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Quaternary extinction event

December 01, 2023

For extinctions that occurred during the Holocene, see Holocene extinction.

The latter half of the Late Pleistocene to the beginning of the Holocene (~50,000-10,000 years Before Present)[1] saw extinctions of numerous predominantly megafaunal (large) animal species (the Pleistocene megafauna), which resulted in a collapse in faunal density and diversity across the globe. The extinctions during the Late Pleistocene are differentiated from previous extinctions by the widespread absence of ecological succession to replace these extinct megafaunal species,[2] and the regime shift of previously established faunal relationships and habitats as a consequence. The timing and severity of the extinctions varied by region and are thought to have been driven by varying combinations of human and climatic factors.[2] Human impact on megafauna populations is thought to have been driven by hunting ("overkill") as well as possibly environmental alteration.[3][4][5] The relative importance of human vs climatic factors in the extinctions has been the subject of long-running controversy.[2]

Late Pleistocene landscape of northern Spain, by Mauricio Antón. From left to right: wild horse (Equus ferus), woolly mammoth (Mammuthus primigenius) reindeer (Rangifer tarandus) the cave or steppe lion (Panthera spelaea) and the woolly rhinoceros (Coelodonta antiquitatis)
Mural of La Brea Tar Pits by Charles R. Knight, including sabertooth cats (Smilodon fatalis, left) ground sloths (Paramylodon harlani, right) and Columbian mammoths (Mammuthus columbi, background)

Major extinctions occurred in Australia-New Guinea (Sahul) beginning approximately 50,000 years ago and in the Americas about 13,000 years ago, coinciding in time with the early human migrations into these regions.[6][7][8] Extinctions in northern Eurasia were staggered over tens of thousands of years between 50,000 and 10,000 years ago,[1] while extinctions in the Americas were virtually simultaneous, spanning only 3000 years at most.[3][9] Overall, during Late Pleistocene about 65% of all megafaunal species worldwide became extinct,[10] rising to 72% in North America, 83% in South America and 88% in Australia, with Africa, South Asia and Southeast Asia having much lower extinctions than other regions.[11]

Extinctions by biogeographic realm edit

Summary edit

Extinctions range of the continental large and medium-sized mammals from 40,000 to 4,000 years BP in different biogeographic realms[12]
Biogeographic realm Giants
(over 1,000 kg) 		Very large
(400–1,000 kg) 		Large
(150–400 kg) 		Moderately large
(50–150 kg) 		Medium
(10–50 kg) 		Total Regions included
Start Loss % Start Loss % Start Loss % Start Loss % Start Loss % Start Loss %
Afrotropic 6 −1 16.6% 4 −1 25% 25 −3 12% 32 0 0% 69 −2 2.9% 136 -7 5.1% Trans-Saharan Africa and Arabia
Indomalaya 5 −2 40% 6 −1 16.7% 10 −1 10% 20 −3 15% 56 −1 1.8% 97 -8 8.2% Indian subcontinent, Southeast Asia, and southern China
Palearctic 8 −8 100% 10 −5 50% 14 −5 35.7% 23 −3 15% 41 −1 2.4% 96 -22 22.9% Eurasia and North Africa
Nearctic 5 −5 100% 10 −8 80% 26 −22 84.6% 20 −13 65% 25 −9 36% 86 -57 66% North America
Neotropic 9 −9 100% 12 −12 100% 17 −14 82% 20 −11 55% 35 −5 14.3% 93 -51 54% South America, Central America, and the Caribbean
Australasia 4 −4 100% 5 −5 100% 6 −6 100% 16 −13 81.2% 25 −10 40% 56 -38 67% Australia, New Guinea, New Zealand, and neighbouring islands.
Global 33 −26 78.8% 46 −31 67.4% 86 −47 54.7% 113 −41 36.3% 215 −23 10.1% 493 -168 34%

Introduction edit

 
The proportion of extinct large mammal species (more than or equal to 10 kg) in each country during the last 132 000 years, only counting extinctions earlier than 1000 years BP.jpg

The Late Pleistocene saw the extinction of many mammals weighing more than 40 kilograms (88 lb). The proportion of megafauna extinctions is progressively larger the further the human migratory distance from Africa, with the highest extinction rates in Australia, and North and South America.

The increased extent of extinction mirrors the migration pattern of modern humans: the further away from Africa, the more recently humans inhabited the area, the less time those environments (including its megafauna) had to become accustomed to humans (and vice versa).

There are two main hypotheses to explain this extinction:

  • Climate change associated with the advance and retreat of major ice caps or ice sheets causing reduction in favorable habitat.
  • Human hunting causing attrition of megafauna populations, commonly known as "overkill".[13]

There are some inconsistencies between the current available data and the prehistoric overkill hypothesis. For instance, there are ambiguities around the timing of Australian megafauna extinctions.[13] Evidence supporting the prehistoric overkill hypothesis includes the persistence of megafauna on some islands for millennia past the disappearance of their continental cousins. For instance, ground sloths survived on the Antilles long after North and South American ground sloths were extinct, woolly mammoths died out on remote Wrangel Island 6,000 years after their extinction on the mainland, while Steller's sea cows persisted off the isolated and uninhabited Commander Islands for thousands of years after they had vanished from the continental shores of the north Pacific.[14] The later disappearance of these island species correlates with the later colonization of these islands by humans.

The original debates as to whether human arrival times or climate change constituted the primary cause of megafaunal extinctions necessarily were based on paleontological evidence coupled with geological dating techniques. Recently, genetic analyses of surviving megafaunal populations have contributed new evidence, leading to the conclusion: "The inability of climate to predict the observed population decline of megafauna, especially during the past 75,000 years, implies that human impact became the main driver of megafauna dynamics around this date."[15]

An alternative hypothesis to the theory of human responsibility is climate change associated with the last glacial period. Discredited explanations include the Younger Dryas impact hypothesis[16] and Tollmann's hypothesis that extinctions resulted from bolide impacts.

Recent research indicates that each species responded differently to environmental changes, and no one factor by itself explains the large variety of extinctions. The causes may involve the interplay of climate change, competition between species, unstable population dynamics, and human predation.[17]

Africa edit

Although Africa was one of the least affected regions, the region still suffered extinctions, particularly around the Late Pleistocene-Holocene transition. These extinctions were likely predominantly climatically driven by changes to grassland habitats.[18]

South Asia, Southeast Asia and East Asia edit

 
Giant tapir (Tapirus augustus) restoration
 
Life-sized models of Stegodon
 
Palaeoloxodon namadicus fossil at Indian Museum, Kolkata, India
 
Fossil jaw (Xiahe mandible) of a denisovan

The timing of extinctions on the Indian subcontinent is uncertain due to a lack of reliable dating.[20] Similar issues have been reported for Chinese sites, though there is no evidence for any of the megafaunal taxa having survived into the Holocene in that region.[21] Extinctions in Southeast Asia and South China have been proposed to be the result of environmental shift from open to closed forested habitats.[22]

Europe and northern Asia edit

 
Saiga antelope (Saiga spp.) inhabited a range from England and France to Yukon in the Late Pleistocene, diversifying into two species. S. borealis is now extinct and the critically endangered S. tatarica is now limited to the steppe in Kazakhstan and Mongolia
 
Hippopotamuses (Hippopotamus spp.) inhabited Great Britain until 80,000 BCE, whence due to glacial shifts, hippopotamuses were restricted to southeastern Europe, Mediterranean islands and finally western Asia until 1,000 BCE
 
Reconstruction of the five phenotypes of Pleistocene wild horse. The coat colours and dimensions are based on genetic evidence and historic descriptions
 
Elasmotherium sibiricum reconstruction
 
Cave paintings of the wooly rhinoceros (Coelodonta antiquitatis) in Chauvet-Pont-d'Arc Cave, France
 
The 'Gallery of Lions', representations of the Eurasian cave lion in Chauvet-Pont-d'Arc Cave, France
 
The leopard (Panthera pardus) inhabited the entire expanse of Afro-Eurasia below the 54th parallel north, from modern day Spain and the UK in the west, to South Africa in the south, and Siberia, Japan and Sundaland in the east during the Late Pleistocene
 
Cave bear (Ursus spelaeus) reconstruction
 
The woolly mammoth became extinct around 10,000 BCE – except for diminutive relict populations on St. Paul Island and Wrangel Island, which humans did not colonise until 3,600 BCE and 2,000 BCE respectively
 
Model of the European straight-tusked elephant (Paleoloxodon antiquus)

The Palearctic realm spans the entirety of the European continent and stretches into northern Asia, through the Caucasus and central Asia to northern China, Siberia and Beringia. Extinctions were more severe in Northern Eurasia than in Africa or South and Southeast Asia. These extinctions were staggered over tens of thousands of years, spanning from around 50,000 years Before Present (BP) to around 10,000 years BP, with temperate adapted species like the straight-tusked elephant and the narrow-nosed rhinoceros generally going extinct earlier than cold adapted species like the woolly mammoth and woolly rhinoceros. Climate change has been considered a probable major factor in the extinctions, possibly in combination with human hunting.[1]

See also: List of extinct animals of Europe

North America edit

See also: List of North American animals extinct in the Holocene

Extinctions in North America were concentrated at the end of the Late Pleistocene, around 13,800–11,400 years Before Present, which were coincident with the onset of the Younger Dryas cooling period, as well as the emergence of the hunter-gatherer Clovis culture. The relative importance of human and climactic factors in the North American extinctions has been the subject of significant controversy. Extinctions totalled around 35 genera.[3] The radiocarbon record for North America south of the Alaska-Yukon region has been described as "inadequate" to construct a reliable chronology.[52]

 
Long-horned/Giant bison (Bos latifrons), fossil bison skeleton (public display, Cincinnati Museum of Natural History & Science, Cincinnati, Ohio, United States)
 
Mounted skeleton of a shrub-ox (Euceratherium collinum)
 
Life restoration of Cervalces scotti
 
Tetrameryx shuleri restoration
 
A Chacoan peccary (Catagonus wagneri), believed to be the closest surviving relative of the extinct Platygonus
 
Western camel (Camelops hesternus) reconstruction
 
Life restoration of the Yukon horse (Equus lambei)
 
Reconstruction of Mixotoxodon larenis, a toxodontid notoungulate
 
Saber-toothed cat (Smilodon fatalis) reconstruction
 
Scimitar cat (Homotherium serum) reconstruction
 
American lion (Panthera atrox) reconstruction
 
The dhole (Cuon alpinus), now restricted to the southern portions of Asia, was present from Iberia to Mexico during the Late Pleistocene
 
Giant short-faced bear (Arctodus simus) reconstruction
 
American mastodon (Mammut americanum) reconstruction
 
Columbian mammoth (Mammuthus columbi) reconstruction
 
Giant beaver (Castoroides ohioensis) skeleton displayed at the Field Museum of Natural History, Chicago, Illinois, United States
 
Skull of Paralouatta marianae, one of the two Cuban members of the extinct Antilles monkeys (Xenotrichini)
 
Eremotherium laurillardi skeleton displayed at the Houston Museum of Natural Science
 
Life restoration of Nothrotheriops texanus
 
Glyptotherium reconstruction
 
Californian turkey (Meleagris californica) and megafaunal Californian condor (Gymnogyps amplus) fossil displays at La Brea Tar Pits
 
Teratornis merriami skeleton from the La Brea Tar Pits in flight pose
 
Reconstruction of the Cuban giant owl (Ornimegalonyx oteroi), of Pleistocene Cuba, with the carcass of a large solenodon

North American extinctions (noted as herbivores (H) or carnivores (C)) included:

The survivors are in some ways as significant as the losses: bison (H), grey wolf (C), lynx (C), grizzly bear (C), American black bear (C), deer (e.g. caribou, moose, wapiti (elk), Odocoileus spp.) (H), pronghorn (H), white-lipped peccary (H), muskox (H), bighorn sheep (H), and mountain goat (H); the list of survivors also include species which were extirpated during the Quaternary extinction event, but recolonised at least part of their ranges during the mid-Holocene from South American relict populations, such as the cougar (C), jaguar (C), giant anteater (C), collared peccary (H), ocelot (C) and jaguarundi (C). All save the pronghorns and giant anteaters were descended from Asian ancestors that had evolved with human predators.[77] Pronghorns are the second-fastest land mammal (after the cheetah), which may have helped them elude hunters. More difficult to explain in the context of overkill is the survival of bison, since these animals first appeared in North America less than 240,000 years ago and so were geographically removed from human predators for a sizeable period of time.[78][79][80] Because ancient bison evolved into living bison,[81][82] there was no continent-wide extinction of bison at the end of the Pleistocene (although the genus was regionally extirpated in many areas). The survival of bison into the Holocene and recent times is therefore inconsistent with the overkill scenario. By the end of the Pleistocene, when humans first entered North America, these large animals had been geographically separated from intensive human hunting for more than 200,000 years. Given this enormous span of geologic time, bison would almost certainly have been very nearly as naive as native North American large mammals.

The culture that has been connected with the wave of extinctions in North America is the paleo-American culture associated with the Clovis people (q.v.), who were thought to use spear throwers to kill large animals. The chief criticism of the "prehistoric overkill hypothesis" has been that the human population at the time was too small and/or not sufficiently widespread geographically to have been capable of such ecologically significant impacts. This criticism does not mean that climate change scenarios explaining the extinction are automatically to be preferred by default, however, any more than weaknesses in climate change arguments can be taken as supporting overkill. Some form of a combination of both factors could be plausible, and overkill would be a lot easier to achieve large-scale extinction with an already stressed population due to climate change.

South America edit

 
Fossil of Hippidion, a genus of horse native to South America.
 
Reconstruction of the mother and calf of Macrauchenia, a member of the extinct order Litopterna
 
Skeleton of Toxodon , a member of the extinct order Notoungulata
 
Reconstruction of the Dire wolf (Aenocyon dirus)
 
Life restoration of Arctotherium bonariense.
 
Reconstruction of the gomphothere Cuvieronius
 
Skeleton of the giant ground sloth Megatherium
 
Reconstruction of the glytodont Doedicurus clavicaudatus , distributed in the temperate savannah and woodland of South America.
 
Fossil reconstruction of Panochthus frenzelianus with metal model.
See also: List of South American animals extinct in the Holocene

South America suffered among the worst losses of the continents, with around 83% of its megafauna going extinct.[11] Extinctions are thought to have occurred in the interval 13,000–10,000 years Before Present, coincident with the end of the Antarctic Cold Reversal (a cooling period earlier and less severe than the Northern Hemisphere Younger Dryas) and the emergence of Fishtail projectile points, which became widespread across South America. Fishtail projectile points are thought to have been used in big game hunting, though direct evidence of exploitation of extinct megafauna by humans is rare. Fishtail points rapidly disappeared after the extinction of the megafauna, and were replaced by other styles more suited to hunting smaller prey. Humans have traditionally been less cited as a causal factor in the extinctions than in North America, though some recent scholarship is beginning to challenge this.[83]

The Pacific (Australasia and Oceania) edit

See also: List of Australia-New Guinea species extinct in the Holocene, List of New Zealand species extinct in the Holocene, and List of Oceanian animals extinct in the Holocene
 
Reconstruction of a hippopotamus-sized Diprotodon
 
Some of the marsupial lions were the largest mammalian predators in Australia of their time
 
Reconstruction of Zygomaturus

A scarcity of reliably dated megafaunal bone deposits has made it difficult to construct timelines for megafaunal extinctions in certain areas, leading to a divide among researches about when and how megafaunal species went extinct.[115][116]

There are at least three hypotheses regarding the extinction of the Australian megafauna:

  1. that they went extinct with the arrival of the Aboriginal Australians on the continent,
  2. that they went extinct due to natural climate change.

This theory is based on evidence of megafauna surviving until 40,000 years ago, a full 30,000 years after homo sapiens first landed in Australia, and thus that the two groups coexisted for a long time. Evidence of these animals existing at that time come from fossil records and ocean sediment. To begin with, sediment core drilled in the Indian Ocean off the SW coast of Australia indicate the existence of a fungus called Sporormiella, which survived off the dung of plant-eating mammals. The abundance of these spores in the sediment prior to 45,000 years ago indicates that many large mammals existed in the southwest Australian landscape until that point. The sediment data also indicates that the megafauna population collapsed within a few thousand years, around the 45,000 years ago, suggesting a rapid extinction event.[117] In addition, fossils found at South Walker Creek, which is the youngest megafauna site in northern Australia, indicate that at least 16 species of megafauna survived there until 40,000 years ago. Furthermore, there is no firm evidence of homo sapiens living at South Walker Creek 40,000 years ago, therefore no human cause can be attributed to the extinction of these megafauna. However, there is evidence of major environmental deterioration of South Water Creek 40,000 years ago, which may have caused the extinct event. These changes include increased fire, reduction in grasslands, and the loss of fresh water.[118] The same environmental deterioration is seen across Australia at the time, further strengthening the climate change argument. Australia's climate at the time could best be described as an overall drying of the landscape due to lower precipitation, resulting in less fresh water availability and more drought conditions. Overall, this led to changes in vegetation, increased fires, overall reduction in grasslands, and a greater competition for already scarce fresh water.[119] These environmental changes proved to be too much for the Australian megafauna to cope with, causing the extinction of 90% of megafauna species.

  1. The third hypothesis shared by some scientists is that human impacts and natural climate changes led to the extinction of Australian megafauna. About 75% of Australia is semi-arid or arid, so it makes sense that megafauna species used the same fresh water resources as humans. This competition could have led to more hunting of megafauna.[120] Furthermore, homo sapiens used fire agriculture[clarification needed] to burn impassable[clarification needed] land. This further diminished the already disappearing grassland which contained plants that were a key dietary component of herbivorous megafauna. While there is no scientific consensus on this, it is plausible that homo sapiens and natural climate change had a combined impact. Overall, there is a great deal of evidence for humans being the culprit, but by ruling out climate change completely as a cause of the Australian megafauna extinction we are not getting the whole picture. The climate change in Australia 45,000 years ago destabilized the ecosystem, making it particularly vulnerable to hunting and fire agriculture by humans; this is probably what led to the extinction of the Australian megafauna.

Several studies provide evidence that climate change caused megafaunal extinction during the Pleistocene in Australia. One group of researchers analyzed fossilized teeth found at Cuddie Springs in southeastern Australia. By analyzing oxygen isotopes, they measured aridity, and by analyzing carbon isotopes and dental microwear texture analysis, they assessed megafaunal diets and vegetation. During the middle Pleistocene, southeastern Australia was dominated by browsers, including fauna that consumed C4 plants. By the late Pleistocene, the C4 plant dietary component had decreased considerably. This shift may have been caused by increasingly arid conditions, which may have caused dietary restrictions. Other isotopic analyses of eggshells and wombat teeth also point to a decline of C4 vegetation after 45 Ka. This decline in C4 vegetation is coincident with increasing aridity. Increasingly arid conditions in southeastern Australia during the late Pleistocene may have stressed megafauna, and contributed to their decline.[121]

 
Procoptodon goliath reconstruction
 
The American flamingo (Phoenicopterus ruber) was one of four species of flamingo present in Australia in the Quaternary, all of which are now either extinct or extirpated. Australia is now the only inhabited continent in the world without flamingoes.
 
Megalania skeleton, Melbourne Museum

In Sahul (a former continent composed of Australia and New Guinea), the sudden and extensive spate of extinctions occurred earlier than in the rest of the world.[122][123][124][125][126] Most evidence points to a 20,000 year period after human arrival circa 63,000 BCE,[127] but scientific argument continues as to the exact date range.[128] In the rest of the Pacific (other Australasian islands such as New Caledonia, and Oceania) although in some respects far later, endemic fauna also usually perished quickly upon the arrival of humans in the late Pleistocene and early Holocene.

Relationship to later extinctions edit

Main article: Holocene extinction
See also: Timeline of extinctions in the Holocene

There is no general agreement on where the Quaternary extinction event ends, and the Holocene, or anthropogenic, extinction begins, or if they should be considered separate events at all.[135][136] Some have suggested that anthropogenic extinctions may have begun as early as when the first modern humans spread out of Africa between 100,000 and 200,000 years ago, which is supported by rapid megafaunal extinction following recent human colonisation in Australia, New Zealand and Madagascar,[137] in a similar way that any large, adaptable predator moving into a new ecosystem would. In many cases, it is suggested even minimal hunting pressure was enough to wipe out large fauna, particularly on geographically isolated islands.[138][139] Only during the most recent parts of the extinction have plants also suffered large losses.[140]

Overall, the Holocene extinction can be characterised by the human impact on the environment. The Holocene extinction continues into the 21st century, with overfishing, ocean acidification and the amphibian crisis being a few broader examples of an almost universal, cosmopolitan decline of biodiversity.

Hunting hypothesis edit

The hunting hypothesis suggests that humans hunted megaherbivores to extinction, which in turn caused the extinction of carnivores and scavengers which had preyed upon those animals.[141][142][143] This hypothesis holds Pleistocene humans responsible for the megafaunal extinction. One variant, known as blitzkrieg, portrays this process as relatively quick. Some of the direct evidence for this includes: fossils of some megafauna found in conjunction with human remains, embedded arrows and tool cut marks found in megafaunal bones, and European cave paintings that depict such hunting. Biogeographical evidence is also suggestive: the areas of the world where humans evolved currently have more of their Pleistocene megafaunal diversity (the elephants and rhinos of Asia and Africa) compared to other areas such as Australia, the Americas, Madagascar and New Zealand without the earliest humans.

 
Despeciation within the genus Homo.
 
Known H. sapiens migration routes in the Pleistocene.

Circumstantially, the close correlation in time between the appearance of humans in an area and extinction there provides weight for this scenario. The megafaunal extinctions covered a vast period of time and highly variable climatic situations. The earliest extinctions in Australia were complete approximately 50,000 BP, well before the last glacial maximum and before rises in temperature. The most recent extinction in New Zealand was complete no earlier than 500 BP and during a period of cooling. In between these extremes megafaunal extinctions have occurred progressively in such places as North America, South America and Madagascar with no climatic commonality. The only common factor that can be ascertained is the arrival of humans.[144][145] This phenomenon appears even within regions. The mammal extinction wave in Australia about 50,000 years ago coincides not with known climatic changes, but with the arrival of humans. In addition, large mammal species like the giant kangaroo Protemnodon appear to have succumbed sooner on the Australian mainland than on Tasmania, which was colonised by humans a few thousand years later.[146][147]

Extinction through human hunting has been supported by archaeological finds of mammoths with projectile points embedded in their skeletons, by observations of modern naive animals allowing hunters to approach easily[148][149][150] and by computer models by Mosimann and Martin,[151] and Whittington and Dyke,[152] and most recently by Alroy.[153]

A study published in 2015 supported the hypothesis further by running several thousand scenarios that correlated the time windows in which each species is known to have become extinct with the arrival of humans on different continents or islands.[154] This was compared against climate reconstructions for the last 90,000 years.[154] The researchers found correlations of human spread and species extinction indicating that the human impact was the main cause of the extinction, while climate change exacerbated the frequency of extinctions.[154][155] The study, however, found an apparently low extinction rate in the fossil record of mainland Asia.[155]

Overkill hypothesis edit

 
The timing of extinctions follows the "March of Man"

The overkill hypothesis, a variant of the hunting hypothesis, was proposed in 1966 by Paul S. Martin,[156] Professor of Geosciences Emeritus at the Desert Laboratory of the University of Arizona.[157]

Objections to the hunting hypothesis edit

The major objections to the theory are as follows:

  • There is no archeological evidence that in North America megafauna other than mammoths, mastodons, gomphotheres and bison were hunted, despite the fact that, for example, camels and horses are very frequently reported in fossil history.[158] Overkill proponents, however, say this is due to the fast extinction process in North America and the low probability of animals with signs of butchery to be preserved.[159] A study by Surovell and Grund[160] concluded "archaeological sites dating to the time of the coexistence of humans and extinct fauna are rare. Those that preserve bone are considerably more rare, and of those, only a very few show unambiguous evidence of human hunting of any type of prey whatsoever."
  • Eugene S. Hunn points out that the birthrate in hunter-gatherer societies is generally too low, that too much effort is involved in the bringing down of a large animal by a hunting party, and that in order for hunter-gatherers to have brought about the extinction of megafauna simply by hunting them to death, an extraordinary amount of meat would have had to have been wasted.[161]

Climate change hypothesis edit

At the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th centuries, when scientists first realized that there had been glacial and interglacial ages, and that they were somehow associated with the prevalence or disappearance of certain animals, they surmised that the termination of the Pleistocene ice age might be an explanation for the extinctions.

Critics object that since there were multiple glacial advances and withdrawals in the evolutionary history of many of the megafauna, it is rather implausible that only after the last glacial maximum would there be such extinctions. One study suggests that the Pleistocene megafaunal composition may have differed markedly from that of earlier interglacials, making the Pleistocene populations particularly vulnerable to changes in their environment.[162]

Some evidence weighs against climate change as a valid hypothesis as applied to Australia. It has been shown that the prevailing climate at the time of extinction (40,000–50,000 BP) was similar to that of today, and that the extinct animals were strongly adapted to an arid climate. The evidence indicates that all of the extinctions took place in the same short time period, which was the time when humans entered the landscape. The main mechanism for extinction was probably fire (started by humans) in a then much less fire-adapted landscape. Isotopic evidence shows sudden changes in the diet of surviving species, which could correspond to the stress they experienced before extinction.[163][164][165]

Evidence in Southeast Asia, in contrast to Europe, Australia, and the Americas, suggests that climate change and an increasing sea level were significant factors in the extinction of several herbivorous species. Alterations in vegetation growth and new access routes for early humans and mammals to previously isolated, localized ecosystems were detrimental to select groups of fauna.[166]

Some evidence obtained from analysis of the tusks of mastodons from the American Great Lakes region appears inconsistent with the climate change hypothesis. Over a span of several thousand years prior to their extinction in the area, the mastodons show a trend of declining age at maturation. This is the opposite of what one would expect if they were experiencing stresses from deteriorating environmental conditions, but is consistent with a reduction in intraspecific competition that would result from a population being reduced by human hunting.[167]

Increased temperature edit

The most obvious change associated with the termination of an ice age is the increase in temperature. Between 15,000 BP and 10,000 BP, a 6 °C increase in global mean annual temperatures occurred. This was generally thought to be the cause of the extinctions.

According to this hypothesis, a temperature increase sufficient to melt the Wisconsin ice sheet could have placed enough thermal stress on cold-adapted mammals to cause them to die. Their heavy fur, which helps conserve body heat in the glacial cold, might have prevented the dumping of excess heat, causing the mammals to die of heat exhaustion. Large mammals, with their reduced surface area-to-volume ratio, would have fared worse than small mammals.

A study covering the past 56,000 years indicates that rapid warming events with temperature changes of up to 16 °C (29 °F) had an important impact on the extinction of megafauna. Ancient DNA and radiocarbon data indicates that local genetic populations were replaced by others within the same species or by others within the same genus. Survival of populations was dependent on the existence of refugia and long distance dispersals, which may have been disrupted by human hunters.[168]

Arguments against the temperature hypothesis edit

Studies propose that the annual mean temperature of the current interglacial that we have seen for the last 10,000 years is no higher than that of previous interglacials, yet most of the same large mammals survived similar temperature increases.[169][170][171][172][173][174]

In addition, numerous species such as mammoths on Wrangel Island[175] and St. Paul Island survived in human-free refugia despite changes in climate. This would not be expected if climate change were responsible (unless their maritime climates offered some protection against climate change not afforded to coastal populations on the mainland). Under normal ecological assumptions island populations should be more vulnerable to extinction due to climate change because of small populations and an inability to migrate to more favorable climes.[citation needed]

Increased continentality affects vegetation in time or space edit

Other scientists have proposed that increasingly extreme weather—hotter summers and colder winters—referred to as "continentality", or related changes in rainfall caused the extinctions. The various hypotheses are outlined below.

Vegetation changes: geographic edit

It has been shown that vegetation changed from mixed woodland-parkland to separate prairie and woodland.[171][172][174] This may have affected the kinds of food available. Shorter growing seasons may have caused the extinction of large herbivores and the dwarfing of many others. In this case, as observed, bison and other large ruminants would have fared better than horses, elephants and other monogastrics, because ruminants are able to extract more nutrition from limited quantities of high-fiber food and better able to deal with anti-herbivory toxins.[176][177][178] So, in general, when vegetation becomes more specialized, herbivores with less diet flexibility may be less able to find the mix of vegetation they need to sustain life and reproduce, within a given area.

Rainfall changes: time edit

Increased continentality resulted in reduced and less predictable rainfall limiting the availability of plants necessary for energy and nutrition.[179][180][181] Axelrod[182] and Slaughter[183] have suggested that this change in rainfall restricted the amount of time favorable for reproduction. This could disproportionately harm large animals, since they have longer, more inflexible mating periods, and so may have produced young at unfavorable seasons (i.e., when sufficient food, water, or shelter was unavailable because of shifts in the growing season). In contrast, small mammals, with their shorter life cycles, shorter reproductive cycles, and shorter gestation periods, could have adjusted to the increased unpredictability of the climate, both as individuals and as species which allowed them to synchronize their reproductive efforts with conditions favorable for offspring survival. If so, smaller mammals would have lost fewer offspring and would have been better able to repeat the reproductive effort when circumstances once more favored offspring survival.[184]

In 2017 a study looked at the environmental conditions across Europe, Siberia and the Americas from 25,000 to 10,000 YBP. The study found that prolonged warming events leading to deglaciation and maximum rainfall occurred just prior to the transformation of the rangelands that supported megaherbivores into widespread wetlands that supported herbivore-resistant plants. The study proposes that moisture-driven environmental change led to the megafaunal extinctions and that Africa's trans-equatorial position allowed rangeland to continue to exist between the deserts and the central forests, therefore fewer megafauna species became extinct there.[168]

Arguments against the continentality hypotheses edit

Critics have identified a number of problems with the continentality hypotheses.

  • Megaherbivores have prospered at other times of continental climate. For example, megaherbivores thrived in Pleistocene Siberia, which had and has a more continental climate than Pleistocene or modern (post-Pleistocene, interglacial) North America.[185][186][187]
  • The animals that became extinct actually should have prospered during the shift from mixed woodland-parkland to prairie, because their primary food source, grass, was increasing rather than decreasing.[188][187][189] Although the vegetation did become more spatially specialized, the amount of prairie and grass available increased, which would have been good for horses and for mammoths, and yet they became extinct. This criticism ignores the increased abundance and broad geographic extent of Pleistocene bison at the end of the Pleistocene, which would have increased competition for these resources in a manner not seen in any earlier interglacials.[162]
  • Although horses became extinct in the New World, they were successfully reintroduced by the Spanish in the 16th century—into a modern post-Pleistocene, interglacial climate. Today there are feral horses still living in those same environments. They find a sufficient mix of food to avoid toxins, they extract enough nutrition from forage to reproduce effectively and the timing of their gestation is not an issue. Of course, this criticism ignores the obvious fact that present-day horses are not competing for resources with ground sloths, mammoths, mastodons, camels, llamas, and bison. Similarly, mammoths survived the Pleistocene Holocene transition on isolated, uninhabited islands in the Mediterranean Sea[190] and on Wrangel Island in the Siberian Arctic[191] until 4,000 to 7,000 years ago.
  • Large mammals should have been able to migrate, permanently or seasonally, if they found the temperature too extreme, the breeding season too short, or the rainfall too sparse or unpredictable.[192] Seasons vary geographically. By migrating away from the equator, herbivores could have found areas with growing seasons more favorable for finding food and breeding successfully. Modern-day African elephants migrate during periods of drought to places where there is apt to be water.[193]
  • Large animals store more fat in their bodies than do medium-sized animals[194] and this should have allowed them to compensate for extreme seasonal fluctuations in food availability.

The extinction of the megafauna could have caused the disappearance of the mammoth steppe. Alaska now has low nutrient soil unable to support bison, mammoths, and horses. R. Dale Guthrie has claimed this as a cause of the extinction of the megafauna there; however, he may be interpreting it backwards. The loss of large herbivores to break up the permafrost allows the cold soils that are unable to support large herbivores today. Today, in the arctic, where trucks have broken the permafrost grasses and diverse flora and fauna can be supported.[195][196] In addition, Chapin (Chapin 1980) showed that simply adding fertilizer to the soil in Alaska could make grasses grow again like they did in the era of the mammoth steppe. Possibly, the extinction of the megafauna and the corresponding loss of dung is what led to low nutrient levels in modern-day soil and therefore is why the landscape can no longer support megafauna.

Arguments against both climate change and overkill edit

It may be observed that neither the overkill nor the climate change hypotheses can fully explain events: browsers, mixed feeders and non-ruminant grazer species suffered most, while relatively more ruminant grazers survived.[197] However, a broader variation of the overkill hypothesis may predict this, because changes in vegetation wrought by either Second Order Predation (see below)[198][199] or anthropogenic fire preferentially selects against browse species.[citation needed]

Hyperdisease hypothesis edit

Theory edit

The hyperdisease hypothesis, as advanced by Ross D. E. MacFee and Preston A. Marx, attributes the extinction of large mammals during the late Pleistocene to indirect effects of the newly arrived aboriginal humans.[200][201][202] The hyperdisease hypothesis proposes that humans or animals traveling with them (e.g., chickens or domestic dogs) introduced one or more highly virulent diseases into vulnerable populations of native mammals, eventually causing extinctions. The extinction was biased toward larger-sized species because smaller species have greater resilience because of their life history traits (e.g., shorter gestation time, greater population sizes, etc.). Humans are thought to be the cause because other earlier immigrations of mammals into North America from Eurasia did not cause extinctions.[200]

Diseases imported by people have been responsible for extinctions in the recent past; for example, bringing avian malaria to Hawaii has had a major impact on the isolated birds of the island.

If a disease was indeed responsible for the end-Pleistocene extinctions, then there are several criteria it must satisfy (see Table 7.3 in MacPhee & Marx 1997). First, the pathogen must have a stable carrier state in a reservoir species. That is, it must be able to sustain itself in the environment when there are no susceptible hosts available to infect. Second, the pathogen must have a high infection rate, such that it is able to infect virtually all individuals of all ages and sexes encountered. Third, it must be extremely lethal, with a mortality rate of c. 50–75%. Finally, it must have the ability to infect multiple host species without posing a serious threat to humans. Humans may be infected, but the disease must not be highly lethal or able to cause an epidemic.[citation needed]

One suggestion is that pathogens were transmitted by the expanding humans via the domesticated dogs they brought with them,[203] though this does not fit the timeline of extinctions in the Americas and Australia in particular.

Arguments against the hyperdisease hypothesis edit

  • Generally speaking, disease has to be very virulent to kill off all the individuals in a genus or species. Even such a virulent disease as West Nile fever is unlikely to have caused extinction.[204]
  • The disease would need to be implausibly selective while being simultaneously implausibly broad. Such a disease needs to be capable of killing off wolves such as Canis dirus or goats such as Oreamnos harringtoni while leaving other very similar species (Canis lupus and Oreamnos americanus, respectively) unaffected. It would need to be capable of killing off flightless birds while leaving closely related flighted species unaffected. Yet while remaining sufficiently selective to afflict only individual species within genera it must be capable of fatally infecting across such clades as birds, marsupials, placentals, testudines, and crocodilians. No disease with such a broad scope of fatal infectivity is known, much less one that remains simultaneously incapable of infecting numerous closely related species within those disparate clades. On the other hand, this objection does not account for the possibility of a variety of different diseases being introduced around the same era.[citation needed]
  • Numerous species including wolves, mammoths, camelids, and horses had emigrated continually between Asia and North America over the past 100,000 years. For the disease hypothesis to be applicable there it would require that the population remain immunologically naive despite this constant transmission of genetic and pathogenic material.[citation needed]
  • The dog-specific hypothesis cannot account for several major extinction events, notably the Americas (for reasons already covered) and Australia. Dogs did not arrive in Australia until approximately 35,000 years after the first humans arrived there, and approximately 30,000 years after the Australian megafaunal extinction was complete.[citation needed]

Second-order predation hypothesis edit

 
Combination Hypotheses: Climate Change, Overkill + Climate Change, Second-Order Predation + Climate Change
 
Overkill Hypothesis and Second-Order Predation

Scenario edit

The Second-Order Predation Hypothesis says that as humans entered the New World they continued their policy of killing predators, which had been successful in the Old World but because they were more efficient and because the fauna, both herbivores and carnivores, were more naive, they killed off enough carnivores to upset the ecological balance of the continent, causing overpopulation, environmental exhaustion, and environmental collapse. The hypothesis accounts for changes in animal, plant, and human populations.

The scenario is as follows:

  • After the arrival of H. sapiens in the New World, existing predators must share the prey populations with this new predator. Because of this competition, populations of original, or first-order, predators cannot find enough food; they are in direct competition with humans.
  • Second-order predation begins as humans begin to kill predators.
  • Prey populations are no longer well controlled by predation. Killing of nonhuman predators by H. sapiens reduces their numbers to a point where these predators no longer regulate the size of the prey populations.
  • Lack of regulation by first-order predators triggers boom-and-bust cycles in prey populations. Prey populations expand and consequently overgraze and over-browse the land. Soon the environment is no longer able to support them. As a result, many herbivores starve. Species that rely on the slowest recruiting food become extinct, followed by species that cannot extract the maximum benefit from every bit of their food.
  • Boom-bust cycles in herbivore populations change the nature of the vegetative environment, with consequent climatic impacts on relative humidity and continentality. Through overgrazing and overbrowsing, mixed parkland becomes grassland, and climatic continentality increases.

Support edit

This has been supported by a computer model, the Pleistocene extinction model (PEM), which, using the same assumptions and values for all variables (herbivore population, herbivore recruitment rates, food needed per human, herbivore hunting rates, etc.) other than those for hunting of predators. It compares the overkill hypothesis (predator hunting = 0) with second-order predation (predator hunting varied between 0.01 and 0.05 for different runs). The findings are that second-order predation is more consistent with extinction than is overkill[205][206] (results graph at left).

The Pleistocene extinction model is the only test of multiple hypotheses and is the only model to specifically test combination hypotheses by artificially introducing sufficient climate change to cause extinction. When overkill and climate change are combined they balance each other out. Climate change reduces the number of plants, overkill removes animals, therefore fewer plants are eaten. Second-order predation combined with climate change exacerbates the effect of climate change.[198] (results graph at right).

The second-order predation hypothesis is supported by the observation above that there was a massive increase in bison populations.[207]

Arguments against the second-order predation hypothesis edit

  • The multispecies model produces a mass extinction through indirect competition between herbivore species: small species with high reproductive rates subsidize predation on large species with low reproductive rates.[153] All prey species are lumped in the Pleistocene extinction model.
  • The control of population sizes by predators is not fully supported by observations of modern ecosystems.[208]

Arguments against the second-order predation plus climate hypothesis edit

  • It assumes decreases in vegetation due to climate change, but deglaciation doubled the habitable area of North America.
  • Any vegetational changes that did occur failed to cause almost any extinctions of small vertebrates, and they are more narrowly distributed on average.

See also edit

References edit

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December 01, 2023
quaternary, extinction, event, extinctions, that, occurred, during, holocene, holocene, extinction, this, article, multiple, issues, please, help, improve, discuss, these, issues, talk, page, learn, when, remove, these, template, messages, this, page, unbalanc. For extinctions that occurred during the Holocene see Holocene extinction This article has multiple issues Please help improve it or discuss these issues on the talk page Learn how and when to remove these template messages This page may be unbalanced towards certain viewpoints Please improve the article by adding information on neglected viewpoints or discuss the issue on the talk page January 2023 This article may contain excessive or irrelevant examples Please help improve the article by adding descriptive text and removing less pertinent examples March 2023 This article needs attention from an expert in Palaeontology See the talk page for details WikiProject Palaeontology may be able to help recruit an expert March 2023 Learn how and when to remove this template message The latter half of the Late Pleistocene to the beginning of the Holocene 50 000 10 000 years Before Present 1 saw extinctions of numerous predominantly megafaunal large animal species the Pleistocene megafauna which resulted in a collapse in faunal density and diversity across the globe The extinctions during the Late Pleistocene are differentiated from previous extinctions by the widespread absence of ecological succession to replace these extinct megafaunal species 2 and the regime shift of previously established faunal relationships and habitats as a consequence The timing and severity of the extinctions varied by region and are thought to have been driven by varying combinations of human and climatic factors 2 Human impact on megafauna populations is thought to have been driven by hunting overkill as well as possibly environmental alteration 3 4 5 The relative importance of human vs climatic factors in the extinctions has been the subject of long running controversy 2 Late Pleistocene landscape of northern Spain by Mauricio Anton From left to right wild horse Equus ferus woolly mammoth Mammuthus primigenius reindeer Rangifer tarandus the cave or steppe lion Panthera spelaea and the woolly rhinoceros Coelodonta antiquitatis Mural of La Brea Tar Pits by Charles R Knight including sabertooth cats Smilodon fatalis left ground sloths Paramylodon harlani right and Columbian mammoths Mammuthus columbi background Major extinctions occurred in Australia New Guinea Sahul beginning approximately 50 000 years ago and in the Americas about 13 000 years ago coinciding in time with the early human migrations into these regions 6 7 8 Extinctions in northern Eurasia were staggered over tens of thousands of years between 50 000 and 10 000 years ago 1 while extinctions in the Americas were virtually simultaneous spanning only 3000 years at most 3 9 Overall during Late Pleistocene about 65 of all megafaunal species worldwide became extinct 10 rising to 72 in North America 83 in South America and 88 in Australia with Africa South Asia and Southeast Asia having much lower extinctions than other regions 11 Contents 1 Extinctions by biogeographic realm 1 1 Summary 1 2 Introduction 1 3 Africa 1 4 South Asia Southeast Asia and East Asia 1 5 Europe and northern Asia 1 6 North America 1 7 South America 1 8 The Pacific Australasia and Oceania 2 Relationship to later extinctions 3 Hunting hypothesis 3 1 Overkill hypothesis 3 2 Objections to the hunting hypothesis 4 Climate change hypothesis 4 1 Increased temperature 4 2 Arguments against the temperature hypothesis 4 3 Increased continentality affects vegetation in time or space 4 3 1 Vegetation changes geographic 4 3 2 Rainfall changes time 4 4 Arguments against the continentality hypotheses 5 Arguments against both climate change and overkill 6 Hyperdisease hypothesis 6 1 Theory 6 2 Arguments against the hyperdisease hypothesis 7 Second order predation hypothesis 7 1 Scenario 7 2 Support 7 3 Arguments against the second order predation hypothesis 7 4 Arguments against the second order predation plus climate hypothesis 8 See also 9 References 10 External links 10 1 Hyperdisease hypothesis 10 2 Second order predation 10 3 Other linksExtinctions by biogeographic realm editSummary edit Extinctions range of the continental large and medium sized mammals from 40 000 to 4 000 years BP in different biogeographic realms 12 Biogeographic realm Giants over 1 000 kg Very large 400 1 000 kg Large 150 400 kg Moderately large 50 150 kg Medium 10 50 kg Total Regions includedStart Loss Start Loss Start Loss Start Loss Start Loss Start Loss Afrotropic 6 1 16 6 4 1 25 25 3 12 32 0 0 69 2 2 9 136 7 5 1 Trans Saharan Africa and ArabiaIndomalaya 5 2 40 6 1 16 7 10 1 10 20 3 15 56 1 1 8 97 8 8 2 Indian subcontinent Southeast Asia and southern ChinaPalearctic 8 8 100 10 5 50 14 5 35 7 23 3 15 41 1 2 4 96 22 22 9 Eurasia and North AfricaNearctic 5 5 100 10 8 80 26 22 84 6 20 13 65 25 9 36 86 57 66 North AmericaNeotropic 9 9 100 12 12 100 17 14 82 20 11 55 35 5 14 3 93 51 54 South America Central America and the CaribbeanAustralasia 4 4 100 5 5 100 6 6 100 16 13 81 2 25 10 40 56 38 67 Australia New Guinea New Zealand and neighbouring islands Global 33 26 78 8 46 31 67 4 86 47 54 7 113 41 36 3 215 23 10 1 493 168 34 Introduction edit nbsp The proportion of extinct large mammal species more than or equal to 10 kg in each country during the last 132 000 years only counting extinctions earlier than 1000 years BP jpgThe Late Pleistocene saw the extinction of many mammals weighing more than 40 kilograms 88 lb The proportion of megafauna extinctions is progressively larger the further the human migratory distance from Africa with the highest extinction rates in Australia and North and South America The increased extent of extinction mirrors the migration pattern of modern humans the further away from Africa the more recently humans inhabited the area the less time those environments including its megafauna had to become accustomed to humans and vice versa There are two main hypotheses to explain this extinction Climate change associated with the advance and retreat of major ice caps or ice sheets causing reduction in favorable habitat Human hunting causing attrition of megafauna populations commonly known as overkill 13 There are some inconsistencies between the current available data and the prehistoric overkill hypothesis For instance there are ambiguities around the timing of Australian megafauna extinctions 13 Evidence supporting the prehistoric overkill hypothesis includes the persistence of megafauna on some islands for millennia past the disappearance of their continental cousins For instance ground sloths survived on the Antilles long after North and South American ground sloths were extinct woolly mammoths died out on remote Wrangel Island 6 000 years after their extinction on the mainland while Steller s sea cows persisted off the isolated and uninhabited Commander Islands for thousands of years after they had vanished from the continental shores of the north Pacific 14 The later disappearance of these island species correlates with the later colonization of these islands by humans The original debates as to whether human arrival times or climate change constituted the primary cause of megafaunal extinctions necessarily were based on paleontological evidence coupled with geological dating techniques Recently genetic analyses of surviving megafaunal populations have contributed new evidence leading to the conclusion The inability of climate to predict the observed population decline of megafauna especially during the past 75 000 years implies that human impact became the main driver of megafauna dynamics around this date 15 An alternative hypothesis to the theory of human responsibility is climate change associated with the last glacial period Discredited explanations include the Younger Dryas impact hypothesis 16 and Tollmann s hypothesis that extinctions resulted from bolide impacts Recent research indicates that each species responded differently to environmental changes and no one factor by itself explains the large variety of extinctions The causes may involve the interplay of climate change competition between species unstable population dynamics and human predation 17 Africa edit Although Africa was one of the least affected regions the region still suffered extinctions particularly around the Late Pleistocene Holocene transition These extinctions were likely predominantly climatically driven by changes to grassland habitats 18 Ungulates Even Toed Ungulates Suidae swine Metridiochoerus Kolpochoerus Bovidae bovines antelope Giant buffalo Syncerus antiquus Megalotragus Rusingoryx Antidorcas australis Antidorcas bondi Damaliscus hypsodon Damaliscus niro Gazella atlantica Gazella tingitana Caprinae Makapania Odd toed Ungulates Rhinoceros Rhinocerotidae Stephanorhinus hemitoechus North Africa Wild Equus spp Caballine horses Equus algericus North Africa Subgenus Asinus asses Equus melkiensis North Africa Zebras Equus capensis Saharan zebra 19 Equus mauritanicus Proboscidea Elephantidae elephants Palaeoloxodon iolensis other authors suggest that this taxon went extinct at the end of the Middle Pleistocene South Asia Southeast Asia and East Asia edit nbsp Giant tapir Tapirus augustus restoration nbsp Life sized models of Stegodon nbsp Palaeoloxodon namadicus fossil at Indian Museum Kolkata India nbsp Fossil jaw Xiahe mandible of a denisovanThe timing of extinctions on the Indian subcontinent is uncertain due to a lack of reliable dating 20 Similar issues have been reported for Chinese sites though there is no evidence for any of the megafaunal taxa having survived into the Holocene in that region 21 Extinctions in Southeast Asia and South China have been proposed to be the result of environmental shift from open to closed forested habitats 22 Ungulates Even Toed Ungulates Several Bovidae spp Bos palaesondaicus ancestor to the banteng Bison hanaizumiensis 23 24 25 Cebu tamaraw Bubalus cebuensis Bubalus grovesi 26 Bubalus wansijocki Short horned water buffalo Bubalus mephistopheles Cervidae Sinomegaceros spp including Sinomegaceros yabei in Japan and Sinomegaceros ordosianus in China 27 Hippopotamidae Hexaprotodon Indian subcontinent 28 Odd toed Ungulates Equus spp Equus namadicus Indian subcontinent Yunnan horse Equus yunanensis Giant tapir Tapirus augustus Southeast Asia and Southern China Merck s rhinoceros Stephanorhinus kirchbergensis Eastern Asia Pholidota Giant Asian pangolin Manis palaeojavanica Carnivora Caniformia Arctoidea Bears Ailuropoda baconi ancestor to the giant panda Afrotheria Afroinsectiphilia Orycteropodidae Tubulidentata Aardvark Orycteropus afer extirpated in South Asia circa 13 000 BCE 29 30 Paenungulata Tethytheria Proboscideans Stegodontidae Stegodon spp including Stegodon florensis on Flores Stegodon orientalis in East and Southeast Asia and Stegodon sp in the Indian subcontinent Palaeoloxodon spp Palaeoloxodon namadicus Indian subcontinent possibly also Southeast Asia Naumann s elephant Japan Palaeoloxodon huaihoensis China Birds Japanese flightless duck Shiriyanetta hasegawai 31 Leptoptilos robustus Reptiles crocodilia Alligator munensis Primates Several simian Simiiformes spp Pongo orangutans Pongo weidenreichi South China Various Homo spp archaic humans Homo erectus Java Homo floresiensis Flores Homo luzonensis Luzon Philippines Denisovans Homo sp Europe and northern Asia edit nbsp Saiga antelope Saiga spp inhabited a range from England and France to Yukon in the Late Pleistocene diversifying into two species S borealis is now extinct and the critically endangered S tatarica is now limited to the steppe in Kazakhstan and Mongolia nbsp Hippopotamuses Hippopotamus spp inhabited Great Britain until 80 000 BCE whence due to glacial shifts hippopotamuses were restricted to southeastern Europe Mediterranean islands and finally western Asia until 1 000 BCE nbsp Reconstruction of the five phenotypes of Pleistocene wild horse The coat colours and dimensions are based on genetic evidence and historic descriptions nbsp Elasmotherium sibiricum reconstruction nbsp Cave paintings of the wooly rhinoceros Coelodonta antiquitatis in Chauvet Pont d Arc Cave France nbsp The Gallery of Lions representations of the Eurasian cave lion in Chauvet Pont d Arc Cave France nbsp The leopard Panthera pardus inhabited the entire expanse of Afro Eurasia below the 54th parallel north from modern day Spain and the UK in the west to South Africa in the south and Siberia Japan and Sundaland in the east during the Late Pleistocene nbsp Cave bear Ursus spelaeus reconstruction nbsp The woolly mammoth became extinct around 10 000 BCE except for diminutive relict populations on St Paul Island and Wrangel Island which humans did not colonise until 3 600 BCE and 2 000 BCE respectively nbsp Model of the European straight tusked elephant Paleoloxodon antiquus The Palearctic realm spans the entirety of the European continent and stretches into northern Asia through the Caucasus and central Asia to northern China Siberia and Beringia Extinctions were more severe in Northern Eurasia than in Africa or South and Southeast Asia These extinctions were staggered over tens of thousands of years spanning from around 50 000 years Before Present BP to around 10 000 years BP with temperate adapted species like the straight tusked elephant and the narrow nosed rhinoceros generally going extinct earlier than cold adapted species like the woolly mammoth and woolly rhinoceros Climate change has been considered a probable major factor in the extinctions possibly in combination with human hunting 1 See also List of extinct animals of Europe Ungulates Even Toed Hoofed Mammals Various Bovidae spp Steppe bison Bison priscus Baikal yak Bos baikalensis 32 European water buffalo Bubalus murrensis European tahr Hemitragus cedrensis 33 34 Giant muskox Praeovibos priscus 35 Northern saiga antelope Saiga borealis 36 Twisted horned antelope Spirocerus kiakhtensis 37 38 Goat horned antelope Parabubalis capricornis 37 38 Various deer Cervidae spp Broad fronted moose Cervalces latifrons Giant deer Megaloceros giganteus Praemegaceros savini Cretan deer Candiacervus Haploidoceros mediterraneus 39 40 All native Hippopotamus spp 41 Hippopotamus amphibius European range Maltese dwarf hippopotamus Hippopotamus melitensis Cyprus dwarf hippopotamus Hippopotamus minor Sicilian dwarf hippopotamus Hippopotamus pentlandi Camelus knoblochi 42 and other Camelus spp Odd Toed Hoofed Mammals Various Equus spp e g Wild horse Equus ferus ssp Equus cf gallicus 43 44 European wild ass Equus hydruntinus Equus cf latipes 38 43 45 Equus lenensis 38 46 Equus cf uralensis 43 All native Rhinoceros Rhinocerotidae spp Elasmotherium Woolly rhinoceros Coelodonta antiquitatis Stephanorhinus spp Merck s rhinoceros Stephanorhinus kirchbergensis Narrow nosed rhinoceros Stephanorhinus hemiotoechus Carnivora Caniformia Canidae Caninae Wolves Cave wolf Canis lupus spelaeus Dire wolf Aenocyon dirus 47 Dholes European dhole Cuon alpinus europaeus Sardinian dhole Cynotherium sardous Arctoidea Various Ursus spp Steppe brown bear Ursus arctos priscus 48 Gamssulzen cave bear Ursus ingressus 49 Pleistocene small cave bear Ursus rossicus Cave bear Ursus spelaeus Giant polar bear Ursus maritimus tyrannus Musteloidea Mustelidae Several otter Lutrinae spp Robust Pleistocene European otter Cyrnaonyx Algarolutra Sardinian giant otter Megalenhydris barbaricina Sardinian dwarf otter Sardolutra Cretan otter Lutrogale cretensis Feliformia Various Felidae spp Eurasian scimitar cat Homotherium latidens Cave lynx Lynx pardinus spelaeus 50 Issoire lynx Lynx issiodorensis Panthera spp Cave lion Panthera spelaea European ice age leopard Panthera pardus spelaea Herpestoidea Cave hyena Crocuta crocuta spelaea hyaena prisca All native Elephant Elephantidae spp Mammoths Woolly mammoth Mammuthus primigenius Dwarf Sardinian mammoth Mammuthus lamarmorai Straight tusked elephant Palaeoloxodon antiquus Europe Dwarf elephant Palaeoloxodon creutzburgi Crete Cyprus dwarf elephant Palaeoloxodon cypriotes Palaeoloxodon mnaidriensis Sicily Rodents Giant Eurasian porcupine Hystrix refossa Leithia spp Maltese and Sicilian giant dormouse 51 Lagomorpha Pika Ochotona spp e g Giant pika Ochotona whartoni Eurasian giant beavers Trogontherium cuiveri Birds Asian ostrich Struthio asiaticus Giant swan Cygnus falconeri Yakutian goose Anser djuktaiensis Various European crane spp Genus Grus Grus primigenia Grus melitensis Cretan owl Athene cretensis Primates Homo Denisovans Homo sp Neanderthals Homo sapiens neanderthalensis survived until about 40 000 years ago on the Iberian peninsula Barbary macaque Macaca sylvanus European range North America edit See also List of North American animals extinct in the HoloceneExtinctions in North America were concentrated at the end of the Late Pleistocene around 13 800 11 400 years Before Present which were coincident with the onset of the Younger Dryas cooling period as well as the emergence of the hunter gatherer Clovis culture The relative importance of human and climactic factors in the North American extinctions has been the subject of significant controversy Extinctions totalled around 35 genera 3 The radiocarbon record for North America south of the Alaska Yukon region has been described as inadequate to construct a reliable chronology 52 nbsp Long horned Giant bison Bos latifrons fossil bison skeleton public display Cincinnati Museum of Natural History amp Science Cincinnati Ohio United States nbsp Mounted skeleton of a shrub ox Euceratherium collinum nbsp Life restoration of Cervalces scotti nbsp Tetrameryx shuleri restoration nbsp A Chacoan peccary Catagonus wagneri believed to be the closest surviving relative of the extinct Platygonus nbsp Western camel Camelops hesternus reconstruction nbsp Life restoration of the Yukon horse Equus lambei nbsp Reconstruction of Mixotoxodon larenis a toxodontid notoungulate nbsp Saber toothed cat Smilodon fatalis reconstruction nbsp Scimitar cat Homotherium serum reconstruction nbsp American lion Panthera atrox reconstruction nbsp The dhole Cuon alpinus now restricted to the southern portions of Asia was present from Iberia to Mexico during the Late Pleistocene nbsp Giant short faced bear Arctodus simus reconstruction nbsp American mastodon Mammut americanum reconstruction nbsp Columbian mammoth Mammuthus columbi reconstruction nbsp Giant beaver Castoroides ohioensis skeleton displayed at the Field Museum of Natural History Chicago Illinois United States nbsp Skull of Paralouatta marianae one of the two Cuban members of the extinct Antilles monkeys Xenotrichini nbsp Eremotherium laurillardi skeleton displayed at the Houston Museum of Natural Science nbsp Life restoration of Nothrotheriops texanus nbsp Glyptotherium reconstruction nbsp Californian turkey Meleagris californica and megafaunal Californian condor Gymnogyps amplus fossil displays at La Brea Tar Pits nbsp Teratornis merriami skeleton from the La Brea Tar Pits in flight pose nbsp Reconstruction of the Cuban giant owl Ornimegalonyx oteroi of Pleistocene Cuba with the carcass of a large solenodonNorth American extinctions noted as herbivores H or carnivores C included Ungulates Even Toed Hoofed Mammals Various Bovidae spp Most forms of Pleistocene bison only Bison bison in North America and Bison bonasus in Eurasia survived Ancient bison Bison antiquus H Long horned Giant bison Bison latifrons H Steppe bison Bison priscus H Bison occidentalis H Several members of Caprinae the muskox survived Giant muskox Praeovibos priscus H Shrub ox Euceratherium collinum H Harlan s muskox Bootherium bombifrons H Soergel s ox Soergelia mayfieldi H Harrington s mountain goat Oreamnos harringtoni smaller and more southern distribution than its surviving relative H Saiga antelope Saiga tatarica extirpated H Deer Stag moose Cervalces scotti H American mountain deer Odocoileus lucasi H Torontoceros hypnogeos H Various Antilocapridae genera pronghorns survived Capromeryx H Stockoceros H Tetrameryx H Pacific pronghorn Antilocapra pacifica H Several peccary Tayassuidae spp Flat headed peccary Platygonus H Long nosed peccary Mylohyus H Collared peccary Dicotyles tajacu extirpated range semi recolonised H Muknalia minimus is a junior synonym Various members of Camelidae Western camel Camelops hesternus H Stilt legged llamas Hemiauchenia ssp H Stout legged llamas Palaeolama ssp H Odd Toed Hoofed Mammals All native forms of Equidae Caballine true horses Equus cf ferus has historically been assigned to many different species but the taxonomy of these horses is unclear and many of these species are likely invalid 53 Stilt legged horse Haringtonhippus francisci Equus francisci H Tapirs Tapirus three species California tapir Tapirus californicus H Merriam s tapir Tapirus merriami H Vero tapir Tapirus veroensis H Order Notoungulata Mixotoxodon 54 55 H Carnivora Feliformia Several Felidae spp Saber Tooths North American saber toothed cat Smilodon fatalis C North American scimitar cat Homotherium serum C American cheetah Miracinonyx not true cheetah Miracinonyx trumani C Cougar Puma concolor megafaunal ecomorph extirpated from North America South American populations recolonised former range C Jaguarundi Herpailurus yagouaroundi extirpated range semi recolonised C Margay Leopardus weidii extirpated C Ocelot Leopardus pardalis extirpated range marginally recolonised C Eurasian lynx Lynx lynx extirpated 56 C Jaguars Pleistocene North American jaguar Panthera onca augusta range semi recolonised by other subspecies C North America Jaguar Panthera balamoides dubious suggested to be a junior synonym of the short faced bear Arctotherium Lions American lion Panthera atrox endemic to North America after 340 000 BP C Cave steppe lion Panthera spelaea present only as far as modern day Yukon C Caniformia Canidae Dire wolf Aenocyon dirus C Pleistocene coyote Canis latrans orcutti C Megafaunal wolf e g Beringian wolf Canis lupus ssp C Dhole Cuon alpinus extirpated C Protocyon troglodytes 57 C Arctoidea Musteloidea Mephitidae Short faced skunk Brachyprotoma obtusata 58 C Mustelidae Steppe polecat Mustela eversmanii extirpated 59 C Various bear Ursidae spp Arctodus simus C Florida spectacled bear Tremarctos floridanus C South American short faced bear Arctotherium wingei 60 57 C Giant polar bear Ursus maritimus tyrannus a possible inhabitant C Afrotheria Afroinsectiphilia Orycteropodidae Tubulidentata Giant anteater Myrmecophaga tridactyla extirpated range partially recolonised 61 62 C Paenungulata Tethytheria All native spp of Proboscidea Mastodons American mastodon Mammut americanum H Pacific mastodon Mammut pacificus H validity uncertain Gomphotheriidae spp Cuvieronius 63 H Stegomastodon 64 H Mammoth Mammuthus spp Columbian mammoth Mammuthus columbi H Pygmy mammoth Mammuthus exilis H Woolly mammoth Mammuthus primigenius H Sirenia Dugongidae Steller s sea cow Hydrodamalis gigas extirpated from North America survived in Beringia into 18th century H Euarchontoglires Bats Stock s vampire bat Desmodus stocki C Pristine mustached bat Pteronotus Phyllodia pristinus C Rodents Giant beaver Castoroides spp Castoroides ohioensis H Castoroides leiseyorum H Klein s porcupine Erethizon kleini 65 H Giant island deer mouse Peromyscus nesodytes C Neochoerus spp e g Pinckney s capybara Neochoerus pinckneyi H Neochoerus aesopi H All giant hutia Heptaxodontidae spp Blunt toothed giant hutia Amblyrhiza inundata could grow as large as an American black bear H Plate toothed giant hutia Elasmodontomys obliquus H Twisted toothed mouse Quemisia gravis H Osborn s key mouse Clidomys osborn s H Xaymaca fulvopulvis H Lagomorphs Aztlan rabbit Aztlanolagus sp H Giant pika Ochotona whartoni H Xenarthrana All remaining ground sloth spp Eremotherium megatheriid giant ground sloth H Nothrotheriops nothrotheriid ground sloth H Megalonychid ground sloth spp Megalonyx H Nohochichak 66 67 H Xibalbaonyx 68 69 H Meizonyx Mylodontid ground sloth spp Paramylodon H All members of Glyptodontidae Glyptotherium 70 H H Beautiful armadillo Dasypus bellus 71 H Pachyarmatherium All Pampatheriidae spp Holmesina H Pampatherium H Birds Water Fowl Ducks Bermuda flightless duck Anas pachyscelus H Californian flightless sea duck Chendytes lawi C Mexican stiff tailed duck Oxyura zapatima 60 H Turkey Meleagris spp Californian turkey Meleagris californica H Meleagris crassipes 60 H Various Gruiformes spp All cave rail Nesotrochis spp e g Antillean cave rail Nesotrochis debooyi C Barbados rail Incertae sedis C Cuban flightless crane Antigone cubensis H La Brea crane Grus pagei H Various flamingo Phoenicopteridae spp Minute flamingo Phoenicopterus minutus 72 C Cope s flamingo Phoenicopterus copei 73 C Dow s puffin Fratercula dowi C Pleistocene Mexican diver spp Plyolimbus baryosteus C Podiceps spp Podiceps parvus 60 C Storks La Brea Asphalt stork Ciconia maltha 60 C Wetmore s stork Mycteria wetmorei 60 C Pleistocene Mexican cormorants spp genus Phalacrocorax 60 Phalacrocorax goletensis C Phalacrocorax chapalensis C All remaining teratorn Teratornithidae spp Aiolornis incredibilis C Cathartornis gracilis C Oscaravis olsoni C Teratornis merriami C Teratornis woodburnensis C Several New World vultures Cathartidae spp Pleistocene black vulture Coragyps occidentalis ssp C Megafaunal Californian condor Gymnogyps amplus C Clark s condor Breagyps clarki C Cuban condor Gymnogyps varonai C Several Accipitridae spp American neophrone vulture Neophrontops americanus 60 74 C Woodward s eagle Amplibuteo woodwardi C Cuban great hawk Buteogallus borrasi C Daggett s eagle Buteogallus daggetti C Fragile eagle Buteogallus fragilis C Cuban giant hawk Gigantohierax suarezi 75 76 C Errant eagle Neogyps errans C Grinnell s crested eagle Spizaetus grinnelli 60 C Willett s hawk eagle Spizaetus willetti 60 C Caribbean titan hawk Titanohierax C Several owl Strigiformes spp Brea miniature owl Asphaltoglaux C Kurochkin s pygmy owl Glaucidium kurochkini C Brea owl Oraristix brea C Cuban giant owl Ornimegalonyx C Bermuda flicker Colaptes oceanicus C Several caracara Caracarinae spp Bahaman terrestrial caracara Caracara sp C Puerto Rican terrestrial caracara Caracara sp C Jamaican caracara Carcara tellustris C Cuban caracara Milvago sp C Hispaniolan caracara Milvago sp C Psittacopasserae Psittaciformes Mexican thick billed parrot Rhynchopsitta phillipsi 60 H Several giant tortoise spp Hesperotestudo H Gopherus spp Gopherus donlaloi H Chelonoidis spp Chelonoidis marcanoi H Chelonoidis alburyorum H The survivors are in some ways as significant as the losses bison H grey wolf C lynx C grizzly bear C American black bear C deer e g caribou moose wapiti elk Odocoileus spp H pronghorn H white lipped peccary H muskox H bighorn sheep H and mountain goat H the list of survivors also include species which were extirpated during the Quaternary extinction event but recolonised at least part of their ranges during the mid Holocene from South American relict populations such as the cougar C jaguar C giant anteater C collared peccary H ocelot C and jaguarundi C All save the pronghorns and giant anteaters were descended from Asian ancestors that had evolved with human predators 77 Pronghorns are the second fastest land mammal after the cheetah which may have helped them elude hunters More difficult to explain in the context of overkill is the survival of bison since these animals first appeared in North America less than 240 000 years ago and so were geographically removed from human predators for a sizeable period of time 78 79 80 Because ancient bison evolved into living bison 81 82 there was no continent wide extinction of bison at the end of the Pleistocene although the genus was regionally extirpated in many areas The survival of bison into the Holocene and recent times is therefore inconsistent with the overkill scenario By the end of the Pleistocene when humans first entered North America these large animals had been geographically separated from intensive human hunting for more than 200 000 years Given this enormous span of geologic time bison would almost certainly have been very nearly as naive as native North American large mammals The culture that has been connected with the wave of extinctions in North America is the paleo American culture associated with the Clovis people q v who were thought to use spear throwers to kill large animals The chief criticism of the prehistoric overkill hypothesis has been that the human population at the time was too small and or not sufficiently widespread geographically to have been capable of such ecologically significant impacts This criticism does not mean that climate change scenarios explaining the extinction are automatically to be preferred by default however any more than weaknesses in climate change arguments can be taken as supporting overkill Some form of a combination of both factors could be plausible and overkill would be a lot easier to achieve large scale extinction with an already stressed population due to climate change South America edit nbsp Fossil of Hippidion a genus of horse native to South America nbsp Reconstruction of the mother and calf of Macrauchenia a member of the extinct order Litopterna nbsp Skeleton of Toxodon a member of the extinct order Notoungulata nbsp Reconstruction of the Dire wolf Aenocyon dirus nbsp Life restoration of Arctotherium bonariense nbsp Reconstruction of the gomphothere Cuvieronius nbsp Skeleton of the giant ground sloth Megatherium nbsp Reconstruction of the glytodont Doedicurus clavicaudatus distributed in the temperate savannah and woodland of South America nbsp Fossil reconstruction of Panochthus frenzelianus with metal model See also List of South American animals extinct in the Holocene South America suffered among the worst losses of the continents with around 83 of its megafauna going extinct 11 Extinctions are thought to have occurred in the interval 13 000 10 000 years Before Present coincident with the end of the Antarctic Cold Reversal a cooling period earlier and less severe than the Northern Hemisphere Younger Dryas and the emergence of Fishtail projectile points which became widespread across South America Fishtail projectile points are thought to have been used in big game hunting though direct evidence of exploitation of extinct megafauna by humans is rare Fishtail points rapidly disappeared after the extinction of the megafauna and were replaced by other styles more suited to hunting smaller prey Humans have traditionally been less cited as a causal factor in the extinctions than in North America though some recent scholarship is beginning to challenge this 83 Ungulates Even Toed Hoofed Mammals Several Cervidae spp Morenelaphus Antifer Agalmaceros blicki 84 85 Odocoileus salinae 86 87 Various Camelidae spp Eulamaops Stilt legged llama Hemiauchenia Stout legged llama Palaeolama Odd Toed Hoofed Mammals Several species of tapirs Tapiridae Tapirus rondoniensis Tapirus cristatellus All Pleistocene wild horse genera Equidae Equus neogeus 88 89 37 Hippidion 88 37 90 Hippidion devillei Hippidion principale Hippidion saldiasi All remaining Meridiungulata genera Order Litopterna Macraucheniidae Macrauchenia Macraucheniopsis 91 92 Xenorhinotherium Proterotheriidae Neolicaphrium recens 93 Order Notoungulata Toxodontidae Piauhytherium Some authors regard this taxon as synonym of Trigodonops Mixotoxodon Toxodon Trigodonops Carnivora Feliformia Several Felidae spp Saber toothed cat Smilodon spp 94 North American saber toothed cat Smilodon fatalis South American saber toothed cat Smilodon populator Patagonian jaguar Panthera onca mesembrina some authors have suggested that these remains actually belong to the American lion instead 95 Caniformia Canidae Dire wolf Aenocyon dirus Nehring s wolf Canis nehringi Protocyon spp 96 Protocyon trogolodytes Protocyon tarijense Dusicyon avus Pleistocene bush dog Speothos pacivorus Arctoidea South American short faced bear Arctotherium spp Arctotherium bonairense Arctotherium tarijense Arctotherium wingei Rodents Giant vampire bat Desmodus draculae Neochoerus All remaining Gomphotheridae spp Cuvieronius Notiomastodon Xenarthrans All remaining ground sloth genera Megatheriidae spp Eremotherium Megatherium Nothrotheriidae spp Nothropus Nothrotherium Megalonychidae spp Ahytherium Australonyx Diabolotherium Megistonyx Valgipes 97 Mylodontidae spp Catonyx Glossotherium Lestodon Mylodon Scelidotherium Scelidodon Mylodonopsis Ocnotherium All remaining Glyptodontinae spp Doedicurus 98 99 100 101 Glyptodon Chlamydotherium 102 Heteroglyptodon 103 Hoplophorus Lomaphorus Neosclerocalyptus Neuryurus 102 104 Panochthus Parapanochthus 102 105 Plaxhaplous Sclerocalyptus Several Dasypodidae spp Beautiful armadillo Dasypus bellus Eutatus Pachyarmatherium Propaopus 41 87 All Pampatheriidae spp Holmesina et Chlamytherium occidentale 106 107 Pampatherium 108 Tonnicinctus 108 Birds Psilopterus small terror bird remains dated to the Late Pleistocene 109 110 but these are disputed 111 Various Caracarinae spp Venezuelan caracara Caracara major 112 Seymour s caracara Caracara seymouri 113 Peruvian caracara Milvago brodkorbi 114 Various Cathartidae spp Pampagyps imperator Geronogyps reliquus Wingegyps cartellei Pleistovultur nevesi Crocs amp Gators Caiman venezuelensis Chelonoidis lutzae Argentina The Pacific Australasia and Oceania edit See also List of Australia New Guinea species extinct in the Holocene List of New Zealand species extinct in the Holocene and List of Oceanian animals extinct in the Holocene nbsp Reconstruction of a hippopotamus sized Diprotodon nbsp Some of the marsupial lions were the largest mammalian predators in Australia of their time nbsp Reconstruction of ZygomaturusA scarcity of reliably dated megafaunal bone deposits has made it difficult to construct timelines for megafaunal extinctions in certain areas leading to a divide among researches about when and how megafaunal species went extinct 115 116 There are at least three hypotheses regarding the extinction of the Australian megafauna that they went extinct with the arrival of the Aboriginal Australians on the continent that they went extinct due to natural climate change This theory is based on evidence of megafauna surviving until 40 000 years ago a full 30 000 years after homo sapiens first landed in Australia and thus that the two groups coexisted for a long time Evidence of these animals existing at that time come from fossil records and ocean sediment To begin with sediment core drilled in the Indian Ocean off the SW coast of Australia indicate the existence of a fungus called Sporormiella which survived off the dung of plant eating mammals The abundance of these spores in the sediment prior to 45 000 years ago indicates that many large mammals existed in the southwest Australian landscape until that point The sediment data also indicates that the megafauna population collapsed within a few thousand years around the 45 000 years ago suggesting a rapid extinction event 117 In addition fossils found at South Walker Creek which is the youngest megafauna site in northern Australia indicate that at least 16 species of megafauna survived there until 40 000 years ago Furthermore there is no firm evidence of homo sapiens living at South Walker Creek 40 000 years ago therefore no human cause can be attributed to the extinction of these megafauna However there is evidence of major environmental deterioration of South Water Creek 40 000 years ago which may have caused the extinct event These changes include increased fire reduction in grasslands and the loss of fresh water 118 The same environmental deterioration is seen across Australia at the time further strengthening the climate change argument Australia s climate at the time could best be described as an overall drying of the landscape due to lower precipitation resulting in less fresh water availability and more drought conditions Overall this led to changes in vegetation increased fires overall reduction in grasslands and a greater competition for already scarce fresh water 119 These environmental changes proved to be too much for the Australian megafauna to cope with causing the extinction of 90 of megafauna species The third hypothesis shared by some scientists is that human impacts and natural climate changes led to the extinction of Australian megafauna About 75 of Australia is semi arid or arid so it makes sense that megafauna species used the same fresh water resources as humans This competition could have led to more hunting of megafauna 120 Furthermore homo sapiens used fire agriculture clarification needed to burn impassable clarification needed land This further diminished the already disappearing grassland which contained plants that were a key dietary component of herbivorous megafauna While there is no scientific consensus on this it is plausible that homo sapiens and natural climate change had a combined impact Overall there is a great deal of evidence for humans being the culprit but by ruling out climate change completely as a cause of the Australian megafauna extinction we are not getting the whole picture The climate change in Australia 45 000 years ago destabilized the ecosystem making it particularly vulnerable to hunting and fire agriculture by humans this is probably what led to the extinction of the Australian megafauna Several studies provide evidence that climate change caused megafaunal extinction during the Pleistocene in Australia One group of researchers analyzed fossilized teeth found at Cuddie Springs in southeastern Australia By analyzing oxygen isotopes they measured aridity and by analyzing carbon isotopes and dental microwear texture analysis they assessed megafaunal diets and vegetation During the middle Pleistocene southeastern Australia was dominated by browsers including fauna that consumed C4 plants By the late Pleistocene the C4 plant dietary component had decreased considerably This shift may have been caused by increasingly arid conditions which may have caused dietary restrictions Other isotopic analyses of eggshells and wombat teeth also point to a decline of C4 vegetation after 45 Ka This decline in C4 vegetation is coincident with increasing aridity Increasingly arid conditions in southeastern Australia during the late Pleistocene may have stressed megafauna and contributed to their decline 121 nbsp Procoptodon goliath reconstruction nbsp The American flamingo Phoenicopterus ruber was one of four species of flamingo present in Australia in the Quaternary all of which are now either extinct or extirpated Australia is now the only inhabited continent in the world without flamingoes nbsp Megalania skeleton Melbourne MuseumIn Sahul a former continent composed of Australia and New Guinea the sudden and extensive spate of extinctions occurred earlier than in the rest of the world 122 123 124 125 126 Most evidence points to a 20 000 year period after human arrival circa 63 000 BCE 127 but scientific argument continues as to the exact date range 128 In the rest of the Pacific other Australasian islands such as New Caledonia and Oceania although in some respects far later endemic fauna also usually perished quickly upon the arrival of humans in the late Pleistocene and early Holocene Marsupials Various members of Diprotodontidae Diprotodon Hulitherium tomasetti Maokopia ronaldi Zygomaturus Palorchestes marsupial tapir Various members of Vombatidae Lasiorhinus angustidens giant wombat Phascolonus giant wombat Ramasayia magna giant wombat Vombatus hacketti Hackett s wombat Warendja wakefieldi dwarf wombat Sedophascolomys giant wombat Phascolarctos stirtoni giant koala Marsupial lion Thylacoleo carnifex Various members of Macropodidae Procoptodon short faced kangaroos e g Procoptodon goliah Sthenurus giant kangaroo Simosthenurus giant kangaroo Various Macropus giant kangaroo spp e g Macropus ferragus Macropus titan Macropus pearsoni Protemnodon giant wallaby Troposodon wallaby 123 124 129 130 131 132 Bohra giant tree kangaroo Propleopus oscillans omnivorous giant musky rat kangaroo Nombe Congruus Various forms of Sarcophilus Tasmanian devil Sarcophilus laniarius 25 larger than modern species unclear if it is actually a distinct species from living Tasmanian devil 133 Sarcophilus moornaensis Monotremes egg laying mammals Echidna Murrayglossus hacketti giant echidna Megalibgwilia ramsayi Birds Pygmy Cassowary Casuarius lydekkeri Genyornis a two meter tall 6 6 ft dromornithid Giant malleefowl Progura gallinacea Cryptogyps lacertosus Dynatoaetus gaffae Several Phoenicopteridae spp Xenorhynchopsis spp Australian flamingo 134 Xenorhynchopsis minor Xenorhynchopsis tibialis Reptiles Crocs amp Gators nbsp Quinkana was one of the last surviving land crocodilesIkanogavialis the last fully marine crocodilian Pallimnarchus Australian freshwater mekosuchine crocodiian Quinkana Australian terrestrial mekosuchine crocodilian apex predator Volia a two to three meter long mekosuchine crocodylian apex predator of Pleistocene Fiji Mekosuchus Mekosuchus inexpectatus New Caledonian land crocodile Mekosuchus kalpokasi Vanuatu land crocodile Varanus sp Pleistocene and Holocene New Caledonia Megalania Varanus pricus a giant predatory monitor lizard comparable or larger than the Komodo dragon Snakes Wonambi a five to six metre long Australian constrictor snake Several spp of Meiolaniidae giant armoured turtles Meiolania NinjemysRelationship to later extinctions editMain article Holocene extinction See also Timeline of extinctions in the Holocene There is no general agreement on where the Quaternary extinction event ends and the Holocene or anthropogenic extinction begins or if they should be considered separate events at all 135 136 Some have suggested that anthropogenic extinctions may have begun as early as when the first modern humans spread out of Africa between 100 000 and 200 000 years ago which is supported by rapid megafaunal extinction following recent human colonisation in Australia New Zealand and Madagascar 137 in a similar way that any large adaptable predator moving into a new ecosystem would In many cases it is suggested even minimal hunting pressure was enough to wipe out large fauna particularly on geographically isolated islands 138 139 Only during the most recent parts of the extinction have plants also suffered large losses 140 Overall the Holocene extinction can be characterised by the human impact on the environment The Holocene extinction continues into the 21st century with overfishing ocean acidification and the amphibian crisis being a few broader examples of an almost universal cosmopolitan decline of biodiversity Hunting hypothesis editThe hunting hypothesis suggests that humans hunted megaherbivores to extinction which in turn caused the extinction of carnivores and scavengers which had preyed upon those animals 141 142 143 This hypothesis holds Pleistocene humans responsible for the megafaunal extinction One variant known as blitzkrieg portrays this process as relatively quick Some of the direct evidence for this includes fossils of some megafauna found in conjunction with human remains embedded arrows and tool cut marks found in megafaunal bones and European cave paintings that depict such hunting Biogeographical evidence is also suggestive the areas of the world where humans evolved currently have more of their Pleistocene megafaunal diversity the elephants and rhinos of Asia and Africa compared to other areas such as Australia the Americas Madagascar and New Zealand without the earliest humans nbsp Despeciation within the genus Homo nbsp Known H sapiens migration routes in the Pleistocene Circumstantially the close correlation in time between the appearance of humans in an area and extinction there provides weight for this scenario The megafaunal extinctions covered a vast period of time and highly variable climatic situations The earliest extinctions in Australia were complete approximately 50 000 BP well before the last glacial maximum and before rises in temperature The most recent extinction in New Zealand was complete no earlier than 500 BP and during a period of cooling In between these extremes megafaunal extinctions have occurred progressively in such places as North America South America and Madagascar with no climatic commonality The only common factor that can be ascertained is the arrival of humans 144 145 This phenomenon appears even within regions The mammal extinction wave in Australia about 50 000 years ago coincides not with known climatic changes but with the arrival of humans In addition large mammal species like the giant kangaroo Protemnodon appear to have succumbed sooner on the Australian mainland than on Tasmania which was colonised by humans a few thousand years later 146 147 Extinction through human hunting has been supported by archaeological finds of mammoths with projectile points embedded in their skeletons by observations of modern naive animals allowing hunters to approach easily 148 149 150 and by computer models by Mosimann and Martin 151 and Whittington and Dyke 152 and most recently by Alroy 153 A study published in 2015 supported the hypothesis further by running several thousand scenarios that correlated the time windows in which each species is known to have become extinct with the arrival of humans on different continents or islands 154 This was compared against climate reconstructions for the last 90 000 years 154 The researchers found correlations of human spread and species extinction indicating that the human impact was the main cause of the extinction while climate change exacerbated the frequency of extinctions 154 155 The study however found an apparently low extinction rate in the fossil record of mainland Asia 155 Overkill hypothesis edit nbsp The timing of extinctions follows the March of Man The overkill hypothesis a variant of the hunting hypothesis was proposed in 1966 by Paul S Martin 156 Professor of Geosciences Emeritus at the Desert Laboratory of the University of Arizona 157 Objections to the hunting hypothesis edit The major objections to the theory are as follows There is no archeological evidence that in North America megafauna other than mammoths mastodons gomphotheres and bison were hunted despite the fact that for example camels and horses are very frequently reported in fossil history 158 Overkill proponents however say this is due to the fast extinction process in North America and the low probability of animals with signs of butchery to be preserved 159 A study by Surovell and Grund 160 concluded archaeological sites dating to the time of the coexistence of humans and extinct fauna are rare Those that preserve bone are considerably more rare and of those only a very few show unambiguous evidence of human hunting of any type of prey whatsoever Eugene S Hunn points out that the birthrate in hunter gatherer societies is generally too low that too much effort is involved in the bringing down of a large animal by a hunting party and that in order for hunter gatherers to have brought about the extinction of megafauna simply by hunting them to death an extraordinary amount of meat would have had to have been wasted 161 Climate change hypothesis editAt the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th centuries when scientists first realized that there had been glacial and interglacial ages and that they were somehow associated with the prevalence or disappearance of certain animals they surmised that the termination of the Pleistocene ice age might be an explanation for the extinctions Critics object that since there were multiple glacial advances and withdrawals in the evolutionary history of many of the megafauna it is rather implausible that only after the last glacial maximum would there be such extinctions One study suggests that the Pleistocene megafaunal composition may have differed markedly from that of earlier interglacials making the Pleistocene populations particularly vulnerable to changes in their environment 162 Some evidence weighs against climate change as a valid hypothesis as applied to Australia It has been shown that the prevailing climate at the time of extinction 40 000 50 000 BP was similar to that of today and that the extinct animals were strongly adapted to an arid climate The evidence indicates that all of the extinctions took place in the same short time period which was the time when humans entered the landscape The main mechanism for extinction was probably fire started by humans in a then much less fire adapted landscape Isotopic evidence shows sudden changes in the diet of surviving species which could correspond to the stress they experienced before extinction 163 164 165 Evidence in Southeast Asia in contrast to Europe Australia and the Americas suggests that climate change and an increasing sea level were significant factors in the extinction of several herbivorous species Alterations in vegetation growth and new access routes for early humans and mammals to previously isolated localized ecosystems were detrimental to select groups of fauna 166 Some evidence obtained from analysis of the tusks of mastodons from the American Great Lakes region appears inconsistent with the climate change hypothesis Over a span of several thousand years prior to their extinction in the area the mastodons show a trend of declining age at maturation This is the opposite of what one would expect if they were experiencing stresses from deteriorating environmental conditions but is consistent with a reduction in intraspecific competition that would result from a population being reduced by human hunting 167 Increased temperature edit The most obvious change associated with the termination of an ice age is the increase in temperature Between 15 000 BP and 10 000 BP a 6 C increase in global mean annual temperatures occurred This was generally thought to be the cause of the extinctions According to this hypothesis a temperature increase sufficient to melt the Wisconsin ice sheet could have placed enough thermal stress on cold adapted mammals to cause them to die Their heavy fur which helps conserve body heat in the glacial cold might have prevented the dumping of excess heat causing the mammals to die of heat exhaustion Large mammals with their reduced surface area to volume ratio would have fared worse than small mammals A study covering the past 56 000 years indicates that rapid warming events with temperature changes of up to 16 C 29 F had an important impact on the extinction of megafauna Ancient DNA and radiocarbon data indicates that local genetic populations were replaced by others within the same species or by others within the same genus Survival of populations was dependent on the existence of refugia and long distance dispersals which may have been disrupted by human hunters 168 Arguments against the temperature hypothesis edit Studies propose that the annual mean temperature of the current interglacial that we have seen for the last 10 000 years is no higher than that of previous interglacials yet most of the same large mammals survived similar temperature increases 169 170 171 172 173 174 In addition numerous species such as mammoths on Wrangel Island 175 and St Paul Island survived in human free refugia despite changes in climate This would not be expected if climate change were responsible unless their maritime climates offered some protection against climate change not afforded to coastal populations on the mainland Under normal ecological assumptions island populations should be more vulnerable to extinction due to climate change because of small populations and an inability to migrate to more favorable climes citation needed Increased continentality affects vegetation in time or space edit Other scientists have proposed that increasingly extreme weather hotter summers and colder winters referred to as continentality or related changes in rainfall caused the extinctions The various hypotheses are outlined below Vegetation changes geographic edit It has been shown that vegetation changed from mixed woodland parkland to separate prairie and woodland 171 172 174 This may have affected the kinds of food available Shorter growing seasons may have caused the extinction of large herbivores and the dwarfing of many others In this case as observed bison and other large ruminants would have fared better than horses elephants and other monogastrics because ruminants are able to extract more nutrition from limited quantities of high fiber food and better able to deal with anti herbivory toxins 176 177 178 So in general when vegetation becomes more specialized herbivores with less diet flexibility may be less able to find the mix of vegetation they need to sustain life and reproduce within a given area Rainfall changes time edit Increased continentality resulted in reduced and less predictable rainfall limiting the availability of plants necessary for energy and nutrition 179 180 181 Axelrod 182 and Slaughter 183 have suggested that this change in rainfall restricted the amount of time favorable for reproduction This could disproportionately harm large animals since they have longer more inflexible mating periods and so may have produced young at unfavorable seasons i e when sufficient food water or shelter was unavailable because of shifts in the growing season In contrast small mammals with their shorter life cycles shorter reproductive cycles and shorter gestation periods could have adjusted to the increased unpredictability of the climate both as individuals and as species which allowed them to synchronize their reproductive efforts with conditions favorable for offspring survival If so smaller mammals would have lost fewer offspring and would have been better able to repeat the reproductive effort when circumstances once more favored offspring survival 184 In 2017 a study looked at the environmental conditions across Europe Siberia and the Americas from 25 000 to 10 000 YBP The study found that prolonged warming events leading to deglaciation and maximum rainfall occurred just prior to the transformation of the rangelands that supported megaherbivores into widespread wetlands that supported herbivore resistant plants The study proposes that moisture driven environmental change led to the megafaunal extinctions and that Africa s trans equatorial position allowed rangeland to continue to exist between the deserts and the central forests therefore fewer megafauna species became extinct there 168 Arguments against the continentality hypotheses edit Critics have identified a number of problems with the continentality hypotheses Megaherbivores have prospered at other times of continental climate For example megaherbivores thrived in Pleistocene Siberia which had and has a more continental climate than Pleistocene or modern post Pleistocene interglacial North America 185 186 187 The animals that became extinct actually should have prospered during the shift from mixed woodland parkland to prairie because their primary food source grass was increasing rather than decreasing 188 187 189 Although the vegetation did become more spatially specialized the amount of prairie and grass available increased which would have been good for horses and for mammoths and yet they became extinct This criticism ignores the increased abundance and broad geographic extent of Pleistocene bison at the end of the Pleistocene which would have increased competition for these resources in a manner not seen in any earlier interglacials 162 Although horses became extinct in the New World they were successfully reintroduced by the Spanish in the 16th century into a modern post Pleistocene interglacial climate Today there are feral horses still living in those same environments They find a sufficient mix of food to avoid toxins they extract enough nutrition from forage to reproduce effectively and the timing of their gestation is not an issue Of course this criticism ignores the obvious fact that present day horses are not competing for resources with ground sloths mammoths mastodons camels llamas and bison Similarly mammoths survived the Pleistocene Holocene transition on isolated uninhabited islands in the Mediterranean Sea 190 and on Wrangel Island in the Siberian Arctic 191 until 4 000 to 7 000 years ago Large mammals should have been able to migrate permanently or seasonally if they found the temperature too extreme the breeding season too short or the rainfall too sparse or unpredictable 192 Seasons vary geographically By migrating away from the equator herbivores could have found areas with growing seasons more favorable for finding food and breeding successfully Modern day African elephants migrate during periods of drought to places where there is apt to be water 193 Large animals store more fat in their bodies than do medium sized animals 194 and this should have allowed them to compensate for extreme seasonal fluctuations in food availability The extinction of the megafauna could have caused the disappearance of the mammoth steppe Alaska now has low nutrient soil unable to support bison mammoths and horses R Dale Guthrie has claimed this as a cause of the extinction of the megafauna there however he may be interpreting it backwards The loss of large herbivores to break up the permafrost allows the cold soils that are unable to support large herbivores today Today in the arctic where trucks have broken the permafrost grasses and diverse flora and fauna can be supported 195 196 In addition Chapin Chapin 1980 showed that simply adding fertilizer to the soil in Alaska could make grasses grow again like they did in the era of the mammoth steppe Possibly the extinction of the megafauna and the corresponding loss of dung is what led to low nutrient levels in modern day soil and therefore is why the landscape can no longer support megafauna Arguments against both climate change and overkill editIt may be observed that neither the overkill nor the climate change hypotheses can fully explain events browsers mixed feeders and non ruminant grazer species suffered most while relatively more ruminant grazers survived 197 However a broader variation of the overkill hypothesis may predict this because changes in vegetation wrought by either Second Order Predation see below 198 199 or anthropogenic fire preferentially selects against browse species citation needed Hyperdisease hypothesis editTheory edit The hyperdisease hypothesis as advanced by Ross D E MacFee and Preston A Marx attributes the extinction of large mammals during the late Pleistocene to indirect effects of the newly arrived aboriginal humans 200 201 202 The hyperdisease hypothesis proposes that humans or animals traveling with them e g chickens or domestic dogs introduced one or more highly virulent diseases into vulnerable populations of native mammals eventually causing extinctions The extinction was biased toward larger sized species because smaller species have greater resilience because of their life history traits e g shorter gestation time greater population sizes etc Humans are thought to be the cause because other earlier immigrations of mammals into North America from Eurasia did not cause extinctions 200 Diseases imported by people have been responsible for extinctions in the recent past for example bringing avian malaria to Hawaii has had a major impact on the isolated birds of the island If a disease was indeed responsible for the end Pleistocene extinctions then there are several criteria it must satisfy see Table 7 3 in MacPhee amp Marx 1997 First the pathogen must have a stable carrier state in a reservoir species That is it must be able to sustain itself in the environment when there are no susceptible hosts available to infect Second the pathogen must have a high infection rate such that it is able to infect virtually all individuals of all ages and sexes encountered Third it must be extremely lethal with a mortality rate of c 50 75 Finally it must have the ability to infect multiple host species without posing a serious threat to humans Humans may be infected but the disease must not be highly lethal or able to cause an epidemic citation needed One suggestion is that pathogens were transmitted by the expanding humans via the domesticated dogs they brought with them 203 though this does not fit the timeline of extinctions in the Americas and Australia in particular Arguments against the hyperdisease hypothesis edit Generally speaking disease has to be very virulent to kill off all the individuals in a genus or species Even such a virulent disease as West Nile fever is unlikely to have caused extinction 204 The disease would need to be implausibly selective while being simultaneously implausibly broad Such a disease needs to be capable of killing off wolves such as Canis dirus or goats such as Oreamnos harringtoni while leaving other very similar species Canis lupus and Oreamnos americanus respectively unaffected It would need to be capable of killing off flightless birds while leaving closely related flighted species unaffected Yet while remaining sufficiently selective to afflict only individual species within genera it must be capable of fatally infecting across such clades as birds marsupials placentals testudines and crocodilians No disease with such a broad scope of fatal infectivity is known much less one that remains simultaneously incapable of infecting numerous closely related species within those disparate clades On the other hand this objection does not account for the possibility of a variety of different diseases being introduced around the same era citation needed Numerous species including wolves mammoths camelids and horses had emigrated continually between Asia and North America over the past 100 000 years For the disease hypothesis to be applicable there it would require that the population remain immunologically naive despite this constant transmission of genetic and pathogenic material citation needed The dog specific hypothesis cannot account for several major extinction events notably the Americas for reasons already covered and Australia Dogs did not arrive in Australia until approximately 35 000 years after the first humans arrived there and approximately 30 000 years after the Australian megafaunal extinction was complete citation needed Second order predation hypothesis edit nbsp Combination Hypotheses Climate Change Overkill Climate Change Second Order Predation Climate Change nbsp Overkill Hypothesis and Second Order PredationScenario edit The Second Order Predation Hypothesis says that as humans entered the New World they continued their policy of killing predators which had been successful in the Old World but because they were more efficient and because the fauna both herbivores and carnivores were more naive they killed off enough carnivores to upset the ecological balance of the continent causing overpopulation environmental exhaustion and environmental collapse The hypothesis accounts for changes in animal plant and human populations The scenario is as follows After the arrival of H sapiens in the New World existing predators must share the prey populations with this new predator Because of this competition populations of original or first order predators cannot find enough food they are in direct competition with humans Second order predation begins as humans begin to kill predators Prey populations are no longer well controlled by predation Killing of nonhuman predators by H sapiens reduces their numbers to a point where these predators no longer regulate the size of the prey populations Lack of regulation by first order predators triggers boom and bust cycles in prey populations Prey populations expand and consequently overgraze and over browse the land Soon the environment is no longer able to support them As a result many herbivores starve Species that rely on the slowest recruiting food become extinct followed by species that cannot extract the maximum benefit from every bit of their food Boom bust cycles in herbivore populations change the nature of the vegetative environment with consequent climatic impacts on relative humidity and continentality Through overgrazing and overbrowsing mixed parkland becomes grassland and climatic continentality increases Support edit This has been supported by a computer model the Pleistocene extinction model PEM which using the same assumptions and values for all variables herbivore population herbivore recruitment rates food needed per human herbivore hunting rates etc other than those for hunting of predators It compares the overkill hypothesis predator hunting 0 with second order predation predator hunting varied between 0 01 and 0 05 for different runs The findings are that second order predation is more consistent with extinction than is overkill 205 206 results graph at left The Pleistocene extinction model is the only test of multiple hypotheses and is the only model to specifically test combination hypotheses by artificially introducing sufficient climate change to cause extinction When overkill and climate change are combined they balance each other out Climate change reduces the number of plants overkill removes animals therefore fewer plants are eaten Second order predation combined with climate change exacerbates the effect of climate change 198 results graph at right The second order predation hypothesis is supported by the observation above that there was a massive increase in bison populations 207 Arguments against the second order predation hypothesis edit The multispecies model produces a mass extinction through indirect competition between herbivore species small species with high reproductive rates subsidize predation on large species with low reproductive rates 153 All prey species are lumped in the Pleistocene extinction model The control of population sizes by predators is not fully supported by observations of modern ecosystems 208 Arguments against the second order predation plus climate hypothesis edit It assumes decreases in vegetation due to climate change but deglaciation doubled the habitable area of North America Any vegetational changes that did occur failed to cause almost any extinctions of small vertebrates and they are more narrowly distributed on average See also editAustralian megafauna Large animals in Australia past and present era Holocene extinction Ongoing extinction event caused by human activity Late Quaternary prehistoric birds Extinct bird speciesPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets List of quaternary mammalian fauna of China Megafauna Large animals Pleistocene megafauna Extinction event occurring during the late Quaternary periodPages displaying short descriptions of 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