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Shivaji

January 18, 2023

For other uses, see Shivaji (disambiguation).

Shivaji I (Shivaji Bhonsale; Marathi pronunciation: [ʃiʋaˑd͡ʒiˑ bʱoˑs(ə)leˑ]; c.19 February 1630 – 3 April 1680[5]), also referred to as Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj, was an Indian ruler and a member of the Bhonsle Maratha clan. He initially served as the Jagirdar of Pune after 1664 succeeding his father Shahaji.[6] Eventually, Shivaji carved out his own independent kingdom from the declining Adilshahi sultanate of Bijapur which formed the genesis of the Maratha Empire. In 1674, he was formally crowned the Chhatrapati of his realm at Raigad Fort.[7]

Shivaji Bhonsle I
Shakakarta[1]
Haindava Dharmoddharak[2]
Portrait of Shivaji (c. 1680s), British Museum
1st Emperor (Chhatrapati) of the Maratha Empire
Reign1674–1680
Coronation6 June 1674 (first)
24 September 1674 (second)
PredecessorPosition Established
SuccessorSambhaji
PeshwaMoropant Trimbak Pingle
Jagirdar of Pune
Reign1664–1674
SultanAli Adil Shah II
Sikandar Adil Shah[citation needed]
PredecessorShahaji
SuccessorPosition Abolished
(himself as the Chhatrapati of the Maratha Empire)
Born19 February 1630
Shivneri Fort, Ahmadnagar Sultanate
(present-day Pune, Maharashtra, India)
Died3 April 1680 (aged 50)
Raigad Fort, Mahad, Maratha Empire
(present-day Maharashtra, India)
Spouse
​
​
(m. 1640; d. 1659)​
​
(m. 1650)​
​
(m. 1653)​
​
(m. 1656)​
  • Kashibai Jadhav[3]
Issue8[4] (including Sambhaji and Rajaram I)
HouseBhonsle
FatherShahaji
MotherJijabai
ReligionHinduism
Signature

Over the course of his life, Shivaji engaged in both alliances and hostilities with the Mughal Empire, the Sultanate of Golkonda, Sultanate of Bijapur and the European colonial powers. Shivaji's military forces expanded the Maratha sphere of influence, capturing and building forts, and forming a Maratha navy. Shivaji established a competent and progressive civil rule with well-structured administrative organisations. He revived ancient Hindu political traditions, court conventions and promoted the usage of the Marathi and Sanskrit languages, replacing Persian in court and administration.[7][8]

Shivaji's legacy was to vary by observer and time, but nearly two centuries after his death, he began to take on increased importance with the emergence of the Indian independence movement, as many Indian nationalists elevated him as a proto-nationalist and hero of the Hindus.[9][10]

Early life

Main article: Early life of Shivaji
See also: Bhonsle § origin

Shivaji was born in the hill-fort of Shivneri, near the city of Junnar, which is now in Pune district. Scholars disagree on his date of birth. The Government of Maharashtra lists 19 February as a holiday commemorating Shivaji's birth (Shivaji Jayanti).[a][17][18] Shivaji was named after a local deity, the goddess Shivai Devi.[19][20] Shivaji's father Shahaji Bhonsle was a Maratha general who served the Deccan Sultanates.[21] His mother was Jijabai the daughter of Lakhuji Jadhavrao of Sindhkhed, a Mughal-aligned sardar claiming descent from a Yadav royal family of Devagiri.[22][23]

Shivaji belonged to Maratha family of Bhonsle clan.[24] His paternal grandfather Maloji (1552–1597) was an influential general of Ahmadnagar Sultanate, and was awarded the epithet of "Raja". He was given deshmukhi rights of Pune, Supe, Chakan and Indapur for military expenses. He was also given Fort Shivneri for his family's residence (c. 1590).[25][26]

At the time of Shivaji's birth, power in the Deccan was shared by three Islamic sultanates: Bijapur, Ahmednagar, and Golkonda. Shahaji often changed his loyalty between the Nizamshahi of Ahmadnagar, the Adilshah of Bijapur and the Mughals, but always kept his jagir (fiefdom) at Pune and his small army.[21]

Background and context

 
South India at the turn of the 17th century
 
Young Shivaji meeting his father Shahaji

In 1636, the Adil Shahi sultanate of Bijapur invaded the kingdoms to its south.[6] The sultanate had recently become a tributary state of the Mughal empire.[6][27] It was being helped by Shahaji, who at the time was a chieftain in the Maratha uplands of western India. Shahaji was looking for opportunities of rewards of jagir land in the conquered territories, the taxes on which he could collect as an annuity.[6]

Shahaji was a rebel from brief Mughal service. Shahaji's campaigns against the Mughals, supported by the Bijapur government, were generally unsuccessful. He was constantly pursued by the Mughal army and Shivaji and his mother Jijabai had to move from fort to fort.[28]

In 1636, Shahaji joined in the service of Bijapur and obtained Poona as a grant. Shahaji, being deployed in Bangalore by the Bijapuri ruler Adilshah, appointed Dadoji Kondadeo as Poona's administrator. Shivaji and Jijabai settled in Poona. Kondadeo was tasked with training Shivaji in the administration of the Poona jagir. While Shivaji was quick to pick up physical activities such as wrestling and horsemanship, he was not especially literate and relied on his subordinate ministers to have petitions and letters read to him.[29] Kondadeo died in 1647 and Shivaji took over the administration. One of his first acts directly challenged the Bijapuri government.[30]

Conflict with Bijapur sultanate

 
Portrait of Shivaji I c.1675

In 1646, 16-year-old Shivaji took the Torna Fort, taking advantage of the confusion prevailing in the Bijapur court due to the ailment of Sultan Mohammed Adil Shah, and seized the large treasure he found there.[31][32] In the following two years, Shivaji took several important forts near Pune, including Purandar, Kondhana and Chakan. Also, he brought areas east of Pune around Supa, Baramati, and Indapur under his direct control. He used the treasure found at Torna to build a new fort named Rajgad.That fort served as the seat of his government for over a decade.[31] After this, Shivaji turned west to the Konkan and took possession of the important town of Kalyan. Bijapur government took note of these happenings and sought to take action. On 25 July 1648, Shahaji was imprisoned by a fellow Maratha sardar called, Baji Ghorpade under the orders of Bijapur government, in a bid to contain Shivaji.[33]

Shahaji was released in 1649 after the capture of Jinji secured Adilshah's position in Karnataka. During the period of 1649–1655 Shivaji paused in his conquests and quietly consolidated his gains.[34] Following his father's release, Shivaji resumed raiding, and in 1656, under controversial circumstances, killed Chandrarao More, a fellow Maratha feudatory of Bijapur, and seized the valley of Javali, near the present-day hill station of Mahabaleshwar, from him.[35] The conquest of Javali allowed Shivaji to extend his raids into South and South-west Maharashtra. In addition to the Bhonsle and the More families, many others including Sawant of Sawantwadi, Ghorpade of Mudhol, Nimbalkar of Phaltan, Shirke, Mane and Mohite also served Adilshahi of Bijapur, many with Deshmukhi rights. Shivaji adopted different strategies to subdue these powerful families such as forming marital alliances, dealing directly with village Patils to bypass the Deshmukhs, or subduing them by force.[36] Shahaji in his later years had an ambivalent attitude to his son, and disavowed his rebellious activities.[37] He told the Bijapuris to do whatever they wanted with Shivaji. Shahaji died around 1664–1665 in a hunting accident.

Combat with Afzal Khan

 
An early-20th-century painting by Sawlaram Haldankar of Shivaji fighting the Bijapuri general Afzal Khan
 
Pratapgad fort

The Bijapur sultanate was displeased at their losses to Shivaji's forces, which their vassal Shahaji disavowed. After a peace treaty with the Mughals, and the general acceptance of the young Ali Adil Shah II as the sultan, the Bijapur government became more stable, and turned its attention towards Shivaji.[38] In 1657 the sultan, or more likely his mother and regent, sent Afzal Khan, a veteran general, to arrest Shivaji. Before engaging him, the Bijapuri forces desecrated the Tulja Bhavani Temple, holy to Shivaji's family, and the Vithoba temple at Pandharpur, a major pilgrimage site for the Hindus.[39][40][41]

Pursued by Bijapuri forces, Shivaji retreated to Pratapgad fort, where many of his colleagues pressed him to surrender.[42] The two forces found themselves at a stalemate, with Shivaji unable to break the siege, while Afzal Khan, having a powerful cavalry but lacking siege equipment, was unable to take the fort. After two months, Afzal Khan sent an envoy to Shivaji suggesting the two leaders meet in private outside the fort for negotiations.[43][44]

The two met in a hut at the foothills of Pratapgad fort on 10 November 1659. The arrangements had dictated that each come armed only with a sword, and attended by one follower. Shivaji, suspecting Afzal Khan would arrest or attack him,[45][b] wore armour beneath his clothes, concealed a bagh nakh (metal "tiger claw") on his left arm, and had a dagger in his right hand.[47] The precise transpirings are not recoverable to historical certainty and remains enmeshed with legends in Maratha sources; however, they agree upon the fact that the protagonists landed themselves in a physical struggle which would prove fatal for Khan.[c] Khan's dagger failed to pierce Shivaji's armour, but Shivaji had him disemboweled; he then fired a cannon to signal his hidden troops to attack the Bijapuri army.[49]

In the ensuing Battle of Pratapgarh fought on 10 November 1659, Shivaji's forces decisively defeated the Bijapur Sultanate's forces. More than 3,000 soldiers of the Bijapur army were killed and one sardar of high rank, two sons of Afzal Khan and two Maratha chiefs were taken prisoner.[50] After the victory, a grand review was held by Shivaji below Pratapgarh. The captured enemy, both officers and men, were set free and sent back to their homes with money, food and other gifts. Marathas were rewarded accordingly.[50]

Siege of Panhala

Having defeated the Bijapuri forces sent against him, Shivaji's army marched towards the Konkan and Kolhapur, seizing Panhala fort, and defeating Bijapuri forces sent against them under Rustam Zaman and Fazl Khan in 1659.[51] In 1660, Adilshah sent his general Siddi Jauhar to attack Shivaji's southern border, in alliance with the Mughals who planned to attack from the north. At that time, Shivaji was encamped at Panhala fort with his forces. Siddi Jauhar's army besieged Panhala in mid-1660, cutting off supply routes to the fort. During the bombardment of Panhala, Siddi Jauhar purchased grenades from the English at Rajapur to increase his efficacy, and also hired some English artillerymen to assist in his bombardment of the fort, conspicuously flying a flag used by the English. This perceived betrayal angered Shivaji, who in December would retaliate by plundering the English factory at Rajapur and capturing four of the factors, imprisoning them until mid-1663.[52]

After months of siege, Shivaji negotiated with Siddi Jauhar and handed over the fort on 22 September 1660, withdrawing to Vishalgad;[53] Shivaji retook Panhala in 1673.[54]

Battle of Pavan Khind

Main article: Battle of Pavan Khind

Shivaji escaped from Panhala by cover of night, and as he was pursued by the enemy cavalry, his Maratha sardar Baji Prabhu Deshpande of Bandal Deshmukh, along with 300 soldiers, volunteered to fight to the death to hold back the enemy at Ghod Khind ("horse ravine") to give Shivaji and the rest of the army a chance to reach the safety of the Vishalgad fort.[55]

In the ensuing Battle of Pavan Khind, the smaller Maratha force held back the larger enemy to buy time for Shivaji to escape. Baji Prabhu Deshpande was wounded but continued to fight until he heard the sound of cannon fire from Vishalgad,[24] signalling Shivaji had safely reached the fort, on the evening of 13 July 1660.[56] Ghod Khind (khind meaning "a narrow mountain pass") was later renamed Paavan Khind ("sacred pass") in honour of Bajiprabhu Deshpande, Shibosingh Jadhav, Fuloji, and all other soldiers who fought in there.[56]

Conflict with the Mughals

Until 1657, Shivaji maintained peaceful relations with the Mughal Empire. Shivaji offered his assistance to Aurangzeb who then, was the Mughal viceroy of the Deccan and son of the Mughal emperor, in conquering Bijapur in return for formal recognition of his right to the Bijapuri forts and villages under his possession. Dissatisfied with the Mughal response, and receiving a better offer from Bijapur, he launched a raid into the Mughal Deccan.[57] Shivaji's confrontations with the Mughals began in March 1657, when two of Shivaji's officers raided the Mughal territory near Ahmednagar.[58] This was followed by raids in Junnar, with Shivaji carrying off 300,000 hun in cash and 200 horses.[59] Aurangzeb responded to the raids by sending Nasiri Khan, who defeated the forces of Shivaji at Ahmednagar. However, Aurangzeb's countermeasures against Shivaji were interrupted by the rainy season and his battle of succession with his brothers for the Mughal throne following the illness of the emperor Shah Jahan.[60]

Attacks on Shaista Khan and Surat

Main articles: Battle of Chakan and Battle of Surat
 
A 20th century depiction of Shivaji's surprise attack on Mughal general Shaista Khan in Pune by M.V. Dhurandhar

Upon the request of Badi Begum of Bijapur, Aurangzeb, now the Mughal emperor, sent his maternal uncle Shaista Khan, with an army numbering over 150,000 along with a powerful artillery division in January 1660 to attack Shivaji in conjunction with Bijapur's army led by Siddi Jauhar. Shaista Khan, with his better equipped and well provisioned army of 80,000 seized Pune. He also took the nearby fort of Chakan, besieging it for a month and a half before breaching the walls.[61] Shaista Khan pressed his advantage of having a larger, better provisioned and heavily armed Mughal army and made inroads into some of the Maratha territory, seizing the city of Pune and establishing his residence at Shivaji's palace of Lal Mahal.[62]

On the night of 5 April 1663, Shivaji led a daring night attack on Shaista Khan's camp.[63] He, along with his 400 men, attacked Shaista Khan's mansion, broke into Khan's bedroom and wounded him. Khan lost three fingers.[64] In the scuffle, Shaista Khan's son, several of his wives, servants and soldiers were killed.[65] The Khan took refuge with the Mughal forces outside of Pune, and Aurangzeb punished him for this embarrassment with a transfer to Bengal.[66]

In retaliation for Shaista Khan's attacks, and to replenish his now-depleted treasury, in 1664 Shivaji sacked the port city of Surat, a wealthy Mughal trading centre.[67] On 13 February 1665, he also conducted a naval raid on the Portuguese held Basrur in present day Karnataka, and gained a large booty.[68][69]

Treaty of Purandar

Main article: Treaty of Purandar (1665)
 
Raja Jai Singh of Amber receiving Shivaji a day before concluding the Treaty of Purandar

The attacks on Shaista Khan and Surat enraged Aurangzeb. In response, he sent this Rajput general, Mirza Raja Jai Singh I with an army numbering around 15,000 to defeat Shivaji.[70] Throughout 1665, Jai Singh's forces pressed Shivaji, with their cavalry razing the countryside, and their siege forces investing Shivaji's forts. The Mughal commander succeeded in luring away several of Shivaji's key commanders, and many of his cavalrymen, into Mughal service. By mid-1665, with the fortress at Purandar besieged and near capture, Shivaji was forced to come to terms with Jai Singh.[70]

In the Treaty of Purandar, signed between Shivaji and Jai Singh on 11 June 1665, Shivaji agreed to give up 23 of his forts, keeping 12 for himself, and pay compensation of 400,000 gold hun to the Mughals.[71] Shivaji agreed to become a vassal of the Mughal empire, and to send his son Sambhaji, along with 5,000 horsemen, to fight for the Mughals in the Deccan as a mansabdar.[72][73]

Arrest in Agra and escape

 
20th century depiction by M.V. Dhurandhar of Raja Shivaji at the court of Mughal Badshah, Aurangzeb.

In 1666, Aurangzeb summoned Shivaji to Agra (though some sources instead state Delhi), along with his nine-year-old son Sambhaji. Aurangzeb's planned to send Shivaji to Kandahar, now in Afghanistan, to consolidate the Mughal empire's northwestern frontier. However, in the court, on 12 May 1666, Shivaji was made to stand alongside relatively low-ranking nobles, men he had already defeated in battle.[74] Shivaji took offence and stormed out of court,[75] and was promptly placed under house arrest. Ram Singh, son of Jai Singh, guaranteed custody of Shivaji and his son.[76]

Shivaji's position under house arrest was perilous, as Aurangzeb's court debated whether to kill him or continue to employ him. Jai Singh, having assured Shivaji of his personal safety, tried to influence Aurangzeb's decision.[77] Meanwhile, Shivaji hatched a plan to free himself. He sent most of his men back home and asked Ram Singh to withdraw his guarantees to the emperor for the safe custody of himself and his son and surrendered himself to Mughal forces.[78][79] Shivaji then pretended to be ill and began sending out large baskets packed with sweets to be given to the Brahmins and poor as penance.[80][81][82][83] On 17 August 1666, by putting himself in one of the large baskets and his son Sambhaji in another, Shivaji escaped and left Agra.[84][85][86][d]

Peace with the Mughals

After Shivaji's escape, hostilities with the Mughals ebbed, with Mughal sardar Jaswant Singh acting as an intermediary between Shivaji and Aurangzeb for new peace proposals.[88] During the period between 1666 and 1668, Aurangzeb conferred the title of raja on Shivaji. Sambhaji was also restored as a Mughal mansabdar with 5,000 horses. Shivaji at that time sent Sambhaji with general Prataprao Gujar to serve with the Mughal viceroy in Aurangabad, Prince Mu'azzam. Sambhaji was also granted territory in Berar for revenue collection.[89] Aurangzeb also permitted Shivaji to attack the decaying Adil Shahi; the weakened Sultan Ali Adil Shah II sued for peace and granted the rights of sardeshmukhi and chauthai to Shivaji.[90]

Reconquest

 
Dutch painting depicting Shivaji

The peace between Shivaji and the Mughals lasted until 1670. At that time Aurangzeb became suspicious of the close ties between Shivaji and Mu'azzam, who he thought might usurp his throne, and may even have been receiving bribes from Shivaji.[91][92] Also at that time, Aurangzeb, occupied in fighting the Afghans, greatly reduced his army in the Deccan; many of the disbanded soldiers quickly joined Maratha service.[93] The Mughals also took away the jagir of Berar from Shivaji to recover the money lent to him a few years earlier.[94] In response, Shivaji launched an offensive against the Mughals and recovered a major portion of the territories surrendered to them in a span of four months.[95]

Shivaji sacked Surat for second time in 1670; the English and Dutch factories were able to repel his attack, but he managed to sack the city itself, including plundering the goods of a Muslim prince from Mawara-un-Nahr who was returning from Mecca. Angered by the renewed attacks, the Mughals resumed hostilities with the Marathas, sending a force under Daud Khan to intercept Shivaji on his return home from Surat, but were defeated in the Battle of Vani-Dindori near present-day Nashik.[96]

In October 1670, Shivaji sent his forces to harass the English at Bombay; as they had refused to sell him war materiel, his forces blocked English woodcutting parties from leaving Bombay. In September 1671, Shivaji sent an ambassador to Bombay, again seeking materiel, this time for the fight against Danda-Rajpuri. The English had misgivings of the advantages Shivaji would gain from this conquest, but also did not want to lose any chance of receiving compensation for his looting their factories at Rajapur. The English sent Lieutenant Stephen Ustick to treat with Shivaji, but negotiations failed over the issue of the Rajapur indemnity. Numerous exchanges of envoys followed over the coming years, with some agreement as to the arms issues in 1674, but Shivaji was never to pay the Rajapur indemnity before his death, and the factory there dissolved at the end of 1682.[97]

Battles of Umrani and Nesari

In 1674, Prataprao Gujar, the commander-in-chief of the Maratha forces, was sent to push back the invading force led by the Bijapuri general, Bahlol Khan. Prataprao's forces defeated and captured the opposing general in the battle, after cutting-off their water supply by encircling a strategic lake, which prompted Bahlol Khan to sue for peace. In spite of Shivaji's specific warnings against doing so, Prataprao released Bahlol Khan, who started preparing for a fresh invasion.[98]

Shivaji sent a displeased letter to Prataprao, refusing him audience until Bahlol Khan was re-captured. Upset by his commander's rebuke, Prataprao found Bahlol Khan and charged his position with only six other horsemen, leaving his main force behind. Prataprao was killed in combat; Shivaji was deeply grieved on hearing of Prataprao's death, and arranged for the marriage of his second son, Rajaram, to Prataprao's daughter. Prataprao was succeeded by Hambirrao Mohite, as the new sarnaubat (commander-in-chief of the Maratha forces). Raigad Fort was newly built by Hiroji Indulkar as a capital of nascent Maratha kingdom.[99]

Coronation

 
20th century depiction of the Coronation Durbar with over 100 characters depicted in attendance by M.V. Dhurandhar

Shivaji had acquired extensive lands and wealth through his campaigns, but lacking a formal title, he was still technically a Mughal zamindar or the son of a Bijapuri jagirdar, with no legal basis to rule his de facto domain. A kingly title could address this and also prevent any challenges by other Maratha leaders, to whom he was technically equal.[e] it would also provide the Hindu Marathas with a fellow Hindu sovereign in a region otherwise ruled by Muslims.[101]

The preparation for the proposed coronation began in 1673. However, some controversial problems delayed the coronation by almost a year.[102] Controversy erupted amongst the Brahmins of Shivaji's court: they refused to crown Shivaji as a king because that status was reserved for those of the kshatriya (warrior) varna in Hindu society.[103] Shivaji was descended from a line of headmen of farming villages, and the Brahmins accordingly categorised him as being of the shudra (cultivator) varna.[104][105] They noted that Shivaji had never had a sacred thread ceremony, and did not wear the thread, which a kshatriya would.[104] Shivaji summoned Gaga Bhatt, a pandit of Varanasi, who stated that he had found a genealogy proving that Shivaji was descended from the Sisodias, and thus indeed a kshatriya, albeit one in need of the ceremonies befitting his rank.[106] To enforce this status, Shivaji was given a sacred thread ceremony, and remarried his spouses under the Vedic rites expected of a kshatriya.[107][108] However, following historical evidence, Shivaji's claim to Rajput, and specifically Sisodia ancestry may be interpreted as being anything from tenuous at best, to inventive in a more extreme reading.[109]

On 28 May, Shivaji performed penance for not observing Kshatriya rites by his ancestors' and himself for so long. Then he was invested by Gaga Bhatt with the sacred thread.[110] On insistence of other Brahmins, Gaga Bhatt dropped the Vedic chant and initiated Shivaji in a modified form of the life of the twice-born, instead of putting him on a par with the Brahmins. Next day, Shivaji made atonement for the sins, deliberate or accidental, committed in his own lifetime.[111] He was weighed separately against seven metals including gold, silver and several other articles like fine linen, camphor, salt, sugar etc. All these metals and articles along with a lakh of hun were distributed among the Brahmins. But even this failed to satisfy the greed of the Brahmins. Two of the learned Brahmins pointed out that Shivaji, while conducting his raids, had burnt cities involving the death of Brahmins, cows, women and children and he could be cleansed of this sin for a price of Rs. 8,000, and Shivaji paid this amount.[111] Total expenditure made for feeding the assemblage, general alms giving, throne and ornaments approached 1.5 million Rupees.[112]

Shivaji was crowned king of the Maratha Empire (Hindawi Swaraj) in a lavish ceremony on 6 June 1674 at Raigad fort.[113][114] In the Hindu calendar it was on the 13th day (trayodashi) of the first fortnight of the month of Jyeshtha in the year 1596.[115] Gaga Bhatt officiated, pouring water from a gold vessel filled with the waters of the seven sacred rivers Yamuna, Indus, Ganges, Godavari, Narmada, Krishna and Kaveri over Shivaji's head, and chanted the Vedic coronation mantras. After the ablution, Shivaji bowed before Jijabai and touched her feet. Nearly fifty thousand people gathered at Raigad for the ceremonies.[116][117] Shivaji was entitled Shakakarta ("founder of an era")[1] and Chhatrapati ("sovereign"). He also took the title of Haindava Dharmodhhaarak (protector of the Hindu faith)[2] and Kshatriya Kulavantas.[118][119][120] Kshatriya is one of the four varnas[f] of Hinduism and kulavantas means the 'head of the kula, or race'.[121]

Shivaji's mother Jijabai died on 18 June 1674. The Marathas summoned Nischal Puri Goswami, a tantrik priest, who declared that the original coronation had been held under inauspicious stars, and a second coronation was needed. This second coronation on 24 September 1674 had a dual-use, mollifying those who still believed that Shivaji was not qualified for the Vedic rites of his first coronation, by performing a less-contestable additional ceremony.[122][123][124]

Conquest of southern India

Beginning in 1674, the Marathas undertook an aggressive campaign, raiding Khandesh (October), capturing Bijapuri Ponda (April 1675), Karwar (mid-year), and Kolhapur (July).[125] In November, the Maratha navy skirmished with the Siddis of Janjira, but failed to dislodge them.[126] Having recovered from an illness, and taking advantage of a civil war that had broken out between the Deccanis and the Afghans at Bijapur, Shivaji raided Athani in April 1676.[127]

In the run-up to his expedition, Shivaji appealed to a sense of Deccani patriotism, that Southern India was a homeland that should be protected from outsiders.[128][129] His appeal was somewhat successful, and in 1677 Shivaji visited Hyderabad for a month and entered into a treaty with the Qutubshah of the Golkonda sultanate, agreeing to reject his alliance with Bijapur and jointly oppose the Mughals. In 1677, Shivaji invaded Karnataka with 30,000 cavalry and 40,000 infantry, backed by Golkonda artillery and funding.[130] Proceeding south, Shivaji seized the forts of Vellore and Gingee;[131] the latter would later serve as a capital of the Marathas during the reign of his son Rajaram I.[132]

Shivaji intended to reconcile with his half-brother Venkoji (Ekoji I), Shahaji's son by his second wife, Tukabai (née Mohite), who ruled Thanjavur (Tanjore) after Shahaji. The initially promising negotiations were unsuccessful, so whilst returning to Raigad, Shivaji defeated his half-brother's army on 26 November 1677 and seized most of his possessions in the Mysore plateau. Venkoji's wife Dipa Bai, whom Shivaji deeply respected, took up new negotiations with Shivaji and also convinced her husband to distance himself from Muslim advisors. In the end, Shivaji consented to turn over to her and her female descendants many of the properties he had seized, with Venkoji consenting to a number of conditions for the proper administration of the territories and maintenance of Shahji's memorial (samadhi).[133][134]

Issue

Name Mother Lifespan
Sakhubai Nimbalkar Sai Bhonsale 1651 - Unknown
Ranubai Jadhav 1653 - Unknown
Ambikabai Mahadik 1655 - Unknown
Sambhaji I 14 May 1657 - 11 March 1689
Deepabai Soyarabai Unknown
Rajaram I 24 February 1670 - 3 March 1700
Kamlabai Sakvarbai Unknown

Death and succession

 
Sambhaji, Shivaji's elder son who succeeded him

The question of Shivaji's heir-apparent was complicated. Shivaji confined his son to Panhala in 1678, only to have the prince escape with his wife and defect to the Mughals for a year. Sambhaji then returned home, unrepentant, and was again confined to Panhala.[135]

Shivaji died around 3–5 April 1680 at the age of 50,[136] on the eve of Hanuman Jayanti. The cause of Shivaji's death is disputed. British records states that Shivaji died of bloody flux being sick for 12 days.[g] In a contemporary work in Portuguese, the Biblioteca Nacional de Lisboa, the recorded cause of death of Shivaji is anthrax.[138][139] However, Krishnaji Anant Sabhasad, author of Sabhasad Bakhar, the biography of Shivaji has mentioned fever as the cause of death of Shivaji.[140][139] Putalabai, the childless eldest of the surviving wives of Shivaji committed sati by jumping into his funeral pyre. Another surviving spouse, Sakwarbai, was not allowed to follow suit because she had a young daughter.[135] There were also allegations, though doubted by later scholars, that his second wife Soyarabai had poisoned him in order to put her 10-year-old son Rajaram on the throne.[141]

After Shivaji's death, Soyarabai made plans with various ministers of the administration to crown her son Rajaram rather than her stepson Sambhaji. On 21 April 1680, ten-year-old Rajaram was installed on the throne. However, Sambhaji took possession of Raigad Fort after killing the commander, and on 18 June acquired control of Raigad, and formally ascended the throne on 20 July.[142] Rajaram, his wife Janki Bai, and mother Soyrabai were imprisoned, and Soyrabai executed on charges of conspiracy that October.[143]

Governance

Ashta Pradhan Mandal

Main article: Ashta Pradhan

The Council of Eight Ministers, or Ashta Pradhan Mandal, was an administrative and advisory council set up by Shivaji.[144] It consisted of eight ministers who regularly advised Shivaji on political and administrative matters. The eight ministers were as follows:[140]

Ashta Pradhan Mandal
Minister Duty
Peshwa or Prime Minister General Administration
Amatya or Finance Minister Maintaining Public accounts
Mantri or Chronicler Maintaining Court records
Summant or Dabir or Foreign Secretary All matters related to relationships with other states
Sachiv or Shurn Nawis or Home Secretary Managing correspondence of the king
Panditrao or Ecclesiastical Head Religious matters
Nyayadhis or Chief Justice Civil and Military justice
Senapati/Sari Naubat or Commander-in-Chief All matters related to army of the king

Except the Panditrao and Nyayadhis all other ministers held military commands, their civil duties often being performed by deputies.[140][144]

Promotion of Marathi and Sanskrit

In his court, Shivaji replaced Persian, the common courtly language in the region, with Marathi, and emphasised Hindu political and courtly traditions. Shivaji's reign stimulated the deployment of Marathi as a tool of systematic description and understanding.[145] Shivaji's royal seal was in Sanskrit. Shivaji commissioned one of his officials to make a comprehensive lexicon to replace Persian and Arabic terms with their Sanskrit equivalents. This led to production of ‘Rājavyavahārakośa’, the thesaurus of state usage in 1677.[8]

Religious policy

Shivaji is known for his liberal and tolerant religious policies. While Hindus were relieved to practice their religion freely under a Hindu ruler, Shivaji not only allowed Muslims to practice without harassment, but supported their ministries with endowments.[146] When Aurangzeb imposed the Jizya tax on non-Muslims on 3 April 1679, Shivaji wrote a strict letter to Aurangzeb criticising his tax policy. He wrote:

In strict justice, the Jizya is not at all lawful. If you imagine piety in oppressing and terrorising the Hindus, you ought to first levy the tax on Raj Singh I, who is the head of Hindus. But to oppress ants and flies is not at all valour nor spirit. If you believe in Quran, God is the lord of all men and not just of Muslims only. Verily, Islam and Hinduism are terms of contrast. They are used by the true Divine Painter for blending the colours and filling in the outlines. If it is a mosque, the call to prayer is chanted in remembrance of God. If it is a temple, the bells are rung in yearning for God alone. To show bigotry to any man's religion and practices is to alter the words of the Holy Book.[147][148]

Noting that Shivaji had stemmed the spread of the neighbouring Muslim states, his contemporary, the poet Kavi Bhushan stated:

Had not there been Shivaji, Kashi would have lost its culture, Mathura would have been turned into a mosque and all would have been circumcised.[149]

However, Gijs Kruijtzer, in his book Xenophobia in Seventeenth-Century India argues that the roots of modern communalism (the antagonism between “communities” of Hindus and Muslims) first appeared in the decade 1677–1687, in the interplay between Shivaji and the Mughal emperor Aurangzeb (though Shivaji died in 1680).[150][page needed] During the sack of Surat in 1664, Shivaji was approached by Ambrose, a Capuchin monk who asked him to spare the city's Christians. Shivaji left the Christians untouched, saying "the Frankish Padrys are good men."[151]

Shivaji was not attempting to create a universal Hindu rule. He was tolerant to different religions and believed in syncretism. He urged Aurangzeb to act like Akbar in according respect to Hindu beliefs and places. Shivaji had little trouble forming alliances with the surrounding Muslim nations even against Hindu powers. He also did not join forces with other Hindu powers, such as the Rajputs, to fight the Mughals.[h] In his own army, Muslim leaders appear quite early. The first Pathan unit was formed in 1656. His naval admiral, Darya Sarang,[153] was a Muslim.

  •  

    Bakhar dedicated to Shivaji

  •  

    Writings of Modi Script. line 2 is from the time of Shivaji

Ramdas

 
Sajjangad, where Ramdas was invited by Shivaji Raje to reside

Shivaji was a contemporary of Samarth Ramdas. Historian Stewart Gordon concludes about their relationship:

Older Maratha histories asserted that Shivaji was a close follower of Ramdas, a Brahmin teacher, who guided him in an orthodox Hindu path; recent research has shown that Shivaji did not meet or know Ramdas until late in his life. Rather, Shivaji followed his own judgement throughout his remarkable career.[36]

Seal

 
Royal seal of Shivaji

Seals were means to confer authenticity on official documents. Shahaji and Jijabai had Persian seals. But Shivaji, right from beginning, used Sanskrit for his seal.[8] The seal proclaims: "This seal of Shiva, son of Shah, shines forth for the welfare of the people and is meant to command increasing respect from the universe like the first phase of the moon."[154]

Shivaji's mode of warfare

Shivaji maintained a small but effective standing army. The core of Shivaji's army consisted of peasants of the Maratha and Kunbi castes.[155] Shivaji was aware of the limitations of his army. He realised that conventional warfare methods were inadequate to confront the big, well-trained cavalry of the Mughals which was equipped with field artillery. As a result, Shivaji adopted guerilla tactics which became known as 'Ganimi Kawa'.[156] Shivaji was a master of guerrilla warfare.[157] His strategies consistently perplexed and defeated armies sent against him. He realized that the most vulnerable point of the large, slow-moving armies of the time was supply. He utilised knowledge of the local terrain and the superior mobility of his light cavalry to cut off supplies to the enemy.[158] Shivaji refused to confront in pitched battles. Instead, he lured the enemies in difficult hills and jungles of his own choosing, catching them at a disadvantage and routing them.[159] Shivaji didn't stick to a particular tactic but used several methods to undermine his enemies as required by circumstances, like sudden raids, sweeps and ambushes and use of psychological pressure.[159]

Shivaji was contemptuously called a "Mountain Rat" by Aurangzeb and his generals because of his guerilla tactics of attacking enemy forces and then retreating into his mountain forts.[160][161][162]

Military

Shivaji demonstrated great skill in creating his military organisation, which lasted until the demise of the Maratha Empire. His strategy rested on leveraging his ground forces, naval forces, and series of forts across his territory. The Maval infantry served as the core of his ground forces (reinforced with Telangi musketeers from Karnataka), supported by Maratha cavalry. His artillery was relatively underdeveloped and reliant on European suppliers, further inclining him to a very mobile form of warfare.[163]

Hill forts

 
Suvela Machi, view of southern sub-plateaux, as seen from Ballekilla, Rajgad
Main article: Shivaji's forts

Hill forts played a key role in Shivaji's strategy. He captured important forts at Murambdev (Rajgad), Torna, Kondhana (Sinhagad) and Purandar. He also rebuilt or repaired many forts in advantageous locations.[164] In addition, Shivaji built a number of forts; the number "111" is reported in some accounts, but it is likely the actual number "did not exceed 18."[165] The historian Jadunath Sarkar assessed that Shivaji owned some 240–280 forts at the time of his death.[166] Each was placed under three officers of equal status, lest a single traitor be bribed or tempted to deliver it to the enemy. The officers acted jointly and provided mutual checks and balance.[167]

Navy

Main article: Maratha Navy
 
Sindudurg Fort provided anchorages for Shivaji's Navy

Aware of the need for naval power to maintain control along the Konkan coast, Shivaji began to build his navy in 1657 or 1659, with the purchase of twenty galivats from the Portuguese shipyards of Bassein.[168] Marathi chronicles state that at its height his fleet counted some 400 warships, though contemporary English chronicles counter that the number never exceeded 160.[169] Kanhoji Angre was the chief of Maratha Navy.

With the Marathas being accustomed to a land-based military, Shivaji widened his search for qualified crews for his ships, taking on lower-caste Hindus of the coast who were long familiar with naval operations (the famed "Malabar pirates") as well as Muslim mercenaries.[169] Noting the power of the Portuguese navy, Shivaji hired a number of Portuguese sailors and Goan Christian converts, and made Rui Leitao Viegas commander of his fleet. Viegas was later to defect back to the Portuguese, taking 300 sailors with him.[170]

Shivaji fortified his coastline by seizing coastal forts and refurbishing them, and built his first marine fort at Sindhudurg, which was to become the headquarters of the Maratha navy.[171] The navy itself was a coastal navy, focused on travel and combat in the littoral areas, and not intended to go far out to sea.[172]

Expansion of Maratha Empire after Shivaji

See also: Mughal–Maratha Wars
 
Maratha Empire at its peak in 1758

Shivaji left behind a state always at odds with the Mughals. Soon after his death, in 1681, Aurangzeb launched an offensive in the South to capture territories held by the Marathas, the Bijapur-based Adilshahi and Qutb Shahi of Golkonda respectively. He was successful in obliterating the Sultanates but could not subdue the Marathas after spending 27 years in the Deccan. The period saw the capture, torture, and execution of Sambhaji in 1689, and the Marathas offering strong resistance under the leadership of Sambhaji's successor, Rajaram and then Rajaram's widow Tarabai. Territories changed hands repeatedly between the Mughals and the Marathas; the conflict ended in defeat for the Mughals in 1707.[173]

Shahu, a grandson of Shivaji and son of Sambhaji, was kept prisoner by Aurangzeb during the 27-year period conflict. After the latter's death, his successor released Shahu. After a brief power struggle over succession with his aunt Tarabai, Shahu ruled the Maratha Empire from 1707 to 1749. Early in his reign, he appointed Balaji Vishwanath and later his descendants, as Peshwas (prime ministers) of the Maratha Empire. The empire expanded greatly under the leadership of Balaji's son, Peshwa Bajirao I and grandson, Peshwa Balaji Bajirao. At its peak, the Maratha empire stretched from Tamil Nadu[174] in the south, to Peshawar (modern-day Khyber Pakhtunkhwa) in the north, and Bengal, in the east. In 1761, the Maratha army lost the Third Battle of Panipat to Ahmed Shah Abdali of the Afghan Durrani Empire, which halted their imperial expansion in northwestern India. Ten years after Panipat, Marathas regained influence in North India during the rule of Madhavrao Peshwa.[175]

In a bid to effectively manage the large empire, Shahu and the Peshwas gave semi-autonomy to the strongest of the knights, creating the Maratha Confederacy.[176] They became known as Gaekwads of Baroda, the Holkars of Indore and Malwa, the Scindias of Gwalior and Bhonsales of Nagpur. In 1775, the East India Company intervened in a succession struggle in Pune, which became the First Anglo-Maratha War. The Marathas remained the pre-eminent power in India until their defeat by the British in the Second and Third Anglo-Maratha wars (1805–1818), which left the company the dominant power in most of India.[177][178]

Legacy

Further information: Shivaji in popular culture
 
An early-20th-century painting by M. V. Dhurandhar of Shivaji and Baji Prabhu at Pawan Khind

Shivaji was well known for his strong religious and warrior code of ethics and exemplary character.[179] He was recognized as a national hero during the Indian Independence Movement.[180] While some accounts of Shivaji state that he was greatly influenced by the Brahmin guru Samarth Ramdas, others have said that Ramdas' role has been overemphasised by later Brahmin commentators to enhance their position.[181][182]

Early depictions

Shivaji was admired for his heroic exploits and clever stratagems in the contemporary accounts of English, French, Dutch, Portuguese and Italian writers.[183] Contemporary English writers compared him with Alexander, Hannibal and Julius Caesar.[184] The French traveller Francois Bernier wrote in his Travels in Mughal India:[185]

I forgot to mention that during pillage of Sourate, Seva-Gy, the Holy Seva-Gi! respected the habitation of the Reverend Father Ambrose, the Capuchin missionary. 'The Frankish Padres are good men', he said 'and shall not be attacked.' He spared also the house of a deceased Delale or Gentile broker, of the Dutch, because assured that he had been very charitable while alive.

Mughal depictions of Shivaji were largely negative, referring to him simply as "Shiva" without the honorific "-ji". One Mughal writer in the early 1700s described Shivaji's death as kafir bi jahannum raft (lit. 'the infidel went to Hell').[186]

Reimagining

 
A miniature Bronze statue of Shivaji Maharaj in the collection of the Shri Bhavani Museum of Aundh

In the mid-19th century, Marathi social reformer Jyotirao Phule wrote his interpretation of the Shivaji legend, portraying him as a hero of the shudras and Dalits. Phule sought to use the Shivaji legends to undermine the Brahmins he accused of hijacking the narrative, and uplift the lower classes; his 1869 ballad-form story of Shivaji was met with great hostility by the Brahmin-dominated media.[187] At the end of the 19th century, Shivaji's memory was leveraged by the non-Brahmin intellectuals of Bombay, who identified as his descendants and through him claimed the kshatriya varna. While some Brahmins rebutted this identity, defining them as of the lower shudra varna, other Brahmins recognised the Marathas' utility to the Indian independence movement, and endorsed this kshatriya legacy and the significance of Shivaji.[188]

In 1895, Indian nationalist leader Lokmanya Tilak organised what was to be an annual festival to mark the birthday of Shivaji.[189] He portrayed Shivaji as the "opponent of the oppressor", with possible negative implications concerning the colonial government.[190] Tilak denied any suggestion that his festival was anti-Muslim or disloyal to the government, but simply a celebration of a hero.[191] These celebrations prompted a British commentator in 1906 to note: "Cannot the annals of the Hindu race point to a single hero whom even the tongue of slander will not dare call a chief of dacoits...?"[192]

One of the first commentators to reappraise the critical British view of Shivaji was M. G. Ranade, whose Rise of the Maratha Power (1900) declared Shivaji's achievements as the beginning of modern nation-building. Ranade criticised earlier British portrayals of Shivaji's state as "a freebooting Power, which thrived by plunder and adventure, and succeeded only because it was the most cunning and adventurous ... This is a very common feeling with the readers, who derive their knowledge of these events solely from the works of English historians."[193]

In 1919, Sarkar published the seminal Shivaji and His Times, hailed as the most authoritative biography of the king since James Grant Duff's 1826 A History of the Mahrattas. A respected scholar, Sarkar was able to read primary sources in Persian, Marathi, and Arabic, but was challenged for his criticism of the "chauvinism" of Marathi historians' views of Shivaji.[194] Likewise, though supporters cheered his depiction of the killing of Afzal Khan as justified, they decried Sarkar's terming as "murder" the killing of the Hindu raja Chandrao More and his clan.[195]

Inspiration

 
Statue of Shivaji at Raigad Fort
 
A replica of Raigad Fort built by children on occasion of Diwali as a tribute to Shivaji.

As political tensions rose in India in the early 20th century, some Indian leaders came to re-work their earlier stances on Shivaji's role. Jawaharlal Nehru had in 1934 noted "Some of the Shivaji's deeds, like the treacherous killing of the Bijapur general, lower him greatly in our estimation." Following a public outcry from Pune intellectuals, Congress leader T. R. Deogirikar noted that Nehru had admitted he was wrong regarding Shivaji, and now endorsed Shivaji as a great nationalist.[196]

In 1966, the Shiv Sena (lit. 'Army of Shivaji') political party was formed to promote the interests of Marathi speaking people in the face of migration to Maharashtra from other parts of India, and the accompanying loss of power for locals. His image adorns literature, propaganda and icons of the party.[197]

In modern times, Shivaji is considered as a national hero in India, especially in the state of Maharashtra, where he remains an important figure in the state's history. Stories of his life form an integral part of the upbringing and identity of the Marathi people.[198] Shivaji is upheld by regional political parties and also by the Maratha caste dominated Congress party's offshoots in Maharashtra, such as the Indira Congress and the Nationalist Congress Party.[199]

In the late 20th century, Babasaheb Purandare became one of the most significant author in portraying Shivaji in his writings, leading him to be declared in 1964 as the Shiv-Shahir (lit. 'Bard of Shivaji').[200][201] However, Purandare, a Brahmin, was also accused of overemphasising the influence of Brahmin gurus on Shivaji,[199] and his Maharashtra Bhushan award ceremony in 2015 was protested by those claiming he had defamed Shivaji.[202]

Controversy

In 1993, the Illustrated Weekly published an article suggesting that Shivaji was not opposed to Muslims per se, and that his style of governance was influenced by that of the Mughal Empire. Congress Party members called for legal actions against the publisher and writer, Marathi newspapers accused them of "imperial prejudice" and Shiv Sena called for the writer's public flogging. Maharashtra brought legal action against the publisher under regulations prohibiting enmity between religious and cultural groups, but a High Court found the Illustrated Weekly had operated within the bounds of freedom of expression.[203][204]

In 2003, American academic James W. Laine published his book Shivaji: Hindu King in Islamic India to, what Ananya Vajpeyi terms, a regime of "cultural policing by militant Marathas".[205][206] As a result of this publication, the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute in Pune where Laine had researched was attacked by the Sambhaji Brigade.[207][208] Laine was even threatened to be arrested[205] and the book was banned in Maharashtra in January 2004, but the ban was lifted by the Bombay High Court in 2007, and in July 2010 the Supreme Court of India upheld the lifting of the ban.[209] This lifting was followed by public demonstrations against the author and the decision of the Supreme Court.[210][211]

Commemorations

 
Statue of Shivaji opposite Gateway of India in South Mumbai

Commemorations of Shivaji are found throughout India, most notably in Maharashtra. Shivaji's statues and monuments are found almost in every town and city in Maharashtra as well as in different places across India.[212][213][214] Other commemorations include the Indian Navy's station INS Shivaji,[215] numerous postage stamps,[216] and the main airport and railway headquarters in Mumbai.[217][218] In Maharashtra, there has been a long tradition of children building a replica fort with toy soldiers and other figures during the festival of Diwali in memory of Shivaji.[219][220]

A proposal to build a giant memorial called Shiv Smarak was approved in 2016 to be located near Mumbai on a small island in the Arabian Sea. It will be 210 meters tall, making it the world's largest statue when completed in possibly 2021.[221] [needs update]

In March 2022 a statue made of gunmetal was inaugurated in Pune.[222]

Sources

Notes

  1. ^ Based on multiple committees of historians and experts, the Government of Maharashtra accepts 19 February 1630 as his birthdate. This Julian calendar date of that period (1 March 1630 of today's Gregorian calendar) corresponds[11] to the Hindu calendar birth date from contemporary records.[12][13][14] Other suggested dates include 6 April 1627 or dates near this day.[15][16]
  2. ^ A decade earlier, Afzal Khan, in a parallel situation, had arrested a Hindu general during a truce ceremony.[46]
  3. ^ Jadunath Sarkar after weighing all recorded evidence in this behalf, has settled the point "that Afzal Khan struck the first blow" and that "Shivaji committed.... a preventive murder. It was a case of a diamond cut diamond." The conflict between Shivaji and Bijapur was essentially political in nature, and not communal.[48]
  4. ^ As per Stewart Gordon, there is no proof for this, and Shivaji probably bribed the guards. But other Maratha Historians including A. R. Kulkarni and G. B. Mehendale disagree with Gordon. Jadunath Sarkar probed more deeply into this and put forth a large volume of evidence from Rajasthani letters and Persian Akhbars. With the help of this new material, Sarkar presented a graphic account of Shivajï's visit to Aurangzeb at Agra and his escape. Kulkarni agrees with Sarkar.[87]
  5. ^ Most of the great Maratha Jahagirdar families in the service of Adilshahi strongly opposed Shivaji in his early years. These included families such as the Ghadge, More, Mohite, Ghorpade, Shirke, and Nimbalkar.[100]
  6. ^ Varna is sometimes also termed Varnashrama Dharma
  7. ^ As for the cause of his death, the Bombay Council’s letter dated 28th April 1680 says: “We have certain news that Shivaji Rajah is dead. It is now 23 days since he deceased, it is said of a bloody flux, being sick 12 days.” A contemporaneous Portuguese document states that Shivaji died of anthrax. However, none of these sources provides sufficient details to draw a definite conclusion. The Sabhasad Chronicle states that the King died of fever, while some versions of the A.K. Chronicle state that he died of “navjvar” (possibly typhoid).[137]
  8. ^ Shivaji was not attempting to create a universal Hindu rule. Over and over, he espoused tolerance and syncretism. He even called on Aurangzeb to act like Akbar in according respect to Hindu beliefs and places. Shivaji had no difficulty in allying with the Muslim states which surrounded him – Bijapur, Golconda, and the Mughals – even against Hindu powers, such as the nayaks of the Karnatic. Further, he did not ally with other Hindu powers, such as the Rajputs, rebelling against the Mughals.[152]

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Bibliography

Further reading

  • Daniel Jasper (2003). "Commemorating the 'golden age' of Shivaji in Maharashtra, India, and the development of Maharashtrian public politics". Journal of Political and Military Sociology. 31 (2): 215–230. JSTOR 45293740. S2CID 152003918.
  • B. K. Apte, ed. (1974–1975). Chhatrapati Shivaji: Coronation Tercentenary Commemoration Volume. Bombay: University of Bombay.
  • Pearson, M. N. (1976b). "Shivaji and the Decline of the Mughal Empire". Journal of Asian Studies. 35 (2): 221–235. doi:10.2307/2053980. JSTOR 2053980. S2CID 162482005.
  • James W. Laine (2003). Shivaji: Hindu King in Islamic India. Oxford University Press, USA. ISBN 978-0-19-514126-9.

External links

 
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Shivaji in art.
 
Wikisource has the text of a 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article about Shivaji.
  •   Quotations related to Shivaji at Wikiquote
  • Shivaji at Curlie
Shivaji
Born: c. 1627/1630 Died: 3 April 1680
Regnal titles
New title
new state formed
 Chhatrapati of the Maratha Empire
1674–1680 		Succeeded by

January 18, 2023
shivaji, other, uses, disambiguation, bhonsale, marathi, pronunciation, ʃiʋaˑd, ʒiˑ, bʱoˑs, leˑ, february, 1630, april, 1680, also, referred, chhatrapati, maharaj, indian, ruler, member, bhonsle, maratha, clan, initially, served, jagirdar, pune, after, 1664, s. For other uses see Shivaji disambiguation Shivaji I Shivaji Bhonsale Marathi pronunciation ʃiʋaˑd ʒiˑ bʱoˑs e leˑ c 19 February 1630 3 April 1680 5 also referred to as Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj was an Indian ruler and a member of the Bhonsle Maratha clan He initially served as the Jagirdar of Pune after 1664 succeeding his father Shahaji 6 Eventually Shivaji carved out his own independent kingdom from the declining Adilshahi sultanate of Bijapur which formed the genesis of the Maratha Empire In 1674 he was formally crowned the Chhatrapati of his realm at Raigad Fort 7 Shivaji Bhonsle IShakakarta 1 Haindava Dharmoddharak 2 Portrait of Shivaji c 1680s British Museum1st Emperor Chhatrapati of the Maratha EmpireReign1674 1680Coronation6 June 1674 first 24 September 1674 second PredecessorPosition EstablishedSuccessorSambhajiPeshwaMoropant Trimbak PingleJagirdar of PuneReign1664 1674SultanAli Adil Shah II Sikandar Adil Shah citation needed PredecessorShahajiSuccessorPosition Abolished himself as the Chhatrapati of the Maratha Empire Born19 February 1630Shivneri Fort Ahmadnagar Sultanate present day Pune Maharashtra India Died3 April 1680 aged 50 Raigad Fort Mahad Maratha Empire present day Maharashtra India SpouseSai Bhonsale m 1640 d 1659 wbr Soyarabai m 1650 wbr Putalabai m 1653 wbr Sakvarbai m 1656 wbr Kashibai Jadhav 3 Issue8 4 including Sambhaji and Rajaram I HouseBhonsleFatherShahajiMotherJijabaiReligionHinduismSignatureOver the course of his life Shivaji engaged in both alliances and hostilities with the Mughal Empire the Sultanate of Golkonda Sultanate of Bijapur and the European colonial powers Shivaji s military forces expanded the Maratha sphere of influence capturing and building forts and forming a Maratha navy Shivaji established a competent and progressive civil rule with well structured administrative organisations He revived ancient Hindu political traditions court conventions and promoted the usage of the Marathi and Sanskrit languages replacing Persian in court and administration 7 8 Shivaji s legacy was to vary by observer and time but nearly two centuries after his death he began to take on increased importance with the emergence of the Indian independence movement as many Indian nationalists elevated him as a proto nationalist and hero of the Hindus 9 10 Contents 1 Early life 1 1 Background and context 2 Conflict with Bijapur sultanate 2 1 Combat with Afzal Khan 2 2 Siege of Panhala 2 3 Battle of Pavan Khind 3 Conflict with the Mughals 3 1 Attacks on Shaista Khan and Surat 3 2 Treaty of Purandar 3 3 Arrest in Agra and escape 3 4 Peace with the Mughals 4 Reconquest 4 1 Battles of Umrani and Nesari 5 Coronation 6 Conquest of southern India 7 Issue 8 Death and succession 9 Governance 9 1 Ashta Pradhan Mandal 9 2 Promotion of Marathi and Sanskrit 9 3 Religious policy 9 3 1 Ramdas 9 4 Seal 10 Shivaji s mode of warfare 10 1 Military 10 2 Hill forts 10 3 Navy 11 Expansion of Maratha Empire after Shivaji 12 Legacy 12 1 Early depictions 12 2 Reimagining 12 3 Inspiration 12 4 Controversy 12 5 Commemorations 13 Sources 13 1 Notes 13 2 References 13 3 Bibliography 14 Further reading 15 External linksEarly lifeMain article Early life of Shivaji See also Bhonsle origin Shivneri Fort Shivaji was born in the hill fort of Shivneri near the city of Junnar which is now in Pune district Scholars disagree on his date of birth The Government of Maharashtra lists 19 February as a holiday commemorating Shivaji s birth Shivaji Jayanti a 17 18 Shivaji was named after a local deity the goddess Shivai Devi 19 20 Shivaji s father Shahaji Bhonsle was a Maratha general who served the Deccan Sultanates 21 His mother was Jijabai the daughter of Lakhuji Jadhavrao of Sindhkhed a Mughal aligned sardar claiming descent from a Yadav royal family of Devagiri 22 23 Shivaji belonged to Maratha family of Bhonsle clan 24 His paternal grandfather Maloji 1552 1597 was an influential general of Ahmadnagar Sultanate and was awarded the epithet of Raja He was given deshmukhi rights of Pune Supe Chakan and Indapur for military expenses He was also given Fort Shivneri for his family s residence c 1590 25 26 At the time of Shivaji s birth power in the Deccan was shared by three Islamic sultanates Bijapur Ahmednagar and Golkonda Shahaji often changed his loyalty between the Nizamshahi of Ahmadnagar the Adilshah of Bijapur and the Mughals but always kept his jagir fiefdom at Pune and his small army 21 Background and context South India at the turn of the 17th century Young Shivaji meeting his father Shahaji In 1636 the Adil Shahi sultanate of Bijapur invaded the kingdoms to its south 6 The sultanate had recently become a tributary state of the Mughal empire 6 27 It was being helped by Shahaji who at the time was a chieftain in the Maratha uplands of western India Shahaji was looking for opportunities of rewards of jagir land in the conquered territories the taxes on which he could collect as an annuity 6 Shahaji was a rebel from brief Mughal service Shahaji s campaigns against the Mughals supported by the Bijapur government were generally unsuccessful He was constantly pursued by the Mughal army and Shivaji and his mother Jijabai had to move from fort to fort 28 In 1636 Shahaji joined in the service of Bijapur and obtained Poona as a grant Shahaji being deployed in Bangalore by the Bijapuri ruler Adilshah appointed Dadoji Kondadeo as Poona s administrator Shivaji and Jijabai settled in Poona Kondadeo was tasked with training Shivaji in the administration of the Poona jagir While Shivaji was quick to pick up physical activities such as wrestling and horsemanship he was not especially literate and relied on his subordinate ministers to have petitions and letters read to him 29 Kondadeo died in 1647 and Shivaji took over the administration One of his first acts directly challenged the Bijapuri government 30 Conflict with Bijapur sultanate Portrait of Shivaji I c 1675 In 1646 16 year old Shivaji took the Torna Fort taking advantage of the confusion prevailing in the Bijapur court due to the ailment of Sultan Mohammed Adil Shah and seized the large treasure he found there 31 32 In the following two years Shivaji took several important forts near Pune including Purandar Kondhana and Chakan Also he brought areas east of Pune around Supa Baramati and Indapur under his direct control He used the treasure found at Torna to build a new fort named Rajgad That fort served as the seat of his government for over a decade 31 After this Shivaji turned west to the Konkan and took possession of the important town of Kalyan Bijapur government took note of these happenings and sought to take action On 25 July 1648 Shahaji was imprisoned by a fellow Maratha sardar called Baji Ghorpade under the orders of Bijapur government in a bid to contain Shivaji 33 Shahaji was released in 1649 after the capture of Jinji secured Adilshah s position in Karnataka During the period of 1649 1655 Shivaji paused in his conquests and quietly consolidated his gains 34 Following his father s release Shivaji resumed raiding and in 1656 under controversial circumstances killed Chandrarao More a fellow Maratha feudatory of Bijapur and seized the valley of Javali near the present day hill station of Mahabaleshwar from him 35 The conquest of Javali allowed Shivaji to extend his raids into South and South west Maharashtra In addition to the Bhonsle and the More families many others including Sawant of Sawantwadi Ghorpade of Mudhol Nimbalkar of Phaltan Shirke Mane and Mohite also served Adilshahi of Bijapur many with Deshmukhi rights Shivaji adopted different strategies to subdue these powerful families such as forming marital alliances dealing directly with village Patils to bypass the Deshmukhs or subduing them by force 36 Shahaji in his later years had an ambivalent attitude to his son and disavowed his rebellious activities 37 He told the Bijapuris to do whatever they wanted with Shivaji Shahaji died around 1664 1665 in a hunting accident Combat with Afzal Khan An early 20th century painting by Sawlaram Haldankar of Shivaji fighting the Bijapuri general Afzal Khan Pratapgad fort The Bijapur sultanate was displeased at their losses to Shivaji s forces which their vassal Shahaji disavowed After a peace treaty with the Mughals and the general acceptance of the young Ali Adil Shah II as the sultan the Bijapur government became more stable and turned its attention towards Shivaji 38 In 1657 the sultan or more likely his mother and regent sent Afzal Khan a veteran general to arrest Shivaji Before engaging him the Bijapuri forces desecrated the Tulja Bhavani Temple holy to Shivaji s family and the Vithoba temple at Pandharpur a major pilgrimage site for the Hindus 39 40 41 Pursued by Bijapuri forces Shivaji retreated to Pratapgad fort where many of his colleagues pressed him to surrender 42 The two forces found themselves at a stalemate with Shivaji unable to break the siege while Afzal Khan having a powerful cavalry but lacking siege equipment was unable to take the fort After two months Afzal Khan sent an envoy to Shivaji suggesting the two leaders meet in private outside the fort for negotiations 43 44 The two met in a hut at the foothills of Pratapgad fort on 10 November 1659 The arrangements had dictated that each come armed only with a sword and attended by one follower Shivaji suspecting Afzal Khan would arrest or attack him 45 b wore armour beneath his clothes concealed a bagh nakh metal tiger claw on his left arm and had a dagger in his right hand 47 The precise transpirings are not recoverable to historical certainty and remains enmeshed with legends in Maratha sources however they agree upon the fact that the protagonists landed themselves in a physical struggle which would prove fatal for Khan c Khan s dagger failed to pierce Shivaji s armour but Shivaji had him disemboweled he then fired a cannon to signal his hidden troops to attack the Bijapuri army 49 In the ensuing Battle of Pratapgarh fought on 10 November 1659 Shivaji s forces decisively defeated the Bijapur Sultanate s forces More than 3 000 soldiers of the Bijapur army were killed and one sardar of high rank two sons of Afzal Khan and two Maratha chiefs were taken prisoner 50 After the victory a grand review was held by Shivaji below Pratapgarh The captured enemy both officers and men were set free and sent back to their homes with money food and other gifts Marathas were rewarded accordingly 50 Siege of Panhala Having defeated the Bijapuri forces sent against him Shivaji s army marched towards the Konkan and Kolhapur seizing Panhala fort and defeating Bijapuri forces sent against them under Rustam Zaman and Fazl Khan in 1659 51 In 1660 Adilshah sent his general Siddi Jauhar to attack Shivaji s southern border in alliance with the Mughals who planned to attack from the north At that time Shivaji was encamped at Panhala fort with his forces Siddi Jauhar s army besieged Panhala in mid 1660 cutting off supply routes to the fort During the bombardment of Panhala Siddi Jauhar purchased grenades from the English at Rajapur to increase his efficacy and also hired some English artillerymen to assist in his bombardment of the fort conspicuously flying a flag used by the English This perceived betrayal angered Shivaji who in December would retaliate by plundering the English factory at Rajapur and capturing four of the factors imprisoning them until mid 1663 52 After months of siege Shivaji negotiated with Siddi Jauhar and handed over the fort on 22 September 1660 withdrawing to Vishalgad 53 Shivaji retook Panhala in 1673 54 Battle of Pavan Khind Main article Battle of Pavan KhindShivaji escaped from Panhala by cover of night and as he was pursued by the enemy cavalry his Maratha sardar Baji Prabhu Deshpande of Bandal Deshmukh along with 300 soldiers volunteered to fight to the death to hold back the enemy at Ghod Khind horse ravine to give Shivaji and the rest of the army a chance to reach the safety of the Vishalgad fort 55 In the ensuing Battle of Pavan Khind the smaller Maratha force held back the larger enemy to buy time for Shivaji to escape Baji Prabhu Deshpande was wounded but continued to fight until he heard the sound of cannon fire from Vishalgad 24 signalling Shivaji had safely reached the fort on the evening of 13 July 1660 56 Ghod Khind khind meaning a narrow mountain pass was later renamed Paavan Khind sacred pass in honour of Bajiprabhu Deshpande Shibosingh Jadhav Fuloji and all other soldiers who fought in there 56 Conflict with the MughalsUntil 1657 Shivaji maintained peaceful relations with the Mughal Empire Shivaji offered his assistance to Aurangzeb who then was the Mughal viceroy of the Deccan and son of the Mughal emperor in conquering Bijapur in return for formal recognition of his right to the Bijapuri forts and villages under his possession Dissatisfied with the Mughal response and receiving a better offer from Bijapur he launched a raid into the Mughal Deccan 57 Shivaji s confrontations with the Mughals began in March 1657 when two of Shivaji s officers raided the Mughal territory near Ahmednagar 58 This was followed by raids in Junnar with Shivaji carrying off 300 000 hun in cash and 200 horses 59 Aurangzeb responded to the raids by sending Nasiri Khan who defeated the forces of Shivaji at Ahmednagar However Aurangzeb s countermeasures against Shivaji were interrupted by the rainy season and his battle of succession with his brothers for the Mughal throne following the illness of the emperor Shah Jahan 60 Attacks on Shaista Khan and Surat Main articles Battle of Chakan and Battle of Surat A 20th century depiction of Shivaji s surprise attack on Mughal general Shaista Khan in Pune by M V Dhurandhar Upon the request of Badi Begum of Bijapur Aurangzeb now the Mughal emperor sent his maternal uncle Shaista Khan with an army numbering over 150 000 along with a powerful artillery division in January 1660 to attack Shivaji in conjunction with Bijapur s army led by Siddi Jauhar Shaista Khan with his better equipped and well provisioned army of 80 000 seized Pune He also took the nearby fort of Chakan besieging it for a month and a half before breaching the walls 61 Shaista Khan pressed his advantage of having a larger better provisioned and heavily armed Mughal army and made inroads into some of the Maratha territory seizing the city of Pune and establishing his residence at Shivaji s palace of Lal Mahal 62 On the night of 5 April 1663 Shivaji led a daring night attack on Shaista Khan s camp 63 He along with his 400 men attacked Shaista Khan s mansion broke into Khan s bedroom and wounded him Khan lost three fingers 64 In the scuffle Shaista Khan s son several of his wives servants and soldiers were killed 65 The Khan took refuge with the Mughal forces outside of Pune and Aurangzeb punished him for this embarrassment with a transfer to Bengal 66 In retaliation for Shaista Khan s attacks and to replenish his now depleted treasury in 1664 Shivaji sacked the port city of Surat a wealthy Mughal trading centre 67 On 13 February 1665 he also conducted a naval raid on the Portuguese held Basrur in present day Karnataka and gained a large booty 68 69 Treaty of Purandar Main article Treaty of Purandar 1665 Raja Jai Singh of Amber receiving Shivaji a day before concluding the Treaty of Purandar The attacks on Shaista Khan and Surat enraged Aurangzeb In response he sent this Rajput general Mirza Raja Jai Singh I with an army numbering around 15 000 to defeat Shivaji 70 Throughout 1665 Jai Singh s forces pressed Shivaji with their cavalry razing the countryside and their siege forces investing Shivaji s forts The Mughal commander succeeded in luring away several of Shivaji s key commanders and many of his cavalrymen into Mughal service By mid 1665 with the fortress at Purandar besieged and near capture Shivaji was forced to come to terms with Jai Singh 70 In the Treaty of Purandar signed between Shivaji and Jai Singh on 11 June 1665 Shivaji agreed to give up 23 of his forts keeping 12 for himself and pay compensation of 400 000 gold hun to the Mughals 71 Shivaji agreed to become a vassal of the Mughal empire and to send his son Sambhaji along with 5 000 horsemen to fight for the Mughals in the Deccan as a mansabdar 72 73 Arrest in Agra and escape 20th century depiction by M V Dhurandhar of Raja Shivaji at the court of Mughal Badshah Aurangzeb In 1666 Aurangzeb summoned Shivaji to Agra though some sources instead state Delhi along with his nine year old son Sambhaji Aurangzeb s planned to send Shivaji to Kandahar now in Afghanistan to consolidate the Mughal empire s northwestern frontier However in the court on 12 May 1666 Shivaji was made to stand alongside relatively low ranking nobles men he had already defeated in battle 74 Shivaji took offence and stormed out of court 75 and was promptly placed under house arrest Ram Singh son of Jai Singh guaranteed custody of Shivaji and his son 76 Shivaji s position under house arrest was perilous as Aurangzeb s court debated whether to kill him or continue to employ him Jai Singh having assured Shivaji of his personal safety tried to influence Aurangzeb s decision 77 Meanwhile Shivaji hatched a plan to free himself He sent most of his men back home and asked Ram Singh to withdraw his guarantees to the emperor for the safe custody of himself and his son and surrendered himself to Mughal forces 78 79 Shivaji then pretended to be ill and began sending out large baskets packed with sweets to be given to the Brahmins and poor as penance 80 81 82 83 On 17 August 1666 by putting himself in one of the large baskets and his son Sambhaji in another Shivaji escaped and left Agra 84 85 86 d Peace with the Mughals After Shivaji s escape hostilities with the Mughals ebbed with Mughal sardar Jaswant Singh acting as an intermediary between Shivaji and Aurangzeb for new peace proposals 88 During the period between 1666 and 1668 Aurangzeb conferred the title of raja on Shivaji Sambhaji was also restored as a Mughal mansabdar with 5 000 horses Shivaji at that time sent Sambhaji with general Prataprao Gujar to serve with the Mughal viceroy in Aurangabad Prince Mu azzam Sambhaji was also granted territory in Berar for revenue collection 89 Aurangzeb also permitted Shivaji to attack the decaying Adil Shahi the weakened Sultan Ali Adil Shah II sued for peace and granted the rights of sardeshmukhi and chauthai to Shivaji 90 Reconquest Dutch painting depicting Shivaji The peace between Shivaji and the Mughals lasted until 1670 At that time Aurangzeb became suspicious of the close ties between Shivaji and Mu azzam who he thought might usurp his throne and may even have been receiving bribes from Shivaji 91 92 Also at that time Aurangzeb occupied in fighting the Afghans greatly reduced his army in the Deccan many of the disbanded soldiers quickly joined Maratha service 93 The Mughals also took away the jagir of Berar from Shivaji to recover the money lent to him a few years earlier 94 In response Shivaji launched an offensive against the Mughals and recovered a major portion of the territories surrendered to them in a span of four months 95 Shivaji sacked Surat for second time in 1670 the English and Dutch factories were able to repel his attack but he managed to sack the city itself including plundering the goods of a Muslim prince from Mawara un Nahr who was returning from Mecca Angered by the renewed attacks the Mughals resumed hostilities with the Marathas sending a force under Daud Khan to intercept Shivaji on his return home from Surat but were defeated in the Battle of Vani Dindori near present day Nashik 96 In October 1670 Shivaji sent his forces to harass the English at Bombay as they had refused to sell him war materiel his forces blocked English woodcutting parties from leaving Bombay In September 1671 Shivaji sent an ambassador to Bombay again seeking materiel this time for the fight against Danda Rajpuri The English had misgivings of the advantages Shivaji would gain from this conquest but also did not want to lose any chance of receiving compensation for his looting their factories at Rajapur The English sent Lieutenant Stephen Ustick to treat with Shivaji but negotiations failed over the issue of the Rajapur indemnity Numerous exchanges of envoys followed over the coming years with some agreement as to the arms issues in 1674 but Shivaji was never to pay the Rajapur indemnity before his death and the factory there dissolved at the end of 1682 97 Battles of Umrani and Nesari In 1674 Prataprao Gujar the commander in chief of the Maratha forces was sent to push back the invading force led by the Bijapuri general Bahlol Khan Prataprao s forces defeated and captured the opposing general in the battle after cutting off their water supply by encircling a strategic lake which prompted Bahlol Khan to sue for peace In spite of Shivaji s specific warnings against doing so Prataprao released Bahlol Khan who started preparing for a fresh invasion 98 Shivaji sent a displeased letter to Prataprao refusing him audience until Bahlol Khan was re captured Upset by his commander s rebuke Prataprao found Bahlol Khan and charged his position with only six other horsemen leaving his main force behind Prataprao was killed in combat Shivaji was deeply grieved on hearing of Prataprao s death and arranged for the marriage of his second son Rajaram to Prataprao s daughter Prataprao was succeeded by Hambirrao Mohite as the new sarnaubat commander in chief of the Maratha forces Raigad Fort was newly built by Hiroji Indulkar as a capital of nascent Maratha kingdom 99 Coronation 20th century depiction of the Coronation Durbar with over 100 characters depicted in attendance by M V Dhurandhar Shivaji had acquired extensive lands and wealth through his campaigns but lacking a formal title he was still technically a Mughal zamindar or the son of a Bijapuri jagirdar with no legal basis to rule his de facto domain A kingly title could address this and also prevent any challenges by other Maratha leaders to whom he was technically equal e it would also provide the Hindu Marathas with a fellow Hindu sovereign in a region otherwise ruled by Muslims 101 The preparation for the proposed coronation began in 1673 However some controversial problems delayed the coronation by almost a year 102 Controversy erupted amongst the Brahmins of Shivaji s court they refused to crown Shivaji as a king because that status was reserved for those of the kshatriya warrior varna in Hindu society 103 Shivaji was descended from a line of headmen of farming villages and the Brahmins accordingly categorised him as being of the shudra cultivator varna 104 105 They noted that Shivaji had never had a sacred thread ceremony and did not wear the thread which a kshatriya would 104 Shivaji summoned Gaga Bhatt a pandit of Varanasi who stated that he had found a genealogy proving that Shivaji was descended from the Sisodias and thus indeed a kshatriya albeit one in need of the ceremonies befitting his rank 106 To enforce this status Shivaji was given a sacred thread ceremony and remarried his spouses under the Vedic rites expected of a kshatriya 107 108 However following historical evidence Shivaji s claim to Rajput and specifically Sisodia ancestry may be interpreted as being anything from tenuous at best to inventive in a more extreme reading 109 On 28 May Shivaji performed penance for not observing Kshatriya rites by his ancestors and himself for so long Then he was invested by Gaga Bhatt with the sacred thread 110 On insistence of other Brahmins Gaga Bhatt dropped the Vedic chant and initiated Shivaji in a modified form of the life of the twice born instead of putting him on a par with the Brahmins Next day Shivaji made atonement for the sins deliberate or accidental committed in his own lifetime 111 He was weighed separately against seven metals including gold silver and several other articles like fine linen camphor salt sugar etc All these metals and articles along with a lakh of hun were distributed among the Brahmins But even this failed to satisfy the greed of the Brahmins Two of the learned Brahmins pointed out that Shivaji while conducting his raids had burnt cities involving the death of Brahmins cows women and children and he could be cleansed of this sin for a price of Rs 8 000 and Shivaji paid this amount 111 Total expenditure made for feeding the assemblage general alms giving throne and ornaments approached 1 5 million Rupees 112 Shivaji was crowned king of the Maratha Empire Hindawi Swaraj in a lavish ceremony on 6 June 1674 at Raigad fort 113 114 In the Hindu calendar it was on the 13th day trayodashi of the first fortnight of the month of Jyeshtha in the year 1596 115 Gaga Bhatt officiated pouring water from a gold vessel filled with the waters of the seven sacred rivers Yamuna Indus Ganges Godavari Narmada Krishna and Kaveri over Shivaji s head and chanted the Vedic coronation mantras After the ablution Shivaji bowed before Jijabai and touched her feet Nearly fifty thousand people gathered at Raigad for the ceremonies 116 117 Shivaji was entitled Shakakarta founder of an era 1 and Chhatrapati sovereign He also took the title of Haindava Dharmodhhaarak protector of the Hindu faith 2 and Kshatriya Kulavantas 118 119 120 Kshatriya is one of the four varnas f of Hinduism and kulavantas means the head of the kula or race 121 Shivaji s mother Jijabai died on 18 June 1674 The Marathas summoned Nischal Puri Goswami a tantrik priest who declared that the original coronation had been held under inauspicious stars and a second coronation was needed This second coronation on 24 September 1674 had a dual use mollifying those who still believed that Shivaji was not qualified for the Vedic rites of his first coronation by performing a less contestable additional ceremony 122 123 124 Conquest of southern India Tanjavur Maratha Kingdom Beginning in 1674 the Marathas undertook an aggressive campaign raiding Khandesh October capturing Bijapuri Ponda April 1675 Karwar mid year and Kolhapur July 125 In November the Maratha navy skirmished with the Siddis of Janjira but failed to dislodge them 126 Having recovered from an illness and taking advantage of a civil war that had broken out between the Deccanis and the Afghans at Bijapur Shivaji raided Athani in April 1676 127 In the run up to his expedition Shivaji appealed to a sense of Deccani patriotism that Southern India was a homeland that should be protected from outsiders 128 129 His appeal was somewhat successful and in 1677 Shivaji visited Hyderabad for a month and entered into a treaty with the Qutubshah of the Golkonda sultanate agreeing to reject his alliance with Bijapur and jointly oppose the Mughals In 1677 Shivaji invaded Karnataka with 30 000 cavalry and 40 000 infantry backed by Golkonda artillery and funding 130 Proceeding south Shivaji seized the forts of Vellore and Gingee 131 the latter would later serve as a capital of the Marathas during the reign of his son Rajaram I 132 Shivaji intended to reconcile with his half brother Venkoji Ekoji I Shahaji s son by his second wife Tukabai nee Mohite who ruled Thanjavur Tanjore after Shahaji The initially promising negotiations were unsuccessful so whilst returning to Raigad Shivaji defeated his half brother s army on 26 November 1677 and seized most of his possessions in the Mysore plateau Venkoji s wife Dipa Bai whom Shivaji deeply respected took up new negotiations with Shivaji and also convinced her husband to distance himself from Muslim advisors In the end Shivaji consented to turn over to her and her female descendants many of the properties he had seized with Venkoji consenting to a number of conditions for the proper administration of the territories and maintenance of Shahji s memorial samadhi 133 134 IssueName Mother LifespanSakhubai Nimbalkar Sai Bhonsale 1651 UnknownRanubai Jadhav 1653 UnknownAmbikabai Mahadik 1655 UnknownSambhaji I 14 May 1657 11 March 1689Deepabai Soyarabai UnknownRajaram I 24 February 1670 3 March 1700Kamlabai Sakvarbai UnknownDeath and succession Sambhaji Shivaji s elder son who succeeded him The question of Shivaji s heir apparent was complicated Shivaji confined his son to Panhala in 1678 only to have the prince escape with his wife and defect to the Mughals for a year Sambhaji then returned home unrepentant and was again confined to Panhala 135 Shivaji died around 3 5 April 1680 at the age of 50 136 on the eve of Hanuman Jayanti The cause of Shivaji s death is disputed British records states that Shivaji died of bloody flux being sick for 12 days g In a contemporary work in Portuguese the Biblioteca Nacional de Lisboa the recorded cause of death of Shivaji is anthrax 138 139 However Krishnaji Anant Sabhasad author of Sabhasad Bakhar the biography of Shivaji has mentioned fever as the cause of death of Shivaji 140 139 Putalabai the childless eldest of the surviving wives of Shivaji committed sati by jumping into his funeral pyre Another surviving spouse Sakwarbai was not allowed to follow suit because she had a young daughter 135 There were also allegations though doubted by later scholars that his second wife Soyarabai had poisoned him in order to put her 10 year old son Rajaram on the throne 141 After Shivaji s death Soyarabai made plans with various ministers of the administration to crown her son Rajaram rather than her stepson Sambhaji On 21 April 1680 ten year old Rajaram was installed on the throne However Sambhaji took possession of Raigad Fort after killing the commander and on 18 June acquired control of Raigad and formally ascended the throne on 20 July 142 Rajaram his wife Janki Bai and mother Soyrabai were imprisoned and Soyrabai executed on charges of conspiracy that October 143 GovernanceAshta Pradhan Mandal Main article Ashta Pradhan The Council of Eight Ministers or Ashta Pradhan Mandal was an administrative and advisory council set up by Shivaji 144 It consisted of eight ministers who regularly advised Shivaji on political and administrative matters The eight ministers were as follows 140 Ashta Pradhan Mandal Minister DutyPeshwa or Prime Minister General AdministrationAmatya or Finance Minister Maintaining Public accountsMantri or Chronicler Maintaining Court recordsSummant or Dabir or Foreign Secretary All matters related to relationships with other statesSachiv or Shurn Nawis or Home Secretary Managing correspondence of the kingPanditrao or Ecclesiastical Head Religious mattersNyayadhis or Chief Justice Civil and Military justiceSenapati Sari Naubat or Commander in Chief All matters related to army of the kingExcept the Panditrao and Nyayadhis all other ministers held military commands their civil duties often being performed by deputies 140 144 Promotion of Marathi and Sanskrit In his court Shivaji replaced Persian the common courtly language in the region with Marathi and emphasised Hindu political and courtly traditions Shivaji s reign stimulated the deployment of Marathi as a tool of systematic description and understanding 145 Shivaji s royal seal was in Sanskrit Shivaji commissioned one of his officials to make a comprehensive lexicon to replace Persian and Arabic terms with their Sanskrit equivalents This led to production of Rajavyavaharakosa the thesaurus of state usage in 1677 8 Religious policy Shivaji is known for his liberal and tolerant religious policies While Hindus were relieved to practice their religion freely under a Hindu ruler Shivaji not only allowed Muslims to practice without harassment but supported their ministries with endowments 146 When Aurangzeb imposed the Jizya tax on non Muslims on 3 April 1679 Shivaji wrote a strict letter to Aurangzeb criticising his tax policy He wrote In strict justice the Jizya is not at all lawful If you imagine piety in oppressing and terrorising the Hindus you ought to first levy the tax on Raj Singh I who is the head of Hindus But to oppress ants and flies is not at all valour nor spirit If you believe in Quran God is the lord of all men and not just of Muslims only Verily Islam and Hinduism are terms of contrast They are used by the true Divine Painter for blending the colours and filling in the outlines If it is a mosque the call to prayer is chanted in remembrance of God If it is a temple the bells are rung in yearning for God alone To show bigotry to any man s religion and practices is to alter the words of the Holy Book 147 148 Noting that Shivaji had stemmed the spread of the neighbouring Muslim states his contemporary the poet Kavi Bhushan stated Had not there been Shivaji Kashi would have lost its culture Mathura would have been turned into a mosque and all would have been circumcised 149 However Gijs Kruijtzer in his book Xenophobia in Seventeenth Century India argues that the roots of modern communalism the antagonism between communities of Hindus and Muslims first appeared in the decade 1677 1687 in the interplay between Shivaji and the Mughal emperor Aurangzeb though Shivaji died in 1680 150 page needed During the sack of Surat in 1664 Shivaji was approached by Ambrose a Capuchin monk who asked him to spare the city s Christians Shivaji left the Christians untouched saying the Frankish Padrys are good men 151 Shivaji was not attempting to create a universal Hindu rule He was tolerant to different religions and believed in syncretism He urged Aurangzeb to act like Akbar in according respect to Hindu beliefs and places Shivaji had little trouble forming alliances with the surrounding Muslim nations even against Hindu powers He also did not join forces with other Hindu powers such as the Rajputs to fight the Mughals h In his own army Muslim leaders appear quite early The first Pathan unit was formed in 1656 His naval admiral Darya Sarang 153 was a Muslim Bakhar dedicated to Shivaji Writings of Modi Script line 2 is from the time of ShivajiRamdas Sajjangad where Ramdas was invited by Shivaji Raje to reside Shivaji was a contemporary of Samarth Ramdas Historian Stewart Gordon concludes about their relationship Older Maratha histories asserted that Shivaji was a close follower of Ramdas a Brahmin teacher who guided him in an orthodox Hindu path recent research has shown that Shivaji did not meet or know Ramdas until late in his life Rather Shivaji followed his own judgement throughout his remarkable career 36 Seal Royal seal of Shivaji Seals were means to confer authenticity on official documents Shahaji and Jijabai had Persian seals But Shivaji right from beginning used Sanskrit for his seal 8 The seal proclaims This seal of Shiva son of Shah shines forth for the welfare of the people and is meant to command increasing respect from the universe like the first phase of the moon 154 Shivaji s mode of warfareShivaji maintained a small but effective standing army The core of Shivaji s army consisted of peasants of the Maratha and Kunbi castes 155 Shivaji was aware of the limitations of his army He realised that conventional warfare methods were inadequate to confront the big well trained cavalry of the Mughals which was equipped with field artillery As a result Shivaji adopted guerilla tactics which became known as Ganimi Kawa 156 Shivaji was a master of guerrilla warfare 157 His strategies consistently perplexed and defeated armies sent against him He realized that the most vulnerable point of the large slow moving armies of the time was supply He utilised knowledge of the local terrain and the superior mobility of his light cavalry to cut off supplies to the enemy 158 Shivaji refused to confront in pitched battles Instead he lured the enemies in difficult hills and jungles of his own choosing catching them at a disadvantage and routing them 159 Shivaji didn t stick to a particular tactic but used several methods to undermine his enemies as required by circumstances like sudden raids sweeps and ambushes and use of psychological pressure 159 Shivaji was contemptuously called a Mountain Rat by Aurangzeb and his generals because of his guerilla tactics of attacking enemy forces and then retreating into his mountain forts 160 161 162 Military Shivaji demonstrated great skill in creating his military organisation which lasted until the demise of the Maratha Empire His strategy rested on leveraging his ground forces naval forces and series of forts across his territory The Maval infantry served as the core of his ground forces reinforced with Telangi musketeers from Karnataka supported by Maratha cavalry His artillery was relatively underdeveloped and reliant on European suppliers further inclining him to a very mobile form of warfare 163 Hill forts Suvela Machi view of southern sub plateaux as seen from Ballekilla Rajgad Main article Shivaji s forts Hill forts played a key role in Shivaji s strategy He captured important forts at Murambdev Rajgad Torna Kondhana Sinhagad and Purandar He also rebuilt or repaired many forts in advantageous locations 164 In addition Shivaji built a number of forts the number 111 is reported in some accounts but it is likely the actual number did not exceed 18 165 The historian Jadunath Sarkar assessed that Shivaji owned some 240 280 forts at the time of his death 166 Each was placed under three officers of equal status lest a single traitor be bribed or tempted to deliver it to the enemy The officers acted jointly and provided mutual checks and balance 167 Navy Main article Maratha Navy Sindudurg Fort provided anchorages for Shivaji s Navy Aware of the need for naval power to maintain control along the Konkan coast Shivaji began to build his navy in 1657 or 1659 with the purchase of twenty galivats from the Portuguese shipyards of Bassein 168 Marathi chronicles state that at its height his fleet counted some 400 warships though contemporary English chronicles counter that the number never exceeded 160 169 Kanhoji Angre was the chief of Maratha Navy With the Marathas being accustomed to a land based military Shivaji widened his search for qualified crews for his ships taking on lower caste Hindus of the coast who were long familiar with naval operations the famed Malabar pirates as well as Muslim mercenaries 169 Noting the power of the Portuguese navy Shivaji hired a number of Portuguese sailors and Goan Christian converts and made Rui Leitao Viegas commander of his fleet Viegas was later to defect back to the Portuguese taking 300 sailors with him 170 Shivaji fortified his coastline by seizing coastal forts and refurbishing them and built his first marine fort at Sindhudurg which was to become the headquarters of the Maratha navy 171 The navy itself was a coastal navy focused on travel and combat in the littoral areas and not intended to go far out to sea 172 Expansion of Maratha Empire after ShivajiSee also Mughal Maratha Wars Maratha Empire at its peak in 1758 Shivaji left behind a state always at odds with the Mughals Soon after his death in 1681 Aurangzeb launched an offensive in the South to capture territories held by the Marathas the Bijapur based Adilshahi and Qutb Shahi of Golkonda respectively He was successful in obliterating the Sultanates but could not subdue the Marathas after spending 27 years in the Deccan The period saw the capture torture and execution of Sambhaji in 1689 and the Marathas offering strong resistance under the leadership of Sambhaji s successor Rajaram and then Rajaram s widow Tarabai Territories changed hands repeatedly between the Mughals and the Marathas the conflict ended in defeat for the Mughals in 1707 173 Shahu a grandson of Shivaji and son of Sambhaji was kept prisoner by Aurangzeb during the 27 year period conflict After the latter s death his successor released Shahu After a brief power struggle over succession with his aunt Tarabai Shahu ruled the Maratha Empire from 1707 to 1749 Early in his reign he appointed Balaji Vishwanath and later his descendants as Peshwas prime ministers of the Maratha Empire The empire expanded greatly under the leadership of Balaji s son Peshwa Bajirao I and grandson Peshwa Balaji Bajirao At its peak the Maratha empire stretched from Tamil Nadu 174 in the south to Peshawar modern day Khyber Pakhtunkhwa in the north and Bengal in the east In 1761 the Maratha army lost the Third Battle of Panipat to Ahmed Shah Abdali of the Afghan Durrani Empire which halted their imperial expansion in northwestern India Ten years after Panipat Marathas regained influence in North India during the rule of Madhavrao Peshwa 175 In a bid to effectively manage the large empire Shahu and the Peshwas gave semi autonomy to the strongest of the knights creating the Maratha Confederacy 176 They became known as Gaekwads of Baroda the Holkars of Indore and Malwa the Scindias of Gwalior and Bhonsales of Nagpur In 1775 the East India Company intervened in a succession struggle in Pune which became the First Anglo Maratha War The Marathas remained the pre eminent power in India until their defeat by the British in the Second and Third Anglo Maratha wars 1805 1818 which left the company the dominant power in most of India 177 178 LegacyFurther information Shivaji in popular culture An early 20th century painting by M V Dhurandhar of Shivaji and Baji Prabhu at Pawan Khind Shivaji was well known for his strong religious and warrior code of ethics and exemplary character 179 He was recognized as a national hero during the Indian Independence Movement 180 While some accounts of Shivaji state that he was greatly influenced by the Brahmin guru Samarth Ramdas others have said that Ramdas role has been overemphasised by later Brahmin commentators to enhance their position 181 182 Early depictions Shivaji was admired for his heroic exploits and clever stratagems in the contemporary accounts of English French Dutch Portuguese and Italian writers 183 Contemporary English writers compared him with Alexander Hannibal and Julius Caesar 184 The French traveller Francois Bernier wrote in his Travels in Mughal India 185 I forgot to mention that during pillage of Sourate Seva Gy the Holy Seva Gi respected the habitation of the Reverend Father Ambrose the Capuchin missionary The Frankish Padres are good men he said and shall not be attacked He spared also the house of a deceased Delale or Gentile broker of the Dutch because assured that he had been very charitable while alive Mughal depictions of Shivaji were largely negative referring to him simply as Shiva without the honorific ji One Mughal writer in the early 1700s described Shivaji s death as kafir bi jahannum raft lit the infidel went to Hell 186 Reimagining A miniature Bronze statue of Shivaji Maharaj in the collection of the Shri Bhavani Museum of Aundh In the mid 19th century Marathi social reformer Jyotirao Phule wrote his interpretation of the Shivaji legend portraying him as a hero of the shudras and Dalits Phule sought to use the Shivaji legends to undermine the Brahmins he accused of hijacking the narrative and uplift the lower classes his 1869 ballad form story of Shivaji was met with great hostility by the Brahmin dominated media 187 At the end of the 19th century Shivaji s memory was leveraged by the non Brahmin intellectuals of Bombay who identified as his descendants and through him claimed the kshatriya varna While some Brahmins rebutted this identity defining them as of the lower shudra varna other Brahmins recognised the Marathas utility to the Indian independence movement and endorsed this kshatriya legacy and the significance of Shivaji 188 In 1895 Indian nationalist leader Lokmanya Tilak organised what was to be an annual festival to mark the birthday of Shivaji 189 He portrayed Shivaji as the opponent of the oppressor with possible negative implications concerning the colonial government 190 Tilak denied any suggestion that his festival was anti Muslim or disloyal to the government but simply a celebration of a hero 191 These celebrations prompted a British commentator in 1906 to note Cannot the annals of the Hindu race point to a single hero whom even the tongue of slander will not dare call a chief of dacoits 192 One of the first commentators to reappraise the critical British view of Shivaji was M G Ranade whose Rise of the Maratha Power 1900 declared Shivaji s achievements as the beginning of modern nation building Ranade criticised earlier British portrayals of Shivaji s state as a freebooting Power which thrived by plunder and adventure and succeeded only because it was the most cunning and adventurous This is a very common feeling with the readers who derive their knowledge of these events solely from the works of English historians 193 In 1919 Sarkar published the seminal Shivaji and His Times hailed as the most authoritative biography of the king since James Grant Duff s 1826 A History of the Mahrattas A respected scholar Sarkar was able to read primary sources in Persian Marathi and Arabic but was challenged for his criticism of the chauvinism of Marathi historians views of Shivaji 194 Likewise though supporters cheered his depiction of the killing of Afzal Khan as justified they decried Sarkar s terming as murder the killing of the Hindu raja Chandrao More and his clan 195 Inspiration Statue of Shivaji at Raigad Fort A replica of Raigad Fort built by children on occasion of Diwali as a tribute to Shivaji As political tensions rose in India in the early 20th century some Indian leaders came to re work their earlier stances on Shivaji s role Jawaharlal Nehru had in 1934 noted Some of the Shivaji s deeds like the treacherous killing of the Bijapur general lower him greatly in our estimation Following a public outcry from Pune intellectuals Congress leader T R Deogirikar noted that Nehru had admitted he was wrong regarding Shivaji and now endorsed Shivaji as a great nationalist 196 In 1966 the Shiv Sena lit Army of Shivaji political party was formed to promote the interests of Marathi speaking people in the face of migration to Maharashtra from other parts of India and the accompanying loss of power for locals His image adorns literature propaganda and icons of the party 197 In modern times Shivaji is considered as a national hero in India especially in the state of Maharashtra where he remains an important figure in the state s history Stories of his life form an integral part of the upbringing and identity of the Marathi people 198 Shivaji is upheld by regional political parties and also by the Maratha caste dominated Congress party s offshoots in Maharashtra such as the Indira Congress and the Nationalist Congress Party 199 In the late 20th century Babasaheb Purandare became one of the most significant author in portraying Shivaji in his writings leading him to be declared in 1964 as the Shiv Shahir lit Bard of Shivaji 200 201 However Purandare a Brahmin was also accused of overemphasising the influence of Brahmin gurus on Shivaji 199 and his Maharashtra Bhushan award ceremony in 2015 was protested by those claiming he had defamed Shivaji 202 Controversy In 1993 the Illustrated Weekly published an article suggesting that Shivaji was not opposed to Muslims per se and that his style of governance was influenced by that of the Mughal Empire Congress Party members called for legal actions against the publisher and writer Marathi newspapers accused them of imperial prejudice and Shiv Sena called for the writer s public flogging Maharashtra brought legal action against the publisher under regulations prohibiting enmity between religious and cultural groups but a High Court found the Illustrated Weekly had operated within the bounds of freedom of expression 203 204 In 2003 American academic James W Laine published his book Shivaji Hindu King in Islamic India to what Ananya Vajpeyi terms a regime of cultural policing by militant Marathas 205 206 As a result of this publication the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute in Pune where Laine had researched was attacked by the Sambhaji Brigade 207 208 Laine was even threatened to be arrested 205 and the book was banned in Maharashtra in January 2004 but the ban was lifted by the Bombay High Court in 2007 and in July 2010 the Supreme Court of India upheld the lifting of the ban 209 This lifting was followed by public demonstrations against the author and the decision of the Supreme Court 210 211 Commemorations Statue of Shivaji opposite Gateway of India in South Mumbai Commemorations of Shivaji are found throughout India most notably in Maharashtra Shivaji s statues and monuments are found almost in every town and city in Maharashtra as well as in different places across India 212 213 214 Other commemorations include the Indian Navy s station INS Shivaji 215 numerous postage stamps 216 and the main airport and railway headquarters in Mumbai 217 218 In Maharashtra there has been a long tradition of children building a replica fort with toy soldiers and other figures during the festival of Diwali in memory of Shivaji 219 220 A proposal to build a giant memorial called Shiv Smarak was approved in 2016 to be located near Mumbai on a small island in the Arabian Sea It will be 210 meters tall making it the world s largest statue when completed in possibly 2021 221 needs update In March 2022 a statue made of gunmetal was inaugurated in Pune 222 SourcesNotes Based on multiple committees of historians and experts the Government of Maharashtra accepts 19 February 1630 as his birthdate This Julian calendar date of that period 1 March 1630 of today s Gregorian calendar corresponds 11 to the Hindu calendar birth date from contemporary records 12 13 14 Other suggested dates include 6 April 1627 or dates near this day 15 16 A decade earlier Afzal Khan in a parallel situation had arrested a Hindu general during a truce ceremony 46 Jadunath Sarkar after weighing all recorded evidence in this behalf has settled the point that Afzal Khan struck the first blow and that Shivaji committed a preventive murder It was a case of a diamond cut diamond The conflict between Shivaji and Bijapur was essentially political in nature and not communal 48 As per Stewart Gordon there is no proof for this and Shivaji probably bribed the guards But other Maratha Historians including A R Kulkarni and G B Mehendale disagree with Gordon Jadunath Sarkar probed more deeply into this and put forth a large volume of evidence from Rajasthani letters and Persian Akhbars With the help of this new material Sarkar presented a graphic account of Shivaji s visit to Aurangzeb at Agra and his escape Kulkarni agrees with Sarkar 87 Most of the great Maratha Jahagirdar families in the service of Adilshahi strongly opposed Shivaji in his early years These included families such as the Ghadge More Mohite Ghorpade Shirke and Nimbalkar 100 Varna is sometimes also termed Varnashrama Dharma As for the cause of his death the Bombay Council s letter dated 28th April 1680 says We have certain news that Shivaji Rajah is dead It is now 23 days since he deceased it is said of a bloody flux being sick 12 days A contemporaneous Portuguese document states that Shivaji died of anthrax However none of these sources provides sufficient details to draw a definite conclusion The Sabhasad Chronicle states that the King died of fever while some versions of the A K Chronicle state that he died of navjvar possibly typhoid 137 Shivaji was not attempting to create a universal Hindu rule Over and over he espoused tolerance and syncretism He even called on Aurangzeb to act like Akbar in according respect to Hindu beliefs and places Shivaji had no difficulty in allying with the Muslim states which surrounded him Bijapur Golconda and the Mughals even against Hindu powers such as the nayaks of the Karnatic Further he did not ally with other Hindu powers such as the Rajputs rebelling against the Mughals 152 References a b Sardesai 1957 p 222 a b Satish Chandra 1982 Medieval India Society the Jagirdari Crisis and the Village Macmillan p 140 ISBN 978 0 333 90396 4 Sarkar Shivaji and His Times 1920 p 260 James Laine 1996 Anne Feldhaus ed Images of women in Maharashtrian literature and religion Albany State University of New York Press p 183 ISBN 978 0 7914 2837 5 Dates are given according to the Julian calendar see Mohan Apte Porag Mahajani M N Vahia Possible errors in historical dates Error in correction from Julian to Gregorian Calendars a b c d Robb 2011 pp 103 104 a b Govind Ranade Mahadev 1966 Rise of the Maratha Power India Ministry of Information and Broadcasting a b c Pollock Sheldon 14 March 2011 Forms of Knowledge in Early Modern Asia Explorations in the Intellectual History of India and Tibet 1500 1800 Duke University Press p 60 ISBN 978 0 8223 4904 4 Wolpert 1962 p 79 81 Biswas Debajyoti Ryan John Charles 14 September 2021 Nationalism in India Texts and Contexts Routledge p 32 ISBN 978 1 00 045282 2 Apte Mohan Mahajani Parag Vahia M N January 2003 Possible errors in historical dates PDF Current Science 84 1 21 Kulkarni A R 2007 Jedhe Shakavali Kareena Diamond Publications p 7 ISBN 978 81 89959 35 7 Kavindra Parmanand Nevaskar 1927 Shri Shivbharat Sadashiv Mahadev Divekar pp 51 D V Apte and M R Paranjpe 1927 Birth Date of Shivaji The Maharashtra Publishing House pp 6 17 Siba Pada Sen 1973 Historians and historiography in modern India Institute of Historical Studies p 106 ISBN 978 81 208 0900 0 N Jayapalan 2001 History of India Atlantic Publishers amp Distri p 211 ISBN 978 81 7156 928 1 Sailendra Sen 2013 A Textbook of Medieval Indian History Primus Books pp 196 199 ISBN 978 9 38060 734 4 Public Holidays PDF maharashtra gov in Retrieved 19 May 2018 Sarkar Shivaji and His Times 1920 p 19 Laine James W 13 February 2003 Shivaji Hindu King in Islamic India Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0 19 972643 1 a b Richard M Eaton 17 November 2005 A Social History of the Deccan 1300 1761 Eight Indian Lives Vol 1 Cambridge University Press pp 128 221 ISBN 978 0 521 25484 7 Arun Metha 2004 History of medieval India ABD Publishers p 278 ISBN 978 81 85771 95 3 Kalyani Devaki Menon 6 July 2011 Everyday Nationalism Women of the Hindu Right in India University of Pennsylvania Press pp 44 ISBN 978 0 8122 0279 3 a b V B Kulkarni 1963 Shivaji The Portrait of a Patriot Orient Longman Marathi book Shivkaal Times of Shivaji by Dr V G Khobrekar Publisher Maharashtra State Board for Literature and Culture First edition 2006 Chapter 1 Salma Ahmed Farooqui 2011 A Comprehensive History of Medieval India From Twelfth to the Mid Eighteenth Century Dorling Kindersley India pp 314 ISBN 978 81 317 3202 1 Subrahmanyam 2002 p 33 35 Gordon Stewart 1 February 2007 The Marathas 1600 1818 Cambridge University Press ISBN 978 0 521 03316 9 Sarkar Jadunath 1952 Shivaji and his times 5th ed Hyderabad Orient Blackswan Private Limited p 19 ISBN 9788125040262 Gordon Stewart 1 February 2007 The Marathas 1600 1818 Cambridge University Press ISBN 978 0 521 03316 9 a b Mahajan V D 2000 India since 1526 17th ed rev amp enl ed New Delhi S Chand p 198 ISBN 81 219 1145 1 OCLC 956763986 Gordon The Marathas 1993 p 61 Kulkarni A R 1990 Maratha Policy Towards the Adil Shahi Kingdom Bulletin of the Deccan College Research Institute 49 pp 221 226 Sarkar Shivaji and His Times 1920 pp 41 42 Eaton Richard M 25 July 2019 India in the Persianate Age 1000 1765 Penguin UK p 198 ISBN 978 0 14 196655 7 a b Stewart Gordon 1 February 2007 The Marathas 1600 1818 Cambridge University Press p 85 ISBN 978 0 521 03316 9 Gordon S 1993 The Marathas 1600 1818 The New Cambridge History of India Cambridge Cambridge University Press doi 10 1017 CHOL9780521268837 page 69 1 Gordon The Marathas 1993 p 66 John F Richards 1995 The Mughal Empire Cambridge University Press pp 208 ISBN 978 0 521 56603 2 Eaton The Sufis of Bijapur 2015 pp 183 184 Roy Kaushik 2012 Hinduism and the Ethics of Warfare in South Asia From Antiquity to the Present Cambridge University Press p 202 ISBN 978 1 139 57684 0 Abraham Eraly 2000 Last Spring The Lives and Times of Great Mughals Penguin Books Limited p 550 ISBN 978 93 5118 128 6 Kaushik Roy 15 October 2012 Hinduism and the Ethics of Warfare in South Asia From Antiquity to the Present Cambridge University Press pp 202 ISBN 978 1 139 57684 0 Gier The Origins of Religious Violence 2014 p 17 Sarkar Shivaji and His Times 1920 p 70 Gordon Stewart 1 February 2007 The Marathas 1600 1818 Cambridge University Press p 67 ISBN 978 0 521 03316 9 Haig amp Burn The Mughal Period 1960 p 22 Kulkarni Prof A R 1 July 2008 The Marathas Diamond Publications ISBN 978 81 8483 073 6 Haig amp Burn The Mughal Period 1960 a b Sarkar Shivaji and His Times 1920 p 75 Sarkar Shivaji and His Times 1920 p 78 Sarkar Shivaji and His Times 1920 p 266 Ali Shanti Sadiq 1996 The African Dispersal in the Deccan From Medieval to Modern Times Orient Blackswan p 124 ISBN 978 81 250 0485 1 Farooqui A Comprehensive History of Medieval India 2011 p 283 Sardesai 1957 a b Shripad Dattatraya Kulkarni 1992 The Struggle for Hindu supremacy Shri Bhagavan Vedavyasa Itihasa Samshodhana Mandira Bhishma p 90 ISBN 978 81 900113 5 8 Sarkar Shivaji and His Times 1920 pp 55 56 S R Sharma 1999 Mughal empire in India a systematic study including source material Volume 2 Atlantic Publishers amp Dist p 59 ISBN 978 81 7156 818 5 Sarkar Shivaji and His Times 1920 p 57 Sarkar Shivaji and His Times 1920 p 60 Indian Historical Records Commission Proceedings of Meetings Superintendent Government Printing India 1929 p 44 Aanand Aadeesh 2011 Shivaji the Great Liberator Prabhat Prakashan p 69 ISBN 978 81 8430 102 1 Gordon Stewart 1 February 2007 The Marathas 1600 1818 Cambridge University Press p 71 ISBN 978 0 521 03316 9 Mahmud Sayyid Fayyaz Mahmud S F 1988 A Concise History of Indo Pakistan Oxford University Press p 158 ISBN 978 0 19 577385 9 Richards John F 1993 The Mughal Empire Cambridge University Press p 209 ISBN 978 0 521 56603 2 Mehta 2009 p 543 Mehta 2005 p 491 Shejwalkar T S 1942 Bulletin of the Deccan College Post Graduate and Research Institute 4 Vice Chancellor Deccan College Post Graduate and Research Institute Deemed University Pune 135 146 JSTOR 42929309 Retrieved 30 August 2022 a href Template Cite journal html title Template Cite journal cite journal a Cite journal requires journal help Mega event to mark Karnataka port town Basrur s liberation from Portuguese by Shivaji New Indian Express 15 February 2021 a b Steward Gordon 1993 The Marathas 1600 1818 Part 2 Volume 4 Cambridge University Press pp 71 75 Haig amp Burn The Mughal Period 1960 p 258 Sarkar History of Aurangzib 1920 p 77 Gordon The Marathas 1993 p 74 Gordon Stewart 1994 Marathas Marauders and State Formation in Eighteenth century India Oxford University Press p 206 ISBN 978 0 19 563386 3 Gordon The Marathas 1993 p 78 Jain Meenakshi 1 January 2011 THE INDIA THEY SAW VOL 3 Prabhat Prakashan pp 299 300 ISBN 978 81 8430 108 3 Gordon Stewart 1 February 2007 The Marathas 1600 1818 Cambridge University Press p 76 ISBN 978 0 521 03316 9 Sarkar Jadunath 1994 A History of Jaipur C 1503 1938 Orient Blackswan ISBN 978 81 250 0333 5 Mehta Jl Advanced Study in the History of Medieval India Sterling Publishers Pvt Ltd p 547 ISBN 978 81 207 1015 3 Datta Nonica 2003 Indian History Ancient and medieval Encyclopaedia Britannica India and Popular Prakashan Mumbai p 263 ISBN 978 81 7991 067 2 Patel Sachi K 1 October 2021 Politics and Religion in Eighteenth Century India Jaisingh II and the Rise of Public Theology in Gauḍiya Vaiṣṇavism Routledge p 40 ISBN 978 1 00 045142 9 Sabharwal Gopa 2000 The Indian Millennium AD 1000 2000 Penguin Books p 235 ISBN 978 0 14 029521 4 Mahajan V D 2007 History of Medieval India S Chand Publishing p 190 ISBN 978 81 219 0364 6 Kulkarni Prof A R 1 July 2008 The Marathas Diamond Publications p 34 ISBN 978 81 8483 073 6 Gandhi Rajmohan 14 October 2000 Revenge and Reconciliation Understanding South Asian History Penguin UK ISBN 978 81 8475 318 9 SarDesai D R 4 May 2018 India The Definitive History Routledge ISBN 978 0 429 97950 7 Kulkarni A R 1996 Marathas And The Maratha Country Vol I Medieval Maharashtra Vol Ii Medieval Maratha Country Vol Iii The Marathas 1600 1648 3 Vols Books amp Books p 70 ISBN 978 81 85016 51 1 Sarkar History of Aurangzib 1920 p 98 Sarkar Shivaji and His Times 1920 p 185 Gordon The Marathas 1993 p 231 Murlidhar Balkrishna Deopujari 1973 Shivaji and the Maratha Art of War Vidarbha Samshodhan Mandal p 138 Eraly Emperors of the Peacock Throne 2000 p 460 Eraly Emperors of the Peacock Throne 2000 p 461 Sarkar History of Aurangzib 1920 pp 173 174 Sarkar History of Aurangzib 1920 p 175 Sarkar History of Aurangzib 1920 p 189 Sarkar Shivaji and His Times 1920 p 393 Sarkar History of Aurangzib 1920 pp 230 233 Malavika Vartak May 1999 Shivaji Maharaj Growth of a Symbol Economic and Political Weekly 34 19 1126 1134 JSTOR 4407933 Daniel Jasper 2003 p 215 Sarkar Shivaji and His Times 1920 pp 239 240 Gordon Stewart 1993 The New Cambridge history of India II The Indian States and the transition to colonialism 4 The Marathas 1600 1818 Cambridge Cambridge university press p 87 ISBN 978 0 521 26883 7 OCLC 489626023 Rajmohan Gandhi 1999 Revenge and Reconciliation Penguin Books India pp 110 ISBN 978 0 14 029045 5 On the ground that Shivaji was merely a Maratha and not a kshatriya by caste Maharashtra s Brahmins had refused to conduct a sacred coronation a b Gordon The Marathas 1993 p 88 B S Baviskar D W Attwood 30 October 2013 Inside Outside Two Views of Social Change in Rural India SAGE Publications pp 395 ISBN 978 81 321 1865 7 Cashman The Myth of the Lokamanya 1975 p 7 Farooqui A Comprehensive History of Medieval India 2011 p 321 Oliver Godsmark 29 January 2018 Citizenship Community and Democracy in India From Bombay to Maharashtra c 1930 1960 Taylor amp Francis pp 40 ISBN 978 1 351 18821 0 Varma Supriya Saberwal Satish 2005 Traditions in Motion Religion and Society in History Oxford University Press p 250 ISBN 978 0 19 566915 2 Sarkar Shivaji and His Times 1920 p 244 a b Sarkar Shivaji and His Times 1920 p 245 Sarkar Shivaji and His Times 1920 p 252 Manu S Pillai 2018 Rebel Sultans The Deccan from Khilji to Shivaji Juggernaut Books p xvi ISBN 978 93 86228 73 4 Barua Pradeep 2005 The State at War in South Asia University of Nebraska Press p 42 ISBN 978 0 8032 1344 9 Mallavarapu Venkata Siva Prasada Rau Andhra Pradesh Archives 1980 Archival organization and records management in the state of Andhra Pradesh India Published under the authority of the Govt of Andhra Pradesh by the Director of State Archives Andhra Pradesh State Archives p 393 Sarkar Shivaji and His Times 1920 Yuva Bharati Volume 1 ed Vivekananda Rock Memorial Committee 1974 p 13 About 50 000 people witnessed the coronation ceremony and arrangements were made for their boarding and lodging H S Sardesai 2002 Shivaji the Great Maratha Cosmo Publications p 431 ISBN 978 81 7755 286 7 Narayan H Kulkarnee 1975 Chhatrapati Shivaji Architect of Freedom An Anthology Chhatrapati Shivaji Smarak Samiti U B Singh 1998 Administrative System in India Vedic Age to 1947 APH Publishing p 92 ISBN 978 81 7024 928 3 Tej Ram Sharma 1978 Personal and Geographical Names in the Gupta Inscriptions Concept Publishing Company p 72 GGKEY RYD56P78DL9 Ashirbadi Lal Srivastava 1964 The History of India 1000 A D 1707 A D Shiva Lal Agarwala p 701 Shivaji was obliged to undergo a second coronation ceremony on 4th October 1674 on the suggestion of a well known Tantrik priest named Nishchal Puri Goswami who said that Gaga Bhatta had performed the ceremony at an inauspicious hour and neglected to propitiate the spirits adored in the Tantra That was why he said the queen mother Jija Bai had died within twelve days of the ceremony and similar other mishaps had occurred Indian Institute of Public Administration Maharashtra Regional Branch 1975 Shivaji and swarajya Orient Longman p 61 one to establish that Shivaji belonged to the Kshatriya clan and that he could be crowned a Chhatrapati and the other to show that he was not entitled to the Vedic form of recitations at the time of the coronation Shripad Rama Sharma 1951 The Making of Modern India From A D 1526 to the Present Day Orient Longmans p 223 The coronation was performed at first according to the Vedic rites then according to the Tantric Shivaji was anxious to satisfy all sections of his subjects There was some doubt about his Kshatriya origin see note at the end of this chapter This was of more than academic interest to his contemporaries especially Brahmans Brahmins Traditionally considered the highest caste in the Hindu social hierarchy the Brahmans would submit to Shivaji and officiate at his coronation only if his Sarkar Shivaji and His Times 1920 p 17 Maharashtra India 1967 Maharashtra State Gazetteers Maratha period Directorate of Government Printing Stationery and Publications Maharashtra State p 147 Sarkar Shivaji and His Times 1920 p 258 Gijs Kruijtzer 2009 Xenophobia in Seventeenth Century India Amsterdam University Press pp 153 190 ISBN 978 90 8728 068 0 Kulkarni A R 1990 Maratha Policy Towards the Adil Shahi Kingdom Bulletin of the Deccan College Research Institute 49 221 226 JSTOR 42930290 Haig amp Burn The Mughal Period 1960 p 276 Everett Jenkins Jr 12 November 2010 The Muslim Diaspora Volume 2 1500 1799 A Comprehensive Chronology of the Spread of Islam in Asia Africa Europe and the Americas McFarland pp 201 ISBN 978 1 4766 0889 1 Haig amp Burn The Mughal Period 1960 p 290 Sardesai 1957 p 251 Maya Jayapal 1997 Bangalore the story of a city Eastwest Books Madras p 20 ISBN 978 81 86852 09 5 Shivaji s and Ekoji s armies met in battle on 26 November 1677 and Ekoji was defeated By the treaty he signed Bangalore and the adjoining areas were given to Shivaji who then made them over to Ekoji s wife Deepabai to be held by her with the proviso that Ekoji had to ensure that Shahaji s Memorial was well tended a b Mehta 2005 p 47 Haig amp Burn The Mughal Period 1960 p 278 Mehendale 2011 p 1147 Pissurlencar Pandurang Sakharam Portuguese Mahratta Relations Maharashtra State Board for Literature and Culture p 61 a b Mehendale Gajanan Bhaskar 2011 Shivaji his life and times India Param Mitra Publications p 1147 ISBN 978 93 80875 17 0 OCLC 801376912 a b c Mahajan V D 2000 India since 1526 17th ed rev amp enl ed New Delhi S Chand p 203 ISBN 81 219 1145 1 OCLC 956763986 Truschke 2017 p 53 Mehta 2005 p 48 Sunita Sharma K h uda Bak h sh Oriyanṭal Pablik Laʼibreri 2004 Veil sceptre and quill profiles of eminent women 16th 18th centuries Khuda Bakhsh Oriental Public Library p 139 By June 1680 three months after Shivaji s death Rajaram was made a prisoner in the fort of Raigad along with his mother Soyra Bai and his wife Janki Bai Soyra Bai was put to death on charge of conspiracy a b Ashta Pradhan at the Encyclopaedia Britannica Pollock Sheldon 14 March 2011 Forms of Knowledge in Early Modern Asia Explorations in the Intellectual History of India and Tibet 1500 1800 Duke University Press p 50 ISBN 978 0 8223 4904 4 Sarkar Shivaji and His Times 1920 p 421 Gier Nicholas F 20 August 2014 The Origins of Religious Violence An Asian Perspective Lexington Books ISBN 978 0 7391 9223 8 Sardesai 1957 p 250 American Oriental Society 1963 Journal of the American Oriental Society American Oriental Society p 476 Retrieved 27 September 2012 Gijs Kruijtzer Xenophobia in Seventeenth Century India Leiden University Press 2009 Panduronga S S Pissurlencar 1975 The Portuguese and the Marathas Translation of Articles of the Late Dr Pandurang S Pissurlenkar s Portugueses E Maratas in Portuguese Language State Board for Literature and Culture Government of Maharashtra p 152 Gordon Stewart 1 February 2007 The Marathas 1600 1818 Cambridge University Press ISBN 978 0 521 03316 9 Kulkarni Prof A R 1 July 2008 Medieval Maratha Country Diamond Publications ISBN 978 81 8483 072 9 Eraly Abraham 17 September 2007 Emperors Of The Peacock Throne The Saga of the Great Moghuls Penguin Books Limited ISBN 978 93 5118 093 7 Roy Kaushik 3 June 2015 Warfare in Pre British India 1500BCE to 1740CE Routledge ISBN 978 1 317 58691 3 Barua Pradeep 1 January 2005 The State at War in South Asia University of Nebraska Press ISBN 978 0 8032 1344 9 Davis Paul 25 July 2013 Masters of the Battlefield Great Commanders from the Classical Age to the Napoleonic Era OUP USA ISBN 978 0 19 534235 2 Gordon Stewart 1 February 2007 The Marathas 1600 1818 Cambridge University Press ISBN 978 0 521 03316 9 a b Kantak M R 1993 The First Anglo Maratha War 1774 1783 A Military Study of Major Battles Popular Prakashan ISBN 978 81 7154 696 1 Bhave Y G 2000 From the Death of Shivaji to the Death of Aurangzeb The Critical Years Northern Book Centre p 7 ISBN 978 81 7211 100 7 Stanley A Wolpert 1994 An Introduction to India Penguin Books India p 43 ISBN 978 0 14 016870 9 Hugh Tinker 1990 South Asia A Short History University of Hawaii Press p 23 ISBN 978 0 8248 1287 4 Kantak M R 1993 The First Anglo Maratha War 1774 1783 A Military Study of Major Battles Popular Prakashan p 9 ISBN 978 81 7154 696 1 Pagadi 1983 p 21 M S Naravane 1 January 1995 Forts of Maharashtra APH Publishing Corporation p 14 ISBN 978 81 7024 696 1 Sarkar Shivaji and His Times 1920 p 408 Sarkar History of Aurangzib 1920 p 414 Kaushik Roy 30 March 2011 War Culture and Society in Early Modern South Asia 1740 1849 Taylor amp Francis pp 17 ISBN 978 1 136 79087 4 a b Sarkar History of Aurangzib 1920 p 59 Bhagamandala Seetharama Shastry 1981 Studies in Indo Portuguese History IBH Prakashana Kaushik Roy Peter Lorge 17 December 2014 Chinese and Indian Warfare From the Classical Age to 1870 Routledge pp 183 ISBN 978 1 317 58710 1 Raj Narain Misra 1986 Indian Ocean and India s Security Mittal Publications pp 13 GGKEY CCJCT3CW16S John Clark Marshman 2010 History of India from the Earliest Period to the Close of the East India Company s Government Cambridge University Press p 93 ISBN 978 1 108 02104 3 Mehta 2005 p 204 Sailendra N Sen 1994 Anglo Maratha relations during the administration of Warren Hastings 1772 1785 Popular Prakashan pp 6 7 ISBN 978 81 7154 578 0 Pearson Shivaji and Mughal decline 1976 p 226 Jeremy Black 2006 A Military History of Britain from 1775 to the Present Westport Conn Greenwood Publishing Group ISBN 978 0 275 99039 8 Percival Spear 1990 First published 1965 A History of India Vol 2 Penguin Books p 129 ISBN 978 0 14 013836 8 Sarkar Shivaji and His Times 1920 p 74 Bipan Chandra Mridula Mukherjee Aditya Mukherjee K N Panikkar Sucheta Mahajan 9 August 2016 India s Struggle for Independence Penguin Random House India Private Limited pp 107 ISBN 978 81 8475 183 3 Dossal Mariam Maloni Ruby 1999 State Intervention and Popular Response Western India in the Nineteenth Century Popular Prakashan p 8 ISBN 978 81 7154 855 2 Laine 2011 p 158 Sen Surendra 1928 Foreign Biographies of Shivaji Vol II London K Paul Trench Trubner amp co ltd pp xiii Krishna Bal 1940 Shivaji The Great The Arya Book Depot Kolhapur pp 11 12 Surendra Nath Sen 1977 Foreign Biographies of Shivaji K P Bagchi pp 14 139 Truschke 2017 p 54 Uma Chakravarti 27 October 2014 Rewriting History The Life and Times of Pandita Ramabai Zubaan pp 79 ISBN 978 93 83074 63 1 Donald V Kurtz 1993 Contradictions and Conflict A Dialectical Political Anthropology of a University in Western India BRILL pp 63 ISBN 978 90 04 09828 2 Wolpert 1962 pp 79 81 Biswamoy Pati 2011 Bal Gangadhar Tilak Popular Readings Primus Books p 101 ISBN 978 93 80607 18 4 Cashman The Myth of the Lokamanya 1975 p 107 Indo British Review Indo British Historical Society p 75 McLain Karline 2009 India s Immortal Comic Books Gods Kings and Other Heroes Indiana University Press p 121 ISBN 978 0 253 22052 3 Prachi Deshpande 2007 Creative Pasts Historical Memory and Identity in Western India 1700 1960 Columbia University Press pp 136 ISBN 978 0 231 12486 7 Shivaji and His Times was widely regarded as the authoritative follow up to Grant Duff An erudite painstaking Rankean scholar Sarkar was also able to access a wide variety of sources through his mastery of Persian Marathi and Arabic but as explained in the last chapter he earned considerable hostility from the Poona Pune school for his sharp criticism of the chauvinism he saw in Marathi historians appraisals of the Marathas C A Bayly 10 November 2011 Recovering Liberties Indian Thought in the Age of Liberalism and Empire Cambridge University Press pp 282 ISBN 978 1 139 50518 5 Girja Kumar 1997 The Book on Trial Fundamentalism and Censorship in India Har Anand Publications p 431 ISBN 978 81 241 0525 2 Naipaul V S 2011 India A Wounded Civilization Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group p 65 ISBN 978 0 307 78934 1 KUBER GIRISH 2021 RENAISSANCE STATE the unwritten story of the making of maharashtra S l HARPERCOLLINS INDIA pp 69 78 ISBN 978 93 90327 39 3 OCLC 1245346175 a b Laine 2011 p 164 Lok Sabha Debates Lok Sabha Secretariat 1952 p 121 Will the Minister of EDUCATION SOCIAL WELFARE AND CULTURE be pleased to state a whether Shri Shivshahir Bawa Saheb Purandare of Maharashtra has sought the permission of Central Government The Indian P E N P E N All India Centre 1964 p 32 Sumitra Raje Bhonsale of Satara honoured Shri Purandare with the title of Shiva shahir and donated Rs 301 for the proposed publication Krishna Kumar 20 August 2015 Writer Babasaheb Purandare receives Maharashtra Bhushan despite protests The Economic Times Hansen Thomas Blom 2001 Wages of Violence Naming and Identity in Postcolonial Bombay Princeton University Press p 22 ISBN 0 691 08840 3 Kaur Raminder Mazzarella William 2009 Censorship in South Asia Cultural Regulation from Sedition to Seduction Indiana University Press p 1 ISBN 978 0 253 35335 1 a b India seeks to arrest US scholar BBC News 23 March 2004 Retrieved 25 September 2013 Vajpeyi Ananya August 2004 The Past and its Passions Writing History in Hard Times Studies in History 20 2 317 329 doi 10 1177 025764300402000207 ISSN 0257 6430 S2CID 162555504 Maratha activists vandalise Bhandarkar Institute The Times of India 6 January 2004 Retrieved 3 May 2021 a href Template Cite news html title Template Cite news cite news a CS1 maint url status link Where The Stream Of Reason Lost Its Way Financial Express 12 January 2004 Retrieved 3 May 2021 Supreme Court lifts ban on James Laine s book on Shivaji The Times of India 9 July 2010 Archived from the original on 11 August 2011 Retrieved 25 September 2013 Protests over James Laine s book across Mumbai webindia123 com 10 July 2010 Retrieved 25 September 2013 Rahul Chandawarkar 10 July 2010 Hard liners slam state Supreme Court decision on Laine s Shivaji book DNA India Retrieved 25 September 2013 comments Modi unveils Shivaji statue at Limbayat The Indian Express Archived from the original on 6 November 2012 Retrieved 17 September 2012 New Shivaji statue faces protests Pune Mirror 16 May 2012 Archived from the original on 28 September 2013 Retrieved 17 September 2012 Kalam unveils Shivaji statue The Hindu 29 April 2003 Archived from the original on 28 September 2013 Retrieved 17 September 2012 INS Shivaji Engineering Training Establishment Training Indian Navy Archived from the original on 18 July 2012 Retrieved 17 September 2012 Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj Indianpost com 21 April 1980 Retrieved 17 September 2012 Politics over Shivaji statue delays Mumbai airport expansion Business Standard 25 June 2011 Retrieved 11 January 2015 Times Maharashtra 2017 Mumbai Railway station renamed to Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj Terminus Times of India No 30 June Retrieved 14 January 2018 Shivaji killas express pure reverence The Times of India 29 October 2010 Archived from the original on 4 November 2012 Laine James W 13 February 2003 Shivaji Hindu King in Islamic India Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0 19 972643 1 Nina Golgowski 31 October 2018 India Now Boasts The World s Tallest Statue And It s Twice Lady Liberty s Size Huffington Post Retrieved 31 October 2018 via Yahoo News Pune PM Modi unveils Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj statue in municipal corporation premises Watch Free Press Journal 6 March 2022 Retrieved 6 March 2022 Bibliography Asher Catherine B Talbot Cynthia 2006 India Before Europe Cambridge University Press ISBN 978 0 521 80904 7 Cashman Richard I 1975 The Myth of the Lokamanya Tilak and Mass Politics in Maharashtra University of California Press ISBN 978 0 520 02407 6 Eaton Richard Maxwell 2015 The Sufis of Bijapur 1300 1700 Social Roles of Sufis in Medieval India Princeton University Press ISBN 978 1 4008 6815 5 Eraly Abraham 2000 Emperors of the Peacock Throne The Saga of the Great Mughals Penguin Books India ISBN 978 0 14 100143 2 Farooqui Salma Ahmed 2011 A Comprehensive History of Medieval India Twelfth to the Mid Eighteenth Century Pearson Education India ISBN 978 81 317 3202 1 Gier Nicholas F 2014 The Origins of Religious Violence An Asian Perspective Lexington Books ISBN 978 0 7391 9223 8 Gordon Stewart 1993 The Marathas 1600 1818 Cambridge University Press ISBN 978 0 521 26883 7 Haig Wolseley Burn Richard 1960 first published 1937 The Cambridge History of India Volume IV The Mughal Period Cambridge University Press Kamdar Mira 2018 India in the 21st Century What Everyone Needs to Know Oxford University Press pp 41 ISBN 978 0 19 997360 6 Knipe David M 2015 Vedic Voices Intimate Narratives of a Living Andhra Tradition Oxford University Press pp 40 ISBN 978 0 19 026673 8 Laine James W 2011 Resisting My Attackers Resisting My Defenders in Schmalz Matthew N Gottschalk Peter eds Engaging South Asian Religions Boundaries Appropriations and Resistances Albany SUNY Press pp 153 172 ISBN 978 1 4384 3323 3 Mehta Jaswant Lal 2009 1984 Advanced Study in the History of Medieval India Sterling Publishers Pvt Ltd ISBN 978 81 207 1015 3 Mehta Jaswant Lal 2005 Advanced Study in the History of Modern India Volume One 1707 1813 Sterling Publishers Pvt Ltd ISBN 978 1 932705 54 6 Ravishankar Chinya V 2018 Sons of Sarasvati Late Exemplars of the Indian Intellectual Tradition State University of New York Press ISBN 978 1 4384 7185 3 Robb Peter 2011 A History of India Macmillan ISBN 978 0 230 34424 2 Roy Kaushik 2015 Military Manpower Armies and Warfare in South Asia Routledge ISBN 978 1 317 32128 6 Roy Tirthankar 2013 An Economic History of Early Modern India Routledge ISBN 978 1 135 04787 0 Pagadi Setumadhava Rao 1983 Shivaji National Book Trust India Sarkar Jadunath 1920 1919 Shivaji and His Times Second ed London Longmans Green and Co Sarkar Jadunath 1920 History of Aurangzib Based on Original Sources Longmans Green and Company Sardesai Govind Sakharam 1957 1946 New History of the Marathas Shivaji and his line 1600 1707 Phoenix Publications Stein Burton 1987 Vijayanagara The New Cambridge History of India Cambridge and New York Cambridge University Press ISBN 0 521 26693 9 Subrahmanyam Sanjay 2002 The Political Economy of Commerce Southern India 1500 1650 Cambridge University Press ISBN 978 0 521 89226 1 Truschke Audrey 2017 Aurangzeb The Life and Legacy of India s Most Controversial King Stanford University Press ISBN 978 1 5036 0259 5 Wolpert Stanley A 1962 Tilak and Gokhale Revolution and Reform in the Making of Modern India University of California Press Zakaria Rafiq 2002 Communal Rage In Secular India Popular Prakashan ISBN 978 81 7991 070 2Further readingDaniel Jasper 2003 Commemorating the golden age of Shivaji in Maharashtra India and the development of Maharashtrian public politics Journal of Political and Military Sociology 31 2 215 230 JSTOR 45293740 S2CID 152003918 B K Apte ed 1974 1975 Chhatrapati Shivaji Coronation Tercentenary Commemoration Volume Bombay University of Bombay Pearson M N 1976b Shivaji and the Decline of the Mughal Empire Journal of Asian Studies 35 2 221 235 doi 10 2307 2053980 JSTOR 2053980 S2CID 162482005 James W Laine 2003 Shivaji Hindu King in Islamic India Oxford University Press USA ISBN 978 0 19 514126 9 External links Wikimedia Commons has media related to Shivaji in art Wikisource has the text of a 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica article about Shivaji Quotations related to Shivaji at Wikiquote Shivaji at CurlieShivajiHouse of BhonsleBorn c 1627 1630 Died 3 April 1680Regnal titlesNew titlenew state formed Chhatrapati of the Maratha Empire1674 1680 Succeeded bySambhajiPortals Biography Hinduism Royalty India History Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Shivaji amp oldid 1134184601, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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