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Poles in the United Kingdom

April 09, 2024

British Poles, alternatively known as Polish British people or Polish Britons, are ethnic Poles who are citizens of the United Kingdom. The term includes people born in the UK who are of Polish descent and Polish-born people who reside in the UK. There are approximately 682,000[1] people born in Poland residing in the UK. Since the late 20th century, they have become one of the largest ethnic minorities in the country alongside Irish, Indians, Pakistanis, Bangladeshis, Germans, and Chinese. The Polish language is the second-most spoken language in England and the third-most spoken in the UK after English and Welsh. About 1% of the UK population speaks Polish.[2][3] The Polish population in the UK has increased more than tenfold since 2001.[4]

Poles in the United Kingdom
Distribution by regional area at the 2011 census
Total population
Born in Poland: 682,000 (2021 Official data)[1]
Regions with significant populations
Throughout the United Kingdom
Languages
British English, Polish
Religion
Predominantly Roman Catholic Christian
Related ethnic groups
Polish diaspora, Polish American, Polish Canadian, Polish Irish, Polish Maltese, Polish Swedes, Polish Norwegians, Polish Icelanders, Polish Dutch, Polish German

Exchanges between the two countries date to the middle ages, when the Kingdom of England and the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth were linked by trade and diplomacy.[5] A notable 16th-century Polish resident in England was John Laski, a Protestant convert who influenced the course of the English Reformation and helped in establishing the Church of England.[6] Following the 18th-century dismemberment of the Commonwealth in three successive partitions by Poland's neighbours, the trickle of Polish immigrants to Britain increased in the aftermath of two 19th-century uprisings (1831 and 1863) that forced much of Poland's social and political elite into exile. London became a haven for the burgeoning ideas of Polish socialism as a solution for regaining independence as it sought international support for the forthcoming Polish uprising.[7] A number of Polish exiles fought in the Crimean War on the British side. In the late 19th century governments mounted pogroms against Polish Jews in the Russian (Congress Poland) and Austrian sectors of partitioned Poland (Galicia). Many Polish Jews fled their partitioned homeland, and most emigrated to the United States, but some settled in British cities, especially London, Manchester, Leeds and Kingston upon Hull.[8][9][10][11]

The number of Poles in Britain increased during the Second World War. Most of the Polish people who came to the United Kingdom at that time came as part of military units reconstituted outside Poland after the German-Soviet invasion of Poland in September 1939, which marked the beginning of World War II. On 3 September 1939, Britain and France, which were allied with Poland, declared war on Germany. Poland moved its government abroad, first to France and, after its fall in May 1940, to London.[12] The Poles contributed greatly to the Allied war effort; Polish naval units were the first Polish forces to integrate with the Royal Navy under the "Peking Plan". Polish pilots played a conspicuous role in the Battle of Britain and the Polish army formed in Britain later participated in the Allied invasion of Nazi-occupied France. The great majority of Polish military veterans were stranded in Britain after the Soviet Union imposed communist control on Poland after the war. This particularly concerned Polish soldiers from eastern areas, which were no longer part of Poland as a result of border changes due to the Potsdam Agreement.[13] The Polish government-in-exile, though denied majority international recognition after 1945, remained at its post in London until it formally dissolved in 1991, after a democratically elected president had taken office in Warsaw.

The European Union's 2004 enlargement and the UK Government's decision to allow immigration from the new accession states, encouraged Polish people to move to Britain rather than to Germany. Additionally, the Polish diaspora in Britain includes descendants of the nearly 200,000 Polish people who had originally settled in Britain after the Second World War. About one-fifth had moved to settle in other parts of the British Empire.[14][15]

History edit

 
Poland Street in London's Soho district (2015)

A Polish cleric named John Laski (1499–1560), nephew of Jan Łaski (1456–1531), converted to Calvinism while in Basel, Switzerland, where he became an associate of Archbishop Cranmer. After moving to London, in 1550 he was superintendent of the Strangers' Church of London and had some influence on ecclesiastical affairs in the reign of Edward VI.[16] Laski also spent some years working on the establishment of the Church of England.[16] Shortly before his death, he was recalled to Poland's royal court.

In the 16th century, when most grain imports to the British Isles came from Poland, Polish merchants and diplomats regularly travelled there, usually on the Eastland Company trade route from Gdańsk to London. Shakespeare mentions Polish people in his play Hamlet (e.g. "sledded polack"), which Israel Gollancz attributes to influence of the book, De optimo senatore (The Accomplished Senator), by Laurentius Grimaldius Goslicius (Wawrzyniec Grzymała Goślicki, a Polish bishop and noble). Gollancz further speculated that the book inspired Shakespeare to create the character Polonius, which is Latin for "Polish".[17]

After Poland's King John III, at the head of a coalition of European armies, defeated the invading Ottoman forces at the 1683 Ottoman siege of Vienna, a pub in London's Soho district was named "The King of Poland" in his honour, and soon afterward the street on which it stands was named Poland Street (and continues to be so to this day). In the 18th century, Polish Protestants settled around Poland Street as religious refugees fleeing the Catholic Reformation in Poland.

18th century edit

 
Stanislaus II Augustus, c. 1780 by Marcello Bacciarelli

As a young man of the Enlightenment, and already befriended by a Welsh diplomat, Sir Charles Hanbury Williams, the young Stanislaus Poniatowski, future and last King of Poland, stayed in Britain for some months during 1754. On this trip he also came to know Charles Yorke, the Lord Chancellor of Great Britain.[18]

 
Dulwich Picture Gallery, where the Polish art collection still remains

In 1788, during the closing years of Stanislaus Augustus' reign, after the first Partition of Poland in 1772, the Polish called a special assembly, known to history as the Four Years Diet or "Great Sejm" whose great achievement was to be the Constitution of 3 May 1791. In that period Poland sought support from the Kingdom of Great Britain in its negotiations with Prussia in an effort to stave off further threats from Russia and from its own plotting magnates.

In 1790, King Stanislaus Augustus sent Michał Kleofas Ogiński (also a composer and mentor to Frederic Chopin) on an embassy to London to meet with Prime Minister William Pitt the Younger. The British were prepared, along with the Dutch, to propose a favourable commercial treaty for Polish goods, especially flax, if Poland ceded the cities of Gdańsk and Toruń to the Prussians. This condition was unacceptable to Poland.

Stanislaus Augustus also commissioned the London art dealership of Bourgeois and Desenfans to assemble a collection of Old Master paintings for Poland to encourage arts in the Commonwealth. The dealers fulfilled their commission, but five years later Poland as a state ceased to exist following the third and final Partition.[19] The art collection destined for Poland became the nucleus of the Dulwich Picture Gallery in South London.[20]

19th century edit

In the 19th century, Polish-British relations took on a cultural dimension, with musical tours in the United Kingdom by virtuosos and composers including Maria Szymanowska, Frederic Chopin, Maria Kalergis and Henryk Wieniawski.[21]

 
Chopin, soon to die, gave concerts in Britain in 1848.

During the November 1830 Uprising against the Russian Empire, British military equipment and armaments were sent to Poland, facilitated by the presence of Leon Łubieński studying at Edinburgh University at the time and the swift despatch to Britain of his uncle, Józef, to secure the shipment.[22][23] After the collapse of the rebellion in 1831, many Polish exiles sought sanctuary in Britain.[24] One of them was the veteran and inventor, Edward Jełowicki, who took out a patent in London on his Steam turbine.[25] The fall of Warsaw and the arrival of the Poles on British shores prompted poet Thomas Campbell with others to create in 1832 a Literary Association of the Friends of Poland, with the aim of keeping British public opinion informed of Poland's plight. The Association had several regional centres; one of its meetings was addressed by the Polish statesman, Count Adam Jerzy Czartoryski.[26] Czartoryski's permanent representative at the Court of St James's was General Count Władysław Stanisław Zamoyski, who later led a division in the Crimean War on the British side against Russia. Zamoyski's adjutant was another Polish exile, an officer in the 5th Sultan's Cossacks—a Polish cavalry division—Colonel Stanisław Julian Ostroróg.[27] The last official Polish envoy to Britain was the statesman, writer, and futurologist, Julian Ursyn Niemcewicz (1758–1841).

The 1848 revolutions in Europe gave impetus to a number of Polish socialist activists to settle in London and establish the "Gromada Londyn" between 1855 and 1861. They sought support from other European activists who were in the city forming the First Internationale.[28] The social connections formed between Poland and Britain encouraged the influential Polish Łubieński family to forge further trade links between the two countries. The anglophile banker, Henryk Łubieński prompted his business associate and Polish "King of Zinc", Piotr Steinkeller, to open The London Zinc Works off Wenlock Road in London's Hoxton in 1837, with a view to exporting zinc sheeting to India.[29][30] Moreover, two of Łubieński's grandsons were sent to board at the Catholic Ushaw College in Durham. Other relatives married into the old recusant Grimshaw and Bodenham de la Barre family of Rotherwas.[31] Subsequently, the Redemptorist Venerable Fr. Bernard Łubieński (1846–1933) spent many years as a Catholic missionary in England.[32] The Polish Catholic Mission in England and Wales began its pastoral work for Polish émigrés in 1853 with church services in Soho's Sutton Street and with the arrival of Sr. Franciszka Siedliska and two other nuns to start a Polish school.[33]

 
Michael Marks (Polish: Michał Marks), co-founder of Marks & Spencer
 
Stanisława de Karłowska by husband, Robert Bevan

The next Polish uprising, the January 1863 Uprising, led to a further influx of Polish political exiles to Britain. Among them were people like Stanisław Julian Ostroróg, Crimean veteran and photographer to Queen Victoria, Walery Wróblewski and the only notable Polish anarchist and follower of Bakunin, Walery Mroczkowski, member of the First Internationale and opponent of Marxist ideology.[34] Polish Jews also fled due to the intensifying anti-Semitic pogroms and better economic opportunities. Among the notable Polish Jews who came to Britain were Henry Lowenfeld theatrical impresario and brewer, Michael Marks (co-founder of Marks & Spencer), Morris Wartski (founder of Wartski antique dealers) and the family of Jack Cohen, the founder of Tesco.

 
Joseph Conrad (Józef Korzeniowski), renowned English-language novelist

Perhaps the most famous Polish person to settle in Britain at the end of the 19th century, having gained British citizenship in 1886, was the seafarer turned early modernist novelist, Józef Korzeniowski, better known by his pen name, Joseph Conrad. He was the highly influential author of such works as Almayer's Folly, The Nigger of the 'Narcissus', Heart of Darkness, Lord Jim, Nostromo, The Secret Agent, The Duel, Under Western Eyes and Victory, many of which have been turned into films. Another artist to settle in London (1898) was the modernist painter, Stanisława de Karłowska (1876-1952), who married the English artist, Robert Bevan. She helped to found The London Group.[35]

At the end of the 19th-century, along with Zurich and Vienna, London had become one of the centres of Polish political activism, especially of the left. Józef Piłsudski stayed in Leytonstone after his escape from St-Petersburg. The political review, "Przedświt" ("Pre-Dawn") was published in Whitechapel for several years, notably under the editorship of Leon Wasilewski 1898–1903, later to become the first foreign minister of a newly independent Poland in 1918.[36]

Both before and after the First World War, a few Poles settled in London – following the Russian Revolution of 1905 and then in the war, those released from London's prisoner-of-war camps for Germans and Austrians in the Alexandra Palace and at Feltham. In 1910 a sixteen-year old youth from Warsaw settled in London for the sake of his art: he was to be a future ballet master, Stanislas Idzikowski.[37] Polish people living in the Austrian and German partitions had been obliged to serve in their respective national forces and were unable to return.

The resurgence of an independent Poland in 1918, briefly complicated by the Polish–Soviet War from 1918 to 1920, enabled the country to rapidly reorganise its polity, develop its economy, and resume its place in international forums. One of the Polish delegates at the Paris Peace Conference, was a London-based émigré, Count Leon Ostroróg.[38] This two-decade period of advance was disrupted in September 1939 by a coordinated German and Soviet invasion that marked the beginning of World War II.

Second World War edit

See also: Polish government-in-exile and 1943 Gibraltar B-24 crash
 
Poles marching in Warsaw, after Britain declared war on Germany, during invasion of Poland. Banner reads "Long Live England".

It was the Polish contribution to the Allied war effort in the United Kingdom that led to the establishment of the postwar Polish community in Britain. During the Second World War, most of the Poles arrived as military or political émigrés as a result of the combined German-Soviet occupation of Poland.

As the invasion of Poland progressed throughout September 1939, the Polish government evacuated into Romania and from there to France. Based at first in Paris, it moved to Angers until June 1940, when France capitulated to the Germans.[39][40] With the Fall of France, the Polish Government-in-Exile relocated to London, along with a first wave of at least 20,000 soldiers and airmen in 1940. It was recognized by all the Allied governments. Politically, it was a coalition of the Polish Peasant Party, the Polish Socialist Party, the Labour Party, and the National Party. Although these parties maintained only a vestigial existence in the circumstances of the war, the tasks of the Government-in-Exile were immense, requiring open lines of communication with, and control of, the Polish Underground State in situ and the Polish Underground Army in occupied Poland, and the maintenance of international diplomatic relations for the organization of regular Polish military forces in Allied states.

 
Mathematician Marian Rejewski ca. 1932, when he first "broke" German Enigma cipher

On 4 July 1943 the Polish Prime Minister-in-Exile, General Wladyslaw Sikorski, who was also Commander-in-Chief of the Polish Armed Forces in the West, died in an air crash off Gibraltar as he was returning to Britain from an inspection tour of Polish forces in the Mediterranean theatre. Until the Germans' April 1943 discovery of mass graves of 28,000 executed Polish military reserve officers at Katyn, near Smolensk in Russia, Sikorski had wished to work with the Soviets. After Hitler's invasion of the Soviet Union in June 1941, the Soviets' importance to the Western alliance had grown while British support for Polish aspirations had begun to decline.[41] As the war progressed, Polish plans to more completely incorporate Poland's underground Home Army into the broader strategy of the Western allies—including contingency plans to move Polish Air Force fighter squadrons, and the Polish Parachute Brigade, to Poland—foundered on British and American reluctance to antagonise a vital Soviet ally hostile to Polish autonomy; on the distance from British-controlled bases to occupied Poland, which lay at the extreme flying range of available aircraft; and on the frittering away of the Polish Parachute Brigade on a patently flawed British operation at Arnhem, the Netherlands.[42]

One of the most important Polish contributions to Allied victory had actually begun in late 1932, nearly seven years before the outbreak of war when the mathematician-cryptologist Marian Rejewski, with limited aid from French military intelligence, constructed a double of the sight-unseen German Enigma cipher machine used by the German civil and military authorities. Five weeks before the outbreak of war, in late July 1939, Rejewski and his fellow cryptologists, Henryk Zygalski and Jerzy Rozycki had disclosed to French and British intelligence in Warsaw the techniques and technologies they had developed for "breaking" German Enigma ciphers. Poland's Biuro Szyfrów (Cipher Bureau, operated by the Polish General Staff) gave the British and French an Enigma double, each. This enabled the British, who had been unable to break German Enigma ciphers at Bletchley Park, to develop their "Ultra" operation. At war's end, General Dwight Eisenhower characterized Ultra as having been "decisive" to Allied victory.[43] Former Bletchley Park cryptologist Gordon Welchman wrote: "Ultra would never have got off the ground if we had not learned from the Polish, in the nick of time, details both of the German military... the Enigma machine, and of the operating procedures that were in use [by the Germans]."[44]

Polish Navy edit

 
Operation Peking, the evacuation of Polish navy destroyers from Poland to Britain in late August 1939

The first Polish military branch to transfer substantial personnel and equipment to the United Kingdom was the Polish Navy. Shortly before the outbreak of hostilities, the Polish government ordered three destroyers, for their protection and in anticipation of joint operations with the Royal Navy, to sail for Great Britain (Operation Peking).[45] Two submarines also sailed there, the Orzeł (Eagle) arriving unannounced in Scotland after a daring breakout from the Baltic Sea following its illegal internment in Estonia.

 
ORP Piorun officers and men on return to Plymouth after fighting the Bismarck

Polish Navy personnel to come under Royal Navy command comprised 1,400 officers and 4,750 sailors.[46] By chance, Poland's only two ocean-going commercial liners, MS Piłsudski and MS Batory were also on the high seas on 1 September 1939 and were both shortly thereafter requisitioned by the British Admiralty for war service. The former was lost in November 1939 when it struck a mine off the Yorkshire coast.[47] Batory, dubbed "the Lucky ship", became a troop and civilian carrier and hospital ship. It effected a major evacuation during the Battle of Narvik and completed hundreds of convoys on the Mediterranean Sea and on the Atlantic, before being surrendered to the control of the communist authorities in Warsaw in 1946.[48]

In May 1941, the Polish destroyer Piorun—Thunderbolt—was able to locate and engage the world's most powerful battleship, Bismarck, drawing its fire for an hour while the Royal Navy caught up in time to destroy the German warship.[49]

 
303 Fighter Squadron pilots and Hurricane, October 1940

The Poles formed the fourth-largest Allied armed force after the Soviets, the Americans, and the combined troops of the British Empire. They were the largest group of non-British personnel in the RAF during the Battle of Britain, and the 303 Polish Squadron was the most successful RAF unit in the Battle of Britain. Special Operations Executive had a large section of covert, elite Polish troops who cooperated closely with the Polish underground army. By July 1945 there were 228,000 troops of the Polish Armed Forces in the West serving under the British.[24] Many of these men and women came from the Kresy region (eastern Poland), including from the major cities of Lwów (now Lviv, Ukraine) and Wilno (now Vilnius, Lithuania). They had been deported by the Soviets from the Kresy to the gulags when Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union occupied Poland in 1939 under the Nazi-Soviet Pact. Two years later, when Churchill and Joseph Stalin formed an alliance against Adolf Hitler, the mostly "Kresy Poles" were released from the Gulags in Siberia to form "Anders' Army" and were made to walk via Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan and Turkmenistan, where thousands perished on the way, to Iran. There the Polish II Corps came into being under British command. They fought in the battles of Monte Cassino, the Falaise Gap, Arnhem, Tobruk, and in the liberation of many European cities, including Bologna and Breda.[50]

 
General Sikorski (left) and Winston Churchill review Polish troops in England, 1943.

The Polish troops who contributed to the Allied defeat of the Germans in North Africa and Italy, had expected to be able to return at war's end to their Kresy (eastern Polish) homeland in an independent and democratic Poland. But at Yalta, Roosevelt and Churchill acquiesced in Stalin's Soviet Union annexation of the Kresy lands (roughly half of pre-war Poland's landmass), in accordance with the provisions of the 1939 Nazi-Soviet Pact. This entailed massive postwar Polish population deportations to western so-called "Recovered Territories" assigned from Germany to Poland.[51] The great majority of Polish soldiers, sailors, and airmen in the West would never return to their homeland. In apparent reaction to British acquiescence in Poland's postwar future, thirty officers and men of the Polish II Corps committed suicide.[52]

Churchill explained the government's actions in a three-day Parliamentary debate, begun on 27 February 1945, which ended in a vote of confidence. Many MPs openly criticised Churchill over Yalta and voiced strong loyalty to the UK's Polish allies.[52] Churchill may not have been confident that Poland would be the independent and democratic country to which Polish troops could return; he said: "His Majesty's Government will never forget the debt they owe to the Polish troops... I earnestly hope it will be possible for them to have citizenship and freedom of the British Empire, if they so desire."[53]

During the debate, 25 MPs and Peers risked their future political careers to draft an amendment protesting against the UK's acceptance of a geographically reconfigured Poland's integration into the Soviet sphere of influence, thereby shifting it westwards into the heart of Europe. These members included Arthur Greenwood, Sir Archibald Southby, Sir Alec Douglas-Home, Lord Willoughby de Eresby, and Victor Raikes.[52] After the amendment was defeated, Henry Strauss, MP for Norwich, resigned his seat in protest at the British government's abandonment of Poland.[52]

The Polish Institute and Sikorski Museum in London are the repository for archival material relating to this period.[54]

Private Wojtek edit

Main article: Wojtek (bear)
 
Wojtek (right) and fellow Polish soldier, 1943

During their 1942 evacuation from the Soviet Union to the Near East, soldiers of the Polish Second Corps had, at an Iranian railway station, purchased a Syrian brown bear cub. He travelled with them on the Polish troop-transport ship Kościuszko and subsequently accompanied them to Egypt and to the Italian campaign. In Italy he helped shift ammunition crates and became a celebrity with visiting Allied generals and statesmen.

In order to bring him to Italy, as regimental mascots and pets were not allowed onboard transport ships, the bear was formally enrolled as Private Wojciech Perski (his surname being the Polish adjective meaning "Persian"; Wojtek is the diminutive for Wojciech).

After the war, mustered out of the Polish Army, Wojtek was billeted, and lived out his retirement, at the Edinburgh Zoo, where he was visited by fellow exiles and former Polish comrades-in-arms and won the affection of the public. Posthumously he has inspired books, films, plaques, and statues in the UK and Poland.[55]

Post World War II edit

Polish Resettlement Corps 1946–49 edit

Following the invasion of Poland in September 1939, many thousands of Polish servicemen and women made their way via Hungary and Romania (which then had common borders with Poland) to France, where they again fought against the invading Germans; and in 1942 the newly formed Polish Second Corps evacuated from the Soviet Union, via Iran, to the Near East, subsequently fighting in campaigns there and in North Africa, Italy, and northwest Europe. Some Second Corps personnel transferred from the Near East into Polish Armed Services units in the UK.

At war's end, many of the Poles were transported to, and stayed in, camps in the United Kingdom. In order to ease their transition from a Polish-British military environment to British civilian life, a satisfactory means of demobilisation was sought by British authorities. This took the form of a Polish Resettlement Corps (PRC), as an integral corps of the British Army, into which the Poles who wished to stay in the UK could enlist for the transitional period of their demobilisation.

The PRC was formed in 1946 (Army Order 96 of 1946) and was disbanded after fulfilling its purpose in 1949 (Army Order 2 of 1950).[56]

Polish Resettlement Act 1947 edit

See also: Western betrayal
 
Polish Hearth Club, Exhibition Road, London, a Polish "hub" during and after WW II

When the Second World War ended, a communist government was installed in Poland. Most Poles felt betrayed by their wartime allies and declined to "return to Poland" either because their homeland had become a hostile foreign state or because of Soviet repressions of Poles, Soviet conduct during the Warsaw uprising of 1944, the trial of the Sixteen, and executions of former members of the Home Army. To accommodate Poles unable to return to their home country, Britain enacted the Polish Resettlement Act 1947, Britain's first mass immigration law. Initially, a very large Polish community was centred around Swindon, where many military personnel had been stationed during the war.

After occupying Polish Resettlement Corps camps, many Poles settled in London and other conurbations, many of them recruited as European Volunteer Workers.[57] Many others settled in the British Empire, forming large Polish Canadian and Polish Australian communities, or in the United States and Argentina.

Post-war dispersal and settlement edit

See also: Catholic Church in England and Wales § Polish Catholic immigration

In the 1951 UK Census, some 162,339 residents had listed Poland as their birthplace, up from 44,642 in 1931.[14][58] Polish arrivals to the UK included survivors of German concentration and POW camps and war wounded needing additional help adapting to civilian life. This help was provided by a range of charitable endeavours, some coordinated by Sue Ryder (1924–2000), a British humanitarian who, as Baroness Ryder of Warsaw, was later raised to the House of Lords and spoke there in the cause of Poland.[59]

 
Dame Cicely Saunders, hospice-movement pioneer

Another British woman, Dame Cicely Saunders, was inspired by three displaced Polish men to revolutionise palliative care and care of the dying. She met the first two, David Tasma—who had escaped from the Warsaw Ghetto—and Antoni Michniewicz, as they were dying. The third Pole, Marian Bohusz-Szyszko, a painter and art critic, supported her work and became her husband in old age. Saunders is considered the founder of the hospice movement.[60]

 
Entrance to St Andrew Bobola Church, Hammersmith

Britain's Polish immigrants tended to settle in areas near Polish churches and food outlets. In West London, they settled in Earl's Court, known in the 1950s as the "Polish Corridor", in reference to the interwar Central European political entity and, as house prices rose, they moved to Hammersmith, then Ealing, and in South London, to Lewisham and Balham. As these communities grew, even if many Poles had integrated with local British educational and religious institutions, the Polish Catholic Mission in England and Wales, in agreement with the English and Scottish hierarchies, considered that Polish priests should minister to Polish parishioners.[61] The original Polish church in London in Devonia Road, Islington was bought in 1928 with much delay, following the First World War. However canonically, subsequent Polish "parishes" are actually branches of the Polish Catholic Mission and not parishes in the conventional sense and are accountable to the episcopate in Poland, through a vicar delegate, although each is located in a British Catholic diocese, to whom it owes the courtesy of being connected. The first post-war Polish "parish" in London was attached to Brompton Oratory in South Kensington, followed by a chapel in Willesden staffed by Polish Jesuits. Brockley-Lewisham was founded in 1951, followed by Clapham, while St Andrew Bobola church in Shepherd's Bush (1962) was regarded as the "Polish garrison" church. Among its many commemorative plaques is one to a clairvoyant and healer housewife and Soviet deportee, Waleria Sikorzyna: she had had a detailed premonitory dream two years before the 1939 invasion of Poland, but was politely dismissed by the Polish military authorities.[62][63] Currently the Polish Catholic Mission operates around 219 parishes and pastoral centres with 114 priests throughout England and Wales.[64] In 2007 Cardinal Cormac Murphy-O'Connor, primate of England, expressed concern "that Poles are creating a separate Church in Britain", but Polish rector, Mgr Kukla, responded that the Polish Catholic Mission continued to have a "good relationship" with the hierarchy in England and Wales and said that integration was a long process.[65]

Cultural and educational ties with Poland edit

See also: BBC Polish Section
 
Polish Institute and Sikorski Museum, a leading Polish archive and museum in London founded on 2 May 1945

The social make-up of successive waves of Polish migration to the UK is comparable to 19th- and early-20th-century Polish migrations to France.[66] In both cases, the original mainly political migrants were drawn largely from elite and educated strata and reflected the heterogeneity of their class, and they quickly established cultural institutions such as libraries and learned societies. They included representatives of past Polish minorities such as Jews, Germans, Armenians, Georgians, Ruthenians, and people of Muslim Tatar descent. In both cases, they were followed by waves of more socially-homogeneous economic migrants.

Since the Second World War, Poland has lost much of its earlier ethnic diversity, with the exception of Polska Roma, a distinct ethnolinguistic group and other Polish Roma communities, and this has been reflected in recent Polish migrations to the UK.[67][68] A recent study of comparative literature by Mieczysŀaw Dąbrowski, of Warsaw University, appears to bear this out.[69]

A key military and latterly, news and cultural role was played by broadcasts in Polish, beamed to Poland, from London by the BBC's Polish section. They began on 7 September 1939 with coded messages among prosaic material for the Polish Underground and after expansion into English by radio ended on 23 December 2005, a victim of budgetary cuts and new priorities.

Across the mainland UK, in the late 1940s and early 1950s, the original Polish communities chiefly comprised former members of the Polish Resettlement Corps. They set up Polish clubs, cultural centres, and adult and youth organisations, e.g., the Polish Youth Group (KSMP). They contributed to, and in turn were supported by, veterans' welfare charities such as veterans' SPK (Stowarzyszenie Polskich Kombatantów), airmen's and naval clubs. These organisations' original aims were to provide venues for socialising and exposure to Polish culture and heritage for children of former Polish Resettlement Corps members. Many of these groups remain active, and steps are being taken to cater to more recent Polish migrants.

The post-war phase saw a continuation of Polish intellectual and political life in microcosm in the UK, with the publication of newspapers and journals such as Dziennik Polski and Wiadomości, the establishment of independent (of the Polish "regime") publishing houses such as "Veritas" and "Odnowa", with a worldwide reach, and professional theatrical productions under the auspices of a dramatic society, "Syrena". Orbis Books (London) was a bookseller, publishing house and for a time a record producer (under the label Polonia UK), founded in Edinburgh in 1944 by Kapt. Józef Olechnowicz, brought to New Oxford Street, London in 1946 and eventually bought by Jerzy Kulczycki in 1972.[70][71][72] Poles in London played their part in the blossoming of modern art movements during the Swinging Sixties. Chief among them were two gallery owners, the painter, Halima Nałęcz, at the Drian Gallery in Bayswater and the pharmacist and philanthropist, Mateusz Grabowski with his Grabowski Gallery in Sloane Avenue, Chelsea, London. Grabowski promoted Polish and other diaspora artists, such as Pauline Boty, Frank Bowling, Józef Czapski, Stanisław Frenkiel, Bridget Riley and Aubrey Williams.[73][74]

Concern for the maintenance of Polish language and culture in the UK was entrusted to the "Polska Macierz Szkolna" – Polish Educational Society, a voluntary organization that operated a network of Saturday schools. Parishes also organized an active Polish scout movement (ZHP pgk). Polish religious orders founded boarding schools in England. In 1947 The Sisters of the Holy Family of Nazareth started a school for girls, The Holy Family of Nazareth Convent School in Pitsford near Northampton.[75] Displaced members of the Polish Marian Fathers opened a first school for boys in Herefordshire. Then with financial help from the Polish diaspora, they acquired a vacant historic property on the river Thames outside Henley-on-Thames which became "Divine Mercy College" and a heritage museum at Fawley Court, a Grade I listed building, which functioned as a college from 1953 to 1986 and as a museum and retreat and conference centre until about 2010, when it was sold off by the Polish order amid controversy.[76][77][78][79] In the grounds of the property is a church building and Columbarium (1071) commissioned by Prince Radziwill in memory of his mother, Anna Lubomirska. The prince was himself laid to rest there in 1976.[80] It is Grade II listed by English Heritage.[81]

 
Polish Social and Cultural Centre (POSK) building, Hammersmith

As a result of the 1939 invasion of Poland, the entirety of Polish universities and academic research fell into disarray. Although very reduced tertiary teaching continued underground, many academics perished in Katyn and in Concentration camps or shared the fate of the civilian population. Those who were abroad at the outbreak of war or who managed to escape set about salvaging their heritage outside Poland. During the war several British universities hosted Polish academic departments to enable Polish students to complete their interrupted studies: thus Liverpool offered veterinary science in Polish and Oxford hosted a Polish faculty of law, and Edinburgh had a Polish Medical Faculty, whose alumni fortuitously joined the roll out of the National Health Service in the UK.[82][83] These arrangements came to an end in the late 1940s and to cater for many demobilized service personnel wishing to resume their studies or research, "PUNO" (Polski Uniwersytet na Obczyznie) – The Polish University Abroad was founded in 1949, offering humanities subjects in Polish. It exists to this day with a London base at the Polish Social and Cultural Centre in Hammersmith and has opened departments in other European countries.[84] During the Cold War, Poles assembled twice in the UK to mark historic national events. The first was in 1966 the Millennium of Poland's baptism as a Christian nation, when among other festivities, a Mass was celebrated in London's White City Stadium, filled to its 45,000 capacity.[85] The second gathering was during the visit by the Polish pontiff, Pope John Paul II, to the United Kingdom in 1982. While the Pope visited nine British cities and was welcomed by two million British Roman Catholics and others, a Mass specifically for 20,000 Polish faithful was held at the Crystal Palace stadium in London on Sunday 30 May.[86]

Symbolism of political governance edit

 
From left: Piotr Kownacki, Aleksander Kwaśniewski, Ryszard Kaczorowski, Lech Wałęsa, on 20th anniversary of re-establishment of Polish Senate in Warsaw

In December 1990, when Lech Wałęsa became the first non-Communist president of Poland since the war, the ceremonial insignia of the Polish Republic, including the original text of the Polish 1935 constitution were handed over to him in Warsaw by the last "President" of the London-based government-in-exile, Ryszard Kaczorowski. This act symbolized the legitimate transfer of independent Poland's seals of office and put an end to the political opposition that, for half a century, had both dogged and been the bedrock of the Polish diaspora in the United Kingdom.[87][88] Arguably a majority of Polish people had fought hard to combat communism, and for their right to democratic liberties. While an increasingly frail and diminishing group upheld the existence of the "Zamek" – "Citadel" shorthand for the Polish National Council as the "virtual opposition" to the communist regime in Poland it held little sway with the Polish diaspora in the UK.[89] Instead, London came to be seen as an important centre for fostering business and cultural relations with contemporary Poland.[90]

Economic activity edit

For the duration of the Cold War and the Iron Curtain, Poles in the UK were engaged in a massive effort of helping economically their relatives and friends in Poland. Initially they sent food parcels and medicines as Poland recovered from the ravages of war then the assistance changed to money transfers, sometimes from their own meagre pensions, in the belief that they were still better off living in freedom. Tazab and Haskoba were the earliest UK-based parcel operations, while Grabowski was a mail order pharmacy.[91][92] When Poland raised import tariffs, they turned their focus in the mid 1950s to travel, like Fregata Travel, the latter being a brand that had migrated to London from pre-war Lwow.[93] With banking agreements with Poland in place, the travel companies acted as transfer bureaux via the Polish bank PKO.

The relaxation of travel restrictions to and from Poland after October 1956 saw a steady increase in Polish exchanges with the United Kingdom in the 1950s. In the 1960s a purge of communist party members and intellectuals of Jewish descent led to a further influx of Poles into the UK. Only with the accession of Edward Gierek in 1970 as First Secretary of the Polish Workers' Party (PZPR), who himself had spent time as a migrant in France and Belgium, did it become possible for Poles to leave their country with relative ease.

The Polish Trustee Association, founded by the Ex-Combatants (SPK), handled legacies left by Polish DPs for their kin in Poland.[94]

Remembrance edit

Main article: Polish War Memorial
 
Mieczysław Lubelski's memorial to Polish airmen at Northolt

Polish servicemen who died in the Battle of Britain or subsequently, found their final resting places mainly in six cemeteries across the United Kingdom: Newark-on-Trent, Blackpool, Brookwood Cemetery, Surrey, Yatesbury in Wiltshire, Grangemouth in Scotland, and Wrexham in Wales. Then, as the first generation of émigrés settled in various urban areas, often clustered around Polish clubs and churches, their graves and memorials began to appear in nearby existing cemeteries. Thus in London and its environs there were Polish burials especially in Brompton (Central London), Gunnersbury, Mortlake, Norwood and Putney Vale cemeteries.[95]

The Polish War Memorial, in a prominent position close to RAF Northolt West of London, commemorating the Polish airmen who fought for Great Britain, was erected in two stages. It was initially unveiled in 1948 with the names of 1,243 flyers. In time, a further 659 names were identified and were added during a refurbishment of the monument carried out in 1994-6 funded by a public appeal. It was ceremonially re-opened. In 2015 a memorial garden was added to mark the 75th anniversary of the battle. The monument is Grade II listed by English Heritage.[96]Franciszek Kornicki (1916–2017) is the last Polish fighter pilot to die. His funeral was held in November 2017.[97]

 
Katyn Monument

By contrast, the wish of the British Polish community to honour its 28,000 fellow countrymen, many of them close relatives, who fell victim of the Katyn massacre with a memorial met with sustained obstruction from the British authorities. This, it appears, was owing to the effective diplomatic pressure exerted by the Soviet Union on Anglo-Soviet relations at the height of the Cold War. Despite public funds having been raised, the project was delayed for many years. A measure of détente in East-West relations in the mid 1970s, allowed a monument to be installed inside Gunnersbury Cemetery. There was no official British attendance at the unveiling in September 1976. Those British officials who came, did so in their private capacity.[98]

There are now over a dozen Polish war memorials across the UK, including in the RAF church, St Clement Danes in the City of London and St Andrew Bobola Church, Hammersmith.[99]

21st-century economic immigration edit

Main article: 21st-century economic migration of Poles
 
Polish natives employed in UK, 2003–10.[100]
 
More Polish Grocery stores opened up across the UK after Poland joined the EU in 2004, such as this deli in Coventry.
 
Polish pierogi bar in West Yorkshire

During the twentieth century, world events meant that in Europe, London eclipsed Paris as the traditional destination of choice for Polish dissidents. The establishment of Polish communities across the UK after the Second World War along with supporting institutions cemented links between the UK-Polish community and relatives and friends in Poland. This encouraged a steady flow of migrants from Poland to the UK, which accelerated after the fall of Communism in 1989. Throughout the 1990s, Poles used the eased travel restrictions to move to the UK and work, sometimes in the grey economy.

Poland joined the EU on 1 May 2004 and Poles, as EU citizens, gained the right to freedom of movement and establishment across the European Union. Most member states, though, had negotiated temporary restrictions to their labour markets, up to a maximum of seven years, for citizens from new member states. To the contrary, the UK (as Sweden too) granted immediate full access to its labour market to citizens from the new member states.[101][102] over entrants from these accession states,[103][104]

Seven-year temporary restrictions on benefits that EU citizens including Poles could claim, covered by the Worker Registration Scheme, ended in 2011.[105]

The Home Office publishes quarterly statistics on applications to the Worker Registration Scheme. Figures published in August 2007 indicated that some 656,395 persons were accepted on to the scheme between 1 May 2004 and 30 June 2007, of whom 430,395 were Polish nationals. However, as the scheme is voluntary, offers no financial incentive and is not enforced; immigrants are free to choose whether or not to participate. They may work legally in the UK provided they have a Polish identity card or passport and a UK National Insurance number. This has led to some estimates of Polish nationals in the UK being much higher.[106] Department of Work and Pensions (DWP) publishes quarterly reports containing data on National Insurance number (NINo) allocations to adult overseas nationals entering the UK.[107] The number of Polish nationals’ NINo registrations peaked between 2006 and 2008. In the financial year 2006/07 there were 220,430 Polish nationals receiving NINo registration (31% of all NINo registrations to adult overseas nationals entering the UK) and in 2007/2008- 210,660 (29% of all registrations to adult overseas nationals).[108] The number of NINo registrations granted to Polish citizens has been in significant decline since 2016 referendum. In the year to June 2016 Polish born adults received 105 thousand NINo's, 18% less than in the year before a 13% share of all NINo registrations to adult overseas nationals entering the UK.[109] The latest statistical data covering the year to the end of March 2020 shows a further decrease in Polish NINo registrations. During this period 38 thousand Polish citizens received NINos - 13% less than in the previous year and a significantly smaller share of all adult overseas registrations compared with previous years - 5%.[110]

The Polish magazine Polityka launched a 'Stay With Us' scheme offering young academics a £5,000 bonus to encourage them to live and work at home in Poland. Additionally on 20 October 2007, a campaign was launched by the British Polish Chamber of Commerce called "Wracaj do Polski" ('Come Back to Poland') which encouraged Poles living and working in the UK to return home.

By the end of 2007, stronger economic growth in Poland than in the UK, falling unemployment and the rising strength of the Polish złoty had reduced the economic incentive for Poles to migrate to the UK. Poland was one of the few countries to not be badly affected by the 2008 economic downturn.[111] Labour shortages in Polish cities and in sectors such as construction, IT and financial services have also played a part in stemming the flow of Poles to the UK.[112] According to the August 2007 Accession Monitoring Report, fewer Poles migrated in the first half of 2007 than in the same period in 2006.

Demographics edit

Historical population
YearPop.±%
2001 66,000—    
2002 68,000+3.0%
2003 75,000+10.3%
2004 94,000+25.3%
2005 162,000+72.3%
2006 265,000+63.6%
2007 411,000+55.1%
2008 504,000+22.6%
2009 529,000+5.0%
2010 540,000+2.1%
2011 654,000+21.1%
2012 658,000+0.6%
2013 688,000+4.6%
2014 790,000+14.8%
2015 831,000+5.2%
2016 911,000+9.6%
2017 922,000+1.2%
2018 832,000−9.8%
2019 695,000−16.5%
2020 691,000−0.6%
2021 682,000−1.3%
Note: Apart from the actual 2001 and 2011 Census figures, the numbers in the central column are ONS estimates of the number of Polish-born residents. See source for 95 per cent confidence intervals.
Source: [113]

Population size edit

The 2001 UK Census recorded 60,711 Polish-born UK residents;[114] 60,680 of these resided in Great Britain (not including Northern Ireland), compared to 73,951 in 1991.[115] Following immigration after Poland's accession to the EU, the Office for National Statistics estimated that 832,000 Polish-born residents lived in the UK by 2018, making Poles the largest overseas-born group, having outgrown the Indian-born population.[116] Unofficial estimates from 2007 had put the number of Poles living in the UK higher, at up to one million.[117][118][119]

The 2011 UK Census recorded 579,121 Polish-born residing in England, 18,023 in Wales,[120] 55,231 in Scotland,[121] and 19,658 in Northern Ireland.[122]

The Office for National Statistics estimates that the Polish-born population of the UK was 691,000 in 2020.[123] The 2021 census recorded 743,083 Polish-born residents in England and Wales[124] and 22,335 in Northern Ireland.[125] The census in Scotland was delayed for a year and took place in 2022 and country of birth statistics are yet to be released.[126]

Geographic distribution edit

 
Distribution of Polish-born people by ward in London.
  0.0%-1.99%
  2%-2.99%
  3%-4.99%
  5%-6.99%
  7%-8.99%
  9% and greater
 
Polish-speakers in England and Wales

According to the 2011 UK Census in England and Wales, there are 0.5 million residents whose main language is Polish; which amounts to 1% of the whole population aged three years and over. In London, there were 147,816 Polish speakers. The main concentration of Polish people in London is in Ealing, in West London (21,507; 6.4% of all usual residents). Elsewhere in the capital, the biggest Polish communities are in the outer Boroughs of: Haringey, Brent, Hounslow, Waltham Forest, Barnet. Outside London, the largest Polish communities are in: Birmingham, Southampton, Slough (8,341; 5.9%), Luton, Leeds, Peterborough, Nottingham, Manchester, Leicester, Coventry and the Borough of Boston in Lincolnshire (2,975; 4.6%).[127]

Scotland has seen a significant influx of Polish immigrants. Estimates of the number of Poles living in Scotland in 2007 ranged from 40,000 (General Register Office for Scotland) to 50,000 (the Polish Council).[128] The 2011 UK Census recorded 11,651 people in Edinburgh born in Poland, which is 2.4% of the city's population – a higher proportion than anywhere else in Scotland apart from Aberdeen, where 2.7% were born in Poland.[129]

In Northern Ireland, the number of people reporting in the 2011 census that they were born in Poland was 19,658,[122] and the number stating that they spoke Polish as a first language was 17,700.[130] Despite a Police Service of Northern Ireland (PSNI) recruitment drive in November 2006 that attracted 968 applications from Poles, with language exams being held both in Northern Ireland and in Warsaw, as of 2008, none had entered the PSNI's ranks.[131][132] The first Polish national to join the PSNI started working in August 2010.[133]

Employment and social activities edit

 
Federation of Poles in Great Britain logo

In London and various other major cities, Poles are employed across virtually all sectors from care work, construction, hospitality sector to education, NHS, banking and financial services. There is a significant group of people involved in the arts, in writing, journalism and photography. In rural areas of low-population density, such as East Anglia and the East Midlands; Polish workers tend to be employed in agriculture[134] and light industry.[135]

The Polish Social and Cultural Centre in Hammersmith which houses a number of organisations, an exhibition space, a theatre and several restaurants, is a popular venue. The Federation of Poles in Great Britain (ZPWB) which was set up to promote the interests of Poles in Great Britain acts as an umbrella for more than seventy organisations throughout the UK. Both these institutions also aim to promote awareness of Polish history and culture among British people.

Since Poland's accession to the European Union in 2004, Polish delicatessens, with regular deliveries of fresh produce from Poland, are an increasingly familiar feature along British streets and foodstuffs from Poland are supplied to most of the supermarket chains.[101] New publications in Polish have joined the pre-existing titles, including several free magazines carrying news and features and filled with advertising are booming. A local newspaper in Blackpool is one of a handful of British newspapers to have its own online edition in Polish called Witryna Polska.[136]

Social questions edit

Education edit

Many Poles who have migrated to the UK since the enlargement of the EU have brought children with them. The young families have created some pressure on schools and English-language support services.[137] Despite language difficulties, research shows these pupils perform well in British schools, and the presence of Polish pupils in schools has appeared to improve the performance of other pupils in those schools.[138] The Coalition Government planned to abolish exams in Polish by 2018, among other languages, at GCSE and A-Level, on the grounds that they were no longer cost-effective due to "falling popularity"; but these plans were scrapped in the wake of protests in Parliament and a petition co-ordinated by the Polish Educational Society.[139]

Integration and intermarriage edit

Polish newcomers to the United Kingdom follow previous patterns of ethnic integration, depending on where they can afford to live, on their educational and employment status, and on the presence of other ethnicities. In 2012 most of the 21,000 children born to Polish mothers had Polish fathers; the remainder had fathers of other backgrounds.[140] In 2014 there were 16,656 children born with Polish mothers and fathers from European backgrounds (Other white and white British). Some 702 children were recorded as born to Polish mothers and fathers from African backgrounds, and 749 children born to Polish mothers and fathers from Asian and Middle Eastern backgrounds.[1]

Polonophobia in Britain edit

See also: Anti-Polish sentiment
 
Bilingual sign in Scotland: the English text tells fishers of limits, while the Polish text says "Private water, no fishing."

As noted, there was an increase in Polish workers in Britain in the early twenty-first century. There were incidents of resistance or ethnic discrimination. In 2007, Polish people living in Britain reported 42 "racially motivated violent attacks" against them, compared with 28 in 2004.[141] On 11 July 2012, the Polish Association of Northern Ireland called for action after Polish flags were burned on Eleventh Night bonfires in several locations across Belfast.[142]

On 26 July 2008, The Times published a comment piece by restaurant reviewer Giles Coren, who expressed negative sentiments towards Poles, in part due to his belief that Christian Poles had forced his Jewish ancestors to flee Poland because of anti-Semitic attacks on them after the Holocaust and the Second World War. Coren used the term "Polack" to refer to the Polish diaspora in Britain, arguing that "if England is not the land of milk and honey it appeared to them three or four years ago, then, frankly, they can clear off out of it".[143]

The far-right British National Party (BNP) have expressed anti-Polish sentiments in their political campaigns,[144] and campaigned for a ban on all Polish migrant workers to Britain. The party used an image of a Second World War Spitfire fighter plane, under the slogan "Battle for Britain", during the party's 2009 European Elections campaign. But the photograph was of a Spitfire belonging to the Polish No.303 Squadron of the Royal Air Force. John Hemming, Liberal Democrat MP for Yardley, Birmingham, ridiculed the BNP for accidentally using an image of Polish aeroplanes in their campaign: "[t]hey have a policy to send Polish people back to Poland – yet they are fronting their latest campaign using this plane."[145]

In January 2014, a Polish man, whose helmet was emblazoned with the flag of Poland,[146] claimed he was attacked by a group of fifteen men outside a pub in Dagenham, London.[147] The victim blamed speeches of then-Conservative Prime Minister David Cameron for causing the attack.[148] During the same month in Belfast, there were seven attacks on Polish homes within ten days; stones and bricks were thrown at the windows.[149]

Notable persons edit

The following persons are notable Poles who have lived in the United Kingdom, or notable Britons of Polish descent.

Science and technology edit

 
Helen Czerski at Thinking Digital 2012

Written word edit

 
ven. Bernard Łubieński C.Ss.R
 
Maria Pawlikowska-Jasnorzewska, by Witkacy
 
Stefania Kossowska by her husband, Adam Kossowski
 
Waldemar Januszczak

Visual arts edit

 
Walery's 1887 photo portrait of Victoria, Empress of India, NPG

Music edit

 
Irena Anders, as Renata Bogdanska, 1940s

Performing arts edit

 
Sir John Gielgud, 1973, by Allan Warren

Politics edit

 
Ed Miliband as leader at Labour Party conference, 2010

Business edit

 
Lowenfeld's Kops Brewery, Fulham

Sport edit

 
Phil Jagielka playing for Everton, 2014

Scottish connection edit

 
Czerkawska
 
Gen. Maczek

See also edit

References edit

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Further reading edit

  • Keith Sword Collection: Polish Migration Project at UCL, http://www.ssees.ucl.ac.uk/archives/swo.html
  • A Remarkable School in Exile 1941–1951, Veritas Foundation Publication, ISBN 0-9545100-0-3
  • S.Barnes, A Long Way From Home, Staffordshire University 2003
  • Brin Best & Maria Helena Zukowska, Poles in the UK: A Story of Friendship and Cooperation, The British Polonia Foundation, 2016 ISBN 978-0-9954956-1-6 [Free eBook PDF download from www.polesintheuk.net
  • Kathy Burrell, Polish Migration to the UK in the 'New' European Union, Ashgate 2009, ISBN 978-0-7546-7387-3
  • Dr Diana M Henderson(Editor), The Lion and The Eagle, Cualann Press ISBN 0-9535036-4-X.
  • Robert Gretzyngier Poles in Defence of Britain, Grub 2001, ISBN 1-902304-54-3
  • Michael Hope, The Abandoned Legion, Veritas Foundation Publication ISBN 1-904639-09-7.
  • Michael Hope, Polish deportees in the Soviet Union, Veritas Foundation Publication, ISBN 0-948202-76-9
  • W. Jedrzejewicz, Poland in the British Parliament 1939–1945, White Eagle Printing
  • G. Kay & R.Negus, Polish Exile Mail in Great Britain 1939–1949, J. Barefoot, ISBN 0-906845-52-1
  • Ignacy Matuszewski, Did Britain Guarantee Poland's frontiers?, Polish Bookshop
  • Ignacy Matuszewski, Great Britain's Obligations Towards Poland, National Committee of Americans, 1945
  • Wiktor Moszczynski, Hello, I'm Your Polish Neighbour: All about Poles in West London, AuthorHouse, 2010, ISBN 1-4490-9779-0,
  • Robert Ostrycharz,Polish War Graves in Scotland A Testament to the Past, ISBN 1-872286-48-8.
  • Prazmowska, Anita, Britain and Poland 1939–1943, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-48385-9
  • Tim Smith & Michelle Winslow, Keeping the Faith The Polish Community in Britain, Bradford Heritage, ISBN 0-907734-57-X
  • Peter Stachura (Editor), The Poles in Britain 1940–2000, Frank Cass ISBN 0-7146-8444-9.
  • R. Umiastowski, Poland, Russia and Great Britain 1941–1945, Hollis & Carter 1946
  • Ian Valentine, Station 43 Audley End House and SOE's Polish section, Sutton 2004, ISBN 0-7509-4255-X
  • Various, Intelligence co-operation between Poland and Great Britain during World War II, Vallentine Mitchell 2005, ISBN 0-85303-656-X
  • Jonathan Walker, Poland Alone, History Press 2008, ISBN 978-1-86227-474-7

Memoirs and fiction

  • Waydenfeld, Stefan. (1999) The Ice Road – An Epic Journey from Stalinist Labour Camps to Freedom. London: Mainstream Publishing ISBN 1840181664. Republished (2010) by Aquila Polonica, ISBN 1607720027.
  • Michał Giedroyć, Crater's Edge: A Family's Epic Journey Through Wartime Russia, Bene Factum Publishing Ltd (1 May 2010)
  • Matthew Kelly, Finding Poland, Jonathan Cape Ltd (4 Mar 2010)
  • Michael Moran, A Country in the Moon: Travels in Search of the Heart of Poland, Granta Books; Reprint edition (2 Mar 2009)
  • Joanna Czechowska, The Black Madonna of Derby, Silkmill Press 2008
  • Andrew Tarnowski, The Last Mazurka: A Tale of War, Passion and Loss, Aurum Press Ltd (9 May 2006)
  • Kasimir Czerniak, Gabi Czerniak, William Czerniak-Jones, The Wisdom of Uncle Kasimir, Bloomsbuy 2006
  • Annette Kobak, Joe's War – My Father Decoded: A Daughter's Search for Her Father's War, 2004
  • Dr John Geller, Through Darkness To Dawn, Veritas (1 Jan 1989)
  • Denis Hills, Return to Poland, The Bodley Head Ltd; First Edition (28 Jan 1988)
  • Slavomir Rawicz, The Long Walk: The True Story of a Trek to Freedom, Robinson Publishing (26 April 2007)

Academic papers

  • Małgorzata Irek, New Wave, Old Ways? Post-accession Migration from Poland Seen from the Perspective of the Social Sciences, Studia Sociologica IV (2012), vol. 2, pp. 21–30
  • Michał P. Garapich, Between Cooperation and Hostility – Constructions of Ethnicity and Social Class among Polish Migrants in London, Studia Sociologica IV (2012), vol. 2, pp. 31–45
  • (in Polish) Małgorzata Krywult-Albańska, Profil demograficzny polskich imigrantów poakcesyjnych w Wielkiej Brytanii, Studia Sociologica IV (2012), vol. 2, pp. 72–80

External links edit

  • British Library Polish collections
  • British Polish Chamber of Commerce
  • Federation of Poles in Great Britain
  • Polish Heritage Society in the United Kingdom
  • Jagiellonian University Polish Research Centre in London
  • POSK Polish Social and Cultural Association
  • Information about researching Polish ancestry issued by Suffolk County Council, updated September 2011

April 09, 2024
poles, united, kingdom, this, article, needs, additional, citations, verification, please, help, improve, this, article, adding, citations, reliable, sources, unsourced, material, challenged, removed, find, sources, news, newspapers, books, scholar, jstor, dec. This article needs additional citations for verification Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources Unsourced material may be challenged and removed Find sources Poles in the United Kingdom news newspapers books scholar JSTOR December 2019 Learn how and when to remove this template message British Poles alternatively known as Polish British people or Polish Britons are ethnic Poles who are citizens of the United Kingdom The term includes people born in the UK who are of Polish descent and Polish born people who reside in the UK There are approximately 682 000 1 people born in Poland residing in the UK Since the late 20th century they have become one of the largest ethnic minorities in the country alongside Irish Indians Pakistanis Bangladeshis Germans and Chinese The Polish language is the second most spoken language in England and the third most spoken in the UK after English and Welsh About 1 of the UK population speaks Polish 2 3 The Polish population in the UK has increased more than tenfold since 2001 4 Poles in the United KingdomDistribution by regional area at the 2011 censusTotal populationBorn in Poland 682 000 2021 Official data 1 Regions with significant populationsThroughout the United KingdomLanguagesBritish English PolishReligionPredominantly Roman Catholic ChristianRelated ethnic groupsPolish diaspora Polish American Polish Canadian Polish Irish Polish Maltese Polish Swedes Polish Norwegians Polish Icelanders Polish Dutch Polish GermanExchanges between the two countries date to the middle ages when the Kingdom of England and the Polish Lithuanian Commonwealth were linked by trade and diplomacy 5 A notable 16th century Polish resident in England was John Laski a Protestant convert who influenced the course of the English Reformation and helped in establishing the Church of England 6 Following the 18th century dismemberment of the Commonwealth in three successive partitions by Poland s neighbours the trickle of Polish immigrants to Britain increased in the aftermath of two 19th century uprisings 1831 and 1863 that forced much of Poland s social and political elite into exile London became a haven for the burgeoning ideas of Polish socialism as a solution for regaining independence as it sought international support for the forthcoming Polish uprising 7 A number of Polish exiles fought in the Crimean War on the British side In the late 19th century governments mounted pogroms against Polish Jews in the Russian Congress Poland and Austrian sectors of partitioned Poland Galicia Many Polish Jews fled their partitioned homeland and most emigrated to the United States but some settled in British cities especially London Manchester Leeds and Kingston upon Hull 8 9 10 11 The number of Poles in Britain increased during the Second World War Most of the Polish people who came to the United Kingdom at that time came as part of military units reconstituted outside Poland after the German Soviet invasion of Poland in September 1939 which marked the beginning of World War II On 3 September 1939 Britain and France which were allied with Poland declared war on Germany Poland moved its government abroad first to France and after its fall in May 1940 to London 12 The Poles contributed greatly to the Allied war effort Polish naval units were the first Polish forces to integrate with the Royal Navy under the Peking Plan Polish pilots played a conspicuous role in the Battle of Britain and the Polish army formed in Britain later participated in the Allied invasion of Nazi occupied France The great majority of Polish military veterans were stranded in Britain after the Soviet Union imposed communist control on Poland after the war This particularly concerned Polish soldiers from eastern areas which were no longer part of Poland as a result of border changes due to the Potsdam Agreement 13 The Polish government in exile though denied majority international recognition after 1945 remained at its post in London until it formally dissolved in 1991 after a democratically elected president had taken office in Warsaw The European Union s 2004 enlargement and the UK Government s decision to allow immigration from the new accession states encouraged Polish people to move to Britain rather than to Germany Additionally the Polish diaspora in Britain includes descendants of the nearly 200 000 Polish people who had originally settled in Britain after the Second World War About one fifth had moved to settle in other parts of the British Empire 14 15 Contents 1 History 1 1 18th century 1 2 19th century 1 3 Second World War 1 4 Polish Navy 1 4 1 Private Wojtek 2 Post World War II 2 1 Polish Resettlement Corps 1946 49 2 2 Polish Resettlement Act 1947 2 3 Post war dispersal and settlement 2 4 Cultural and educational ties with Poland 2 5 Symbolism of political governance 2 6 Economic activity 2 7 Remembrance 3 21st century economic immigration 4 Demographics 4 1 Population size 4 2 Geographic distribution 4 3 Employment and social activities 5 Social questions 5 1 Education 5 2 Integration and intermarriage 5 3 Polonophobia in Britain 6 Notable persons 6 1 Science and technology 6 2 Written word 6 3 Visual arts 6 4 Music 6 5 Performing arts 6 6 Politics 6 7 Business 6 8 Sport 6 9 Scottish connection 7 See also 8 References 9 Further reading 10 External linksHistory edit nbsp Poland Street in London s Soho district 2015 A Polish cleric named John Laski 1499 1560 nephew of Jan Laski 1456 1531 converted to Calvinism while in Basel Switzerland where he became an associate of Archbishop Cranmer After moving to London in 1550 he was superintendent of the Strangers Church of London and had some influence on ecclesiastical affairs in the reign of Edward VI 16 Laski also spent some years working on the establishment of the Church of England 16 Shortly before his death he was recalled to Poland s royal court In the 16th century when most grain imports to the British Isles came from Poland Polish merchants and diplomats regularly travelled there usually on the Eastland Company trade route from Gdansk to London Shakespeare mentions Polish people in his play Hamlet e g sledded polack which Israel Gollancz attributes to influence of the book De optimo senatore The Accomplished Senator by Laurentius Grimaldius Goslicius Wawrzyniec Grzymala Goslicki a Polish bishop and noble Gollancz further speculated that the book inspired Shakespeare to create the character Polonius which is Latin for Polish 17 After Poland s King John III at the head of a coalition of European armies defeated the invading Ottoman forces at the 1683 Ottoman siege of Vienna a pub in London s Soho district was named The King of Poland in his honour and soon afterward the street on which it stands was named Poland Street and continues to be so to this day In the 18th century Polish Protestants settled around Poland Street as religious refugees fleeing the Catholic Reformation in Poland 18th century edit nbsp Stanislaus II Augustus c 1780 by Marcello BacciarelliAs a young man of the Enlightenment and already befriended by a Welsh diplomat Sir Charles Hanbury Williams the young Stanislaus Poniatowski future and last King of Poland stayed in Britain for some months during 1754 On this trip he also came to know Charles Yorke the Lord Chancellor of Great Britain 18 nbsp Dulwich Picture Gallery where the Polish art collection still remainsIn 1788 during the closing years of Stanislaus Augustus reign after the first Partition of Poland in 1772 the Polish called a special assembly known to history as the Four Years Diet or Great Sejm whose great achievement was to be the Constitution of 3 May 1791 In that period Poland sought support from the Kingdom of Great Britain in its negotiations with Prussia in an effort to stave off further threats from Russia and from its own plotting magnates In 1790 King Stanislaus Augustus sent Michal Kleofas Oginski also a composer and mentor to Frederic Chopin on an embassy to London to meet with Prime Minister William Pitt the Younger The British were prepared along with the Dutch to propose a favourable commercial treaty for Polish goods especially flax if Poland ceded the cities of Gdansk and Torun to the Prussians This condition was unacceptable to Poland Stanislaus Augustus also commissioned the London art dealership of Bourgeois and Desenfans to assemble a collection of Old Master paintings for Poland to encourage arts in the Commonwealth The dealers fulfilled their commission but five years later Poland as a state ceased to exist following the third and final Partition 19 The art collection destined for Poland became the nucleus of the Dulwich Picture Gallery in South London 20 19th century edit In the 19th century Polish British relations took on a cultural dimension with musical tours in the United Kingdom by virtuosos and composers including Maria Szymanowska Frederic Chopin Maria Kalergis and Henryk Wieniawski 21 nbsp Chopin soon to die gave concerts in Britain in 1848 During the November 1830 Uprising against the Russian Empire British military equipment and armaments were sent to Poland facilitated by the presence of Leon Lubienski studying at Edinburgh University at the time and the swift despatch to Britain of his uncle Jozef to secure the shipment 22 23 After the collapse of the rebellion in 1831 many Polish exiles sought sanctuary in Britain 24 One of them was the veteran and inventor Edward Jelowicki who took out a patent in London on his Steam turbine 25 The fall of Warsaw and the arrival of the Poles on British shores prompted poet Thomas Campbell with others to create in 1832 a Literary Association of the Friends of Poland with the aim of keeping British public opinion informed of Poland s plight The Association had several regional centres one of its meetings was addressed by the Polish statesman Count Adam Jerzy Czartoryski 26 Czartoryski s permanent representative at the Court of St James s was General Count Wladyslaw Stanislaw Zamoyski who later led a division in the Crimean War on the British side against Russia Zamoyski s adjutant was another Polish exile an officer in the 5th Sultan s Cossacks a Polish cavalry division Colonel Stanislaw Julian Ostrorog 27 The last official Polish envoy to Britain was the statesman writer and futurologist Julian Ursyn Niemcewicz 1758 1841 The 1848 revolutions in Europe gave impetus to a number of Polish socialist activists to settle in London and establish the Gromada Londyn between 1855 and 1861 They sought support from other European activists who were in the city forming the First Internationale 28 The social connections formed between Poland and Britain encouraged the influential Polish Lubienski family to forge further trade links between the two countries The anglophile banker Henryk Lubienski prompted his business associate and Polish King of Zinc Piotr Steinkeller to open The London Zinc Works off Wenlock Road in London s Hoxton in 1837 with a view to exporting zinc sheeting to India 29 30 Moreover two of Lubienski s grandsons were sent to board at the Catholic Ushaw College in Durham Other relatives married into the old recusant Grimshaw and Bodenham de la Barre family of Rotherwas 31 Subsequently the Redemptorist Venerable Fr Bernard Lubienski 1846 1933 spent many years as a Catholic missionary in England 32 The Polish Catholic Mission in England and Wales began its pastoral work for Polish emigres in 1853 with church services in Soho s Sutton Street and with the arrival of Sr Franciszka Siedliska and two other nuns to start a Polish school 33 nbsp Michael Marks Polish Michal Marks co founder of Marks amp Spencer nbsp Stanislawa de Karlowska by husband Robert BevanThe next Polish uprising the January 1863 Uprising led to a further influx of Polish political exiles to Britain Among them were people like Stanislaw Julian Ostrorog Crimean veteran and photographer to Queen Victoria Walery Wroblewski and the only notable Polish anarchist and follower of Bakunin Walery Mroczkowski member of the First Internationale and opponent of Marxist ideology 34 Polish Jews also fled due to the intensifying anti Semitic pogroms and better economic opportunities Among the notable Polish Jews who came to Britain were Henry Lowenfeld theatrical impresario and brewer Michael Marks co founder of Marks amp Spencer Morris Wartski founder of Wartski antique dealers and the family of Jack Cohen the founder of Tesco nbsp Joseph Conrad Jozef Korzeniowski renowned English language novelistPerhaps the most famous Polish person to settle in Britain at the end of the 19th century having gained British citizenship in 1886 was the seafarer turned early modernist novelist Jozef Korzeniowski better known by his pen name Joseph Conrad He was the highly influential author of such works as Almayer s Folly The Nigger of the Narcissus Heart of Darkness Lord Jim Nostromo The Secret Agent The Duel Under Western Eyes and Victory many of which have been turned into films Another artist to settle in London 1898 was the modernist painter Stanislawa de Karlowska 1876 1952 who married the English artist Robert Bevan She helped to found The London Group 35 At the end of the 19th century along with Zurich and Vienna London had become one of the centres of Polish political activism especially of the left Jozef Pilsudski stayed in Leytonstone after his escape from St Petersburg The political review Przedswit Pre Dawn was published in Whitechapel for several years notably under the editorship of Leon Wasilewski 1898 1903 later to become the first foreign minister of a newly independent Poland in 1918 36 Both before and after the First World War a few Poles settled in London following the Russian Revolution of 1905 and then in the war those released from London s prisoner of war camps for Germans and Austrians in the Alexandra Palace and at Feltham In 1910 a sixteen year old youth from Warsaw settled in London for the sake of his art he was to be a future ballet master Stanislas Idzikowski 37 Polish people living in the Austrian and German partitions had been obliged to serve in their respective national forces and were unable to return The resurgence of an independent Poland in 1918 briefly complicated by the Polish Soviet War from 1918 to 1920 enabled the country to rapidly reorganise its polity develop its economy and resume its place in international forums One of the Polish delegates at the Paris Peace Conference was a London based emigre Count Leon Ostrorog 38 This two decade period of advance was disrupted in September 1939 by a coordinated German and Soviet invasion that marked the beginning of World War II Second World War edit See also Polish government in exile and 1943 Gibraltar B 24 crash nbsp Poles marching in Warsaw after Britain declared war on Germany during invasion of Poland Banner reads Long Live England It was the Polish contribution to the Allied war effort in the United Kingdom that led to the establishment of the postwar Polish community in Britain During the Second World War most of the Poles arrived as military or political emigres as a result of the combined German Soviet occupation of Poland As the invasion of Poland progressed throughout September 1939 the Polish government evacuated into Romania and from there to France Based at first in Paris it moved to Angers until June 1940 when France capitulated to the Germans 39 40 With the Fall of France the Polish Government in Exile relocated to London along with a first wave of at least 20 000 soldiers and airmen in 1940 It was recognized by all the Allied governments Politically it was a coalition of the Polish Peasant Party the Polish Socialist Party the Labour Party and the National Party Although these parties maintained only a vestigial existence in the circumstances of the war the tasks of the Government in Exile were immense requiring open lines of communication with and control of the Polish Underground State in situ and the Polish Underground Army in occupied Poland and the maintenance of international diplomatic relations for the organization of regular Polish military forces in Allied states nbsp Mathematician Marian Rejewski ca 1932 when he first broke German Enigma cipherOn 4 July 1943 the Polish Prime Minister in Exile General Wladyslaw Sikorski who was also Commander in Chief of the Polish Armed Forces in the West died in an air crash off Gibraltar as he was returning to Britain from an inspection tour of Polish forces in the Mediterranean theatre Until the Germans April 1943 discovery of mass graves of 28 000 executed Polish military reserve officers at Katyn near Smolensk in Russia Sikorski had wished to work with the Soviets After Hitler s invasion of the Soviet Union in June 1941 the Soviets importance to the Western alliance had grown while British support for Polish aspirations had begun to decline 41 As the war progressed Polish plans to more completely incorporate Poland s underground Home Army into the broader strategy of the Western allies including contingency plans to move Polish Air Force fighter squadrons and the Polish Parachute Brigade to Poland foundered on British and American reluctance to antagonise a vital Soviet ally hostile to Polish autonomy on the distance from British controlled bases to occupied Poland which lay at the extreme flying range of available aircraft and on the frittering away of the Polish Parachute Brigade on a patently flawed British operation at Arnhem the Netherlands 42 One of the most important Polish contributions to Allied victory had actually begun in late 1932 nearly seven years before the outbreak of war when the mathematician cryptologist Marian Rejewski with limited aid from French military intelligence constructed a double of the sight unseen German Enigma cipher machine used by the German civil and military authorities Five weeks before the outbreak of war in late July 1939 Rejewski and his fellow cryptologists Henryk Zygalski and Jerzy Rozycki had disclosed to French and British intelligence in Warsaw the techniques and technologies they had developed for breaking German Enigma ciphers Poland s Biuro Szyfrow Cipher Bureau operated by the Polish General Staff gave the British and French an Enigma double each This enabled the British who had been unable to break German Enigma ciphers at Bletchley Park to develop their Ultra operation At war s end General Dwight Eisenhower characterized Ultra as having been decisive to Allied victory 43 Former Bletchley Park cryptologist Gordon Welchman wrote Ultra would never have got off the ground if we had not learned from the Polish in the nick of time details both of the German military the Enigma machine and of the operating procedures that were in use by the Germans 44 Polish Navy edit nbsp Operation Peking the evacuation of Polish navy destroyers from Poland to Britain in late August 1939The first Polish military branch to transfer substantial personnel and equipment to the United Kingdom was the Polish Navy Shortly before the outbreak of hostilities the Polish government ordered three destroyers for their protection and in anticipation of joint operations with the Royal Navy to sail for Great Britain Operation Peking 45 Two submarines also sailed there the Orzel Eagle arriving unannounced in Scotland after a daring breakout from the Baltic Sea following its illegal internment in Estonia nbsp ORP Piorun officers and men on return to Plymouth after fighting the BismarckPolish Navy personnel to come under Royal Navy command comprised 1 400 officers and 4 750 sailors 46 By chance Poland s only two ocean going commercial liners MS Pilsudski and MS Batory were also on the high seas on 1 September 1939 and were both shortly thereafter requisitioned by the British Admiralty for war service The former was lost in November 1939 when it struck a mine off the Yorkshire coast 47 Batory dubbed the Lucky ship became a troop and civilian carrier and hospital ship It effected a major evacuation during the Battle of Narvik and completed hundreds of convoys on the Mediterranean Sea and on the Atlantic before being surrendered to the control of the communist authorities in Warsaw in 1946 48 In May 1941 the Polish destroyer Piorun Thunderbolt was able to locate and engage the world s most powerful battleship Bismarck drawing its fire for an hour while the Royal Navy caught up in time to destroy the German warship 49 nbsp 303 Fighter Squadron pilots and Hurricane October 1940The Poles formed the fourth largest Allied armed force after the Soviets the Americans and the combined troops of the British Empire They were the largest group of non British personnel in the RAF during the Battle of Britain and the 303 Polish Squadron was the most successful RAF unit in the Battle of Britain Special Operations Executive had a large section of covert elite Polish troops who cooperated closely with the Polish underground army By July 1945 there were 228 000 troops of the Polish Armed Forces in the West serving under the British 24 Many of these men and women came from the Kresy region eastern Poland including from the major cities of Lwow now Lviv Ukraine and Wilno now Vilnius Lithuania They had been deported by the Soviets from the Kresy to the gulags when Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union occupied Poland in 1939 under the Nazi Soviet Pact Two years later when Churchill and Joseph Stalin formed an alliance against Adolf Hitler the mostly Kresy Poles were released from the Gulags in Siberia to form Anders Army and were made to walk via Kazakhstan Uzbekistan and Turkmenistan where thousands perished on the way to Iran There the Polish II Corps came into being under British command They fought in the battles of Monte Cassino the Falaise Gap Arnhem Tobruk and in the liberation of many European cities including Bologna and Breda 50 nbsp General Sikorski left and Winston Churchill review Polish troops in England 1943 The Polish troops who contributed to the Allied defeat of the Germans in North Africa and Italy had expected to be able to return at war s end to their Kresy eastern Polish homeland in an independent and democratic Poland But at Yalta Roosevelt and Churchill acquiesced in Stalin s Soviet Union annexation of the Kresy lands roughly half of pre war Poland s landmass in accordance with the provisions of the 1939 Nazi Soviet Pact This entailed massive postwar Polish population deportations to western so called Recovered Territories assigned from Germany to Poland 51 The great majority of Polish soldiers sailors and airmen in the West would never return to their homeland In apparent reaction to British acquiescence in Poland s postwar future thirty officers and men of the Polish II Corps committed suicide 52 Churchill explained the government s actions in a three day Parliamentary debate begun on 27 February 1945 which ended in a vote of confidence Many MPs openly criticised Churchill over Yalta and voiced strong loyalty to the UK s Polish allies 52 Churchill may not have been confident that Poland would be the independent and democratic country to which Polish troops could return he said His Majesty s Government will never forget the debt they owe to the Polish troops I earnestly hope it will be possible for them to have citizenship and freedom of the British Empire if they so desire 53 During the debate 25 MPs and Peers risked their future political careers to draft an amendment protesting against the UK s acceptance of a geographically reconfigured Poland s integration into the Soviet sphere of influence thereby shifting it westwards into the heart of Europe These members included Arthur Greenwood Sir Archibald Southby Sir Alec Douglas Home Lord Willoughby de Eresby and Victor Raikes 52 After the amendment was defeated Henry Strauss MP for Norwich resigned his seat in protest at the British government s abandonment of Poland 52 The Polish Institute and Sikorski Museum in London are the repository for archival material relating to this period 54 Private Wojtek edit Main article Wojtek bear nbsp Wojtek right and fellow Polish soldier 1943During their 1942 evacuation from the Soviet Union to the Near East soldiers of the Polish Second Corps had at an Iranian railway station purchased a Syrian brown bear cub He travelled with them on the Polish troop transport ship Kosciuszko and subsequently accompanied them to Egypt and to the Italian campaign In Italy he helped shift ammunition crates and became a celebrity with visiting Allied generals and statesmen In order to bring him to Italy as regimental mascots and pets were not allowed onboard transport ships the bear was formally enrolled as Private Wojciech Perski his surname being the Polish adjective meaning Persian Wojtek is the diminutive for Wojciech After the war mustered out of the Polish Army Wojtek was billeted and lived out his retirement at the Edinburgh Zoo where he was visited by fellow exiles and former Polish comrades in arms and won the affection of the public Posthumously he has inspired books films plaques and statues in the UK and Poland 55 Post World War II editPolish Resettlement Corps 1946 49 edit Following the invasion of Poland in September 1939 many thousands of Polish servicemen and women made their way via Hungary and Romania which then had common borders with Poland to France where they again fought against the invading Germans and in 1942 the newly formed Polish Second Corps evacuated from the Soviet Union via Iran to the Near East subsequently fighting in campaigns there and in North Africa Italy and northwest Europe Some Second Corps personnel transferred from the Near East into Polish Armed Services units in the UK At war s end many of the Poles were transported to and stayed in camps in the United Kingdom In order to ease their transition from a Polish British military environment to British civilian life a satisfactory means of demobilisation was sought by British authorities This took the form of a Polish Resettlement Corps PRC as an integral corps of the British Army into which the Poles who wished to stay in the UK could enlist for the transitional period of their demobilisation The PRC was formed in 1946 Army Order 96 of 1946 and was disbanded after fulfilling its purpose in 1949 Army Order 2 of 1950 56 Polish Resettlement Act 1947 edit See also Western betrayal nbsp Polish Hearth Club Exhibition Road London a Polish hub during and after WW IIWhen the Second World War ended a communist government was installed in Poland Most Poles felt betrayed by their wartime allies and declined to return to Poland either because their homeland had become a hostile foreign state or because of Soviet repressions of Poles Soviet conduct during the Warsaw uprising of 1944 the trial of the Sixteen and executions of former members of the Home Army To accommodate Poles unable to return to their home country Britain enacted the Polish Resettlement Act 1947 Britain s first mass immigration law Initially a very large Polish community was centred around Swindon where many military personnel had been stationed during the war After occupying Polish Resettlement Corps camps many Poles settled in London and other conurbations many of them recruited as European Volunteer Workers 57 Many others settled in the British Empire forming large Polish Canadian and Polish Australian communities or in the United States and Argentina Post war dispersal and settlement edit See also Catholic Church in England and Wales Polish Catholic immigration In the 1951 UK Census some 162 339 residents had listed Poland as their birthplace up from 44 642 in 1931 14 58 Polish arrivals to the UK included survivors of German concentration and POW camps and war wounded needing additional help adapting to civilian life This help was provided by a range of charitable endeavours some coordinated by Sue Ryder 1924 2000 a British humanitarian who as Baroness Ryder of Warsaw was later raised to the House of Lords and spoke there in the cause of Poland 59 nbsp Dame Cicely Saunders hospice movement pioneerAnother British woman Dame Cicely Saunders was inspired by three displaced Polish men to revolutionise palliative care and care of the dying She met the first two David Tasma who had escaped from the Warsaw Ghetto and Antoni Michniewicz as they were dying The third Pole Marian Bohusz Szyszko a painter and art critic supported her work and became her husband in old age Saunders is considered the founder of the hospice movement 60 nbsp Entrance to St Andrew Bobola Church HammersmithBritain s Polish immigrants tended to settle in areas near Polish churches and food outlets In West London they settled in Earl s Court known in the 1950s as the Polish Corridor in reference to the interwar Central European political entity and as house prices rose they moved to Hammersmith then Ealing and in South London to Lewisham and Balham As these communities grew even if many Poles had integrated with local British educational and religious institutions the Polish Catholic Mission in England and Wales in agreement with the English and Scottish hierarchies considered that Polish priests should minister to Polish parishioners 61 The original Polish church in London in Devonia Road Islington was bought in 1928 with much delay following the First World War However canonically subsequent Polish parishes are actually branches of the Polish Catholic Mission and not parishes in the conventional sense and are accountable to the episcopate in Poland through a vicar delegate although each is located in a British Catholic diocese to whom it owes the courtesy of being connected The first post war Polish parish in London was attached to Brompton Oratory in South Kensington followed by a chapel in Willesden staffed by Polish Jesuits Brockley Lewisham was founded in 1951 followed by Clapham while St Andrew Bobola church in Shepherd s Bush 1962 was regarded as the Polish garrison church Among its many commemorative plaques is one to a clairvoyant and healer housewife and Soviet deportee Waleria Sikorzyna she had had a detailed premonitory dream two years before the 1939 invasion of Poland but was politely dismissed by the Polish military authorities 62 63 Currently the Polish Catholic Mission operates around 219 parishes and pastoral centres with 114 priests throughout England and Wales 64 In 2007 Cardinal Cormac Murphy O Connor primate of England expressed concern that Poles are creating a separate Church in Britain but Polish rector Mgr Kukla responded that the Polish Catholic Mission continued to have a good relationship with the hierarchy in England and Wales and said that integration was a long process 65 Cultural and educational ties with Poland edit See also BBC Polish Section nbsp Polish Institute and Sikorski Museum a leading Polish archive and museum in London founded on 2 May 1945The social make up of successive waves of Polish migration to the UK is comparable to 19th and early 20th century Polish migrations to France 66 In both cases the original mainly political migrants were drawn largely from elite and educated strata and reflected the heterogeneity of their class and they quickly established cultural institutions such as libraries and learned societies They included representatives of past Polish minorities such as Jews Germans Armenians Georgians Ruthenians and people of Muslim Tatar descent In both cases they were followed by waves of more socially homogeneous economic migrants Since the Second World War Poland has lost much of its earlier ethnic diversity with the exception of Polska Roma a distinct ethnolinguistic group and other Polish Roma communities and this has been reflected in recent Polish migrations to the UK 67 68 A recent study of comparative literature by Mieczysŀaw Dabrowski of Warsaw University appears to bear this out 69 A key military and latterly news and cultural role was played by broadcasts in Polish beamed to Poland from London by the BBC s Polish section They began on 7 September 1939 with coded messages among prosaic material for the Polish Underground and after expansion into English by radio ended on 23 December 2005 a victim of budgetary cuts and new priorities Across the mainland UK in the late 1940s and early 1950s the original Polish communities chiefly comprised former members of the Polish Resettlement Corps They set up Polish clubs cultural centres and adult and youth organisations e g the Polish Youth Group KSMP They contributed to and in turn were supported by veterans welfare charities such as veterans SPK Stowarzyszenie Polskich Kombatantow airmen s and naval clubs These organisations original aims were to provide venues for socialising and exposure to Polish culture and heritage for children of former Polish Resettlement Corps members Many of these groups remain active and steps are being taken to cater to more recent Polish migrants The post war phase saw a continuation of Polish intellectual and political life in microcosm in the UK with the publication of newspapers and journals such as Dziennik Polski and Wiadomosci the establishment of independent of the Polish regime publishing houses such as Veritas and Odnowa with a worldwide reach and professional theatrical productions under the auspices of a dramatic society Syrena Orbis Books London was a bookseller publishing house and for a time a record producer under the label Polonia UK founded in Edinburgh in 1944 by Kapt Jozef Olechnowicz brought to New Oxford Street London in 1946 and eventually bought by Jerzy Kulczycki in 1972 70 71 72 Poles in London played their part in the blossoming of modern art movements during the Swinging Sixties Chief among them were two gallery owners the painter Halima Nalecz at the Drian Gallery in Bayswater and the pharmacist and philanthropist Mateusz Grabowski with his Grabowski Gallery in Sloane Avenue Chelsea London Grabowski promoted Polish and other diaspora artists such as Pauline Boty Frank Bowling Jozef Czapski Stanislaw Frenkiel Bridget Riley and Aubrey Williams 73 74 Concern for the maintenance of Polish language and culture in the UK was entrusted to the Polska Macierz Szkolna Polish Educational Society a voluntary organization that operated a network of Saturday schools Parishes also organized an active Polish scout movement ZHP pgk Polish religious orders founded boarding schools in England In 1947 The Sisters of the Holy Family of Nazareth started a school for girls The Holy Family of Nazareth Convent School in Pitsford near Northampton 75 Displaced members of the Polish Marian Fathers opened a first school for boys in Herefordshire Then with financial help from the Polish diaspora they acquired a vacant historic property on the river Thames outside Henley on Thames which became Divine Mercy College and a heritage museum at Fawley Court a Grade I listed building which functioned as a college from 1953 to 1986 and as a museum and retreat and conference centre until about 2010 when it was sold off by the Polish order amid controversy 76 77 78 79 In the grounds of the property is a church building and Columbarium 1071 commissioned by Prince Radziwill in memory of his mother Anna Lubomirska The prince was himself laid to rest there in 1976 80 It is Grade II listed by English Heritage 81 nbsp Polish Social and Cultural Centre POSK building HammersmithAs a result of the 1939 invasion of Poland the entirety of Polish universities and academic research fell into disarray Although very reduced tertiary teaching continued underground many academics perished in Katyn and in Concentration camps or shared the fate of the civilian population Those who were abroad at the outbreak of war or who managed to escape set about salvaging their heritage outside Poland During the war several British universities hosted Polish academic departments to enable Polish students to complete their interrupted studies thus Liverpool offered veterinary science in Polish and Oxford hosted a Polish faculty of law and Edinburgh had a Polish Medical Faculty whose alumni fortuitously joined the roll out of the National Health Service in the UK 82 83 These arrangements came to an end in the late 1940s and to cater for many demobilized service personnel wishing to resume their studies or research PUNO Polski Uniwersytet na Obczyznie The Polish University Abroad was founded in 1949 offering humanities subjects in Polish It exists to this day with a London base at the Polish Social and Cultural Centre in Hammersmith and has opened departments in other European countries 84 During the Cold War Poles assembled twice in the UK to mark historic national events The first was in 1966 the Millennium of Poland s baptism as a Christian nation when among other festivities a Mass was celebrated in London s White City Stadium filled to its 45 000 capacity 85 The second gathering was during the visit by the Polish pontiff Pope John Paul II to the United Kingdom in 1982 While the Pope visited nine British cities and was welcomed by two million British Roman Catholics and others a Mass specifically for 20 000 Polish faithful was held at the Crystal Palace stadium in London on Sunday 30 May 86 Symbolism of political governance edit nbsp From left Piotr Kownacki Aleksander Kwasniewski Ryszard Kaczorowski Lech Walesa on 20th anniversary of re establishment of Polish Senate in WarsawIn December 1990 when Lech Walesa became the first non Communist president of Poland since the war the ceremonial insignia of the Polish Republic including the original text of the Polish 1935 constitution were handed over to him in Warsaw by the last President of the London based government in exile Ryszard Kaczorowski This act symbolized the legitimate transfer of independent Poland s seals of office and put an end to the political opposition that for half a century had both dogged and been the bedrock of the Polish diaspora in the United Kingdom 87 88 Arguably a majority of Polish people had fought hard to combat communism and for their right to democratic liberties While an increasingly frail and diminishing group upheld the existence of the Zamek Citadel shorthand for the Polish National Council as the virtual opposition to the communist regime in Poland it held little sway with the Polish diaspora in the UK 89 Instead London came to be seen as an important centre for fostering business and cultural relations with contemporary Poland 90 Economic activity edit For the duration of the Cold War and the Iron Curtain Poles in the UK were engaged in a massive effort of helping economically their relatives and friends in Poland Initially they sent food parcels and medicines as Poland recovered from the ravages of war then the assistance changed to money transfers sometimes from their own meagre pensions in the belief that they were still better off living in freedom Tazab and Haskoba were the earliest UK based parcel operations while Grabowski was a mail order pharmacy 91 92 When Poland raised import tariffs they turned their focus in the mid 1950s to travel like Fregata Travel the latter being a brand that had migrated to London from pre war Lwow 93 With banking agreements with Poland in place the travel companies acted as transfer bureaux via the Polish bank PKO The relaxation of travel restrictions to and from Poland after October 1956 saw a steady increase in Polish exchanges with the United Kingdom in the 1950s In the 1960s a purge of communist party members and intellectuals of Jewish descent led to a further influx of Poles into the UK Only with the accession of Edward Gierek in 1970 as First Secretary of the Polish Workers Party PZPR who himself had spent time as a migrant in France and Belgium did it become possible for Poles to leave their country with relative ease The Polish Trustee Association founded by the Ex Combatants SPK handled legacies left by Polish DPs for their kin in Poland 94 Remembrance edit Main article Polish War Memorial nbsp Mieczyslaw Lubelski s memorial to Polish airmen at NortholtPolish servicemen who died in the Battle of Britain or subsequently found their final resting places mainly in six cemeteries across the United Kingdom Newark on Trent Blackpool Brookwood Cemetery Surrey Yatesbury in Wiltshire Grangemouth in Scotland and Wrexham in Wales Then as the first generation of emigres settled in various urban areas often clustered around Polish clubs and churches their graves and memorials began to appear in nearby existing cemeteries Thus in London and its environs there were Polish burials especially in Brompton Central London Gunnersbury Mortlake Norwood and Putney Vale cemeteries 95 The Polish War Memorial in a prominent position close to RAF Northolt West of London commemorating the Polish airmen who fought for Great Britain was erected in two stages It was initially unveiled in 1948 with the names of 1 243 flyers In time a further 659 names were identified and were added during a refurbishment of the monument carried out in 1994 6 funded by a public appeal It was ceremonially re opened In 2015 a memorial garden was added to mark the 75th anniversary of the battle The monument is Grade II listed by English Heritage 96 Franciszek Kornicki 1916 2017 is the last Polish fighter pilot to die His funeral was held in November 2017 97 nbsp Katyn MonumentBy contrast the wish of the British Polish community to honour its 28 000 fellow countrymen many of them close relatives who fell victim of the Katyn massacre with a memorial met with sustained obstruction from the British authorities This it appears was owing to the effective diplomatic pressure exerted by the Soviet Union on Anglo Soviet relations at the height of the Cold War Despite public funds having been raised the project was delayed for many years A measure of detente in East West relations in the mid 1970s allowed a monument to be installed inside Gunnersbury Cemetery There was no official British attendance at the unveiling in September 1976 Those British officials who came did so in their private capacity 98 There are now over a dozen Polish war memorials across the UK including in the RAF church St Clement Danes in the City of London and St Andrew Bobola Church Hammersmith 99 21st century economic immigration editMain article 21st century economic migration of Poles nbsp Polish natives employed in UK 2003 10 100 nbsp More Polish Grocery stores opened up across the UK after Poland joined the EU in 2004 such as this deli in Coventry nbsp Polish pierogi bar in West YorkshireDuring the twentieth century world events meant that in Europe London eclipsed Paris as the traditional destination of choice for Polish dissidents The establishment of Polish communities across the UK after the Second World War along with supporting institutions cemented links between the UK Polish community and relatives and friends in Poland This encouraged a steady flow of migrants from Poland to the UK which accelerated after the fall of Communism in 1989 Throughout the 1990s Poles used the eased travel restrictions to move to the UK and work sometimes in the grey economy Poland joined the EU on 1 May 2004 and Poles as EU citizens gained the right to freedom of movement and establishment across the European Union Most member states though had negotiated temporary restrictions to their labour markets up to a maximum of seven years for citizens from new member states To the contrary the UK as Sweden too granted immediate full access to its labour market to citizens from the new member states 101 102 over entrants from these accession states 103 104 Seven year temporary restrictions on benefits that EU citizens including Poles could claim covered by the Worker Registration Scheme ended in 2011 105 The Home Office publishes quarterly statistics on applications to the Worker Registration Scheme Figures published in August 2007 indicated that some 656 395 persons were accepted on to the scheme between 1 May 2004 and 30 June 2007 of whom 430 395 were Polish nationals However as the scheme is voluntary offers no financial incentive and is not enforced immigrants are free to choose whether or not to participate They may work legally in the UK provided they have a Polish identity card or passport and a UK National Insurance number This has led to some estimates of Polish nationals in the UK being much higher 106 Department of Work and Pensions DWP publishes quarterly reports containing data on National Insurance number NINo allocations to adult overseas nationals entering the UK 107 The number of Polish nationals NINo registrations peaked between 2006 and 2008 In the financial year 2006 07 there were 220 430 Polish nationals receiving NINo registration 31 of all NINo registrations to adult overseas nationals entering the UK and in 2007 2008 210 660 29 of all registrations to adult overseas nationals 108 The number of NINo registrations granted to Polish citizens has been in significant decline since 2016 referendum In the year to June 2016 Polish born adults received 105 thousand NINo s 18 less than in the year before a 13 share of all NINo registrations to adult overseas nationals entering the UK 109 The latest statistical data covering the year to the end of March 2020 shows a further decrease in Polish NINo registrations During this period 38 thousand Polish citizens received NINos 13 less than in the previous year and a significantly smaller share of all adult overseas registrations compared with previous years 5 110 The Polish magazine Polityka launched a Stay With Us scheme offering young academics a 5 000 bonus to encourage them to live and work at home in Poland Additionally on 20 October 2007 a campaign was launched by the British Polish Chamber of Commerce called Wracaj do Polski Come Back to Poland which encouraged Poles living and working in the UK to return home By the end of 2007 stronger economic growth in Poland than in the UK falling unemployment and the rising strength of the Polish zloty had reduced the economic incentive for Poles to migrate to the UK Poland was one of the few countries to not be badly affected by the 2008 economic downturn 111 Labour shortages in Polish cities and in sectors such as construction IT and financial services have also played a part in stemming the flow of Poles to the UK 112 According to the August 2007 Accession Monitoring Report fewer Poles migrated in the first half of 2007 than in the same period in 2006 Demographics editHistorical populationYearPop 200166 000 200268 000 3 0 200375 000 10 3 200494 000 25 3 2005162 000 72 3 2006265 000 63 6 2007411 000 55 1 2008504 000 22 6 2009529 000 5 0 2010540 000 2 1 2011654 000 21 1 2012658 000 0 6 2013688 000 4 6 2014790 000 14 8 2015831 000 5 2 2016911 000 9 6 2017922 000 1 2 2018832 000 9 8 2019695 000 16 5 2020691 000 0 6 2021682 000 1 3 Note Apart from the actual 2001 and 2011 Census figures the numbers in the central column are ONS estimates of the number of Polish born residents See source for 95 per cent confidence intervals Source 113 Population size edit The 2001 UK Census recorded 60 711 Polish born UK residents 114 60 680 of these resided in Great Britain not including Northern Ireland compared to 73 951 in 1991 115 Following immigration after Poland s accession to the EU the Office for National Statistics estimated that 832 000 Polish born residents lived in the UK by 2018 making Poles the largest overseas born group having outgrown the Indian born population 116 Unofficial estimates from 2007 had put the number of Poles living in the UK higher at up to one million 117 118 119 The 2011 UK Census recorded 579 121 Polish born residing in England 18 023 in Wales 120 55 231 in Scotland 121 and 19 658 in Northern Ireland 122 The Office for National Statistics estimates that the Polish born population of the UK was 691 000 in 2020 123 The 2021 census recorded 743 083 Polish born residents in England and Wales 124 and 22 335 in Northern Ireland 125 The census in Scotland was delayed for a year and took place in 2022 and country of birth statistics are yet to be released 126 Geographic distribution edit nbsp Distribution of Polish born people by ward in London 0 0 1 99 2 2 99 3 4 99 5 6 99 7 8 99 9 and greater nbsp Polish speakers in England and WalesAccording to the 2011 UK Census in England and Wales there are 0 5 million residents whose main language is Polish which amounts to 1 of the whole population aged three years and over In London there were 147 816 Polish speakers The main concentration of Polish people in London is in Ealing in West London 21 507 6 4 of all usual residents Elsewhere in the capital the biggest Polish communities are in the outer Boroughs of Haringey Brent Hounslow Waltham Forest Barnet Outside London the largest Polish communities are in Birmingham Southampton Slough 8 341 5 9 Luton Leeds Peterborough Nottingham Manchester Leicester Coventry and the Borough of Boston in Lincolnshire 2 975 4 6 127 Scotland has seen a significant influx of Polish immigrants Estimates of the number of Poles living in Scotland in 2007 ranged from 40 000 General Register Office for Scotland to 50 000 the Polish Council 128 The 2011 UK Census recorded 11 651 people in Edinburgh born in Poland which is 2 4 of the city s population a higher proportion than anywhere else in Scotland apart from Aberdeen where 2 7 were born in Poland 129 In Northern Ireland the number of people reporting in the 2011 census that they were born in Poland was 19 658 122 and the number stating that they spoke Polish as a first language was 17 700 130 Despite a Police Service of Northern Ireland PSNI recruitment drive in November 2006 that attracted 968 applications from Poles with language exams being held both in Northern Ireland and in Warsaw as of 2008 update none had entered the PSNI s ranks 131 132 The first Polish national to join the PSNI started working in August 2010 133 Employment and social activities edit nbsp Federation of Poles in Great Britain logoIn London and various other major cities Poles are employed across virtually all sectors from care work construction hospitality sector to education NHS banking and financial services There is a significant group of people involved in the arts in writing journalism and photography In rural areas of low population density such as East Anglia and the East Midlands Polish workers tend to be employed in agriculture 134 and light industry 135 The Polish Social and Cultural Centre in Hammersmith which houses a number of organisations an exhibition space a theatre and several restaurants is a popular venue The Federation of Poles in Great Britain ZPWB which was set up to promote the interests of Poles in Great Britain acts as an umbrella for more than seventy organisations throughout the UK Both these institutions also aim to promote awareness of Polish history and culture among British people Since Poland s accession to the European Union in 2004 Polish delicatessens with regular deliveries of fresh produce from Poland are an increasingly familiar feature along British streets and foodstuffs from Poland are supplied to most of the supermarket chains 101 New publications in Polish have joined the pre existing titles including several free magazines carrying news and features and filled with advertising are booming A local newspaper in Blackpool is one of a handful of British newspapers to have its own online edition in Polish called Witryna Polska 136 Social questions editEducation edit Many Poles who have migrated to the UK since the enlargement of the EU have brought children with them The young families have created some pressure on schools and English language support services 137 Despite language difficulties research shows these pupils perform well in British schools and the presence of Polish pupils in schools has appeared to improve the performance of other pupils in those schools 138 The Coalition Government planned to abolish exams in Polish by 2018 among other languages at GCSE and A Level on the grounds that they were no longer cost effective due to falling popularity but these plans were scrapped in the wake of protests in Parliament and a petition co ordinated by the Polish Educational Society 139 Integration and intermarriage edit Polish newcomers to the United Kingdom follow previous patterns of ethnic integration depending on where they can afford to live on their educational and employment status and on the presence of other ethnicities In 2012 most of the 21 000 children born to Polish mothers had Polish fathers the remainder had fathers of other backgrounds 140 In 2014 there were 16 656 children born with Polish mothers and fathers from European backgrounds Other white and white British Some 702 children were recorded as born to Polish mothers and fathers from African backgrounds and 749 children born to Polish mothers and fathers from Asian and Middle Eastern backgrounds 1 Polonophobia in Britain edit See also Anti Polish sentiment nbsp Bilingual sign in Scotland the English text tells fishers of limits while the Polish text says Private water no fishing As noted there was an increase in Polish workers in Britain in the early twenty first century There were incidents of resistance or ethnic discrimination In 2007 Polish people living in Britain reported 42 racially motivated violent attacks against them compared with 28 in 2004 141 On 11 July 2012 the Polish Association of Northern Ireland called for action after Polish flags were burned on Eleventh Night bonfires in several locations across Belfast 142 On 26 July 2008 The Times published a comment piece by restaurant reviewer Giles Coren who expressed negative sentiments towards Poles in part due to his belief that Christian Poles had forced his Jewish ancestors to flee Poland because of anti Semitic attacks on them after the Holocaust and the Second World War Coren used the term Polack to refer to the Polish diaspora in Britain arguing that if England is not the land of milk and honey it appeared to them three or four years ago then frankly they can clear off out of it 143 The far right British National Party BNP have expressed anti Polish sentiments in their political campaigns 144 and campaigned for a ban on all Polish migrant workers to Britain The party used an image of a Second World War Spitfire fighter plane under the slogan Battle for Britain during the party s 2009 European Elections campaign But the photograph was of a Spitfire belonging to the Polish No 303 Squadron of the Royal Air Force John Hemming Liberal Democrat MP for Yardley Birmingham ridiculed the BNP for accidentally using an image of Polish aeroplanes in their campaign t hey have a policy to send Polish people back to Poland yet they are fronting their latest campaign using this plane 145 In January 2014 a Polish man whose helmet was emblazoned with the flag of Poland 146 claimed he was attacked by a group of fifteen men outside a pub in Dagenham London 147 The victim blamed speeches of then Conservative Prime Minister David Cameron for causing the attack 148 During the same month in Belfast there were seven attacks on Polish homes within ten days stones and bricks were thrown at the windows 149 Notable persons editThe following persons are notable Poles who have lived in the United Kingdom or notable Britons of Polish descent Science and technology edit nbsp Helen Czerski at Thinking Digital 2012Magdalena Zernicka Goetz Polish British developmental biologist Professor of Mammalian Development and Stem Cell Biology at Cambridge University Zygmunt Bauman 1925 2017 sociologist 150 Sir Leszek Borysiewicz born 1951 physician immunologist and scientific administrator the 345th Vice Chancellor of the University of Cambridge 151 Jacob Bronowski 1908 1974 Polish Jewish British mathematician biologist historian of science theatre author poet and inventor Presenter and writer of the 1973 BBC television documentary series The Ascent of Man Stefan Buczacki born 1945 botanist horticulturalist broadcaster and writer 152 Maria Czaplicka 1884 1921 cultural anthropologist who is best known for her ethnography of Siberian shamanism Helen Czerski born 1978 physicist and oceanographer Eva Frommer 1927 2004 pioneering child psychiatrist 153 Waclaw Korabiewicz 1903 1994 physician ethnographer prolific writer and administrator Jozef Kosacki 1909 1990 inventor of the Polish mine detector first used in Second Battle of El Alamein Jerzy Kulczycki 1931 2013 civil engineer and activist publisher and bookseller in London Margaret Lowenfeld 1890 1973 physician and pioneer of Play therapy 154 Bronislaw Malinowski 1884 1942 one of the most important 20th century anthropologists Mark Miodownik born 1969 materials scientist engineer and populariser of science 155 Sir Joseph Rotblat 1908 2005 physicist participant in the Manhattan Project and Pugwash Conferences on Science and World Affairs Nobel Peace Prize 1995 156 157 Tomasz Schafernaker meteorologist and broadcaster 158 Hanna Segal Kleinian psychoanalyst 159 Karol Sikora born 1948 oncologist 160 Krystyna Skarbek 1908 1952 SOE agent 161 Wladyslaw Swiatecki 1895 1944 invented a bomb release system the most successful to be used in the Second World War Pawel Strzelecki 1797 1873 explorer and geologist who in 1845 also became a British subject Zbigniew Szydlo born 1949 chemist and specialist in alchemy 162 Stefan Tyszkiewicz 1894 1976 automotive pioneer engineer and inventor 163 Halszka Wasilewska 1899 1961 London born military officer who developed women s army training in Interbellum Poland Helena Rosa Wright 1887 1982 physician missionary and pioneer of Contraception 164 John Zarnecki born 1949 astronomer past President of the Royal Astronomical Society 165 Written word edit nbsp ven Bernard Lubienski C Ss R nbsp Maria Pawlikowska Jasnorzewska by Witkacy nbsp Stefania Kossowska by her husband Adam Kossowski nbsp Waldemar JanuszczakSebastian Baczkiewicz born 1962 playwright 166 Janina Bauman 1926 2009 journalist and writer 167 Sophie Brzeska 1873 1925 writer and muse of Henri Gaudier Brzeska 168 Joseph Conrad 1857 1924 novelist 169 Tony Greenstein anti Zionist anti Fascist Socialist author and pro Palestinian activist Marian Hemar songwriter poet and comedy sketch writer Eva Hoffman born 1945 writer and psychotherapist 170 Jozef Jarzebowski 1897 1964 educationalist antiquarian and priest founder of Divine Mercy College Fawley Court 171 Michal Kalecki 1899 1970 economist and mathematician 1970 Nobel Prize nominee 172 Leszek Kolakowski 1927 2009 philosopher and historian of ideas senior research fellow at All Souls College Oxford the first winner of the John W Kluge Prize for Lifetime Achievement in the Humanities 173 Stefania Kossowska 1909 2003 Polish born journalist writer editor and broadcaster 174 Bernard Lubienski 1846 1933 English educated Redemptorist priest archivist preacher and missionary venerable of the Catholic Church 175 Jozef Mackiewicz 1902 1985 novelist younger brother of Stanislaw Mackiewicz Chris Maslanka born 1954 writer broadcaster specialising in puzzles and problem solving Juliusz Mieroszewski publicist translator of Orwell s 1984 into Polish Zdzislaw Najder born 1930 Conrad scholar 176 Beata Obertynska 1898 1980 poet and writer 177 Maria Pawlikowska Jasnorzewska 1891 1945 poet and dramatist 178 Zbigniew Pelczynski 1925 2021 political scientist fellow of Pembroke College Oxford founder of School for Leaders in Poland 179 Jerzy Peterkiewicz 1916 2007 writer and academic 180 Adam Pragier 1886 1976 jurist author Minister of Information Polish government in exile 181 Sir Leon Radzinowicz 1906 1999 academic and criminologist 182 Jozef Retinger 1888 1960 writer founder of the European Movement and of the Bilderberg Group friend of Conrad political adviser spy 183 W S Lach Szyrma 1841 1915 curate historian Science fiction writer and first to coin the word Martian 184 Boleslaw Taborski 1927 2010 veteran of Warsaw Uprising poet translator into English of John Paul II s dramatic works literary critic BBC Polish Section editor 185 186 Adam Zamoyski born 1949 historian ecology campaigner 187 Visual arts edit nbsp Walery s 1887 photo portrait of Victoria Empress of India NPGIwona Blazwick born 1955 gallery director and art critic Andrzej Ciechanowiecki 1924 2015 art historian antiquary Jermyn Street gallery owner and philanthropist 188 Stanislaw Frenkiel 1918 2001 expressionist painter art historian and academic teacher 189 Henryk Gotlib 1890 1966 painter 169 Mateusz Grabowski 1904 1976 pharmacist owner of Grabowski Gallery patron and philanthropist who fostered and donated art to public collections Waldemar Januszczak born 1954 architecture and art critic Stanislawa de Karlowska 1876 1952 painter and member of the Camden Town Group Adam Kossowski 1905 1986 painter Stefan Knapp 1921 1996 painter sculptor and multi media artist 190 Andrzej Krauze born 1947 cartoonist illustrator painter and poster designer 191 Mieczyslaw Lubelski 1886 1965 sculptor ceramicist designer author of Polish War Memorial RAF Northolt Stanislaw Julian Ostrorog 1834 90 Photographer to the Queen He and his son below were both known as Walery Sitters included Victor Hugo and Queen Victoria 192 193 194 Stanislaw Julian Ignacy Ostrorog 1863 1935 son of the above also a portrait photographer Sitters included Oscar Wilde Aniela Pawlikowska 1901 1980 artist book illustrator and society painter in Britain 195 Jan Pienkowski born 1936 children s book illustrator 196 Janina Ramirez born 1980 art and cultural historian and TV presenter Jasia Reichardt born 1933 art curator critic gallery director and historian 197 Franciszka Themerson 1907 1988 painter film maker book illustrator and stage designer 198 Feliks Topolski 1907 1989 draughtsman cartoonist illustrator and designer expressionist painter Jerzy Zarnecki CBE FBA FSA 1915 2008 Professor of the History of Art 199 Marek Zulawski 1908 1985 painter and art theorist 200 Music edit nbsp Irena Anders as Renata Bogdanska 1940sIrena Anders aka Renata Bogdanska singer actress Poland s answer to Vera Lynn and wife of General Anders Mark Brzezicki drummer longstanding member of Big Country Katy Carr musician songwriter and aviator Frederic Chopin virtuoso pianist and composer a year before his death toured England and Scotland in 1848 inspired by his Scottish pupil Jane Stirling Simon Cowell English television personality entrepreneur music producer and record executive Chris Dreja guitarist with The Yardbirds Janick Gers guitarist in Iron Maiden Ida Haendel 1928 2020 virtuoso violinist awarded CBE Josef Hassid violin prodigy who came to study in England J J Jeczalik musician Paul Kletzki 1900 1973 Polish born international conductor associated with the Liverpool Philharmonic Orchestra Alfred Orda operatic baritone Andrzej Panufnik orchestral conductor and composer Roxanna Panufnik composer daughter of Andrzej Marjan Rawicz virtuoso pianist half of the popular Piano duo Rawicz and Landauer Arthur Rubinstein 1887 1982 pianist and honorary KBE 201 Janek Schaefer sound artist Halina Czerny Stefanska pianist juror of the Leeds International Piano Competition emerged as the real pianist of the EMI Dinu Lipatti recording mix up Leopold Stokowski orchestral conductor Maria Szymanowska virtuoso pianist and composer gave concerts in England in 1818 202 Andre Tchaikowsky 1935 1982 pianist composer He left his skull to the Royal Shakespeare Company 203 Chris Urbanowicz guitar player in Editors Tracey Ullman comedian actor and singer Henryk Wieniawski violinist and composer played with the Beethoven Quartet Society in LondonPerforming arts edit nbsp Sir John Gielgud 1973 by Allan WarrenKathryn Apanowicz actor Jan Herman Cukiertort 1842 1888 chess grandmaster Daniela Denby Ashe born Pszkit actor Robert Donat actor Anulka Dziubinska actor model Coky Giedroyc director Mel Giedroyc actor comedian one half of Mel and Sue 204 Sir John Gielgud actor director Maina Gielgud ballet dancer Val Gielgud pioneer of radio drama Stefan Golaszewski comedian Paul Heiney born Wisniewski son of a Polish serviceman journalist TV personality and farmer Stanislas Idzikowski 1894 1977 Ballet dancer with Anna Pavlova and the Ballets Russes and esteemed ballet master Marek Kanievska director Mark Kielesz Levine Television Journalist and Presenter Richard Kwietniowski director screenwriter Rula Lenska actor Kasia Madera newsreader Pawel Pawlikowski Polish filmmaker Anna Ptaszynski comedian host of No Such Thing as a Fish education comedy podcast Ida Schuster actor Vladek Sheybal 1923 1992 film and TV actor and director Peter Serafinowicz comedian Michael Winner 1935 2013 son of a Polish mother film director producer food criticPolitics edit nbsp Ed Miliband as leader at Labour Party conference 2010Cnut also known as Cnut the Great and Canute was King of England from 1016 King of Denmark from 1018 and King of Norway from 1028 until his death in 1035 Simon Danczuk Ex Labour MP for Rochdale Tomasz Arciszewski third Prime Minister of Polish government in exile and the last to have international recognition Adam Ciolkosz with wife Lidia leading light of the Polish Socialist Party for several decades in Poland and in UK exile Daniel Kawczynski Conservative MP for Shrewsbury and Atcham came to the UK in 1978 205 Stanislaw Mackiewicz 1896 1966 older brother of Jozef Mackiewicz foremost political journalist who served as exiled Prime Minister 1955 56 before returning to Poland Stanislaw Mikolajczyk second Prime Minister of Polish government in exile David Miliband former Foreign Secretary whose mother was born in Poland 206 Ed Miliband former leader of the Labour Party whose mother was born in Poland 206 Rosena Allin Khan born 1977 medical practitioner and Labour Party MP for Tooting in London Walery Mroczkowski 1840 1889 anarchist follower of Mikhail Bakunin Julian Ursyn Niemcewicz political theorist diplomat prolific writer Leon Walerian Ostrorog 1867 1932 international jurist specialising in Islamic Law delegate to Paris Peace Conference 1919 Jozef Pilsudski statesman and marshal of Polish Armed Forces stayed in London as an independence activist early in his career Adam Pragier leading socialist and political writer Information minister in the Polish government in exile Wladyslaw Raczkiewicz Polish Head of State in exile President 1939 1947 Edward Bernard Raczynski aristocrat diplomat writer politician and President of Poland in exile between 1979 and 1986 169 Jozef Retinger 1888 1960 Chief political adviser to the Polish government in exile co founder of the Bilderberg Group and of the European Movement 207 Jacek Rostowski economist and politician who served as Minister of Finance and Deputy Prime Minister of the Republic of Poland Wladyslaw Sikorski first Prime Minister of Polish government in exile who died in mysterious circumstances in an air crash off Gibraltar Radoslaw Sikorski born 1963 temporary UK citizen Polish minister of Foreign Affairs 208 Felicjan Slawoj Skladkowski physician Divisional general and last Prime Minister of the Second Republic of Poland Edward Szczepanik 1915 2005 economist and final prime minister of the Polish government in exile 209 Stefan Terlezki 1927 2006 former Cardiff City Councillor and Conservative MP for Cardiff West from 1983 to 1987 born in Oleshiw 210 then in Poland after 1945 in Western Ukraine 211 Walery Antoni Wroblewski 1836 1908 politician January Uprising commander and Communard Wladyslaw Zamoyski 1803 1868 Czartoryski s diplomat in London and general in the Crimean War Szmul Zygielbojm Jewish Polish socialist politician Bund leader and member of the National Council of the Polish Government in Exile He committed suicide to protest the indifference of the Allied governments in the face of the Holocaust 169 Business edit nbsp Lowenfeld s Kops Brewery FulhamJack Cohen 1898 1979 founder of Tesco was the son of Polish Jewish immigrants 212 Mateusz Bronislaw Grabowski 1904 1976 pharmacist from Wilno who became a philanthropist to the arts and academic research 74 Nicola Horlick born 1960 investment fund manager dubbed Superwoman is half Polish Henry Lowenfeld 1859 1931 entrepreneur and theatrical impresario who introduced non alcoholic beer to Fulham 213 Michael Marks Michal Marks c 1859 1907 one of two co founders of the retail chain Marks amp Spencer Peter Rachman 1919 1962 notorious landlord whose malpractice gained an entry in the Oxford English Dictionary 214 John J Studzinski born 1956 American British banker and philanthropist of Polish descent 215 216 Sport edit nbsp Phil Jagielka playing for Everton 2014Pawel Abbott former Poland under 21 international footballer born and raised in York Konrad Bartelski Alpine ski racer Michael Bisping mixed martial artist Matty Cash Poland international footballer Andy Drzewiecki former weightlifter Carl Froch professional boxer and two time former WBC Super Middleweight Champion Lisa Dobriskey British middle distance athlete Mickey Duff Polish born boxer and promoter 217 Robert Grabarz high jumper Phil Jagielka England international footballer Andrew Johnson former England international footballer Lukas Jutkiewicz footballer Paul Konchesky former England international footballer Craig Kopczak rugby league player Dick Krzywicki former Wales international footballer Anthony Malarczyk former cyclist Eddie Niedzwiecki former Wales international footballer Mikolaj Oledzki England international rugby league player Anton Otulakowski former footballer Maxi Oyedele professional footballer Kris Radlinski former Wigan Warriors and Great Britain rugby league player Kevin Rutkiewicz footballer Kevin Spiolek former darts player Alex Szostak rugby league player James Tarkowski footballer Daniel Topolski Oxford University rowing coach and TV pundit Wojciech Szczesny former goal keeper for Arsenal F C Scottish connection edit nbsp Czerkawska nbsp Gen MaczekCatherine Czerkawska born 1950 poet novelist playwright 218 Anna Dominiczak DBE FRCP FRSE FAHA FMedSci professor of Medicine 219 James Gimzewski professor of chemistry UCLA 220 Janusz Jankowski physician scientist and academic administrator Christopher Kasparek linguist and translator of Polish literature into English to him is owed access to the remarkable Polish 1791 Constitution Mark Lazarowicz Labour and Co operative MP for Edinburgh North and Leith whose father was Polish 221 Gerald Lepkowski actor his father was Polish Denis MacShane ne Matyjaszek former Minister for Europe whose father was Polish 222 Stanislaw Maczek 1892 1994 tank commander much decorated lieutenant general 223 Marianna Palka screenwriter Witold Rybczynski born 1943 Canadian architect Charles Edward Stuart Bonny Prince Charlie Jacobite pretender to thrones of England Scotland and Ireland half Polish great grandson of Polish King John III Sobieski Richard Wawro landscape painterSee also edit nbsp Poland portal nbsp United Kingdom portalPoland United Kingdom relations Great Polish Map of Scotland Polish diaspora Scottish migration to Poland 15th 18th centuries Polish Institute and Sikorski Museum World War II Behind Closed Doors Stalin the Nazis and the West Czechs in the United Kingdom Hungarians in the United Kingdom Lithuanians in the United KingdomReferences edit a b c Population of the United Kingdom by country of birth and nationality July 2020 to June 2021 ons gov uk Office for National Statistics Archived from the original on 3 January 2024 Retrieved 5 February 2023 Booth Robert 1 February 2013 Polish now England s second language DAWN Retrieved 7 September 2015 Thompson Melissa 30 January 2013 2011 census Polish language becomes second most common in England Mirror Online Retrieved 7 September 2015 Population of the UK by country of birth and nationality Office for National Statistics www ons gov uk Retrieved 20 February 2020 Wielka Brytania Polonia i Polacy Encyklopedia PWN zrodlo wiarygodnej i rzetelnej wiedzy encyklopedia pwn pl in Polish Retrieved 29 June 2023 Poland Didn t Listen Long to John Laski Christianity com Retrieved 29 June 2023 Jozef Buszko Narodziny ruchu socjalistycznego na ziemiach polskich Krakow 1967 pp 8 32 in Polish Andrew Godley 2001 Enterprise and Culture New York Palgrave 2001 ISBN 0333960459 chapter 1 Rosemary O Day The Jews of London From Diaspora to Whitechapel http fathom lse ac uk Features 122537 Paul Vallely 13 June 2006 A Short History of Anglo Jewry The Jews in Britain 1656 2006 The Independent Retrieved 26 October 2019 Harold Pollins July 1985 The Jews A re banished Jewry weeping beside the waters of Modern Babylon Between 1880 and 1914 the mass exodus of Jews from Russia and Poland fled hunger and persecution and came west History Today Vol 35 7 Retrieved 26 October 2019 See Imperial 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Biograficzny vol 41 2011 p 613 Nisbet Bain R 1909 The Last King of Poland and his Contemporaries London Methuen amp Co http scans library utoronto ca pdf 1 30 lastkingofpoland00bainuoft lastkingofpoland00bainuoft pdf p 207 Historic England Dulwich Picture Gallery and Mausoleum 1385543 National Heritage List for England retrieved 18 December 2017 Hoffmann Freia 2011 Kalergis Grafin Maria de Sophie Drinker Institut The book contains an English language contemporary appreciation of Kalergis as an interpreter of Schumann and Chopin by British diplomat Horace Rumbold http www sophie drinker institut de cms index php kalergis maria in German retrieved 12 29 2017 Lubienski Wentworth Tomasz 1886 Henryk Lubienski i jego bracia wspomnienia rodzinne odnoszace sie do historyi Krolestwa Polskiego i Banku Polskiego Drukarnia Wydawnicza im W L Anczyca i Spolki Kalinowski Zdzislaw 2013 The Marriage of Count Tomasz and Countess Konstancja Lubienski at their estate of Rejowiec http kalinowski weebly com uploads 4 9 1 6 4916495 malzenstwo hrabiow tomasza andrzeja adama i konstancji marianny apoloni lubienskich w rejowcu pdf See p 21 for detail of Leon Lubienski a b Polish London BBC London 26 May 2005 Retrieved 7 September 2015 The London Journal of Arts and Sciences and Repertory of Patent Inventions Volume 8 1836 Zurawski vel Grajewski Radoslaw 1999 Dzialalnosc ksiecia Adama Jerzego Czartoryskiego w Wielkiej Brytanii 1831 1832 Warsaw Semper A Polish language account of Adam Jerzy Czartoryski s 1831 32 activism in Great Britain File on Wladyslaw Zamoyski in the Bibliography of the history of Central and East Europe Wladyslaw Zamoyski bibliografia osobowa w LitDok Bibliografia Historii Europy Srodkowowschodniej Herder Institut Marburg in Polish retrieved 1 1 2018 Jozef Buszko 1967 Narodziny ruchu socjalistycznego na ziemiach polskich in Polish Jagiellonian University Krakow Retrieved 1 January 2019 The Annual Register 1938 Edmund Burke ed The Annual Register or A View of the History 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Publications of America 1984 ISBN 0 89093 547 5 p 202 The Jagiellonian University Polish Research Centre in London contains research material on the role played by Polish in the Second World War including a YouTube film the History of Poland in London http www pon uj edu pl page id 662 amp lang en Retrieved 15 December 2017 WWII Behind Closed Doors PBS Retrieved 7 September 2015 a b c d Olson and Cloud 2003 pp 374 383 Thompson Dorothy 2 March 1945 Major Questions Unanswered Pittsburgh Post Gazette p 8 Retrieved 6 September 2015 The Polish Institute and Sikorski Museum official website http www pism co uk Orr Aileen 1 November 2010 Wojtek the Bear Polish War Hero Birlinn Publishers p 45 ISBN 978 1 84158 845 2 UK National Archives Online Catalogue Series Reference WO315 Kay Diana Miles Robert 1998 Refugees or migrant workers The case of the European Volunteer Workers in Britain 1946 1951 Journal of Refugee Studies 1 3 4 214 236 doi 10 1093 jrs 1 3 4 214 Burrell Kathy 2002 Migrant 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later in Paris http www npg org uk collections search person mp14017 walery The NPG has 197 portraits including of Queen Victoria and members of her family http www npg org uk collections search person mp14017 walery This Swiss photographic website gives the most extensive biography of the 3 persons who worked as the photographer Walery Zygmunt Wielowiejski however believes that the latter 2 of the 3 Walery photographers are both Ostrorog the son See Meyer Jurg H 2010 Wer war Walery https www fotointern ch archiv 2010 01 31 wer war walery in German retrieved 12 31 2017 Jadie Troy Pryde 10 June 2019 Princess Diana s childhood home will be open to the public next month Marieclaire Retrieved 26 October 2019 Flood Alison 22 December 2008 Meg Mog and other monsters The Guardian Retrieved 22 July 2014 15 Journeys from Warsaw to London Jasia Reichardt s memoir polishculture org uk Retrieved 1 June 2020 Nick Wadley The Paintings of Franciszka Themerson in F amp S Themerson bi lingual exhibition catalogue Muzeum Sztuki Lodz 2013 pp 112 127 No 45551 The London Gazette 23 December 1971 p 14068 Excerpts in English of Zulawski s autobiography http translatingmarek com 2007 the Year of Artur Rubinstein Culture pl 31 December 2007 Retrieved 6 November 2011 Fierro Nancy 1993 Riches and Rags A Wealth of Piano Music by Women Ars Musica Poloniae Disc Janowska Anita Halina 2014 My Guardian Demon Letters of Andre Tchaikowsky amp Halina Janowska 1956 1982 Translated from the Polish by Jacek Laskowski London Smith Gordon ISBN 978 1 85463 2494 Stretton Penny Mel Giedroyc Dad s tragic childhood has made me a better person Daily Express Retrieved 6 September 2015 Andy McSmith 14 October 2015 Daniel Kawczynski Honorable member for Saudi Arabia up in arms over prison training reversal independent co uk Retrieved 29 June 2017 a b Mendick Robert Day Matthew 16 May 2010 The miraculous escape of Marion Miliband The Daily Telegraph London Retrieved 26 February 2011 Pieczewski Andrzej 11 August 2010 Joseph Retinger s conception of and contribution to the early process of European integration European Review of History 17 4 581 604 doi 10 1080 13507486 2010 495766 S2CID 159818413 Minister of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of Poland Radoslaw Sikorski Biography Archived from the original on 19 April 2014 Premier Kancelaria Prezesa Rady Ministrow Portal Gov pl Archived from the original on 9 May 2008 Stefan Terlezki The Telegraph 27 February 2006 Retrieved 24 August 2019 Long walk to freedom of former MP BBC News 28 July 2005 Retrieved 17 February 2023 John Cohen Oxford Dictionary of National Biography online ed Oxford University Press 2004 doi 10 1093 ref odnb 30949 Retrieved 7 September 2015 Subscription or UK public library membership required Cathy Urwin Lowenfeld Margaret Frances Jane 1890 1973 Oxford Dictionary of National Biography Oxford University Press 2004 accessed 4 Sept 2015 Green Shirley 1979 Rachman London Michael Joseph ISBN 0718117395 Dalley Jan 21 January 2011 Lunch with the FT John Studzinski Financial Times Retrieved 22 March 2020 Wakefield Mary 24 September 2011 Private Passions The Spectator Press Association Boxing world pays tribute to promoter Mickey Duff who has died aged 84 Sport The Observer Theguardian com Retrieved 22 March 2014 Catherine Czerkawska Wordarts co uk Archived from the original on 9 February 2014 Retrieved 20 February 2015 Members The Scottish Science Advisory Council www scottishscience org uk James K Gimzewski 2014 Building a Brain a video lecture Youtube Vimeo Report from Parliament North Edinburgh News June 2009 Mark Lazarowicz June 2009 Archived from the original on 5 October 2011 Retrieved 26 February 2011 Helm Toby 1 May 2004 MacShane s passion for Europe driven by memories of war The Daily Telegraph London Retrieved 26 February 2011 Mieczkowski Zbigniew 1 January 2004 The Soldiers of General Maczek in World War II Foundation for the Commemoration of General Maczek First Polish Armoured Division p 16 ISBN 83 914145 8 2 Further reading editKeith Sword Collection Polish Migration Project at UCL http www ssees ucl ac uk archives swo html A Remarkable School in Exile 1941 1951 Veritas Foundation Publication ISBN 0 9545100 0 3 S Barnes A Long Way From Home Staffordshire University 2003 Brin Best amp Maria Helena Zukowska Poles in the UK A Story of Friendship and Cooperation The British Polonia Foundation 2016 ISBN 978 0 9954956 1 6 Free eBook PDF download from www polesintheuk net Kathy Burrell Polish Migration to the UK in the New European Union Ashgate 2009 ISBN 978 0 7546 7387 3 Dr Diana M Henderson Editor The Lion and The Eagle Cualann Press ISBN 0 9535036 4 X Robert Gretzyngier Poles in Defence of Britain Grub 2001 ISBN 1 902304 54 3 Michael Hope The Abandoned Legion Veritas Foundation Publication ISBN 1 904639 09 7 Michael Hope Polish deportees in the Soviet Union Veritas Foundation Publication ISBN 0 948202 76 9 W Jedrzejewicz Poland in the British Parliament 1939 1945 White Eagle Printing G Kay amp R Negus Polish Exile Mail in Great Britain 1939 1949 J Barefoot ISBN 0 906845 52 1 Ignacy Matuszewski Did Britain Guarantee Poland s frontiers Polish Bookshop Ignacy Matuszewski Great Britain s Obligations Towards Poland National Committee of Americans 1945 Wiktor Moszczynski Hello I m Your Polish Neighbour All about Poles in West London AuthorHouse 2010 ISBN 1 4490 9779 0 Robert Ostrycharz Polish War Graves in Scotland A Testament to the Past ISBN 1 872286 48 8 Prazmowska Anita Britain and Poland 1939 1943 Cambridge University Press ISBN 0 521 48385 9 Tim Smith amp Michelle Winslow Keeping the Faith The Polish Community in Britain Bradford Heritage ISBN 0 907734 57 X Peter Stachura Editor The Poles in Britain 1940 2000 Frank Cass ISBN 0 7146 8444 9 R Umiastowski Poland Russia and Great Britain 1941 1945 Hollis amp Carter 1946 Ian Valentine Station 43 Audley End House and SOE s Polish section Sutton 2004 ISBN 0 7509 4255 X Various Intelligence co operation between Poland and Great Britain during World War II Vallentine Mitchell 2005 ISBN 0 85303 656 X Jonathan Walker Poland Alone History Press 2008 ISBN 978 1 86227 474 7Memoirs and fiction Waydenfeld Stefan 1999 The Ice Road An Epic Journey from Stalinist Labour Camps to Freedom London Mainstream Publishing ISBN 1840181664 Republished 2010 by Aquila Polonica ISBN 1607720027 Michal Giedroyc Crater s Edge A Family s Epic Journey Through Wartime Russia Bene Factum Publishing Ltd 1 May 2010 Matthew Kelly Finding Poland Jonathan Cape Ltd 4 Mar 2010 Michael Moran A Country in the Moon Travels in Search of the Heart of Poland Granta Books Reprint edition 2 Mar 2009 Joanna Czechowska The Black Madonna of Derby Silkmill Press 2008 Andrew Tarnowski The Last Mazurka A Tale of War Passion and Loss Aurum Press Ltd 9 May 2006 Kasimir Czerniak Gabi Czerniak William Czerniak Jones The Wisdom of Uncle Kasimir Bloomsbuy 2006 Annette Kobak Joe s War My Father Decoded A Daughter s Search for Her Father s War 2004 Dr John Geller Through Darkness To Dawn Veritas 1 Jan 1989 Denis Hills Return to Poland The Bodley Head Ltd First Edition 28 Jan 1988 Slavomir Rawicz The Long Walk The True Story of a Trek to Freedom Robinson Publishing 26 April 2007 Academic papers Malgorzata Irek New Wave Old Ways Post accession Migration from Poland Seen from the Perspective of the Social Sciences Studia Sociologica IV 2012 vol 2 pp 21 30 Michal P Garapich Between Cooperation and Hostility Constructions of Ethnicity and Social Class among Polish Migrants in London Studia Sociologica IV 2012 vol 2 pp 31 45 in Polish Malgorzata Krywult Albanska Profil demograficzny polskich imigrantow poakcesyjnych w Wielkiej Brytanii Studia Sociologica IV 2012 vol 2 pp 72 80External links editThis section s use of external links may not follow Wikipedia s policies or guidelines Please improve this article by removing excessive or inappropriate external links and converting useful links where appropriate into footnote references December 2017 Learn how and when to remove this template message British Library Polish collections British Polish Chamber of Commerce Federation of Poles in Great Britain Polish Heritage Society in the United Kingdom Jagiellonian University Polish Research Centre in London Polish Embassy in the UK London POSK Polish Social and Cultural Association Information about researching Polish ancestry issued by Suffolk County Council updated September 2011 Portals nbsp Poland nbsp United Kingdom Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Poles in the United Kingdom amp oldid 1210220539, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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