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Gupta Empire

September 07, 2023

The Gupta Empire was an ancient Indian empire which existed from the early 4th century CE to early 6th century CE. At its zenith, from approximately 319 to 467 CE, it covered much of the Indian subcontinent.[6] This period is considered as the Golden Age of India by historians.[7][note 1] The ruling dynasty of the empire was founded by Gupta, and the most notable rulers of the dynasty were Chandragupta I, Samudragupta, Chandragupta II and Skandagupta. The 5th-century CE Sanskrit poet Kalidasa credits the Guptas with having conquered about twenty-one kingdoms, both in and outside India, including the kingdoms of Parasikas, the Hunas, the Kambojas, tribes located in the west and east Oxus valleys, the Kinnaras, Kiratas, and others.[9][10][11]

Gupta Empire
Early 4th century CE–early 6th century CE
Map of the Gupta Empire c. 420 CE, according to Joseph E. Schwartzberg, with contemporary polities[1]
StatusEmpire
CapitalPataliputra
Ayodhya[2][3]
Common languagesSanskrit (literary and academic); Prakrit (vernacular)
Religion
Demonym(s)Indian
GovernmentMonarchy
Emperor 
• c. late 3rd century
Gupta (first)
• c. 540 – c. 550 CE
Vishnugupta
Historical eraAncient India
• Established
Early 4th century CE
• Disestablished
early 6th century CE
Area
400 est.[4]
(high-end estimate of peak area)		3,500,000 km2 (1,400,000 sq mi)
440 est.[5]
(low-end estimate of peak area)		2,500,000 km2 (970,000 sq mi)
Today part of

The high points of this period are the great cultural developments which took place primarily during the reigns of Samudragupta, Chandragupta II and Kumaragupta I. Many Hindu epics and literary sources, such as Mahabharata and Ramayana, were canonised during this period.[12] The Gupta period produced scholars such as Kalidasa,[13] Aryabhata, Varahamihira and Vatsyayana, who made great advancements in many academic fields.[14][15][16] Science and political administration reached new heights during the Gupta era.[15] The period, sometimes described as Pax Gupta, gave rise to achievements in architecture, sculpture, and painting that "set standards of form and taste [that] determined the whole subsequent course of art, not only in India but far beyond her borders".[17] Strong trade ties also made the region an important cultural centre and established the region as a base that would influence nearby kingdoms and regions in India and Southeast Asia.[18][unreliable source?] The Puranas, earlier long poems on a variety of subjects, are also thought to have been committed to written texts around this period.[17][19] Hinduism was followed by the rulers and the Brahmins flourished in the Gupta empire but the Guptas tolerated people of other faiths as well.[20]

The empire eventually died out because of factors such as substantial loss of territory and imperial authority caused by their own erstwhile feudatories, as well as the invasion by the Huna peoples (Kidarites and Alchon Huns) from Central Asia.[21][22] After the collapse of the Gupta Empire in the 6th century, India was again ruled by numerous regional kingdoms.

Origin Edit

Main article: Origin of the Gupta dynasty

The homeland of the Guptas is uncertain.[23] According to one theory, they originated in the present-day lower-Doab region of Uttar Pradesh,[24] where most of the inscriptions and coin hoards of the early Gupta kings have been discovered.[25][26] This theory is also supported by the Purana, as argued by the proponents, that mention the territory of the early Gupta kings as Prayaga, Saketa, and Magadha areas in the Ganges basin.[27][28]

Another prominent theory locates the Gupta homeland in the present-day Bengal region in Ganges basin, based on the account of the 7th-century Chinese Buddhist monk Yijing. According to Yijing, king Che-li-ki-to (identified with the dynasty's founder Shri Gupta) built a temple for Chinese pilgrims near Mi-li-kia-si-kia-po-no (apparently a transcription of Mriga-shikha-vana). Yijing states that this temple was located more than 40 yojanas east of Nalanda, which would mean it was situated somewhere in the modern Bengal region.[29] Another proposal is that the early Gupta kingdom extended from Prayaga in the west to northern Bengal in the east.[30]

The Gupta records do not mention the dynasty's varna (social class).[31] Some historians, such as A.S. Altekar, have theorised that they were of Vaishya origin, as certain ancient Indian texts prescribe the name "Gupta" for the members of the Vaishya varna.[32][33] According to historian R. S. Sharma, the Vaishyas – who were traditionally associated with trade – may have become rulers after resisting oppressive taxation by the previous rulers.[34] Critics of the Vaishya-origin theory point out that the suffix Gupta features in the names of several non-Vaishyas before as well as during the Gupta period,[35] and the dynastic name "Gupta" may have simply derived from the name of the family's first king Gupta.[36] Some scholars, such as S. R. Goyal, theorise that the Guptas were Brahmanas, because they had matrimonial relations with Brahmans, but others reject this evidence as inconclusive.[37] Based on the Pune and Riddhapur inscriptions of the Gupta princess Prabhavati-gupta, some scholars believe that the name of her paternal gotra (clan) was "Dharana", but an alternative reading of these inscriptions suggests that Dharana was the gotra of her mother Kuberanaga.[38]

Nepali scholar D. R. Regmi links the imperial Guptas with the Abhira Guptas of Nepal, noting that excavations in Nepal and Deccan have revealed that the Gupta suffix was common among Abhira kings.[39]

History Edit

For historical calendar era, see Gupta era.

Early rulers Edit

 
Gupta script inscription Maharaja Sri Gupta              ("Great King, Lord Gupta"), mentioning the first ruler of the dynasty, king Gupta. Inscription by Samudragupta on the Allahabad pillar, where Samudragupta presents king Gupta as his great-grandfather. Dated circa 350 CE.[40]
 
Queen Kumaradevi and King Chandragupta I, depicted on a gold coin

Gupta (Gupta script:    gu-pta, fl. late 3rd century CE) is the earliest known king of the dynasty: different historians variously date the beginning of his reign from mid-to-late 3rd century CE.[41][42] Gupta founded the Gupta Empire c. 240-280 CE, and was succeeded by his son, Ghatotkacha, c. 280-319 CE, followed by Ghatotkacha's son, Chandragupta I, c. 319-335 CE.[43] "Che-li-ki-to", the name of a king mentioned by the 7th century Chinese Buddhist monk Yijing, is believed to be a transcription of "Shri-Gupta" (IAST: Śrigupta), "Shri" being an honorific prefix.[44] According to Yijing, this king built a temple for Chinese Buddhist pilgrims near "Mi-li-kia-si-kia-po-no" (believed to be a transcription of Mṛgaśikhāvana).[45]

In the Allahabad Pillar inscription, Gupta and his successor Ghatotkacha are described as Maharaja ("great king"), while the next king Chandragupta I is called a Maharajadhiraja ("king of great kings"). In the later period, the title Maharaja was used by feudatory rulers, which has led to suggestions that Gupta and Ghatotkacha were vassals (possibly of Kushan Empire).[46] However, there are several instances of paramount sovereigns using the title Maharaja, in both pre-Gupta and post-Gupta periods, so this cannot be said with certainty. That said, there is no doubt that Gupta and Ghatotkacha held a lower status and were less powerful than Chandragupta I.[47]

Chandragupta I married the Licchavi princess Kumaradevi, which may have helped him extend his political power and dominions, enabling him to adopt the imperial title Maharajadhiraja.[48] According to the dynasty's official records, he was succeeded by his son Samudragupta. However, the discovery of the coins issued by a Gupta ruler named Kacha have led to some debate on this topic: according to one theory, Kacha was another name for Samudragupta; another possibility is that Kacha was a rival claimant to the throne.[49]

Samudragupta Edit

Main article: Samudragupta

Samudragupta succeeded his father around 335 or 350 CE, and ruled until c. 375 CE.[50] The Allahabad Pillar inscription, composed by his courtier Harishena, credits him with extensive conquests.[51] The inscription asserts that Samudragupta uprooted 8 kings of Āryāvarta, the northern region, including the Nagas.[52] It further claims that he subjugated all the kings of the forest region, which was most probably located in central India.[53] It also credits him with defeating 12 rulers of Dakshinapatha, the southern region: the exact identification of several of these kings is debated among modern scholars,[54] but it is clear that these kings ruled areas located on the eastern coast of India.[55] The inscription suggests that Samudragupta advanced as far as the Pallava kingdom in the south, and defeated Vishnugopa, the Pallava regent of Kanchi.[56] During this southern campaign, Samudragupta most probably passed through the forest tract of central India, reached the eastern coast in present-day Odisha, and then marched south along the coast of the Bay of Bengal.[57]

 
 
Evolution of Gupta territory, with neighbouring polities

The Allahabad Pillar inscription mentions that rulers of several frontier kingdoms and tribal oligarchies paid Samudragupta tributes, obeyed his orders, and performed obeisance before him.[58][11] The frontier kingdoms included Samatata, Davaka, Kamarupa, Nepala and Karttripura.[10] The tribal oligarchies included Malavas, Arjunayanas, Yaudheyas, Madrakas, and Abhiras, among others.[11]

Finally, the inscription mentions that several foreign kings tried to please Samudragupta by personal attendance; offered him their daughters in marriage (or according to another interpretation, gifted him maidens[59]); and sought the use of the Garuda-depicting Gupta seal for administering their own territories.[60] This is an exaggeration: for example, the inscription lists the king of Simhala among these kings. It is known that from Chinese sources that the Simhala king Meghavarna sent rich presents to the Gupta king requesting his permission to build a Buddhist monastery at Bodh Gaya: Samudragupta's panegyrist appears to have described this act of diplomacy as an act of subservience.[61]

Samudragupta appears to have been Vaishnavite, as attested by his Eran inscription,[62][63] and performed several Brahmanical ceremonies.[64] The Gupta records credit him with making generous donations of cows and gold.[62] He performed the Ashvamedha ritual (horse sacrifice), which was used by the ancient Indian kings to prove their imperial sovereignty, and issued gold coins (see Coinage below) to mark this performance.[65]

The Allahabad Pillar inscription presents Samudragupta as a wise king and strict administrator, who was also compassionate enough to help the poor and the helpless.[66] It also alludes to the king's talents as a musician and a poet, and calls him the "king of poets".[67] Such claims are corroborated by Samudragupta's gold coins, which depict him playing a veena.[68]

Samudragupta appears to have directly controlled a large part of the Indo-Gangetic Plain in present-day India, as well as a substantial part of central India.[69] Besides, his empire comprised a number of monarchical and tribal tributary states of northern India, and of the south-eastern coastal region of India.[70][55]

Ramagupta Edit

 
Standing Buddha in red sandstone, Art of Mathura, Gupta period c. 5th century CE. Mathura Museum[71]
Main article: Ramagupta

Ramagupta is known from a sixth-century play, the Devichandragupta, in which he surrenders his wife to the enemy Sakas and his brother Chandragupta has to sneak into the enemy camp to rescue her and kill the Saka king. The historicity of these events is unclear, but Ramagupta's existence is confirmed by three Jain statues found at Durjanpur, with inscriptions referring to him as the Maharajadhiraja. A large number of his copper coins also have been found from the Eran-Vidisha region and classified in five distinct types, which include the Garuda,[72] Garudadhvaja, lion and border legend types. The Brahmi legends on these coins are written in the early Gupta style.[73]

Chandragupta II "Vikramaditya" Edit

Main article: Chandragupta II

According to the Gupta records, amongst his sons, Samudragupta nominated prince Chandragupta II, born of queen Dattadevi, as his successor. Chandragupta II, Vikramaditya (Victory of the Sun), ruled from 375 until 415. He married a Kadamba princess of Kuntala and of Naga lineage (Nāgakulotpannnā), Kuberanaga. His daughter Prabhavatigupta from this Naga queen was married to Rudrasena II, the Vakataka ruler of Deccan.[74] His son Kumaragupta I was married to a Kadamba princess of the Karnataka region. Chandragupta II expanded his realm westwards, defeating the Saka Western Kshatrapas of Malwa, Gujarat and Saurashtra in a campaign lasting until 409. His main opponent Rudrasimha III was defeated by 395, and he crushed the Bengal chiefdoms. This extended his control from coast to coast, established a second capital at Ujjain and was the high point of the empire.[citation needed] Kuntala inscriptions indicate rule of Chandragupta in Kuntala region of Indian state of Karnataka.[75] Hunza inscription also indicate that Chandragupta was able to rule north western Indian subcontinent and proceeded to conquer Balkh, although some scholars have also disputed the identity of gupta king.[76][77] Chalukyan ruler Vikramditya VI (r. 1076 – 1126 CE) mentions Chandragupta with his title and states"why should the glory of the Kings Vikramaditya and Nanda be a hindrance any longer ? he with a loud command abolished that (era), which has the name of Saka, and made that (era) which has the Chalukya counting".[78]

 
Gold coins of Chandragupta II

Despite the creation of the empire through war, the reign is remembered for its very influential style of Hindu art, literature, culture and science, especially during the reign of Chandragupta II. Some excellent works of Hindu art such as the panels at the Dashavatara Temple in Deogarh serve to illustrate the magnificence of Gupta art. Above all, it was the synthesis of elements that gave Gupta art its distinctive flavour. During this period, the Guptas were supportive of thriving Buddhist and Jain cultures as well, and for this reason, there is also a long history of non-Hindu Gupta period art. In particular, Gupta period Buddhist art was to be influential in most of East and Southeast Asia. Many advances were recorded by the Chinese scholar and traveller Faxian in his diary and published afterwards.

The court of Chandragupta was made even more illustrious by the fact that it was graced by the Navaratna (Nine Jewels), a group of nine who excelled in the literary arts. Amongst these men was Kālidāsa, whose works dwarfed the works of many other literary geniuses, not only in his own age but in the years to come. Kalidasa was mainly known for his subtle exploitation of the shringara (romantic) element in his verse.

Chandragupta II's campaigns against foreign tribes Edit

 
Sculpture of Vishnu (red sandstone), 5th century CE.

The 4th century Sanskrit poet Kalidasa credits Chandragupta Vikramaditya with conquering about twenty-one kingdoms, both in and outside India. After finishing his campaign in East and West India, Vikramaditya (Chandragupta II) proceeded northwards, subjugated the Parasikas, then the Hunas and the Kambojas tribes located in the west and east Oxus valleys respectively. Thereafter, the king proceeded into the Himalaya mountains to reduce the mountain tribes of the Kinnaras, Kiratas, as well as India proper.[9][non-primary source needed] In one of his works Kalidasa also credits him with the removal of the Sakas from the country. He wrote 'Wasn't it Vikramaditya who drove the Sakas out from the lovely city of Ujjain?'.[79]

The Brihatkathamanjari of the Kashmiri writer Kshemendra states, King Vikramaditya (Chandragupta II) had "unburdened the sacred earth of the Barbarians like the Sakas, Mlecchas, Kambojas, Yavanas, Tusharas, Parasikas, Hunas, and others, by annihilating these sinful Mlecchas completely".[80][non-primary source needed][81][82][unreliable source?]

Faxian Edit

Faxian, a Chinese Buddhist, was one of the pilgrims who visited India during the reign of the Gupta emperor Chandragupta II. He started his journey from China in 399 and reached India in 405. During his stay in India up to 411, he went on a pilgrimage to Mathura, Kannauj, Kapilavastu, Kushinagar, Vaishali, Pataliputra, Kashi, and Rajagriha, and made careful observations about the empire's conditions. Faxian was pleased with the mildness of administration. The Penal Code was mild and offences were punished by fines only. From his accounts, the Gupta Empire was a prosperous period. His writings form one of the most important sources for the history of this period.[83]

Faxian on reaching Mathura comments––

"The snow and heat are finely tempered, and there is neither hoarfrost nor snow. The people are numerous and happy. They have not to register their households. Only those who cultivate the royal land have to pay (a portion of) the gain from it. If they want to go, they go. If they want to stay on, they stay on. The king governs without decapitation or (other) corporal punishments. Criminals are simply fined according to circumstances. Even in cases of repeated attempts at wicked rebellion, they only have their right-hand cut off. The king's bodyguards & attendants all have salaries. Throughout the whole country, the people do not kill any living creature, not drink any intoxicating liquor, nor eat onions or garlic."[83]

Kumaragupta I Edit

Main article: Kumaragupta I
 
Silver coin of the Gupta King Kumaragupta I (Coin of his Western territories, design derived from the Western Satraps).
Obv: Bust of king with crescents, with traces of corrupt Greek script.[84][85]
Rev: Garuda standing facing with spread wings. Brahmi legend: Parama-bhagavata rajadhiraja Sri Kumaragupta Mahendraditya.[86]

Chandragupta II was succeeded by his second son Kumaragupta I, born of Mahadevi Dhruvasvamini. Kumaragupta I assumed the title, Mahendraditya.[87] He ruled until 455. Towards the end of his reign a tribe in the Narmada valley, the Pushyamitras, rose in power to threaten the empire. The Kidarites as well probably confronted the Gupta Empire towards the end of the rule of Kumaragupta I, as his son Skandagupta mentions in the Bhitari pillar inscription his efforts at reshaping a country in disarray, through reorganisation and military victories over the Pushyamitras and the Hunas.[88]

He was the founder of Nalanda University which on 15 July 2016 was declared as a UNESCO world heritage site.[89] Kumaragupta I was also a worshipper of Kartikeya.

Skandagupta Edit

Main article: Skandagupta

Skandagupta, son and successor of Kumaragupta I is generally considered to be the last of the great Gupta rulers. He assumed the titles of Vikramaditya and Kramaditya.[90] He defeated the Pushyamitra threat, but then was faced with invading Kidarites (sometimes described as the Hephthalites or "White Huns", known in India as the Sweta Huna), from the northwest.

He repelled a Huna attack around 455 CE, but the expense of the wars drained the empire's resources and contributed to its decline. The Bhitari Pillar inscription of Skandagupta, the successor of Chandragupta, recalls the near-annihilation of the Gupta Empire following the attacks of the Kidarites.[91] The Kidarites seem to have retained the western part of the Gupta Empire.[91]

Skandagupta died in 467 and was succeeded by his agnate brother Purugupta.[92]

Decline of the empire Edit

 
Jain tirthankara relief Parshvanatha on Kahaum pillar erected by person named Madra during the reign of Skandagupta

[93]

Following Skandagupta's death, the empire was clearly in decline,[94] and the later Gupta coinage indicates their loss of control over much of western India after 467–469.[6] Skandagupta was followed by Purugupta (467–473), Kumaragupta II (473–476), Budhagupta (476–495), Narasimhagupta (495–530), Kumaragupta III (530–540), Vishnugupta (540–550), two lesser known kings namely, Vainyagupta and Bhanugupta.

In the late 490's the Alchon Huns under Toramana and Mihirakula broke through the Gupta defences in the northwest, and much of the empire in the northwest was overrun by the Huns by 500. According to some scholars the empire disintegrated under the attacks of Toramana and his successor Mihirakula.[95][96] It appears from inscriptions that the Guptas, although their power was much diminished, continued to resist the Huns. The Hun invader Toramana was defeated by Bhanugupta in 510.[97][98] The Huns were defeated and driven out of India in 528 by King Yashodharman from Malwa, and possibly Gupta emperor Narasimhagupta.[99]

These invasions, although only spanning a few decades, had long term effects on India, and in a sense brought an end to Classical Indian civilisation.[100] Soon after the invasions, the Gupta Empire, already weakened by these invasions and the rise of local rulers such as Yashodharman, ended as well.[101] Following the invasions, northern India was left in disarray, with numerous smaller Indian powers emerging after the crumbling of the Guptas.[102] The Huna invasions are said to have seriously damaged India's trade with Europe and Central Asia.[100] In particular, Indo-Roman trade relations, which the Gupta Empire had greatly benefited from. The Guptas had been exporting numerous luxury products such as silk, leather goods, fur, iron products, ivory, pearl, and pepper from centres such as Nasik, Paithan, Pataliputra, and Benares. The Huna invasion probably disrupted these trade relations and the tax revenues that came with them.[103]

Furthermore, Indian urban culture was left in decline, and Buddhism, gravely weakened by the destruction of monasteries and the killing of monks by the hand of the vehemently anti-Buddhist Shaivist Mihirakula, started to collapse.[100] Great centres of learning were destroyed, such as the city of Taxila, bringing cultural regression.[100] During their rule of 60 years, the Alchons are said to have altered the hierarchy of ruling families and the Indian caste system. For example, the Hunas are often said to have become the precursors of the Rajputs.[100]

class=notpageimage|
Political fragmentation of South Asia after the retreat of the Alchon Huns to the northwest and the end of the Gupta Empire, c. 600 CE[104]

The succession of the 6th-century Guptas is not entirely clear, but the tail end recognised ruler of the dynasty's main line was king Vishnugupta, reigning from 540 to 550. In addition to the Hun invasion, the factors, which contribute to the decline of the empire include competition from the Vakatakas and the rise of Yashodharman in Malwa.[105]

The last known inscription by a Gupta emperor is from the reign of Vishnugupta (the Damodarpur copper-plate inscription),[106] in which he makes a land grant in the area of Kotivarsha (Bangarh in West Bengal) in 542/543 CE.[107] This follows the occupation of most of northern and central India by the Aulikara ruler Yashodharman c. 532 CE.[107]

A 2019 study by archaeologist Shanker Sharma has concluded that the cause of the Gupta empire's downfall was a devastating flood which happened around the middle of the 6th century in Uttar Pradesh and Bihar.[108]

Post-Gupta successor dynasties Edit

In the heart of the former Gupta Empire, in the Gangetic region, the Guptas were succeeded by the Maukhari dynasty and the Pushyabhuti dynasty.[109] The coinage of the Maukharis and Pushyabhutis followed the silver coin type of the Guptas, with portrait of the ruler in profile (although facing in the reverse direction compared to the Guptas, a possible symbol of antagonism)[110] and the peacock on the reverse, the Brahmi legend being kept except for the name of the ruler.[109]

In the western regions, they were succeeded by the Gurjaras, the Pratiharas, and later the Chaulukya-Paramara dynasties, who issued so-called Indo-Sasanian coinage, on the model of the coinage of the Sasanian Empire, which had been introduced in India by the Alchon Huns.[109]

Military organisation Edit

 
An 8 gm gold coin featuring Chandragupta II astride a caparisoned horse with a bow in his left hand[111]

In contrast to the Mauryan Empire, the Guptas introduced several military innovations to Indian warfare. Chief amongst these was the use of siege engines, heavy cavalry archers and heavy sword cavalry. The heavy cavalry formed the core of the Gupta army and were supported by the traditional Indian army elements of elephants and light infantry.[112]

The utilisation of horse archers in the Gupta period is evidenced on the coinage of Chandragupta II, Kumaragupta I and Prakasaditya (postulated to be Purugupta)[113] that depicts the emperors as horse-archers.[114][115]

Unfortunately there is a paucity of contemporary sources detailing the tactical operations of the Imperial Gupta Army. The best extant information comes from the Sanskrit mahakavya (epic poem) Raghuvaṃśa written by the Classical Sanskrit writer and dramatist Kalidasa. Many modern scholars put forward the view that Kalidasa lived from the reign of Chandragupta II to the reign of Skandagupta[116][117][118][119] and that the campaigns of Raghu – his protagonist in the Raghuvaṃśa – reflect those of Chandragupta II.[120] In Canto IV of the Raghuvamsa, Kalidasa relates how the king's forces clash against the powerful, cavalry-centric, forces of the Persians and later the Yavanas (probably Huns) in the North-West. Here he makes special mention of the use horse-archers in the kings army and that the horses needed much rest after the hotly contested battles.[121] The five arms of the Gupta military included infantry, cavalry, chariot, elephants and ships. Gunaighar copper plate inscription of Vainya Gupta mentions ships but not chariots.[122] Ships had become integral part of Indian military in the 6th century AD.

Religion Edit

 
Dharmachakra Pravartana Buddha at Sarnath from the Gupta era, 5th century CE

The Guptas were traditionally a Hindu dynasty.[123] They were orthodox Hindus, and allowed followers of Buddhism and Jainism to practice their religions.[124] Sanchi remained an important centre of Buddhism.[124] Kumaragupta I (455 CE) is said to have founded Nalanda.[124] Modern genetic studies indicate that it was during the Gupta period that Indian caste groups ceased to intermarry (started practicing/enforcing endogamy).[125]

Some later rulers however seem to have especially promoted Buddhism. Narasimhagupta Baladitya (c. 495–?), according to contemporary writer Paramartha, was brought up under the influence of the Mahayanist philosopher, Vasubandhu.[123] He built a sangharama at Nalanda and also a 300 ft (91 m) high vihara with a Buddha statue within which, according to Xuanzang, resembled the "great Vihara built under the Bodhi tree". According to the Manjushrimulakalpa (c. 800 CE), king Narasimhsagupta became a Buddhist monk, and left the world through meditation (Dhyana).[123] The Chinese monk Xuanzang also noted that Narasimhagupta Baladitya's son, Vajra, who commissioned a sangharama as well, "possessed a heart firm in faith".[126]: 45 [127]: 330 

Gupta administration Edit

A study of the epigraphical records of the Gupta empire shows that there was a hierarchy of administrative divisions from top to bottom. The empire was called by various names such as Rajya, Rashtra, Desha, Mandala, Prithvi and Avani. It was divided into 26 provinces, which were styled as Bhukti, Pradesha and Bhoga. Provinces were also divided into Vishayas and put under the control of the Vishayapatis. A Vishayapati administered the Vishaya with the help of the Adhikarana (council of representatives), which comprised four representatives: Nagarasreshesthi, Sarthavaha, Prathamakulika and Prathama Kayastha. A part of the Vishaya was called Vithi.[128] The Gupta also had trading links with the Sassanid and Byzantine Empire.[citation needed]. The four-fold varna system was observed under the Gupta period but caste system was fluid. Brahmins followed non-Brahmanical profession as well. Khastriyas were involved in trade and commerce. The society largely coexisted among themselves.[129][need quotation to verify]

Legacy Edit

class=notpageimage|
The Gupta Empire and other polities c. 420 CE.

Scholars of this period include Varāhamihira and Aryabhata, who is believed to be the first to consider zero as a separate number, postulated the theory that the Earth rotates about its own axis, and studied solar and lunar eclipses. Kalidasa, who was a great playwright, who wrote plays such as Shakuntala, and marked the highest point of Sanskrit literature is also said to have belonged to this period. The Sushruta Samhita, which is a Sanskrit redaction text on all of the major concepts of ayurvedic medicine with innovative chapters on surgery, dates to the Gupta period.

Chess is said to have developed in this period,[130] where its early form in the 6th century was known as caturaṅga, which translates as "four divisions [of the military]" – infantry, cavalry, elephantry, and chariotry – represented by the pieces that would evolve into the modern pawn, knight, bishop, and rook, respectively. Doctors also invented several medical instruments, and even performed operations. The Indian numerals which were the first positional base 10 numeral systems in the world originated from Gupta India. The names of the seven days in a week appeared at the start of the Gupta period based on Hindu deities and planets corresponding to the Roman names. The ancient Gupta text Kama Sutra by the Indian scholar Vatsyayana is widely considered to be the standard work on human sexual behaviour in Sanskrit literature.

Aryabhata, a noted mathematician-astronomer of the Gupta period proposed that the earth is round and rotates about its own axis. He also discovered that the Moon and planets shine by reflected sunlight. Instead of the prevailing cosmogony in which eclipses were caused by pseudo-planetary nodes Rahu and Ketu, he explained eclipses in terms of shadows cast by and falling on Earth.[131]

Art and architecture Edit

Main article: Gupta art

The Gupta period is generally regarded as a classic peak of North Indian art for all the major religious groups. Although painting was evidently widespread, the surviving works are almost all religious sculpture. The period saw the emergence of the iconic carved stone deity in Hindu art, as well as the Buddha-figure and Jain tirthankara figures, the latter often on a very large scale. The two great centres of sculpture were Mathura and Gandhara, the latter the centre of Greco-Buddhist art. Both exported sculpture to other parts of northern India.

The most famous remaining monuments in a broadly Gupta style, the caves at Ajanta, Elephanta, and Ellora (respectively Buddhist, Hindu, and mixed including Jain) were in fact produced under later dynasties, but primarily reflect the monumentality and balance of Guptan style. Ajanta contains by far the most significant survivals of painting from this and the surrounding periods, showing a mature form which had probably had a long development, mainly in painting palaces.[134] The Hindu Udayagiri Caves actually record connections with the dynasty and its ministers,[135] and the Dashavatara Temple at Deogarh is a major temple, one of the earliest to survive, with important sculpture.[136]

List of rulers Edit

Ruler Reign (CE) Notes
Sri-Gupta I   c. late 3rd century CE Founder of the dynasty.
Ghatotkacha   280/290–319 CE
Chandra-Gupta I   319–335 CE His title Maharajadhiraja ("king of great kings") suggests that he was the first emperor of the dynasty. It is not certain how he turned his small ancestral kingdom into an empire, although a widely accepted theory among modern historians is that his marriage to the Licchavi princess Kumaradevi helped him extend his political power.
Samudra-Gupta   335–375 CE Defeated several kings of northern India, and annexed their territories to his empire. He also marched along the south-eastern coast of India, advancing as far as the Pallava kingdom. In addition, he subjugated several frontier kingdoms and tribal oligarchies. His empire extended from Ravi River in the west to the Brahmaputra River in the east, and from the Himalayan foothills in the north to central India in the south-west; several rulers along the south-eastern coast were his tributaries.
Kacha   mid 4th century CE Rival brother/king, possibly an usurper, there are coins who attest him as ruler; possibly identical with Samudra-Gupta.
Rama-Gupta
Chandra-Gupta II Vikramaditya   375–415 CE Continued the expansionist policy of his father Samudragupta: historical evidence suggests that he defeated the Western Kshatrapas, and extended the Gupta empire from the Indus River in the west to the Bengal region in the east, and from the Himalayan foothills in the north to the Narmada River in the south.
Kumara-Gupta I   415–455 CE He seems to have maintained control of his inherited territory, which extended from Gujarat in the west to Bengal region in the east.
Skanda-Gupta   455–467 CE It is stated that he restored the fallen fortunes of the Gupta family, which has led to suggestions that during his predecessor's last years, the Empire may have suffered reverses, possibly against the Pushyamitras or the Hunas. He is generally considered the last of the great Gupta Emperors.
Puru-Gupta 467–473 CE
Kumara-Gupta II Kramaditya   473–476 CE
Buddha-Gupta   476–495 CE He had close ties with the rulers of Kannauj and together they sought to run the Alchon Huns (Hunas) out of the fertile plains of Northern India.
Narasimha-Gupta Baladitya   495–530 CE
Kumara-Gupta III 530–540 CE
Vishnu-Gupta Candraditya   540–550 CE

Family tree Edit

See also Edit

References Edit

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Bibliography Edit

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Notes Edit

  1. ^ Although this characterisation has been disputed by D. N. Jha.[8]

External links Edit

 
Wikisource has the text of the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article "Gupta".
 
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  • Coins of Gupta Empire

September 07, 2023
gupta, empire, ancient, indian, empire, which, existed, from, early, century, early, century, zenith, from, approximately, covered, much, indian, subcontinent, this, period, considered, golden, india, historians, note, ruling, dynasty, empire, founded, gupta, . The Gupta Empire was an ancient Indian empire which existed from the early 4th century CE to early 6th century CE At its zenith from approximately 319 to 467 CE it covered much of the Indian subcontinent 6 This period is considered as the Golden Age of India by historians 7 note 1 The ruling dynasty of the empire was founded by Gupta and the most notable rulers of the dynasty were Chandragupta I Samudragupta Chandragupta II and Skandagupta The 5th century CE Sanskrit poet Kalidasa credits the Guptas with having conquered about twenty one kingdoms both in and outside India including the kingdoms of Parasikas the Hunas the Kambojas tribes located in the west and east Oxus valleys the Kinnaras Kiratas and others 9 10 11 Gupta EmpireEarly 4th century CE early 6th century CESouth Asiac 420 CEYAUDHEYASARJUNAYANASMADRAKASMALAVASLICCHAVISTOCHARIANSABHIRASKALABHRASWESTERNGANGASSASANIANHINDZHANGZHUNGTRAITAKUTASVAKATAKASKADAMBASSAMATATASGAUDAKAMARUPASKIDARITESALCHON HUNSSASANIANEMPIRE Map of the Gupta Empire c 420 CE according to Joseph E Schwartzberg with contemporary polities 1 StatusEmpireCapitalPataliputraAyodhya 2 3 Common languagesSanskrit literary and academic Prakrit vernacular ReligionHinduism Buddhism JainismDemonym s IndianGovernmentMonarchyEmperor c late 3rd centuryGupta first c 540 c 550 CEVishnuguptaHistorical eraAncient India EstablishedEarly 4th century CE Disestablishedearly 6th century CEArea400 est 4 high end estimate of peak area 3 500 000 km2 1 400 000 sq mi 440 est 5 low end estimate of peak area 2 500 000 km2 970 000 sq mi Preceded by Succeeded byKushan EmpireWestern SatrapsNagas of PadmavatiMahameghavahana dynastyMurunda dynasty Later GuptasMaukhariMaitrakaVardhana dynastyMathara dynastyShailodbhava dynastyVarman dynastyGauda KingdomKalachurisGurjara kingdomsNala dynastySharabhapuriya dynastyRajarsitulyakulaRai dynastyAlchon HunsToday part ofIndia Pakistan Nepal Bangladesh AfghanistanThe high points of this period are the great cultural developments which took place primarily during the reigns of Samudragupta Chandragupta II and Kumaragupta I Many Hindu epics and literary sources such as Mahabharata and Ramayana were canonised during this period 12 The Gupta period produced scholars such as Kalidasa 13 Aryabhata Varahamihira and Vatsyayana who made great advancements in many academic fields 14 15 16 Science and political administration reached new heights during the Gupta era 15 The period sometimes described as Pax Gupta gave rise to achievements in architecture sculpture and painting that set standards of form and taste that determined the whole subsequent course of art not only in India but far beyond her borders 17 Strong trade ties also made the region an important cultural centre and established the region as a base that would influence nearby kingdoms and regions in India and Southeast Asia 18 unreliable source The Puranas earlier long poems on a variety of subjects are also thought to have been committed to written texts around this period 17 19 Hinduism was followed by the rulers and the Brahmins flourished in the Gupta empire but the Guptas tolerated people of other faiths as well 20 The empire eventually died out because of factors such as substantial loss of territory and imperial authority caused by their own erstwhile feudatories as well as the invasion by the Huna peoples Kidarites and Alchon Huns from Central Asia 21 22 After the collapse of the Gupta Empire in the 6th century India was again ruled by numerous regional kingdoms Contents 1 Origin 2 History 2 1 Early rulers 2 2 Samudragupta 2 3 Ramagupta 2 4 Chandragupta II Vikramaditya 2 4 1 Chandragupta II s campaigns against foreign tribes 2 4 2 Faxian 2 5 Kumaragupta I 2 6 Skandagupta 2 7 Decline of the empire 2 8 Post Gupta successor dynasties 3 Military organisation 4 Religion 5 Gupta administration 6 Legacy 7 Art and architecture 8 List of rulers 9 Family tree 10 See also 11 References 11 1 Bibliography 12 Notes 13 External linksOrigin EditMain article Origin of the Gupta dynasty The homeland of the Guptas is uncertain 23 According to one theory they originated in the present day lower Doab region of Uttar Pradesh 24 where most of the inscriptions and coin hoards of the early Gupta kings have been discovered 25 26 This theory is also supported by the Purana as argued by the proponents that mention the territory of the early Gupta kings as Prayaga Saketa and Magadha areas in the Ganges basin 27 28 Another prominent theory locates the Gupta homeland in the present day Bengal region in Ganges basin based on the account of the 7th century Chinese Buddhist monk Yijing According to Yijing king Che li ki to identified with the dynasty s founder Shri Gupta built a temple for Chinese pilgrims near Mi li kia si kia po no apparently a transcription of Mriga shikha vana Yijing states that this temple was located more than 40 yojanas east of Nalanda which would mean it was situated somewhere in the modern Bengal region 29 Another proposal is that the early Gupta kingdom extended from Prayaga in the west to northern Bengal in the east 30 The Gupta records do not mention the dynasty s varna social class 31 Some historians such as A S Altekar have theorised that they were of Vaishya origin as certain ancient Indian texts prescribe the name Gupta for the members of the Vaishya varna 32 33 According to historian R S Sharma the Vaishyas who were traditionally associated with trade may have become rulers after resisting oppressive taxation by the previous rulers 34 Critics of the Vaishya origin theory point out that the suffix Gupta features in the names of several non Vaishyas before as well as during the Gupta period 35 and the dynastic name Gupta may have simply derived from the name of the family s first king Gupta 36 Some scholars such as S R Goyal theorise that the Guptas were Brahmanas because they had matrimonial relations with Brahmans but others reject this evidence as inconclusive 37 Based on the Pune and Riddhapur inscriptions of the Gupta princess Prabhavati gupta some scholars believe that the name of her paternal gotra clan was Dharana but an alternative reading of these inscriptions suggests that Dharana was the gotra of her mother Kuberanaga 38 Nepali scholar D R Regmi links the imperial Guptas with the Abhira Guptas of Nepal noting that excavations in Nepal and Deccan have revealed that the Gupta suffix was common among Abhira kings 39 History EditFor historical calendar era see Gupta era Early rulers Edit nbsp Gupta script inscription Maharaja Sri Gupta nbsp nbsp nbsp nbsp nbsp nbsp nbsp Great King Lord Gupta mentioning the first ruler of the dynasty king Gupta Inscription by Samudragupta on the Allahabad pillar where Samudragupta presents king Gupta as his great grandfather Dated circa 350 CE 40 nbsp Queen Kumaradevi and King Chandragupta I depicted on a gold coinGupta Gupta script nbsp nbsp gu pta fl late 3rd century CE is the earliest known king of the dynasty different historians variously date the beginning of his reign from mid to late 3rd century CE 41 42 Gupta founded the Gupta Empire c 240 280 CE and was succeeded by his son Ghatotkacha c 280 319 CE followed by Ghatotkacha s son Chandragupta I c 319 335 CE 43 Che li ki to the name of a king mentioned by the 7th century Chinese Buddhist monk Yijing is believed to be a transcription of Shri Gupta IAST Srigupta Shri being an honorific prefix 44 According to Yijing this king built a temple for Chinese Buddhist pilgrims near Mi li kia si kia po no believed to be a transcription of Mṛgasikhavana 45 In the Allahabad Pillar inscription Gupta and his successor Ghatotkacha are described as Maharaja great king while the next king Chandragupta I is called a Maharajadhiraja king of great kings In the later period the title Maharaja was used by feudatory rulers which has led to suggestions that Gupta and Ghatotkacha were vassals possibly of Kushan Empire 46 However there are several instances of paramount sovereigns using the title Maharaja in both pre Gupta and post Gupta periods so this cannot be said with certainty That said there is no doubt that Gupta and Ghatotkacha held a lower status and were less powerful than Chandragupta I 47 Chandragupta I married the Licchavi princess Kumaradevi which may have helped him extend his political power and dominions enabling him to adopt the imperial title Maharajadhiraja 48 According to the dynasty s official records he was succeeded by his son Samudragupta However the discovery of the coins issued by a Gupta ruler named Kacha have led to some debate on this topic according to one theory Kacha was another name for Samudragupta another possibility is that Kacha was a rival claimant to the throne 49 Samudragupta Edit Main article Samudragupta Samudragupta succeeded his father around 335 or 350 CE and ruled until c 375 CE 50 The Allahabad Pillar inscription composed by his courtier Harishena credits him with extensive conquests 51 The inscription asserts that Samudragupta uprooted 8 kings of Aryavarta the northern region including the Nagas 52 It further claims that he subjugated all the kings of the forest region which was most probably located in central India 53 It also credits him with defeating 12 rulers of Dakshinapatha the southern region the exact identification of several of these kings is debated among modern scholars 54 but it is clear that these kings ruled areas located on the eastern coast of India 55 The inscription suggests that Samudragupta advanced as far as the Pallava kingdom in the south and defeated Vishnugopa the Pallava regent of Kanchi 56 During this southern campaign Samudragupta most probably passed through the forest tract of central India reached the eastern coast in present day Odisha and then marched south along the coast of the Bay of Bengal 57 nbsp nbsp Evolution of Gupta territory with neighbouring polities The Allahabad Pillar inscription mentions that rulers of several frontier kingdoms and tribal oligarchies paid Samudragupta tributes obeyed his orders and performed obeisance before him 58 11 The frontier kingdoms included Samatata Davaka Kamarupa Nepala and Karttripura 10 The tribal oligarchies included Malavas Arjunayanas Yaudheyas Madrakas and Abhiras among others 11 Finally the inscription mentions that several foreign kings tried to please Samudragupta by personal attendance offered him their daughters in marriage or according to another interpretation gifted him maidens 59 and sought the use of the Garuda depicting Gupta seal for administering their own territories 60 This is an exaggeration for example the inscription lists the king of Simhala among these kings It is known that from Chinese sources that the Simhala king Meghavarna sent rich presents to the Gupta king requesting his permission to build a Buddhist monastery at Bodh Gaya Samudragupta s panegyrist appears to have described this act of diplomacy as an act of subservience 61 Samudragupta appears to have been Vaishnavite as attested by his Eran inscription 62 63 and performed several Brahmanical ceremonies 64 The Gupta records credit him with making generous donations of cows and gold 62 He performed the Ashvamedha ritual horse sacrifice which was used by the ancient Indian kings to prove their imperial sovereignty and issued gold coins see Coinage below to mark this performance 65 The Allahabad Pillar inscription presents Samudragupta as a wise king and strict administrator who was also compassionate enough to help the poor and the helpless 66 It also alludes to the king s talents as a musician and a poet and calls him the king of poets 67 Such claims are corroborated by Samudragupta s gold coins which depict him playing a veena 68 Samudragupta appears to have directly controlled a large part of the Indo Gangetic Plain in present day India as well as a substantial part of central India 69 Besides his empire comprised a number of monarchical and tribal tributary states of northern India and of the south eastern coastal region of India 70 55 Ramagupta Edit nbsp Standing Buddha in red sandstone Art of Mathura Gupta period c 5th century CE Mathura Museum 71 Main article Ramagupta Ramagupta is known from a sixth century play the Devichandragupta in which he surrenders his wife to the enemy Sakas and his brother Chandragupta has to sneak into the enemy camp to rescue her and kill the Saka king The historicity of these events is unclear but Ramagupta s existence is confirmed by three Jain statues found at Durjanpur with inscriptions referring to him as the Maharajadhiraja A large number of his copper coins also have been found from the Eran Vidisha region and classified in five distinct types which include the Garuda 72 Garudadhvaja lion and border legend types The Brahmi legends on these coins are written in the early Gupta style 73 Chandragupta II Vikramaditya Edit Main article Chandragupta II According to the Gupta records amongst his sons Samudragupta nominated prince Chandragupta II born of queen Dattadevi as his successor Chandragupta II Vikramaditya Victory of the Sun ruled from 375 until 415 He married a Kadamba princess of Kuntala and of Naga lineage Nagakulotpannna Kuberanaga His daughter Prabhavatigupta from this Naga queen was married to Rudrasena II the Vakataka ruler of Deccan 74 His son Kumaragupta I was married to a Kadamba princess of the Karnataka region Chandragupta II expanded his realm westwards defeating the Saka Western Kshatrapas of Malwa Gujarat and Saurashtra in a campaign lasting until 409 His main opponent Rudrasimha III was defeated by 395 and he crushed the Bengal chiefdoms This extended his control from coast to coast established a second capital at Ujjain and was the high point of the empire citation needed Kuntala inscriptions indicate rule of Chandragupta in Kuntala region of Indian state of Karnataka 75 Hunza inscription also indicate that Chandragupta was able to rule north western Indian subcontinent and proceeded to conquer Balkh although some scholars have also disputed the identity of gupta king 76 77 Chalukyan ruler Vikramditya VI r 1076 1126 CE mentions Chandragupta with his title and states why should the glory of the Kings Vikramaditya and Nanda be a hindrance any longer he with a loud command abolished that era which has the name of Saka and made that era which has the Chalukya counting 78 nbsp Gold coins of Chandragupta IIDespite the creation of the empire through war the reign is remembered for its very influential style of Hindu art literature culture and science especially during the reign of Chandragupta II Some excellent works of Hindu art such as the panels at the Dashavatara Temple in Deogarh serve to illustrate the magnificence of Gupta art Above all it was the synthesis of elements that gave Gupta art its distinctive flavour During this period the Guptas were supportive of thriving Buddhist and Jain cultures as well and for this reason there is also a long history of non Hindu Gupta period art In particular Gupta period Buddhist art was to be influential in most of East and Southeast Asia Many advances were recorded by the Chinese scholar and traveller Faxian in his diary and published afterwards The court of Chandragupta was made even more illustrious by the fact that it was graced by the Navaratna Nine Jewels a group of nine who excelled in the literary arts Amongst these men was Kalidasa whose works dwarfed the works of many other literary geniuses not only in his own age but in the years to come Kalidasa was mainly known for his subtle exploitation of the shringara romantic element in his verse Chandragupta II s campaigns against foreign tribes Edit nbsp Sculpture of Vishnu red sandstone 5th century CE The 4th century Sanskrit poet Kalidasa credits Chandragupta Vikramaditya with conquering about twenty one kingdoms both in and outside India After finishing his campaign in East and West India Vikramaditya Chandragupta II proceeded northwards subjugated the Parasikas then the Hunas and the Kambojas tribes located in the west and east Oxus valleys respectively Thereafter the king proceeded into the Himalaya mountains to reduce the mountain tribes of the Kinnaras Kiratas as well as India proper 9 non primary source needed In one of his works Kalidasa also credits him with the removal of the Sakas from the country He wrote Wasn t it Vikramaditya who drove the Sakas out from the lovely city of Ujjain 79 The Brihatkathamanjari of the Kashmiri writer Kshemendra states King Vikramaditya Chandragupta II had unburdened the sacred earth of the Barbarians like the Sakas Mlecchas Kambojas Yavanas Tusharas Parasikas Hunas and others by annihilating these sinful Mlecchas completely 80 non primary source needed 81 82 unreliable source Faxian Edit Faxian a Chinese Buddhist was one of the pilgrims who visited India during the reign of the Gupta emperor Chandragupta II He started his journey from China in 399 and reached India in 405 During his stay in India up to 411 he went on a pilgrimage to Mathura Kannauj Kapilavastu Kushinagar Vaishali Pataliputra Kashi and Rajagriha and made careful observations about the empire s conditions Faxian was pleased with the mildness of administration The Penal Code was mild and offences were punished by fines only From his accounts the Gupta Empire was a prosperous period His writings form one of the most important sources for the history of this period 83 Faxian on reaching Mathura comments The snow and heat are finely tempered and there is neither hoarfrost nor snow The people are numerous and happy They have not to register their households Only those who cultivate the royal land have to pay a portion of the gain from it If they want to go they go If they want to stay on they stay on The king governs without decapitation or other corporal punishments Criminals are simply fined according to circumstances Even in cases of repeated attempts at wicked rebellion they only have their right hand cut off The king s bodyguards amp attendants all have salaries Throughout the whole country the people do not kill any living creature not drink any intoxicating liquor nor eat onions or garlic 83 Kumaragupta I Edit Main article Kumaragupta I nbsp Silver coin of the Gupta King Kumaragupta I Coin of his Western territories design derived from the Western Satraps Obv Bust of king with crescents with traces of corrupt Greek script 84 85 Rev Garuda standing facing with spread wings Brahmi legend Parama bhagavata rajadhiraja Sri Kumaragupta Mahendraditya 86 Chandragupta II was succeeded by his second son Kumaragupta I born of Mahadevi Dhruvasvamini Kumaragupta I assumed the title Mahendraditya 87 He ruled until 455 Towards the end of his reign a tribe in the Narmada valley the Pushyamitras rose in power to threaten the empire The Kidarites as well probably confronted the Gupta Empire towards the end of the rule of Kumaragupta I as his son Skandagupta mentions in the Bhitari pillar inscription his efforts at reshaping a country in disarray through reorganisation and military victories over the Pushyamitras and the Hunas 88 He was the founder of Nalanda University which on 15 July 2016 was declared as a UNESCO world heritage site 89 Kumaragupta I was also a worshipper of Kartikeya Skandagupta Edit Main article Skandagupta Skandagupta son and successor of Kumaragupta I is generally considered to be the last of the great Gupta rulers He assumed the titles of Vikramaditya and Kramaditya 90 He defeated the Pushyamitra threat but then was faced with invading Kidarites sometimes described as the Hephthalites or White Huns known in India as the Sweta Huna from the northwest He repelled a Huna attack around 455 CE but the expense of the wars drained the empire s resources and contributed to its decline The Bhitari Pillar inscription of Skandagupta the successor of Chandragupta recalls the near annihilation of the Gupta Empire following the attacks of the Kidarites 91 The Kidarites seem to have retained the western part of the Gupta Empire 91 Skandagupta died in 467 and was succeeded by his agnate brother Purugupta 92 Decline of the empire Edit nbsp Jain tirthankara relief Parshvanatha on Kahaum pillar erected by person named Madra during the reign of Skandagupta 93 Following Skandagupta s death the empire was clearly in decline 94 and the later Gupta coinage indicates their loss of control over much of western India after 467 469 6 Skandagupta was followed by Purugupta 467 473 Kumaragupta II 473 476 Budhagupta 476 495 Narasimhagupta 495 530 Kumaragupta III 530 540 Vishnugupta 540 550 two lesser known kings namely Vainyagupta and Bhanugupta In the late 490 s the Alchon Huns under Toramana and Mihirakula broke through the Gupta defences in the northwest and much of the empire in the northwest was overrun by the Huns by 500 According to some scholars the empire disintegrated under the attacks of Toramana and his successor Mihirakula 95 96 It appears from inscriptions that the Guptas although their power was much diminished continued to resist the Huns The Hun invader Toramana was defeated by Bhanugupta in 510 97 98 The Huns were defeated and driven out of India in 528 by King Yashodharman from Malwa and possibly Gupta emperor Narasimhagupta 99 These invasions although only spanning a few decades had long term effects on India and in a sense brought an end to Classical Indian civilisation 100 Soon after the invasions the Gupta Empire already weakened by these invasions and the rise of local rulers such as Yashodharman ended as well 101 Following the invasions northern India was left in disarray with numerous smaller Indian powers emerging after the crumbling of the Guptas 102 The Huna invasions are said to have seriously damaged India s trade with Europe and Central Asia 100 In particular Indo Roman trade relations which the Gupta Empire had greatly benefited from The Guptas had been exporting numerous luxury products such as silk leather goods fur iron products ivory pearl and pepper from centres such as Nasik Paithan Pataliputra and Benares The Huna invasion probably disrupted these trade relations and the tax revenues that came with them 103 Furthermore Indian urban culture was left in decline and Buddhism gravely weakened by the destruction of monasteries and the killing of monks by the hand of the vehemently anti Buddhist Shaivist Mihirakula started to collapse 100 Great centres of learning were destroyed such as the city of Taxila bringing cultural regression 100 During their rule of 60 years the Alchons are said to have altered the hierarchy of ruling families and the Indian caste system For example the Hunas are often said to have become the precursors of the Rajputs 100 nbsp South Asia600 CEMORISPANDYASLICCHAVISCHOLASZHANGZHUNGCHERASSAMATATASGAUDAKAMARUPAVISHNU KUNDINASPALLAVASALUPASNEZAKSALCHONSKALINGASPANDUVAMSHISSHASHANKASSHAILODBHAVASGONANDASMAUKHARISTAKKAWESTERNTURKSTOCHARIANSMAITRAKASRAISPRATIHARASLATER GUPTASPUSHYA BHUTISCHALUKYASEARLYKALA CHURISSASANIANEMPIRE class notpageimage Political fragmentation of South Asia after the retreat of the Alchon Huns to the northwest and the end of the Gupta Empire c 600 CE 104 The succession of the 6th century Guptas is not entirely clear but the tail end recognised ruler of the dynasty s main line was king Vishnugupta reigning from 540 to 550 In addition to the Hun invasion the factors which contribute to the decline of the empire include competition from the Vakatakas and the rise of Yashodharman in Malwa 105 The last known inscription by a Gupta emperor is from the reign of Vishnugupta the Damodarpur copper plate inscription 106 in which he makes a land grant in the area of Kotivarsha Bangarh in West Bengal in 542 543 CE 107 This follows the occupation of most of northern and central India by the Aulikara ruler Yashodharman c 532 CE 107 A 2019 study by archaeologist Shanker Sharma has concluded that the cause of the Gupta empire s downfall was a devastating flood which happened around the middle of the 6th century in Uttar Pradesh and Bihar 108 Post Gupta successor dynasties Edit In the heart of the former Gupta Empire in the Gangetic region the Guptas were succeeded by the Maukhari dynasty and the Pushyabhuti dynasty 109 The coinage of the Maukharis and Pushyabhutis followed the silver coin type of the Guptas with portrait of the ruler in profile although facing in the reverse direction compared to the Guptas a possible symbol of antagonism 110 and the peacock on the reverse the Brahmi legend being kept except for the name of the ruler 109 In the western regions they were succeeded by the Gurjaras the Pratiharas and later the Chaulukya Paramara dynasties who issued so called Indo Sasanian coinage on the model of the coinage of the Sasanian Empire which had been introduced in India by the Alchon Huns 109 Military organisation Edit nbsp An 8 gm gold coin featuring Chandragupta II astride a caparisoned horse with a bow in his left hand 111 In contrast to the Mauryan Empire the Guptas introduced several military innovations to Indian warfare Chief amongst these was the use of siege engines heavy cavalry archers and heavy sword cavalry The heavy cavalry formed the core of the Gupta army and were supported by the traditional Indian army elements of elephants and light infantry 112 The utilisation of horse archers in the Gupta period is evidenced on the coinage of Chandragupta II Kumaragupta I and Prakasaditya postulated to be Purugupta 113 that depicts the emperors as horse archers 114 115 Unfortunately there is a paucity of contemporary sources detailing the tactical operations of the Imperial Gupta Army The best extant information comes from the Sanskrit mahakavya epic poem Raghuvaṃsa written by the Classical Sanskrit writer and dramatist Kalidasa Many modern scholars put forward the view that Kalidasa lived from the reign of Chandragupta II to the reign of Skandagupta 116 117 118 119 and that the campaigns of Raghu his protagonist in the Raghuvaṃsa reflect those of Chandragupta II 120 In Canto IV of the Raghuvamsa Kalidasa relates how the king s forces clash against the powerful cavalry centric forces of the Persians and later the Yavanas probably Huns in the North West Here he makes special mention of the use horse archers in the kings army and that the horses needed much rest after the hotly contested battles 121 The five arms of the Gupta military included infantry cavalry chariot elephants and ships Gunaighar copper plate inscription of Vainya Gupta mentions ships but not chariots 122 Ships had become integral part of Indian military in the 6th century AD Religion Edit nbsp Dharmachakra Pravartana Buddha at Sarnath from the Gupta era 5th century CEThe Guptas were traditionally a Hindu dynasty 123 They were orthodox Hindus and allowed followers of Buddhism and Jainism to practice their religions 124 Sanchi remained an important centre of Buddhism 124 Kumaragupta I 455 CE is said to have founded Nalanda 124 Modern genetic studies indicate that it was during the Gupta period that Indian caste groups ceased to intermarry started practicing enforcing endogamy 125 Some later rulers however seem to have especially promoted Buddhism Narasimhagupta Baladitya c 495 according to contemporary writer Paramartha was brought up under the influence of the Mahayanist philosopher Vasubandhu 123 He built a sangharama at Nalanda and also a 300 ft 91 m high vihara with a Buddha statue within which according to Xuanzang resembled the great Vihara built under the Bodhi tree According to the Manjushrimulakalpa c 800 CE king Narasimhsagupta became a Buddhist monk and left the world through meditation Dhyana 123 The Chinese monk Xuanzang also noted that Narasimhagupta Baladitya s son Vajra who commissioned a sangharama as well possessed a heart firm in faith 126 45 127 330 Gupta administration EditA study of the epigraphical records of the Gupta empire shows that there was a hierarchy of administrative divisions from top to bottom The empire was called by various names such as Rajya Rashtra Desha Mandala Prithvi and Avani It was divided into 26 provinces which were styled as Bhukti Pradesha and Bhoga Provinces were also divided into Vishayas and put under the control of the Vishayapatis A Vishayapati administered the Vishaya with the help of the Adhikarana council of representatives which comprised four representatives Nagarasreshesthi Sarthavaha Prathamakulika and Prathama Kayastha A part of the Vishaya was called Vithi 128 The Gupta also had trading links with the Sassanid and Byzantine Empire citation needed The four fold varna system was observed under the Gupta period but caste system was fluid Brahmins followed non Brahmanical profession as well Khastriyas were involved in trade and commerce The society largely coexisted among themselves 129 need quotation to verify Legacy Edit nbsp nbsp 420ROURAN KHAGANATEKyrgyzsGaojuTurksCHAM PAFUNANKhotanHYMYAREASTERNJINNORTHERNWEIGOGU RYEOVAKA TAKASGUPTAEMPIREKIDARITESALCHONSAFRIGHIDSN LIANGSASANIANEMPIREBYZANTINEEMPIREHUNSTOCHARIANSTUYUHUNPaleo SiberiansSamoyedsTungusMEROEAKSUM class notpageimage The Gupta Empire and other polities c 420 CE Scholars of this period include Varahamihira and Aryabhata who is believed to be the first to consider zero as a separate number postulated the theory that the Earth rotates about its own axis and studied solar and lunar eclipses Kalidasa who was a great playwright who wrote plays such as Shakuntala and marked the highest point of Sanskrit literature is also said to have belonged to this period The Sushruta Samhita which is a Sanskrit redaction text on all of the major concepts of ayurvedic medicine with innovative chapters on surgery dates to the Gupta period Chess is said to have developed in this period 130 where its early form in the 6th century was known as caturaṅga which translates as four divisions of the military infantry cavalry elephantry and chariotry represented by the pieces that would evolve into the modern pawn knight bishop and rook respectively Doctors also invented several medical instruments and even performed operations The Indian numerals which were the first positional base 10 numeral systems in the world originated from Gupta India The names of the seven days in a week appeared at the start of the Gupta period based on Hindu deities and planets corresponding to the Roman names The ancient Gupta text Kama Sutra by the Indian scholar Vatsyayana is widely considered to be the standard work on human sexual behaviour in Sanskrit literature Aryabhata a noted mathematician astronomer of the Gupta period proposed that the earth is round and rotates about its own axis He also discovered that the Moon and planets shine by reflected sunlight Instead of the prevailing cosmogony in which eclipses were caused by pseudo planetary nodes Rahu and Ketu he explained eclipses in terms of shadows cast by and falling on Earth 131 Art and architecture EditMain article Gupta art nbsp A tetrastyle prostyle Gupta period temple at Sanchi besides the Apsidal hall with Maurya foundation an example of Buddhist architecture and Hindu architecture 132 failed verification 133 full citation needed 5th century CE nbsp The current structure of the Mahabodhi Temple dates to the Gupta era 5th century CE Marking the location where the Buddha is said to have attained enlightenment nbsp Dashavatara Temple is a Vishnu Hindu temple built during the Gupta period nbsp Pataini temple is a Jain temple built during the Gupta period The Gupta period is generally regarded as a classic peak of North Indian art for all the major religious groups Although painting was evidently widespread the surviving works are almost all religious sculpture The period saw the emergence of the iconic carved stone deity in Hindu art as well as the Buddha figure and Jain tirthankara figures the latter often on a very large scale The two great centres of sculpture were Mathura and Gandhara the latter the centre of Greco Buddhist art Both exported sculpture to other parts of northern India The most famous remaining monuments in a broadly Gupta style the caves at Ajanta Elephanta and Ellora respectively Buddhist Hindu and mixed including Jain were in fact produced under later dynasties but primarily reflect the monumentality and balance of Guptan style Ajanta contains by far the most significant survivals of painting from this and the surrounding periods showing a mature form which had probably had a long development mainly in painting palaces 134 The Hindu Udayagiri Caves actually record connections with the dynasty and its ministers 135 and the Dashavatara Temple at Deogarh is a major temple one of the earliest to survive with important sculpture 136 nbsp Vishnu reclining on the serpent Shesha Ananta Dashavatara Temple 5th century nbsp Buddha from Sarnath 5 6th century CE nbsp The Colossal trimurti at the Elephanta Caves nbsp Painting of Padmapani Cave 1 at Ajanta nbsp The Shiva mukhalinga faced lingam from the Bhumara Temple nbsp Nalrajar Garh fortification wall in Chilapata Forests West Bengal is one of the last surviving fortification remains from the Gupta period currently 5 7 m high nbsp Nalanda University was first established under Gupta Empire nbsp Bitargaon temple from the Gupta period provide one of the earliest examples of pointed arches anywhere in the world nbsp Ajanta caves from Gupta era nbsp Krishna fighting the horse demon Keshi 5th centuryList of rulers EditRuler Reign CE NotesSri Gupta I nbsp c late 3rd century CE Founder of the dynasty Ghatotkacha nbsp 280 290 319 CEChandra Gupta I nbsp 319 335 CE His title Maharajadhiraja king of great kings suggests that he was the first emperor of the dynasty It is not certain how he turned his small ancestral kingdom into an empire although a widely accepted theory among modern historians is that his marriage to the Licchavi princess Kumaradevi helped him extend his political power Samudra Gupta nbsp 335 375 CE Defeated several kings of northern India and annexed their territories to his empire He also marched along the south eastern coast of India advancing as far as the Pallava kingdom In addition he subjugated several frontier kingdoms and tribal oligarchies His empire extended from Ravi River in the west to the Brahmaputra River in the east and from the Himalayan foothills in the north to central India in the south west several rulers along the south eastern coast were his tributaries Kacha nbsp mid 4th century CE Rival brother king possibly an usurper there are coins who attest him as ruler possibly identical with Samudra Gupta Rama GuptaChandra Gupta II Vikramaditya nbsp 375 415 CE Continued the expansionist policy of his father Samudragupta historical evidence suggests that he defeated the Western Kshatrapas and extended the Gupta empire from the Indus River in the west to the Bengal region in the east and from the Himalayan foothills in the north to the Narmada River in the south Kumara Gupta I nbsp 415 455 CE He seems to have maintained control of his inherited territory which extended from Gujarat in the west to Bengal region in the east Skanda Gupta nbsp 455 467 CE It is stated that he restored the fallen fortunes of the Gupta family which has led to suggestions that during his predecessor s last years the Empire may have suffered reverses possibly against the Pushyamitras or the Hunas He is generally considered the last of the great Gupta Emperors Puru Gupta 467 473 CEKumara Gupta II Kramaditya nbsp 473 476 CEBuddha Gupta nbsp 476 495 CE He had close ties with the rulers of Kannauj and together they sought to run the Alchon Huns Hunas out of the fertile plains of Northern India Narasimha Gupta Baladitya nbsp 495 530 CEKumara Gupta III 530 540 CEVishnu Gupta Candraditya nbsp 540 550 CEFamily tree EditGupta dynastyGupta KingdomGupta 1 r c 3rd CenturyGhatotkacha 2 r c 3rd 4thCenturyGupta EmpireChandragupta I 3 r c 319 335 50 Samudragupta 5 r c 335 50 375Kacha 4 r c 4th Century Chandragupta II 7 r c 375 415Ramagupta 6 r c 4th CenturyKumaragupta I 8 r c 415 455Skandagupta 8 r c 455 467Purugupta 9 r c 467 473Kumaragupta II 10 r c 473 476Budhagupta 11 r c 476 495Narasimhagupta 12 r c 495 530Kumaragupta III 13 r c 530 540Vishnugupta 14 r c 540 550See also Edit nbsp India portal nbsp History portal nbsp Monarchy portalGupta era Uchchhakalpa dynastyReferences Edit Schwartzberg Joseph E 1978 A Historical atlas of South Asia Chicago University of Chicago Press p 145 map XIV 1 j p 25 ISBN 0226742210 Archived from the original on 24 February 2021 Retrieved 12 February 2022 Bakker Hans 1984 Ayodhya Part 1 The History of Ayodhya from the seventh century BC to the middle of the 18th century Groningen Egbert Forsten p 12 ISBN 90 6980 007 1 Hans T Bakker 1982 The rise of Ayodhya as a place of pilgrimage Indo Iranian Journal 24 2 105 doi 10 1163 000000082790081267 S2CID 161957449 During the reign of either the emperor Kumaragupta or more probably that of his successor Skandagupta AD 455 467 the capital of the empire was moved from Pațaliputra to Ayodhya Turchin Peter Adams Jonathan M Hall Thomas D December 2006 East West Orientation of Historical Empires Journal of World Systems Research 12 2 223 doi 10 5195 JWSR 2006 369 ISSN 1076 156X Taagepera Rein 1979 Size and Duration of Empires Growth Decline Curves 600 B C to 600 A D Social Science History 3 3 4 121 doi 10 2307 1170959 JSTOR 1170959 a b Gupta Dynasty MSN Encarta Archived from the original on 29 October 2009 N Jayapalan History of India Vol I Atlantic Publishers 2001 130 Jha D N 2002 Ancient India in Historical Outline Delhi Manohar Publishers and Distributors pp 149 73 ISBN 978 81 7304 285 0 a b Raghu Vamsa v 4 60 75 a b Ashvini Agrawal 1989 pp 112 18 a b c Upinder Singh 2017 p 343 Gupta dynasty Indian dynasty Archived 30 March 2010 at the Wayback Machine Britannica Online Encyclopedia Retrieved 21 November 2011 Keay John 2000 India A history Atlantic Monthly Press pp 151 52 ISBN 978 0 87113 800 2 Kalidasa wrote with an excellence which by unanimous consent justifies the inevitable comparisons with Shakespeare When and where Kalidasa lived remains a mystery He acknowledges no links with the Guptas he may not even have coincided with them but the poet s vivid awareness of the terrain of the entire subcontinent argues strongly for a Guptan provenance Vidya Dhar Mahajan 1990 p 540 a b Keay John 2000 India A history Atlantic Monthly Press p 132 ISBN 978 0 87113 800 2 The great era of all that is deemed classical in Indian literature art and science was now dawning It was this crescendo of creativity and scholarship as much as political achievements of the Guptas which would make their age so golden Gupta dynasty empire in 4th century Archived 30 March 2010 at the 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978 81 7017 035 8 Archived from the original on 4 May 2016 Retrieved 25 October 2015 H C Raychaudhuri 1923 p 489 Annual Report Of Mysore 1886 To 1903 via Internet Archive HALDEIKISH Sacred Rocks of Hunza Hunza Bytes Archived from the original on 13 May 2021 Retrieved 20 October 2020 Singh Upinder 2008 A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India From the Stone Age to the 12th Century Pearson Education India p 480 ISBN 978 81 317 1120 0 Archived from the original on 18 March 2022 Retrieved 3 May 2021 Barua Benimadhab 1929 Old Brahmi Inscriptions In The Udayagiri And Khandagiri Caves Wolpert Stanley 1993 India Oxford University Press ata shrivikramadityo helya nirjitakhilah Mlechchana Kamboja Yavanan neechan Hunan Sabarbran Tushara Parsikaanshcha tayakatacharan vishrankhalan hatya bhrubhangamatreyanah bhuvo bharamavarayate Brahata Katha 10 1 285 86 Kshmendra Kathasritsagara 18 1 76 78 Cf In the story contained in Kathasarit sagara king Vikarmaditya is said to have destroyed all the 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And Monasteries of India Their History And Contribution To Indian Culture George Allen and Unwin Ltd London ISBN 978 81 208 0498 2 Archived from the original on 10 March 2017 Retrieved 27 July 2017 Vidya Dhar Mahajan 1990 pp 530 31 Nath sen Sailendra 1999 Ancient Indian History and Civilization Routledge p 235 ISBN 9788122411980 Archived from the original on 27 September 2022 Retrieved 21 September 2020 Murray H J R 1913 A History of Chess Benjamin Press originally published by Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0 936317 01 4 OCLC 13472872 Thomas Khoshy Elementary Number Theory with Applications Academic Press 2002 p 567 ISBN 0 12 421171 2 Harle 111 Rowland 219 220 Michell 1988 94 J C Harle 1994 pp 118 22 123 26 129 35 J C Harle 1994 pp 92 97 J C Harle 1994 pp 113 14 Bibliography Edit Ashvini Agrawal 1989 Rise and Fall of the Imperial Guptas Motilal Banarsidass ISBN 978 81 208 0592 7 Archived from the original on 8 January 2020 Retrieved 29 August 2018 Dilip Kumar Ganguly 1987 The Imperial Guptas and Their Times Abhinav ISBN 978 81 7017 222 2 Archived from the original on 8 January 2020 Retrieved 29 August 2018 H C Raychaudhuri 1923 Political History of Ancient India From the Accession of Parikshit to the Extinction of the Gupta Dynasty University of Calcutta ISBN 978 1 4400 5272 9 J C Harle 1994 The Art and Architecture of the Indian Subcontinent Yale University Press ISBN 978 0 300 06217 5 R C Majumdar 1981 A Comprehensive History of India Vol 3 Part I A D 300 985 Indian History Congress People s Publishing House pp 17 52 OCLC 34008529 Shankar Goyal 2001 Problems of Ancient Indian History New Perspectives and Perceptions Book Enclave ISBN 978 81 87036 66 1 Archived from the original on 11 January 2020 Retrieved 13 December 2018 Tej Ram Sharma 1989 A Political History of the Imperial Guptas From Gupta to Skandagupta Concept ISBN 978 81 7022 251 4 Archived from the original on 13 January 2020 Retrieved 29 August 2018 Vidya Dhar Mahajan 1990 A History of India State Mutual Book amp Periodical Service ISBN 978 0 7855 1191 5 Archived from the original on 10 January 2020 Retrieved 29 August 2018 Upinder Singh 2017 Political Violence in Ancient India Harvard University Press ISBN 978 0 674 98128 7 Archived from the original on 10 January 2020 Retrieved 13 December 2018 Notes Edit Although this characterisation has been disputed by D N Jha 8 External links Edit nbsp Wikisource has the text of the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica article Gupta nbsp Wikiquote has quotations related to Gupta Empire nbsp Wikimedia Commons has media related to Gupta Empire Coins of Gupta Empire Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Gupta Empire amp oldid 1174281415, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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