablets became known as "Microdots."[181]

After tablets came "computer acid" or "blotter paper LSD," typically made by dipping a preprinted sheet of blotting paper into an LSD/water/alcohol solution.[180][181] More than 200 types of LSD tablets have been encountered since 1969 and more than 350 blotter paper designs have been observed since 1975.[181] About the same time as blotter paper LSD came "Windowpane" (AKA "Clearlight"), which contained LSD inside a thin gelatin square a quarter of an inch (6 mm) across.[180] LSD has been sold under a wide variety of often short-lived and regionally restricted street names including Acid, Trips, Uncle Sid, Blotter, Lucy, Alice and doses, as well as names that reflect the designs on the sheets of blotter paper.[52][182] Authorities have encountered the drug in other forms—including powder or crystal, and capsule.[183]

Modern distribution edit

LSD manufacturers and traffickers in the United States can be categorized into two groups: A few large-scale producers, and an equally limited number of small, clandestine chemists, consisting of independent producers who, operating on a comparatively limited scale, can be found throughout the country.[184][185]

As a group, independent producers are of less concern to the Drug Enforcement Administration than the large-scale groups because their product reaches only local markets.[143]

Many LSD dealers and chemists describe a religious or humanitarian purpose that motivates their illicit activity. Nicholas Schou's book Orange Sunshine: The Brotherhood of Eternal Love and Its Quest to Spread Peace, Love, and Acid to the World describes one such group, the Brotherhood of Eternal Love. The group was a major American LSD trafficking group in the late 1960s and early 1970s.[186]

In the second half of the 20th century, dealers and chemists loosely associated with the Grateful Dead like Owsley Stanley, Nicholas Sand, Karen Horning, Sarah Maltzer, "Dealer McDope," and Leonard Pickard played an essential role in distributing LSD.[159]

Mimics edit
 
LSD blotter acid mimic actually containing DOC
 
Different blotters which could possibly be mimics

Since 2005, law enforcement in the United States and elsewhere has seized several chemicals and combinations of chemicals in blotter paper which were sold as LSD mimics, including DOB,[187][188] a mixture of DOC and DOI,[189] 25I-NBOMe,[190] and a mixture of DOC and DOB.[191] Many mimics are toxic in comparatively small doses, or have extremely different safety profiles. Many street users of LSD are often under the impression that blotter paper which is actively hallucinogenic can only be LSD because that is the only chemical with low enough doses to fit on a small square of blotter paper. While it is true that LSD requires lower doses than most other hallucinogens, blotter paper is capable of absorbing a much larger amount of material. The DEA performed a chromatographic analysis of blotter paper containing 2C-C which showed that the paper contained a much greater concentration of the active chemical than typical LSD doses, although the exact quantity was not determined.[192] Blotter LSD mimics can have relatively small dose squares; a sample of blotter paper containing DOC seized by Concord, California police had dose markings approximately 6 mm apart.[193] Several deaths have been attributed to 25I-NBOMe.[194][195][196][197]

Research edit

In the United States the earliest research began in the 1950s. For instance, with his colleagues Albert Kurland published research on LSD's therapeutic potential in treating to schizophrenia. In Canada began Humphrey Osmond and Abram Hoffer completed LSD studies as early as 1952.[198] By the 1960s, controversies surrounding "hippie" counter culture began to deplete institutional support for continued studies.

Currently, a number of organizations—including the Beckley Foundation, MAPS, Heffter Research Institute and the Albert Hofmann Foundation—exist to fund, encourage and coordinate research into the medicinal and spiritual uses of LSD and related psychedelics.[199] New clinical LSD experiments in humans started in 2009 for the first time in 35 years.[200] As it is illegal in many areas of the world, potential medical uses are difficult to study.[43]

In 2001 the United States Drug Enforcement Administration stated that LSD "produces no aphrodisiac effects, does not increase creativity, has no lasting positive effect in treating alcoholics or criminals, does not produce a "model psychosis", and does not generate immediate personality change."[143] More recently, experimental uses of LSD have included the treatment of alcoholism,[201] pain and cluster headache relief,[7] and prospective studies on depression.[202][203]

A 2020 meta-review indicated possible positive effects of LSD in reducing psychiatric symptoms, mainly in cases of alcoholism.[204] There is evidence that psychedelics induce molecular and cellular adaptations related to neuroplasticity and that these could potentially underlie therapeutic benefits.[205][206]

Psychedelic therapy edit

See also: Psychedelic therapy

In the 1950s and 1960s, LSD was used in psychiatry to enhance psychotherapy, known as psychedelic therapy. Some psychiatrists, such as Ronald A. Sandison, who pioneered its use at Powick Hospital in England, believed LSD was especially useful at helping patients to "unblock" repressed subconscious material through other psychotherapeutic methods,[207] and also for treating alcoholism.[208][209] One study concluded, "The root of the therapeutic value of the LSD experience is its potential for producing self-acceptance and self-surrender,"[34] presumably by forcing the user to face issues and problems in that individual's psyche.

Two recent reviews concluded that conclusions drawn from most of these early trials are unreliable due to serious methodological flaws. These include the absence of adequate control groups, lack of followup, and vague criteria for therapeutic outcome. In many cases studies failed to convincingly demonstrate whether the drug or the therapeutic interaction was responsible for any beneficial effects.[210][211]

In recent years, organizations like the Multidisciplinary Association for Psychedelic Studies have renewed clinical research of LSD.[200]

It has been proposed that LSD be studied for use in the therapeutic setting, particularly in anxiety.[45][46][212][213]

Other uses edit

In the 1950s and 1960s, some psychiatrists (e.g. Oscar Janiger) explored the potential effect of LSD on creativity. Experimental studies attempted to measure the effect of LSD on creative activity and aesthetic appreciation.[53][214][215][216] In 1966 Dr. James Fadiman conducted a study with the central question "How can psychedelics be used to facilitate problem solving?" This study attempted to solve 44 different problems and had 40 satisfactory solutions when the FDA banned all research into psychedelics. LSD was a key component of this study.[217][218]

Since 2008 there has been ongoing research into using LSD to alleviate anxiety for terminally ill cancer patients coping with their impending deaths.[45][200][219]

A 2012 meta-analysis found evidence that a single dose of LSD in conjunction with various alcoholism treatment programs was associated with a decrease in alcohol abuse, lasting for several months, but no effect was seen at one year. Adverse events included seizure, moderate confusion and agitation, nausea, vomiting, and acting in a bizarre fashion.[35]

LSD has been used as a treatment for cluster headaches with positive results in some small studies.[7]

Recently, researchers discovered that LSD is a potent psychoplastogen, a compound capable of promoting rapid and sustained neural plasticity that may have wide-ranging therapeutic benefit.[220] LSD has been shown to increase markers of neuroplasticity in human brain organoids and improve memory performance in human subjects.[221]

LSD may have analgesic properties related to pain in terminally ill patients and phantom pain and may be useful for treating inflammatory diseases including rheumatoid arthritis.[222]

Notable individuals edit

Some notable individuals have commented publicly on their experiences with LSD.[223][224] Some of these comments date from the era when it was legally available in the US and Europe for non-medical uses, and others pertain to psychiatric treatment in the 1950s and 1960s. Still others describe experiences with illegal LSD, obtained for philosophic, artistic, therapeutic, spiritual, or recreational purposes.

  • W. H. Auden, the poet, said, "I myself have taken mescaline once and L.S.D. once. Aside from a slight schizophrenic dissociation of the I from the Not-I, including my body, nothing happened at all."[225] He also said, "LSD was a complete frost. … What it does seem to destroy is the power of communication. I have listened to tapes done by highly articulate people under LSD, for example, and they talk absolute drivel. They may have seen something interesting, but they certainly lose either the power or the wish to communicate."[226] He also said, "Nothing much happened but I did get the distinct impression that some birds were trying to communicate with me."[227]
  • Daniel Ellsberg, an American peace activist, says he has had several hundred experiences with psychedelics.[228]
  • Richard Feynman, a notable physicist at California Institute of Technology, tried LSD during his professorship at Caltech. Feynman largely sidestepped the issue when dictating his anecdotes; he mentions it in passing in the "O Americano, Outra Vez" section.[229][230]
  • Jerry Garcia stated in a July 3, 1989 interview for Relix Magazine, in response to the question "Have your feelings about LSD changed over the years?," "They haven't changed much. My feelings about LSD are mixed. It's something that I both fear and that I love at the same time. I never take any psychedelic, have a psychedelic experience, without having that feeling of, "I don't know what's going to happen." In that sense, it's still fundamentally an enigma and a mystery."[231]
  • Bill Gates implied in an interview with Playboy that he tried LSD during his youth.[232]
  • Aldous Huxley, author of Brave New World, became a user of psychedelics after moving to Hollywood. He was at the forefront of the counterculture's use of psychedelic drugs, which led to his 1954 work The Doors of Perception. Dying from cancer, he asked his wife on 22 November 1963 to inject him with 100 µg of LSD. He died later that day.[233]
  • Steve Jobs, co-founder and former CEO of Apple Inc., said, "Taking LSD was a profound experience, one of the most important things in my life."[234]
  • Ernst Jünger, German writer and philosopher, throughout his life had experimented with drugs such as ether, cocaine, and hashish; and later in life he used mescaline and LSD. These experiments were recorded comprehensively in Annäherungen (1970, Approaches). The novel Besuch auf Godenholm (1952, Visit to Godenholm) is clearly influenced by his early experiments with mescaline and LSD. He met with LSD inventor Albert Hofmann and they took LSD together several times. Hofmann's memoir LSD, My Problem Child describes some of these meetings.[235]
  • In a 2004 interview, Paul McCartney said that The Beatles' songs "Day Tripper" and "Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds" were inspired by LSD trips.[163]: 182  Nonetheless, John Lennon consistently stated over the course of many years that the fact that the initials of "Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds" spelled out L-S-D was a coincidence (he stated that the title came from a picture drawn by his son Julian) and that the band members did not notice until after the song had been released, and Paul McCartney corroborated that story.[236] John Lennon, George Harrison, and Ringo Starr also used the drug, although McCartney cautioned that "it's easy to overestimate the influence of drugs on the Beatles' music."[237]
  • Michel Foucault had an LSD experience with Simeon Wade in the Death Valley and later wrote "it was the greatest experience of his life, and that it profoundly changed his life and his work."[238][239] According to Wade, as soon as he came back to Paris, Foucault scrapped the second History of Sexuality's manuscript, and totally rethought the whole project.[240]
  • Kary Mullis is reported to credit LSD with helping him develop DNA amplification technology, for which he received the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1993.[241]
  • Carlo Rovelli, an Italian theoretical physicist and writer, has credited his use of LSD with sparking his interest in theoretical physics.[242]
  • Oliver Sacks, a neurologist famous for writing best-selling case histories about his patients' disorders and unusual experiences, talks about his own experiences with LSD and other perception altering chemicals, in his book, Hallucinations.[243]
  • Matt Stone and Trey Parker, creators of the TV series South Park, claimed to have shown up at the 72nd Academy Awards, at which they were nominated for Best Original Song, under the influence of LSD.[244]

See also edit

Notes edit

  1. ^ Although cross-tolerance to DMT is noted as negligible,[84] some reports suggest that LSD-tolerant individuals showed undiminished responses to DMT.[85]
  2. ^ The potency of N-benzylphenethylamines via buccal, sublingual, or nasal absorption is 50–100 greater (by weight) than oral route compared to the parent 2C-x compounds.[101] Researches hypothesize the low oral metabolic stability of N-benzylphenethylamines is likely causing the low bioavailability on the oral route, although the metabolic profile of this compounds remains unpredictable; therefore researches state that the fatalities linked to these substances may partly be explained by differences in the metabolism between individuals.[101]

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February 16, 2024
redirects, here, confused, with, other, uses, disambiguation, lysergic, acid, diethylamide, commonly, known, from, german, lysergsäure, diethylamid, known, colloquially, acid, lucy, potent, psychedelic, drug, effects, typically, include, intensified, thoughts,. Lsd redirects here Not to be confused with sd For other uses see LSD disambiguation Lysergic acid diethylamide commonly known as LSD from German Lysergsaure diethylamid and known colloquially as acid or lucy is a potent psychedelic drug 12 Effects typically include intensified thoughts emotions and sensory perception 13 At sufficiently high dosages LSD manifests primarily mental visual and auditory hallucinations 14 15 Dilated pupils increased blood pressure and increased body temperature are typical 16 Effects typically begin within half an hour and can last for up to 20 hours although on average experiences last 8 12 hours 16 17 LSD is also capable of causing mystical experiences and ego dissolution 15 18 It is used mainly as a recreational drug or for spiritual reasons 16 19 LSD is both the prototypical psychedelic and one of the classical psychedelics being the psychedelic with the greatest scientific and cultural significance 12 LSD is synthesized as a solid compound typically in the form of a powder or a crystalline material This solid LSD is then dissolved in a liquid solvent such as ethanol or distilled water to create a solution The liquid serves as a carrier for the LSD allowing for accurate dosage and administration onto small pieces of blotter paper called tabs LSD is typically either swallowed or held under the tongue 13 In pure form LSD is clear or white in color has no smell and is crystalline 13 It breaks down with exposure to ultraviolet light 16 Lysergic acid diethylamide LSD INN LysergideSkeletal formula of LSDBall and stick model of LSDClinical dataPronunciation daɪ e8el ˈaemaɪd aemɪd or eɪmaɪd 1 2 3 Trade namesDelysidOther namesLSD LSD 25 LAD Acid othersAHFS Drugs comReferencePregnancycategoryCDependenceliabilityLow 4 AddictionliabilityNone 5 Routes ofadministrationBy mouth under the tongueDrug classHallucinogen psychedelic ATC codeNoneLegal statusLegal statusAU S9 Prohibited substance BR Class F2 Prohibited psychotropics CA Schedule III DE Anlage I Authorized scientific use only NZ Class A UK Class A US Schedule I UN Psychotropic Schedule I Illicit drugPharmacokinetic dataBioavailability71 6 Protein bindingUnknown 7 MetabolismLiver CYP450 6 Metabolites2 Oxo 3 hydroxy LSD 6 Onset of action30 40 minutes 8 Elimination half life3 6 hours 6 9 Duration of action8 20 hours 10 ExcretionKidneys 6 9 IdentifiersIUPAC name 6aR 9R N N diethyl 7 methyl 4 6 6a 7 8 9 hexahydroindolo 4 3 fg quinoline 9 carboxamideCAS Number50 37 3 YPubChem CID5761IUPHAR BPS17DrugBankDB04829 YChemSpider5558 YUNII8NA5SWF92OKEGGC07542 YChEBICHEBI 6605 YChEMBLChEMBL263881 YPDB ligand7LD PDBe RCSB PDB CompTox Dashboard EPA DTXSID1023231ECHA InfoCard100 000 031Chemical and physical dataFormulaC 20H 25N 3OMolar mass323 440 g mol 13D model JSmol Interactive imageMelting point80 to 85 C 176 to 185 F Solubility in water67 02 11 mg mL 20 C SMILES CCN CC C O C H 1CN C H 2Cc3c nH c4c3c ccc4 C2 C1 CInChI InChI 1S C20H25N3O c1 4 23 5 2 20 24 14 9 16 15 7 6 8 17 19 15 13 11 21 17 10 18 16 22 3 12 14 h6 9 11 14 18 21H 4 5 10 12H2 1 3H3 t14 18 m1 s1 YKey VAYOSLLFUXYJDT RDTXWAMCSA N Y verify LSD is pharmacologically considered to be non addictive with a low potential for abuse Adverse psychological reactions are possible such as anxiety paranoia and delusions 7 In rare cases LSD can induce flashbacks known as hallucinogen persisting perception disorder in which a person experiences apparent lasting or persistent visual hallucinations or perceptual distortions such as visual snow and palinopsia 20 21 LSD is structurally related to substituted tryptamines a class of compounds that includes psilocybin the active compound found in psychedelic mushrooms Thus LSD shares some mechanisms of action and psychedelic effects with psilocybin and other tryptamines 22 23 24 The effects of LSD are thought to stem primarily from it being an agonist at the 5 HT2A serotonin receptor While exactly how LSD exerts its effects by agonism at this receptor is not fully understood corresponding increased glutamatergic neurotransmission and reduced default mode network activity are thought to be key mechanisms of action 7 12 25 26 27 LSD also binds to dopamine D1 and D2 receptors which is thought to contribute to reports of LSD being more stimulating than compounds such as psilocybin 28 29 LSD was first synthesized by Swiss chemist Albert Hofmann in 1938 from lysergic acid a chemical derived from the hydrolysis of ergotamine an alkaloid found in ergot a fungus that infects grain 16 20 LSD was the 25th of various lysergamides Hofmann synthesized from lysergic acid while trying to develop a new analeptic hence the alternate name LSD 25 Hofmann discovered its effects in humans in 1943 after unintentionally ingesting an unknown amount possibly absorbing it through his skin 30 31 32 LSD was subject to exceptional interest within the field of psychiatry in the 1950s and early 1960s with Sandoz distributing LSD to researchers under the trademark name Delysid in an attempt to find a marketable use for it 31 LSD assisted psychotherapy was used in the 1950s and early 1960s by psychiatrists such as Humphry Osmond who pioneered the application of LSD to the treatment of alcoholism with promising results 31 33 34 35 Osmond coined the term psychedelic lit mind manifesting as a term for LSD and related hallucinogens superseding the previously held psychotomimetic model in which LSD was believed to mimic schizophrenia In contrast to schizophrenia LSD can induce transcendent experiences or mental states that transcend the experience of everyday consciousness with lasting psychological benefit 12 31 During this time the Central Intelligence Agency CIA began using LSD in the research project Project MKUltra which used psychoactive substances to aid interrogation The CIA administered LSD to unwitting test subjects in order to observe how they would react the most well known example of this being Operation Midnight Climax 31 LSD was one of several psychoactive substances evaluated by the U S Army Chemical Corps as possible non lethal incapacitants in the Edgewood Arsenal human experiments 31 In the 1960s LSD and other psychedelics were adopted by and became synonymous with the counterculture movement due to their perceived ability to expand consciousness This resulted in LSD being viewed as a cultural threat to American values and the Vietnam war effort and it was designated as a Schedule I illegal for medical as well as recreational use substance in 1968 36 It was listed as a Schedule 1 controlled substance by the United Nations in 1971 and currently has no approved medical uses 16 As of 2017 update about 10 of people in the United States have used LSD at some point in their lives while 0 7 have used it in the last year 37 It was most popular in the 1960s to 1980s 16 The use of LSD among US adults increased 56 4 from 2015 to 2018 38 Contents 1 Uses 1 1 Recreational 1 2 Spiritual 1 3 Medical 2 Effects 2 1 Physical 2 2 Psychological 2 3 Sensory 3 Adverse effects 3 1 Psychological effects 3 1 1 Mental disorders 3 1 2 Suggestibility 3 1 3 Flashbacks 3 2 Drug interactions 3 3 Fatal dose 3 4 Tolerance 3 5 Addiction and dependence liability 3 6 Cancer and pregnancy 4 Overdose 4 1 Designer drug overdose 5 Pharmacology 5 1 Pharmacodynamics 5 2 Pharmacokinetics 5 3 Mechanisms of action 6 Chemistry 6 1 Synthesis 6 1 1 Research 6 2 Dosage 6 3 Reactivity and degradation 6 4 Detection 7 History 8 Society and culture 8 1 Counterculture 8 2 Music and Art 8 3 Legal status 8 3 1 Australia 8 3 2 Canada 8 3 3 United Kingdom 8 3 4 United States 8 3 5 Mexico 8 3 6 Czech Republic 8 4 Economics 8 4 1 Production 8 4 1 1 Forms 8 4 1 2 Modern distribution 8 4 1 3 Mimics 9 Research 9 1 Psychedelic therapy 9 2 Other uses 10 Notable individuals 11 See also 12 Notes 13 References 14 Further reading 15 External links 15 1 DocumentariesUses editRecreational edit LSD is commonly used as a recreational drug 39 Spiritual edit LSD can catalyze intense spiritual experiences and is thus considered an entheogen Some users have reported out of body experiences In 1966 Timothy Leary established the League for Spiritual Discovery with LSD as its sacrament 40 41 Stanislav Grof has written that religious and mystical experiences observed during LSD sessions appear to be phenomenologically indistinguishable from similar descriptions in the sacred scriptures of the great religions of the world and the texts of ancient civilizations 42 Medical edit See also Lysergic acid diethylamide Research LSD currently has no approved uses in medicine 43 44 A meta analysis concluded that a single dose was shown to be effective at reducing alcohol consumption in people suffering from alcoholism 35 LSD has also been studied in depression anxiety 45 46 and drug dependence with positive preliminary results 47 48 Effects editLSD is exceptionally potent with as little as 20 mg capable of producing a noticeable effect 16 Physical edit nbsp Some symptoms reported for LSD 49 50 nbsp Patient with mydriasis pupil dilation due to usage of LSDLSD can induce physical effects such as pupil dilation decreased appetite increased sweating and wakefulness The physical reactions to LSD vary greatly and some may be a result of its psychological effects Commonly observed symptoms include increased body temperature blood sugar and heart rate as well as goose bumps jaw clenching dry mouth and hyperreflexia In cases of adverse reactions users may experience numbness weakness nausea and tremors 16 Psychological edit The primary immediate psychological effects of LSD are visual hallucinations and illusions often referred to as trips These effects typically begin within 20 30 minutes of oral ingestion peak three to four hours after ingestion and can last up to 20 hours particularly with higher doses An afterglow effect characterized by an improved mood or perceived mental state may persist for days or weeks following ingestion 51 Positive experiences or good trips are described as intensely pleasurable and can include feelings of joy euphoria an increased appreciation for life decreased anxiety a sense of spiritual enlightenment and a feeling of interconnectedness with the universe 52 53 Conversely negative experiences known as bad trips can induce feelings of fear anxiety panic paranoia and even suicidal ideation 54 While the occurrence of a bad trip is unpredictable factors such as mood surroundings sleep hydration and social setting collectively referred to as set and setting can influence the risk and are considered important in minimizing the likelihood of a negative experience 55 56 Sensory edit LSD induces an animated sensory experience affecting senses emotions memories time and awareness lasting from 6 to 20 hours with the duration dependent on dosage and individual tolerance Effects typically commence within 30 to 90 minutes post ingestion ranging from subtle perceptual changes to profound cognitive shifts Alterations in auditory and visual perception are common 57 58 Users may experience enhanced visual phenomena such as vibrant colors objects appearing to morph ripple or move and geometric patterns on various surfaces Changes in the perception of food s texture and taste are also noted sometimes leading to aversion towards certain foods 57 59 There are reports of inanimate objects appearing animated with static objects seeming to move in additional spatial dimensions 60 The auditory effects of LSD may include echo like distortions of sounds Basic visual effects often resemble phosphenes and can be influenced by concentration thoughts emotions or music 61 Auditory effects may include echo like distortions and an intensified experience of music Higher doses can lead to more intense sensory perception alterations including synesthesia perception of additional dimensions and temporary dissociation Adverse effects edit nbsp Addiction experts in psychiatry chemistry pharmacology forensic science epidemiology and the police and legal services engaged in delphic analysis regarding 20 popular recreational drugs LSD was ranked 14th in dependence 15th in physical harm and 13th in social harm 62 LSD a classical psychedelic is deemed physiologically safe at standard dosages 50 200 mg and its primary risks lie in psychological effects rather than physiological harm 25 63 A 2010 study by David Nutt ranked LSD as significantly less harmful than alcohol placing it near the bottom of a list assessing the harm of 20 drugs 64 Psychological effects edit Mental disorders edit LSD can induce panic attacks or extreme anxiety colloquially termed a bad trip Despite lower rates of depression and substance abuse found in psychedelic drug users compared to controls LSD presents heightened risks for individuals with severe mental illnesses like schizophrenia 65 66 These hallucinogens can catalyze psychiatric disorders in predisposed individuals although they do not tend to induce illness in emotionally healthy people 25 Several behavioral related fatalities and suicides have been associated with LSD 67 Suggestibility edit While research from the 1960s indicated increased suggestibility under the influence of LSD among both mentally ill and healthy individuals recent documents suggest that the CIA and Department of Defense have discontinued research into LSD as a means of mind control 68 69 70 non primary source needed Flashbacks edit Flashbacks are psychological episodes where individuals re experience some of LSD s subjective effects after the drug has worn off persisting for days or months post hallucinogen use 71 72 These experiences are associated with hallucinogen persisting perception disorder where flashbacks occur intermittently or chronically causing distress or functional impairment 21 The etiology of flashbacks is varied Some cases are attributed to somatic symptom disorder where individuals fixate on normal somatic experiences previously unnoticed prior to drug consumption 73 Other instances are linked to associative reactions to contextual cues similar to responses observed in individuals with past trauma or emotional experiences 74 The risk factors for flashbacks remain unclear but pre existing psychopathologies may be significant contributors 75 Estimating the prevalence of HPPD is challenging It is considered rare with occurrences ranging from 1 in 20 users experiencing the transient and less severe type 1 HPPD to 1 in 50 000 for the more concerning type 2 HPPD 21 Contrary to internet rumors LSD is not stored long term in the spinal cord or other body parts Pharmacological evidence indicates LSD has a half life of 175 minutes and is metabolized into water soluble compounds like 2 oxo 3 hydroxy LSD eliminated through urine without evidence of long term storage 7 Clinical evidence also suggests that chronic use of SSRIs can potentiate LSD induced flashbacks even months after stopping LSD use 76 145 Drug interactions edit Several psychedelics including LSD are metabolized by CYP2D6 Concurrent use of SSRIs potent inhibitors of CYP2D6 with LSD may heighten the risk of serotonin syndrome 76 145 Chronic usage of SSRIs TCAs and MAOIs is believed to diminish the subjective effects of psychedelics likely due to SSRI induced 5 HT2A receptor downregulation and MAOI induced 5 HT2A receptor desensitization 7 76 145 Interactions between psychedelics and antipsychotics or anticonvulsants are not well documented however co use with mood stabilizers like lithium may induce seizures and dissociative effects particularly in individuals with bipolar disorder 76 146 77 78 Lithium notably intensifies LSD reactions potentially leading to acute comatose states when combined 7 Fatal dose edit Lethal oral dose of LSD in humans is estimated at 100 mg based on LD50 and lethal blood concentrations observed in rodent studies 63 Tolerance edit LSD shows significant tachyphylaxis with tolerance developing 24 hours after administration The progression of tolerance at intervals shorter than 24 hours remains largely unknown 79 Tolerance typically resets to baseline after 3 4 days of abstinence 80 81 Cross tolerance occurs between LSD mescaline psilocybin 82 83 and to some degree DMT a Tolerance to LSD also builds up with consistent use 86 and is believed to result from serotonin 5 HT2A receptor downregulation 80 Researchers believe that tolerance returns to baseline after two weeks of not using psychedelics 87 Addiction and dependence liability edit The NIH states that LSD is addictive 20 while most other sources state it is not 63 88 A 2009 textbook states that it rarely produce s compulsive use 5 A 2006 review states it is readily abused but does not result in addiction 88 There are no recorded successful attempts to train animals to self administer LSD in laboratory settings 25 A study reports that although tolerance to LSD builds up rapidly a withdrawal syndrome does not appear suggesting that a potential syndrome does not necessarily relate to the possibility of acquiring rapid tolerance to a substance 89 A report examining substance use disorder for DSM IV noted that almost no hallucinogens produced dependence unlike psychoactive drugs of other classes such as stimulants and depressants 90 91 Cancer and pregnancy edit The mutagenic potential of LSD is unclear Overall the evidence seems to point to limited or no effect at commonly used doses 92 Studies showed no evidence of teratogenic or mutagenic effects 7 Overdose editThere have been no documented fatal human overdoses from LSD 7 93 although there has been no comprehensive review since the 1950s and almost no legal clinical research since the 1970s 7 Eight individuals who had accidentally consumed an exceedingly high amount of LSD mistaking it for cocaine had plasma levels of 1000 7000 mg per 100 mL blood plasma had suffered from comatose states vomiting respiratory problems hyperthermia and light gastrointestinal bleeding however all of them survived without residual effects upon hospital intervention 7 Individuals experiencing a bad trip after LSD intoxication may be presented with severe anxiety tachycardia often accompanied by phases of psychotic agitation and varying degrees of delusions 63 Cases of death on a bad trip have been reported due to prone maximal restraint PMR and positional asphyxia when the individuals were held restraint by law enforcement personnel 63 Massive doses are largely managed by symptomatic treatments and agitation can be addressed with benzodiazepines 94 95 Reassurance in a calm safe environment is beneficial 96 Antipsychotic agents such as neuroleptics and haloperidol are not recommended as they may have adverse psychotomimetic effects 94 Gastrointestinal decontamination with activated charcoal is of little use due to the rapid absorption of LSD unless done within 30 60 minutes of ingesting exceedingly huge amounts 94 Administration of anticoagulants vasodilators and sympatholytics may be useful for treating ergotism 94 Designer drug overdose edit Many novel psychoactive substances of 25 NB NBOMe series such as 25I NBOMe and 25B NBOMe are regularly sold as LSD in blotter papers 97 98 NBOMe compounds are often associated with life threatening toxicity and death 97 99 Fatalities involved in NBOMe intoxication suggest that a significant number of individuals ingested the substance which they believed was LSD 100 and researchers report that users familiar with LSD may have a false sense of security when ingesting NBOMe inadvertently 93 Researchers state that the alleged physiological toxicity of LSD is likely due to psychoactive substances other than LSD 63 NBOMe compounds are reported to have a bitter taste 93 and are not active orally b and are usually taken sublingually 102 When NBOMes are administered sublingually numbness of the tongue and mouth followed by a metallic chemical taste was observed and researchers describe this physical side effect as one of the main discriminants between NBOMe compounds and LSD 103 104 105 Despite high potency recreational doses of LSD have only produced low incidents of acute toxicity but NBOMe compounds have extremely different safety profiles 93 99 Ehrlich s reagent can be used to test for the presence of LSD 106 Pharmacology editPharmacodynamics edit nbsp Binding affinities of LSD for various receptors The lower the dissociation constant Ki the more strongly LSD binds to that receptor i e with higher affinity The horizontal line represents an approximate value for human plasma concentrations of LSD and hence receptor affinities that are above the line are unlikely to be involved in LSD s effect Data averaged from data from the Ki Database Binding affinity for various serotonin receptors Receptor Ki nM 5 HT1A 1 1 5 HT2A 2 9 5 HT2B 4 9 5 HT2C 23 5 HT5A 9 5 HT6 2 3Most serotonergic psychedelics are not significantly dopaminergic and LSD is therefore atypical in this regard The agonism of the D2 receptor by LSD may contribute to its psychoactive effects in humans 29 LSD binds to most serotonin receptor subtypes except for the 5 HT3 and 5 HT4 receptors However most of these receptors are affected at too low affinity to be sufficiently activated by the brain concentration of approximately 10 20 nM 25 In humans recreational doses of LSD can affect 5 HT1A Ki 1 1 nM 5 HT2A Ki 2 9 nM 5 HT2B Ki 4 9 nM 5 HT2C Ki 23 nM 5 HT5A Ki 9 nM in cloned rat tissues and 5 HT6 receptors Ki 2 3 nM 107 Although not present in humans 5 HT5B receptors found in rodents also have a high affinity for LSD 108 The psychedelic effects of LSD are attributed to cross activation of 5 HT2A receptor heteromers 109 Many but not all 5 HT2A agonists are psychedelics and 5 HT2A antagonists block the psychedelic activity of LSD LSD exhibits functional selectivity at the 5 HT2A and 5 HT2C receptors in that it activates the signal transduction enzyme phospholipase A2 instead of activating the enzyme phospholipase C as the endogenous ligand serotonin does 110 Exactly how LSD produces its effects is unknown but it is thought that it works by increasing glutamate release in the cerebral cortex 25 and therefore excitation in this area specifically in layer V 111 LSD like many other drugs of recreational use has been shown to activate DARPP 32 related pathways 112 The drug enhances dopamine D2 receptor protomer recognition and signaling of D2 5 HT2A receptor complexes 28 which may contribute to its psychotropic effects 28 LSD has been shown to have low affinity for H1 receptors displaying antihistamine effects 113 114 LSD is a biased agonist that induces a conformation in serotonin receptors that preferentially recruits b arrestin over activating G proteins 115 LSD also has an exceptionally long residence time when bound to serotonin receptors lasting hours consistent with the long lasting effects of LSD despite its relatively rapid clearance 115 A crystal structure of 5 HT2B bound to LSD reveals an extracellular loop that forms a lid over the diethylamide end of the binding cavity which explains the slow rate of LSD unbinding from serotonin receptors 116 The related lysergamide lysergic acid amide LSA that lacks the diethylamide moiety is far less hallucinogenic in comparison 116 Pharmacokinetics edit nbsp Resting state fMRI BOLD contrast imaging shows increased primary visual cortex V1 cerebral blood flow CBF and increased V1 resting state functional connectivity RSFC which correlated more strongly with the visual hallucinatory aspect of the LSD experience Increased V1 RSFC also correlated with visual analogue scale VAS ratings of simple hallucinations and the magnitude of CBF observed in visual cortex correlated positively with ratings of complex imagery on the LSD induced altered state of consciousness ASC 27 nbsp Resting state fMRI BOLD contrast imaging shows decreased bilateral parahippocampal PH resting state functional connectivity RSFC which correlated with the ego dissolution aspect of the LSD experience A significant relationship was also found between decreased posterior cingulate cortex PCC alpha power and default mode network DMN disintegration with ego dissolution 27 The effects of LSD normally last between 6 and 12 hours depending on dosage tolerance and age medical citation needed 117 Aghajanian and Bing 1964 found LSD had an elimination half life of only 175 minutes about 3 hours 107 However using more accurate techniques Papac and Foltz 1990 reported that 1 µg kg oral LSD given to a single male volunteer had an apparent plasma half life of 5 1 hours with a peak plasma concentration of 5 ng mL at 3 hours post dose 118 The pharmacokinetics of LSD were not properly determined until 2015 which is not surprising for a drug with the kind of low mg potency that LSD possesses 6 9 In a sample of 16 healthy subjects a single mid range 200 mg oral dose of LSD was found to produce mean maximal concentrations of 4 5 ng mL at a median of 1 5 hours range 0 5 4 hours post administration 6 9 Concentrations of LSD decreased following first order kinetics with a half life of 3 6 0 9 hours and a terminal half life of 8 9 5 9 hours 6 9 The effects of the dose of LSD given lasted for up to 12 hours and were closely correlated with the concentrations of LSD present in circulation over time with no acute tolerance observed 6 9 Only 1 of the drug was eliminated in urine unchanged whereas 13 was eliminated as the major metabolite 2 oxo 3 hydroxy LSD O H LSD within 24 hours 6 9 O H LSD is formed by cytochrome P450 enzymes although the specific enzymes involved are unknown and it does not appear to be known whether O H LSD is pharmacologically active or not 6 9 The oral bioavailability of LSD was crudely estimated as approximately 71 using previous data on intravenous administration of LSD 6 9 The sample was equally divided between male and female subjects and there were no significant sex differences observed in the pharmacokinetics of LSD 6 9 Mechanisms of action edit Neuroimaging studies using resting state fMRI recently suggested that LSD changes the cortical functional architecture 119 These modifications spatially overlap with the distribution of serotoninergic receptors In particular increased connectivity and activity were observed in regions with high expression of 5 HT2A receptor while a decrease in activity and connectivity was observed in cortical areas that are dense with 5 HT1A receptor 120 Experimental data suggest that subcortical structures particularly the thalamus play a synergistic role with the cerebral cortex in mediating the psychedelic experience LSD through its binding to cortical 5 HT2A receptor may enhance excitatory neurotransmission along frontostriatal projections and consequently reduce thalamic filtering of sensory stimuli towards the cortex 121 This phenomenon appears to selectively involve ventral intralaminar and pulvinar nuclei 121 Chemistry edit nbsp The four possible stereoisomers of LSD Only LSD is psychoactive LSD is a chiral compound with two stereocenters at the carbon atoms C 5 and C 8 so that theoretically four different optical isomers of LSD could exist LSD also called D LSD citation needed has the absolute configuration 5R 8R 5S stereoisomers of lysergamides do not exist in nature and are not formed during the synthesis from d lysergic acid Retrosynthetically the C 5 stereocenter could be analysed as having the same configuration of the alpha carbon of the naturally occurring amino acid L tryptophan the precursor to all biosynthetic ergoline compounds However LSD and iso LSD the two C 8 isomers rapidly interconvert in the presence of bases as the alpha proton is acidic and can be deprotonated and reprotonated Non psychoactive iso LSD which has formed during the synthesis can be separated by chromatography and can be isomerized to LSD Pure salts of LSD are triboluminescent emitting small flashes of white light when shaken in the dark 117 LSD is strongly fluorescent and will glow bluish white under UV light Synthesis edit LSD is an ergoline derivative It is commonly synthesized by reacting diethylamine with an activated form of lysergic acid Activating reagents include phosphoryl chloride 122 and peptide coupling reagents 114 Lysergic acid is made by alkaline hydrolysis of lysergamides like ergotamine a substance usually derived from the ergot fungus on agar plate or theoretically possible but impractical and uncommon from ergine lysergic acid amide LSA extracted from morning glory seeds 123 Lysergic acid can also be produced synthetically although these processes are not used in clandestine manufacture due to their low yields and high complexity 124 125 Research edit The precursor for LSD lysergic acid has been produced by GMO baker s yeast 126 Dosage edit nbsp White on White blotters WoW for sublingual administrationA single dose of LSD may be between 40 and 500 micrograms an amount roughly equal to one tenth the mass of a grain of sand Threshold effects can be felt with as little as 25 micrograms of LSD 127 128 The practice of using sub threshold doses is called microdosing 129 Dosages of LSD are measured in micrograms µg or millionths of a gram In the mid 1960s the most important black market LSD manufacturer Owsley Stanley distributed LSD at a standard concentration of 270 µg 130 while street samples of the 1970s contained 30 to 300 µg By the 1980s the amount had reduced to between 100 and 125 µg dropping more in the 1990s to the 20 80 µg range 131 and even more in the 2000s decade 130 132 Reactivity and degradation edit LSD writes the chemist Alexander Shulgin is an unusually fragile molecule As a salt in water cold and free from air and light exposure it is stable indefinitely 117 LSD has two labile protons at the tertiary stereogenic C5 and C8 positions rendering these centers prone to epimerisation The C8 proton is more labile due to the electron withdrawing carboxamide attachment but removal of the chiral proton at the C5 position which was once also an alpha proton of the parent molecule tryptophan is assisted by the inductively withdrawing nitrogen and pi electron delocalisation with the indole ring citation needed LSD also has enamine type reactivity because of the electron donating effects of the indole ring Because of this chlorine destroys LSD molecules on contact even though chlorinated tap water contains only a slight amount of chlorine the small quantity of compound typical to an LSD solution will likely be eliminated when dissolved in tap water 117 The double bond between the 8 position and the aromatic ring being conjugated with the indole ring is susceptible to nucleophilic attacks by water or alcohol especially in the presence of UV or other kinds of light LSD often converts to lumi LSD which is inactive in human beings 117 A controlled study was undertaken to determine the stability of LSD in pooled urine samples 133 The concentrations of LSD in urine samples were followed over time at various temperatures in different types of storage containers at various exposures to different wavelengths of light and at varying pH values These studies demonstrated no significant loss in LSD concentration at 25 C for up to four weeks After four weeks of incubation a 30 loss in LSD concentration at 37 C and up to a 40 at 45 C were observed Urine fortified with LSD and stored in amber glass or nontransparent polyethylene containers showed no change in concentration under any light conditions Stability of LSD in transparent containers under light was dependent on the distance between the light source and the samples the wavelength of light exposure time and the intensity of light After prolonged exposure to heat in alkaline pH conditions 10 to 15 of the parent LSD epimerized to iso LSD Under acidic conditions less than 5 of the LSD was converted to iso LSD It was also demonstrated that trace amounts of metal ions in buffer or urine could catalyze the decomposition of LSD and that this process can be avoided by the addition of EDTA Detection edit nbsp Ehrlich s reagent can be used to test for the presence of LSD in a sample turning purple upon reaction 106 LSD can be detected in concentrations larger than approximately 10 in a sample using Ehrlich s reagent and Hofmann s reagent However detecting LSD in human tissues is more challenging due to its active dosage being significantly lower in micrograms compared to most other drugs in milligrams 134 LSD may be quantified in urine for drug abuse testing programs in plasma or serum to confirm poisoning in hospitalized victims or in whole blood for forensic investigations The parent drug and its major metabolite are unstable in biofluids when exposed to light heat or alkaline conditions necessitating protection from light low temperature storage and quick analysis to minimize losses 135 Maximum plasma concentrations are typically observed 1 4 to 1 5 hours after oral administration of 100 µg and 200 µg respectively with a plasma half life of approximately 2 6 hours ranging from 2 2 to 3 4 hours among test subjects 136 Due to its potency in microgram quantities LSD is often not included in standard pre employment urine or hair analyses 134 137 However advanced liquid chromatography mass spectrometry methods can detect LSD in biological samples even after a single use 137 History edit affected by a remarkable restlessness combined with a slight dizziness At home I lay down and sank into a not unpleasant intoxicated like condition characterized by an extremely stimulated imagination In a dreamlike state with eyes closed I found the daylight to be unpleasantly glaring I perceived an uninterrupted stream of fantastic pictures extraordinary shapes with intense kaleidoscopic play of colors After some two hours this condition faded away Albert Hofmann on his first experience with LSD 138 15 Main article History of LSD LSD was first synthesized on November 16 1938 139 by Swiss chemist Albert Hofmann at the Sandoz Laboratories in Basel Switzerland as part of a large research program searching for medically useful ergot alkaloid derivatives The abbreviation LSD is from the German Lysergsaurediethylamid 140 nbsp Albert Hofmann in 2006LSD s psychedelic properties were discovered 5 years later when Hofmann himself accidentally ingested an unknown quantity of the chemical 141 The first intentional ingestion of LSD occurred on April 19 1943 138 when Hofmann ingested 250 µg of LSD He said this would be a threshold dose based on the dosages of other ergot alkaloids Hofmann found the effects to be much stronger than he anticipated 142 Sandoz Laboratories introduced LSD as a psychiatric drug in 1947 and marketed LSD as a psychiatric panacea hailing it as a cure for everything from schizophrenia to criminal behavior sexual perversions and alcoholism 143 Sandoz would send the drug for free to researchers investigating its effects 30 source source source source source source source source Effects of Lysergic Acid Diethylamide LSD on Troops Marching 16mm film produced by the United States military circa 1958Beginning in the 1950s the US Central Intelligence Agency CIA began a research program code named Project MKUltra The CIA introduced LSD to the United States purchasing the entire world s supply for 240 000 and propagating the LSD through CIA front organizations to American hospitals clinics prisons and research centers 144 Experiments included administering LSD to CIA employees military personnel doctors other government agents prostitutes mentally ill patients and members of the general public in order to study their reactions usually without the subjects knowledge The project was revealed in the US congressional Rockefeller Commission report in 1975 In 1963 the Sandoz patents on LSD expired 131 and the Czech company Spofa began to produce the substance 30 Sandoz stopped the production and distribution in 1965 30 Several figures including Aldous Huxley Timothy Leary and Al Hubbard had begun to advocate the consumption of LSD LSD became central to the counterculture of the 1960s 145 In the early 1960s the use of LSD and other hallucinogens was advocated by new proponents of consciousness expansion such as Leary Huxley Alan Watts and Arthur Koestler 146 147 and according to L R Veysey they profoundly influenced the thinking of the new generation of youth 148 On October 24 1968 possession of LSD was made illegal in the United States 149 The last FDA approved study of LSD in patients ended in 1980 while a study in healthy volunteers was made in the late 1980s Legally approved and regulated psychiatric use of LSD continued in Switzerland until 1993 150 In November 2020 Oregon became the first US state to decriminalize possession of small amounts of LSD after voters approved Ballot Measure 110 151 Society and culture editCounterculture edit By the mid 1960s the youth countercultures in California particularly in San Francisco had widely adopted the use of hallucinogenic drugs including LSD The first major underground LSD factory was established by Owsley Stanley 152 Around this time the Merry Pranksters associated with novelist Ken Kesey organized the Acid Tests events in San Francisco involving LSD consumption accompanied by light shows and improvised music 153 154 Their activities including cross country trips in a psychedelically decorated bus and interactions with major figures of the beat movement were later documented in Tom Wolfe s The Electric Kool Aid Acid Test 1968 155 In San Francisco s Haight Ashbury neighborhood the Psychedelic Shop was opened in January 1966 by brothers Ron and Jay Thelin to promote safe use of LSD This shop played a significant role in popularizing LSD in the area and establishing Haight Ashbury as the epicenter of the hippie counterculture The Thelins also organized the Love Pageant Rally in Golden Gate Park in October 1966 protesting against California s ban on LSD 156 157 A similar movement developed in London led by British academic Michael Hollingshead who first tried LSD in America in 1961 After experiencing LSD and interacting with notable figures such as Aldous Huxley Timothy Leary and Richard Alpert Hollingshead played a key role in the famous LSD research at Millbrook before moving to New York City for his own experiments In 1965 he returned to the UK and founded the World Psychedelic Center in Chelsea London 158 Music and Art edit nbsp Psychedelic art aims to capture the experiences of psychedelic trips The influence of LSD in the realms of music and art became pronounced in the 1960s especially through the Acid Tests and related events involving bands like the Grateful Dead Jefferson Airplane and Big Brother and the Holding Company San Francisco based artists such as Rick Griffin Victor Moscoso and Wes Wilson contributed to this movement through their psychedelic poster and album art The Grateful Dead in particular became central to the culture of Deadheads with their music heavily influenced by LSD 159 In the United Kingdom Michael Hollingshead reputed for introducing LSD to various artists and musicians like Storm Thorgerson Donovan Keith Richards and members of the Beatles played a significant role in the drug s proliferation in the British art and music scene Despite LSD s illegal status from 1966 it was widely used by groups including the Beatles the Rolling Stones and the Moody Blues Their experiences influenced works such as the Beatles Sgt Pepper s Lonely Hearts Club Band and Cream s Disraeli Gears featuring psychedelic themed music and artwork 160 Psychedelic music of the 1960s often sought to replicate the LSD experience incorporating exotic instrumentation electric guitars with effects pedals and elaborate studio techniques Artists and bands utilized instruments like sitars and tablas and employed studio effects such as backwards tapes panning and phasing 161 162 Songs such as John Prine s Illegal Smile and the Beatles Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds have been associated with LSD although the latter s authors denied such claims 163 page needed 164 Contemporary artists influenced by LSD include Keith Haring in the visual arts 165 various electronic dance music creators 166 and the jam band Phish 167 The 2018 Leo Butler play All You Need is LSD is inspired by the author s interest in the history of LSD 168 Legal status edit The United Nations Convention on Psychotropic Substances of 1971 mandates that signing parties including the United States Australia New Zealand and most of Europe prohibit LSD Enforcement of these laws varies by country The convention allows medical and scientific research with LSD 169 Australia edit In Australia LSD is classified as a Schedule 9 prohibited substance under the Poisons Standard February 2017 indicating it may be abused or misused and its manufacture possession sale or use should be prohibited except for approved research purposes 170 In Western Australia the Misuse of Drugs Act 1981 provides guidelines for possession and trafficking of substances like LSD 171 Canada edit In Canada LSD is listed under Schedule III of the Controlled Drugs and Substances Act Unauthorized possession and trafficking of the substance can lead to significant legal penalties 54 United Kingdom edit In the United Kingdom LSD is a Class A drug under the Misuse of Drugs Act 1971 making unauthorized possession and trafficking punishable by severe penalties The Runciman Report and Transform Drug Policy Foundation have made recommendations and proposals regarding the legal regulation of LSD and other psychedelics 172 173 United States edit In the United States LSD is classified as a Schedule I controlled substance under the Controlled Substances Act of 1970 making its manufacture possession and distribution illegal without a DEA license The law considers LSD to have a high potential for abuse no legitimate medical use and to be unsafe even under medical supervision The US Supreme Court case Neal v United States 1995 clarified the sentencing guidelines related to LSD possession 174 Oregon decriminalized personal possession of small amounts of drugs including LSD in February 2021 and California has seen legislative efforts to decriminalize psychedelics 175 Mexico edit Mexico decriminalized the possession of small amounts of drugs including LSD for personal use in 2009 The law specifies possession limits and establishes that possession is not a crime within designated quantities 176 Czech Republic edit In the Czech Republic possession of amount larger than small of LSD is criminalized while possession of smaller amounts is a misdemeanor The definition of amount larger than small is determined by judicial practice and specific regulations 177 178 Economics edit Production edit nbsp Glassware seized by the DEAAn active dose of LSD is very minute allowing a large number of doses to be synthesized from a comparatively small amount of raw material Twenty five kilograms of precursor ergotamine tartrate can produce 5 6 kg of pure crystalline LSD this corresponds to around 50 60 million doses at 100 µg Because the masses involved are so small concealing and transporting illicit LSD is much easier than smuggling cocaine cannabis or other illegal drugs 179 Manufacturing LSD requires laboratory equipment and experience in the field of organic chemistry It takes two to three days to produce 30 to 100 grams of pure compound It is believed that LSD is not usually produced in large quantities but rather in a series of small batches This technique minimizes the loss of precursor chemicals in case a step does not work as expected 179 Forms edit nbsp Five doses of LSD often called a five strip LSD is produced in crystalline form and is then mixed with excipients or redissolved for production in ingestible forms Liquid solution is either distributed in small vials or more commonly sprayed onto or soaked into a distribution medium Historically LSD solutions were first sold on sugar cubes but practical considerations forced a change to tablet form Appearing in 1968 as an orange tablet measuring about 6 mm across Orange Sunshine acid was the first largely available form of LSD after its possession was made illegal Tim Scully a prominent chemist made some of these tablets but said that most Sunshine in the USA came by way of Ronald Stark who imported approximately thirty five million doses from Europe 180 Over a period of time tablet dimensions weight shape and concentration of LSD evolved from large 4 5 8 1 mm diameter heavyweight 150 mg round high concentration 90 350 µg tab dosage units to small 2 0 3 5 mm diameter lightweight as low as 4 7 mg tab variously shaped lower concentration 12 85 µg tab average range 30 40 µg tab dosage units LSD tablet shapes have included cylinders cones stars spacecraft and heart shapes The smallest tablets became known as Microdots 181 After tablets came computer acid or blotter paper LSD typically made by dipping a preprinted sheet of blotting paper into an LSD water alcohol solution 180 181 More than 200 types of LSD tablets have been encountered since 1969 and more than 350 blotter paper designs have been observed since 1975 181 About the same time as blotter paper LSD came Windowpane AKA Clearlight which contained LSD inside a thin gelatin square a quarter of an inch 6 mm across 180 LSD has been sold under a wide variety of often short lived and regionally restricted street names including Acid Trips Uncle Sid Blotter Lucy Alice and doses as well as names that reflect the designs on the sheets of blotter paper 52 182 Authorities have encountered the drug in other forms including powder or crystal and capsule 183 Modern distribution edit LSD manufacturers and traffickers in the United States can be categorized into two groups A few large scale producers and an equally limited number of small clandestine chemists consisting of independent producers who operating on a comparatively limited scale can be found throughout the country 184 185 As a group independent producers are of less concern to the Drug Enforcement Administration than the large scale groups because their product reaches only local markets 143 Many LSD dealers and chemists describe a religious or humanitarian purpose that motivates their illicit activity Nicholas Schou s book Orange Sunshine The Brotherhood of Eternal Love and Its Quest to Spread Peace Love and Acid to the World describes one such group the Brotherhood of Eternal Love The group was a major American LSD trafficking group in the late 1960s and early 1970s 186 In the second half of the 20th century dealers and chemists loosely associated with the Grateful Dead like Owsley Stanley Nicholas Sand Karen Horning Sarah Maltzer Dealer McDope and Leonard Pickard played an essential role in distributing LSD 159 Mimics edit nbsp LSD blotter acid mimic actually containing DOC nbsp Different blotters which could possibly be mimicsSince 2005 law enforcement in the United States and elsewhere has seized several chemicals and combinations of chemicals in blotter paper which were sold as LSD mimics including DOB 187 188 a mixture of DOC and DOI 189 25I NBOMe 190 and a mixture of DOC and DOB 191 Many mimics are toxic in comparatively small doses or have extremely different safety profiles Many street users of LSD are often under the impression that blotter paper which is actively hallucinogenic can only be LSD because that is the only chemical with low enough doses to fit on a small square of blotter paper While it is true that LSD requires lower doses than most other hallucinogens blotter paper is capable of absorbing a much larger amount of material The DEA performed a chromatographic analysis of blotter paper containing 2C C which showed that the paper contained a much greater concentration of the active chemical than typical LSD doses although the exact quantity was not determined 192 Blotter LSD mimics can have relatively small dose squares a sample of blotter paper containing DOC seized by Concord California police had dose markings approximately 6 mm apart 193 Several deaths have been attributed to 25I NBOMe 194 195 196 197 Research editIn the United States the earliest research began in the 1950s For instance with his colleagues Albert Kurland published research on LSD s therapeutic potential in treating to schizophrenia In Canada began Humphrey Osmond and Abram Hoffer completed LSD studies as early as 1952 198 By the 1960s controversies surrounding hippie counter culture began to deplete institutional support for continued studies Currently a number of organizations including the Beckley Foundation MAPS Heffter Research Institute and the Albert Hofmann Foundation exist to fund encourage and coordinate research into the medicinal and spiritual uses of LSD and related psychedelics 199 New clinical LSD experiments in humans started in 2009 for the first time in 35 years 200 As it is illegal in many areas of the world potential medical uses are difficult to study 43 In 2001 the United States Drug Enforcement Administration stated that LSD produces no aphrodisiac effects does not increase creativity has no lasting positive effect in treating alcoholics or criminals does not produce a model psychosis and does not generate immediate personality change 143 More recently experimental uses of LSD have included the treatment of alcoholism 201 pain and cluster headache relief 7 and prospective studies on depression 202 203 A 2020 meta review indicated possible positive effects of LSD in reducing psychiatric symptoms mainly in cases of alcoholism 204 There is evidence that psychedelics induce molecular and cellular adaptations related to neuroplasticity and that these could potentially underlie therapeutic benefits 205 206 Psychedelic therapy edit See also Psychedelic therapy In the 1950s and 1960s LSD was used in psychiatry to enhance psychotherapy known as psychedelic therapy Some psychiatrists such as Ronald A Sandison who pioneered its use at Powick Hospital in England believed LSD was especially useful at helping patients to unblock repressed subconscious material through other psychotherapeutic methods 207 and also for treating alcoholism 208 209 One study concluded The root of the therapeutic value of the LSD experience is its potential for producing self acceptance and self surrender 34 presumably by forcing the user to face issues and problems in that individual s psyche Two recent reviews concluded that conclusions drawn from most of these early trials are unreliable due to serious methodological flaws These include the absence of adequate control groups lack of followup and vague criteria for therapeutic outcome In many cases studies failed to convincingly demonstrate whether the drug or the therapeutic interaction was responsible for any beneficial effects 210 211 In recent years organizations like the Multidisciplinary Association for Psychedelic Studies have renewed clinical research of LSD 200 It has been proposed that LSD be studied for use in the therapeutic setting particularly in anxiety 45 46 212 213 Other uses edit In the 1950s and 1960s some psychiatrists e g Oscar Janiger explored the potential effect of LSD on creativity Experimental studies attempted to measure the effect of LSD on creative activity and aesthetic appreciation 53 214 215 216 In 1966 Dr James Fadiman conducted a study with the central question How can psychedelics be used to facilitate problem solving This study attempted to solve 44 different problems and had 40 satisfactory solutions when the FDA banned all research into psychedelics LSD was a key component of this study 217 218 Since 2008 there has been ongoing research into using LSD to alleviate anxiety for terminally ill cancer patients coping with their impending deaths 45 200 219 A 2012 meta analysis found evidence that a single dose of LSD in conjunction with various alcoholism treatment programs was associated with a decrease in alcohol abuse lasting for several months but no effect was seen at one year Adverse events included seizure moderate confusion and agitation nausea vomiting and acting in a bizarre fashion 35 LSD has been used as a treatment for cluster headaches with positive results in some small studies 7 Recently researchers discovered that LSD is a potent psychoplastogen a compound capable of promoting rapid and sustained neural plasticity that may have wide ranging therapeutic benefit 220 LSD has been shown to increase markers of neuroplasticity in human brain organoids and improve memory performance in human subjects 221 LSD may have analgesic properties related to pain in terminally ill patients and phantom pain and may be useful for treating inflammatory diseases including rheumatoid arthritis 222 Notable individuals editSome notable individuals have commented publicly on their experiences with LSD 223 224 Some of these comments date from the era when it was legally available in the US and Europe for non medical uses and others pertain to psychiatric treatment in the 1950s and 1960s Still others describe experiences with illegal LSD obtained for philosophic artistic therapeutic spiritual or recreational purposes W H Auden the poet said I myself have taken mescaline once and L S D once Aside from a slight schizophrenic dissociation of the I from the Not I including my body nothing happened at all 225 He also said LSD was a complete frost What it does seem to destroy is the power of communication I have listened to tapes done by highly articulate people under LSD for example and they talk absolute drivel They may have seen something interesting but they certainly lose either the power or the wish to communicate 226 He also said Nothing much happened but I did get the distinct impression that some birds were trying to communicate with me 227 Daniel Ellsberg an American peace activist says he has had several hundred experiences with psychedelics 228 Richard Feynman a notable physicist at California Institute of Technology tried LSD during his professorship at Caltech Feynman largely sidestepped the issue when dictating his anecdotes he mentions it in passing in the O Americano Outra Vez section 229 230 Jerry Garcia stated in a July 3 1989 interview for Relix Magazine in response to the question Have your feelings about LSD changed over the years They haven t changed much My feelings about LSD are mixed It s something that I both fear and that I love at the same time I never take any psychedelic have a psychedelic experience without having that feeling of I don t know what s going to happen In that sense it s still fundamentally an enigma and a mystery 231 Bill Gates implied in an interview with Playboy that he tried LSD during his youth 232 Aldous Huxley author of Brave New World became a user of psychedelics after moving to Hollywood He was at the forefront of the counterculture s use of psychedelic drugs which led to his 1954 work The Doors of Perception Dying from cancer he asked his wife on 22 November 1963 to inject him with 100 µg of LSD He died later that day 233 Steve Jobs co founder and former CEO of Apple Inc said Taking LSD was a profound experience one of the most important things in my life 234 Ernst Junger German writer and philosopher throughout his life had experimented with drugs such as ether cocaine and hashish and later in life he used mescaline and LSD These experiments were recorded comprehensively in Annaherungen 1970 Approaches The novel Besuch auf Godenholm 1952 Visit to Godenholm is clearly influenced by his early experiments with mescaline and LSD He met with LSD inventor Albert Hofmann and they took LSD together several times Hofmann s memoir LSD My Problem Child describes some of these meetings 235 In a 2004 interview Paul McCartney said that The Beatles songs Day Tripper and Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds were inspired by LSD trips 163 182 Nonetheless John Lennon consistently stated over the course of many years that the fact that the initials of Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds spelled out L S D was a coincidence he stated that the title came from a picture drawn by his son Julian and that the band members did not notice until after the song had been released and Paul McCartney corroborated that story 236 John Lennon George Harrison and Ringo Starr also used the drug although McCartney cautioned that it s easy to overestimate the influence of drugs on the Beatles music 237 Michel Foucault had an LSD experience with Simeon Wade in the Death Valley and later wrote it was the greatest experience of his life and that it profoundly changed his life and his work 238 239 According to Wade as soon as he came back to Paris Foucault scrapped the second History of Sexuality s manuscript and totally rethought the whole project 240 Kary Mullis is reported to credit LSD with helping him develop DNA amplification technology for which he received the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1993 241 Carlo Rovelli an Italian theoretical physicist and writer has credited his use of LSD with sparking his interest in theoretical physics 242 Oliver Sacks a neurologist famous for writing best selling case histories about his patients disorders and unusual experiences talks about his own experiences with LSD and other perception altering chemicals in his book Hallucinations 243 Matt Stone and Trey Parker creators of the TV series South Park claimed to have shown up at the 72nd Academy Awards at which they were nominated for Best Original Song under the influence of LSD 244 See also edit nbsp 1960s portal1P LSD 1cP LSD LSD art Owsley Stanley Psychedelic microdosing Psychedelic therapy Psychoplastogen Urban legends about LSDNotes edit Although cross tolerance to DMT is noted as negligible 84 some reports suggest that LSD tolerant individuals showed undiminished responses to DMT 85 The potency of N benzylphenethylamines via buccal sublingual or nasal absorption is 50 100 greater by weight than oral route compared to the parent 2C x compounds 101 Researches hypothesize the low oral metabolic stability of N benzylphenethylamines is likely causing the low bioavailability on the oral route although the metabolic profile of this compounds remains unpredictable therefore researches state that the fatalities linked to these substances may partly be explained by differences in the metabolism between individuals 101 References edit Definition of amide Collins English Dictionary Archived from the original on April 2 2015 Retrieved January 31 2015 American Heritage Dictionary Entry amide Ahdictionary com Archived from the original on April 2 2015 Retrieved January 31 2015 amide definition of amide in English from the Oxford Dictionary Oxforddictionaries com Archived from the original on April 2 2015 Retrieved January 31 2015 Halpern JH Suzuki J Huertas PE Passie T June 7 2014 Hallucinogen Abuse and Dependence In Price LH Stolerman IP eds Encyclopedia of 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