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Palaeoloxodon

January 07, 2023

Palaeoloxodon is an extinct genus of elephant. The genus originated in Africa during the Pliocene era, and expanded into Eurasia during the Pleistocene era. The genus contains some of the largest known species of elephants, over four metres tall at the shoulders, including the European straight-tusked elephant (Palaeoloxodon antiquus), and the southern Asian Palaeoloxodon namadicus, the latter of which was possibly the largest known land mammal based on fragmentary remains, but this requires proper reexamination.[2][3] In contrast, the genus also contains many species of dwarf elephants that evolved via insular dwarfism on islands in the Mediterranean, some only a metre in height, making them the smallest elephants known. The genus has a long and complex taxonomic history, and at various times, it has been considered to belong to Loxodonta or Elephas, but today is usually considered a valid and separate genus in its own right.

Palaeoloxodon
Temporal range: Middle Pliocene–Holocene
Skeleton of Palaeoloxodon huaihoensis at National Museum of Natural Science
Scientific classification
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Mammalia
Order: Proboscidea
Family: Elephantidae
Subfamily: Elephantinae
Tribe: Elephantini
Subtribe: †Palaeoloxodontina
Genus: †Palaeoloxodon
Matsumoto [ja], 1924[1]
Type species
Elephas namadicus naumanni
Makiyama, 1924
Species

See text

Taxonomy

In 1924, Hikoshichiro Matsumoto [ja] circumscribed Palaeoloxodon as a subgenus of Loxodonta. It included the "E. antiquus—namadicus group", and he designated "E. namadicus naumanni Mak." as its type species.[1]

Palaeoloxodon was later thought to be a subgenus of Elephas, but this was abandoned by 2007.[4] In 2016, a mitochondrial DNA sequence analysis of P. antiquus found that it was nested within the genus Loxodonta, more closely related African forest elephant, Loxodonta cyclotis, than the African bush elephant, Loxodonta africana. The authors suggested that this invalidated the genus Palaeoloxodon as currently recognized.[5] A second study published in 2018 based on the nuclear genome suggested P. antiquus had a complex hybridization history, with over 60% of its DNA coming from a lineage closest to but outside the two extant Loxodonta species, around 6% from Mammuthus and 30% from a lineage closer to L. cyclotis than L. africana. The hybridisation probably took place in Africa, where Palaeoloxodon was dominant for most of the Pliocene and Early Pleistocene.[6]

Mainland species

  • P. recki (Synonym:Elephas recki) (East Africa), the oldest (4.0 - 0.6 million years ago) and one of the largest species[7]
  • P. antiquus (Synonym:Elephas antiquus) (Straight tusked elephant) (Europe, Middle East, western Asia)
  • ?P. huaihoensis (China) possibly synonymous with P. naumanni
  • P. namadicus (Synonym:Elephas namadicus)[8] (Indian subcontinent, possibly also elsewhere in Asia), the largest in its genus, and possibly the largest terrestrial mammal ever
  • P. naumanni (Synonym:E. namadicus naumanni) (Japan, possibly also China and Korea),[9] possible subspecies of E. namadicus
  • ?P. turkmenicus known from a single specimen found in the Middle Pleistocene of Turkmenistan, with possibly attributable remains known from Kashmir, validity uncertain.[10]

Mediterranean island dwarfs

These Mediterranean insular dwarf elephant species are almost certainly descended from P. antiquus

Description

 
Life restoration of P. namadicus
 
Size diagram of the largest Palaeoloxodon species

Most species of Palaeoloxodon (aside from P. turkmenicus) are noted for their distinctive parieto-occipital crests present at the top of the cranium, which was used to anchor the splenius as well as possibly the rhomboid muscles to support the skull, which is proportionally large in comparison to other elephants. The tusks have relatively little curvature, and are proportionally large.[10]

Evolution

 
Palaeoloxodon namadicus, showing the parieto-occipital crest at the top of the skull typical of Palaeoloxodon.

Palaeoloxodon first appears in the fossil record in Africa during the early Pliocene, around 4 Mya as the species Palaeoloxodon recki. P. recki was the dominant elephant in Africa for the Pliocene and most of the Pleistocene. A population of P. recki migrated out of Africa between 0.8 and 0.6 Mya, diversifying into the radiation of Eurasian Palaeoloxodon species, including P. antiquus, P. namadicus, and P. naumanni, the precise relationships of the Eurasian taxa to each other are obscure in the absence of molecular evidence. P. recki became extinct in Africa around 0.5 Mya, being replaced by the modern genus Loxodonta.[12] A species descended from P. recki, "Elephas" jolensis persisted in Africa until the late Middle Pleistocene, around 130,000 years ago.[13] The arrival of P. antiquus in Europe co-incides with the extinction of Mammuthus meridionalis and its replacement by Mammuthus trogontherii, suggesting that it might have shared a similar dietary niche and outcompeted the former.[12] P. antiquus was able to disperse onto many islands in the Mediterranean, undergoing insular dwarfism and speciating into numerous distinct varieties of dwarf elephants. Palaeoloxodon fossils are abundant in China and are assigned to three species, P. namadicus, P. naumanni and P. huaihoensis.[14] However, the relationships of Chinese Palaeoloxodon are currently unresolved and it is unclear how many species were present in the region.[10]

Extinction

See also: Elephants in ancient China

Most Eurasian species of Palaeoloxodon became extinct towards the end of the last glacial period. The youngest record of P. antiquus are footprints from the southern Iberian Peninsula, dating to approximately 28,000 years ago.[15] The youngest Japanese records of P. naumanni date to around 24,000 years ago.[16] Similar dates have been reported for Indian P. namadicus and Chinese Palaeoloxodon.[17][18] Some of the Mediterranean dwarf species held on for longer, with the youngest dates for the Cyprus dwarf elephant around 12,000 years ago.[19] P. tiliensis from the Greek island of Tilos was suggested to have survived as recently as 3,500 years Before Present based on preliminary radiocarbon dating done in the 1970s, which would make it the youngest surviving elephant in Europe, but this has not been thoroughly investigated.[20]

In a 2012 paper, Li Ji and colleagues from the Institute of Geographic Sciences and Natural Resources Research, Beijing, argued that 3000 year old teeth from Northern China previously believed to belong to Asian elephants were actually those of Palaeoloxodon. They also argued that Chinese ritual bronze vessels depicting trunks with two "fingers" must be Palaeoloxodon (which are only known from bones; their trunk characteristics are unknown) because Asian elephants only have one.[21][22] Fossil elephant experts Victoria Herridge and Adrian Lister disagree with the assignment, stating that the claimed diagnostic dental features are actually contrast artifacts created due to the low image resolution of the figures in the scientific paper, which are not evident in better-quality photographs, and that the Bronze age vessels could be the result of stylistic choice.[23]

References

  1. ^ a b 松本彦七郎 (1924). 日本産化石象の種類(略報). 地質学雑誌 (in Japanese). 31 (371): 255–272. doi:10.5575/geosoc.31.371_255.
  2. ^ Larramendi, A. (2015). "Shoulder height, body mass and shape of proboscideans" (PDF). Acta Palaeontologica Polonica. 60. doi:10.4202/app.00136.2014.
  3. ^ "Early signs of elephant butchers". BBC News. 30 June 2006.
  4. ^ Shoshani, J.; Ferretti, M. P.; Lister, A. M.; Agenbroad, L. D.; Saegusa, H.; Mol, D.; Takahashi, K. (2007). "Relationships within the Elephantinae using hyoid characters". Quaternary International. 169–170: 174–185. Bibcode:2007QuInt.169..174S. doi:10.1016/j.quaint.2007.02.003.
  5. ^ Callaway, E. (2016-09-16). "Elephant history rewritten by ancient genomes". Nature. doi:10.1038/nature.2016.20622. S2CID 89500906.
  6. ^ Palkopoulou, Eleftheria; Lipson, Mark; Mallick, Swapan; Nielsen, Svend; Rohland, Nadin; Baleka, Sina; Karpinski, Emil; Ivancevic, Atma M.; To, Thu-Hien; Kortschak, R. Daniel; Raison, Joy M. (2018-03-13). "A comprehensive genomic history of extinct and living elephants". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 115 (11): E2566–E2574. doi:10.1073/pnas.1720554115. ISSN 0027-8424. PMC 5856550. PMID 29483247.
  7. ^ Turner, A. (2004) Prehistoric Mammals. Larousse
  8. ^ Kevrekidis, C., & Mol, D. (2016). A new partial skeleton of Elephas (Palaeoloxodon) antiquus Falconer and Cautley, 1847 (Proboscidea, Elephantidae) from Amyntaio, Macedonia, Greece. Quaternary International, 406, 35–56. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2015.11.110
  9. ^ van der Geer, A.; Lyras, G. A.; de Vos, J. (2021). "Japan: Honshu, Shikoku, and Kyushu". Evolution of Island Mammals: Adaptation and Extinction of Placental Mammals on Islands. Oxford: Wiley Blackwell. p. 334. ISBN 9781119675730.
  10. ^ a b c Larramendi, Asier; Zhang, Hanwen; Palombo, Maria Rita; Ferretti, Marco P. (February 2020). "The evolution of Palaeoloxodon skull structure: Disentangling phylogenetic, sexually dimorphic, ontogenetic, and allometric morphological signals". Quaternary Science Reviews. 229: 106090. Bibcode:2020QSRv..22906090L. doi:10.1016/j.quascirev.2019.106090.
  11. ^ Benoit, J., Legendre, L. J., Tabuce, R., Obada, T., Mararescul, V., & Manger, P. (2019). Brain evolution in Proboscidea (Mammalia, Afrotheria) across the Cenozoic. Scientific Reports, 9(1), 9323. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-019-45888-4
  12. ^ a b Lister, Adrian M. (2004), "Ecological Interactions of Elephantids in Pleistocene Eurasia", Human Paleoecology in the Levantine Corridor, Oxbow Books, pp. 53–60, ISBN 978-1-78570-965-4, retrieved 2020-04-14
  13. ^ Manthi, Fredrick Kyalo; Sanders, William J.; Plavcan, J. Michael; Cerling, Thure E.; Brown, Francis H. (September 2020). "Late Middle Pleistocene Elephants from Natodomeri, Kenya and the Disappearance of Elephas (Proboscidea, Mammalia) in Africa". Journal of Mammalian Evolution. 27 (3): 483–495. doi:10.1007/s10914-019-09474-9. ISSN 1064-7554.
  14. ^ Kang, Jia-Cih; Lin, Chien-Hsiang; Chang, Chun-Hsiang (2021-04-14). "Age and growth of Palaeoloxodon huaihoensis from Penghu Channel, Taiwan: significance of their age distribution based on fossils". PeerJ. 9: e11236. doi:10.7717/peerj.11236. ISSN 2167-8359. PMC 8052959. PMID 33954049.
  15. ^ de Carvalho, Carlos Neto; Figueiredo, Silvério; Muniz, Fernando; Belo, João; Cunha, Pedro P.; Baucon, Andrea; Cáceres, Luis M.; Rodriguez-Vidal, Joaquín (2020-07-02). "Tracking the last elephants in Europe during the Würm Pleniglacial: the importance of the Late Pleistocene aeolianite record in SW Iberia". Ichnos. 27 (3): 352–360. doi:10.1080/10420940.2020.1744586. ISSN 1042-0940. S2CID 216504699.
  16. ^ Iwase, Akira; Hashizume, Jun; Izuho, Masami; Takahashi, Keiichi; Sato, Hiroyuki (March 2012). "Timing of megafaunal extinction in the late Late Pleistocene on the Japanese Archipelago". Quaternary International. 255: 114–124. Bibcode:2012QuInt.255..114I. doi:10.1016/j.quaint.2011.03.029.
  17. ^ Jukar, A.M.; Lyons, S.K.; Wagner, P.J.; Uhen, M.D. (January 2021). "Late Quaternary extinctions in the Indian Subcontinent". Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology. 562: 110137. doi:10.1016/j.palaeo.2020.110137.
  18. ^ Turvey, Samuel T.; Tong, Haowen; Stuart, Anthony J.; Lister, Adrian M. (September 2013). "Holocene survival of Late Pleistocene megafauna in China: a critical review of the evidence". Quaternary Science Reviews. 76: 156–166. doi:10.1016/j.quascirev.2013.06.030. ISSN 0277-3791.
  19. ^ Athanassiou, Athanassios; Herridge, Victoria; Reese, David S.; Iliopoulos, George; Roussiakis, Socrates; Mitsopoulou, Vassiliki; Tsiolakis, Efthymios; Theodorou, George (August 2015). "Cranial evidence for the presence of a second endemic elephant species on Cyprus". Quaternary International. 379: 47–57. doi:10.1016/j.quaint.2015.05.065. ISSN 1040-6182.
  20. ^ Athanassiou, Athanassios; van der Geer, Alexandra A.E.; Lyras, George A. (August 2019). "Pleistocene insular Proboscidea of the Eastern Mediterranean: A review and update". Quaternary Science Reviews. 218: 306–321. doi:10.1016/j.quascirev.2019.06.028. ISSN 0277-3791.
  21. ^ Li, J.; Hou, Y.; Li, Y.; Zhang, J. (2012). "The latest straight-tusked elephants (Palaeoloxodon)? "Wild elephants" lived 3000 years ago in North China". Quaternary International. 281: 84–88. Bibcode:2012QuInt.281...84L. doi:10.1016/j.quaint.2011.10.039.
  22. ^ Warwicker, Michelle (19 December 2012). "Extinct elephant 'survived late' in North China". BBC News.
  23. ^ Switek, Brian (27 December 2012). "Bronze Age Art Sparks Debate over the Straight-Tusked Elephant".

January 07, 2023
palaeoloxodon, extinct, genus, elephant, genus, originated, africa, during, pliocene, expanded, into, eurasia, during, pleistocene, genus, contains, some, largest, known, species, elephants, over, four, metres, tall, shoulders, including, european, straight, t. Palaeoloxodon is an extinct genus of elephant The genus originated in Africa during the Pliocene era and expanded into Eurasia during the Pleistocene era The genus contains some of the largest known species of elephants over four metres tall at the shoulders including the European straight tusked elephant Palaeoloxodon antiquus and the southern Asian Palaeoloxodon namadicus the latter of which was possibly the largest known land mammal based on fragmentary remains but this requires proper reexamination 2 3 In contrast the genus also contains many species of dwarf elephants that evolved via insular dwarfism on islands in the Mediterranean some only a metre in height making them the smallest elephants known The genus has a long and complex taxonomic history and at various times it has been considered to belong to Loxodonta or Elephas but today is usually considered a valid and separate genus in its own right PalaeoloxodonTemporal range Middle Pliocene Holocene PreꞒ Ꞓ O S D C P T J K Pg NSkeleton of Palaeoloxodon huaihoensis at National Museum of Natural ScienceScientific classificationKingdom AnimaliaPhylum ChordataClass MammaliaOrder ProboscideaFamily ElephantidaeSubfamily ElephantinaeTribe ElephantiniSubtribe PalaeoloxodontinaGenus PalaeoloxodonMatsumoto ja 1924 1 Type speciesElephas namadicus naumanniMakiyama 1924SpeciesSee text Contents 1 Taxonomy 1 1 Mainland species 1 2 Mediterranean island dwarfs 2 Description 3 Evolution 4 Extinction 5 ReferencesTaxonomy EditIn 1924 Hikoshichiro Matsumoto ja circumscribed Palaeoloxodon as a subgenus of Loxodonta It included the E antiquus namadicus group and he designated E namadicus naumanni Mak as its type species 1 Palaeoloxodon was later thought to be a subgenus of Elephas but this was abandoned by 2007 4 In 2016 a mitochondrial DNA sequence analysis of P antiquus found that it was nested within the genus Loxodonta more closely related African forest elephant Loxodonta cyclotis than the African bush elephant Loxodonta africana The authors suggested that this invalidated the genus Palaeoloxodon as currently recognized 5 A second study published in 2018 based on the nuclear genome suggested P antiquus had a complex hybridization history with over 60 of its DNA coming from a lineage closest to but outside the two extant Loxodonta species around 6 from Mammuthus and 30 from a lineage closer to L cyclotis than L africana The hybridisation probably took place in Africa where Palaeoloxodon was dominant for most of the Pliocene and Early Pleistocene 6 Mainland species Edit P recki Synonym Elephas recki East Africa the oldest 4 0 0 6 million years ago and one of the largest species 7 P antiquus Synonym Elephas antiquus Straight tusked elephant Europe Middle East western Asia P huaihoensis China possibly synonymous with P naumanni P namadicus Synonym Elephas namadicus 8 Indian subcontinent possibly also elsewhere in Asia the largest in its genus and possibly the largest terrestrial mammal ever P naumanni Synonym E namadicus naumanni Japan possibly also China and Korea 9 possible subspecies of E namadicus P turkmenicus known from a single specimen found in the Middle Pleistocene of Turkmenistan with possibly attributable remains known from Kashmir validity uncertain 10 Mediterranean island dwarfs Edit These Mediterranean insular dwarf elephant species are almost certainly descended from P antiquus P chaniensis Crete P creutzburgi Crete P xylophagou Cyprus P cypriotes Cyprus P lomolinoi Naxos P tiliensis Tilos P melitensis Malta P mnaidriensis Sicily and Malta P falconeri E falconeri 11 Sicily and Malta Description Edit Life restoration of P namadicus Size diagram of the largest Palaeoloxodon species Most species of Palaeoloxodon aside from P turkmenicus are noted for their distinctive parieto occipital crests present at the top of the cranium which was used to anchor the splenius as well as possibly the rhomboid muscles to support the skull which is proportionally large in comparison to other elephants The tusks have relatively little curvature and are proportionally large 10 Evolution Edit Palaeoloxodon namadicus showing the parieto occipital crest at the top of the skull typical of Palaeoloxodon Palaeoloxodon first appears in the fossil record in Africa during the early Pliocene around 4 Mya as the species Palaeoloxodon recki P recki was the dominant elephant in Africa for the Pliocene and most of the Pleistocene A population of P recki migrated out of Africa between 0 8 and 0 6 Mya diversifying into the radiation of Eurasian Palaeoloxodon species including P antiquus P namadicus and P naumanni the precise relationships of the Eurasian taxa to each other are obscure in the absence of molecular evidence P recki became extinct in Africa around 0 5 Mya being replaced by the modern genus Loxodonta 12 A species descended from P recki Elephas jolensis persisted in Africa until the late Middle Pleistocene around 130 000 years ago 13 The arrival of P antiquus in Europe co incides with the extinction of Mammuthus meridionalis and its replacement by Mammuthus trogontherii suggesting that it might have shared a similar dietary niche and outcompeted the former 12 P antiquus was able to disperse onto many islands in the Mediterranean undergoing insular dwarfism and speciating into numerous distinct varieties of dwarf elephants Palaeoloxodon fossils are abundant in China and are assigned to three species P namadicus P naumanni and P huaihoensis 14 However the relationships of Chinese Palaeoloxodon are currently unresolved and it is unclear how many species were present in the region 10 Extinction EditSee also Elephants in ancient China Most Eurasian species of Palaeoloxodon became extinct towards the end of the last glacial period The youngest record of P antiquus are footprints from the southern Iberian Peninsula dating to approximately 28 000 years ago 15 The youngest Japanese records of P naumanni date to around 24 000 years ago 16 Similar dates have been reported for Indian P namadicus and Chinese Palaeoloxodon 17 18 Some of the Mediterranean dwarf species held on for longer with the youngest dates for the Cyprus dwarf elephant around 12 000 years ago 19 P tiliensis from the Greek island of Tilos was suggested to have survived as recently as 3 500 years Before Present based on preliminary radiocarbon dating done in the 1970s which would make it the youngest surviving elephant in Europe but this has not been thoroughly investigated 20 In a 2012 paper Li Ji and colleagues from the Institute of Geographic Sciences and Natural Resources Research Beijing argued that 3000 year old teeth from Northern China previously believed to belong to Asian elephants were actually those of Palaeoloxodon They also argued that Chinese ritual bronze vessels depicting trunks with two fingers must be Palaeoloxodon which are only known from bones their trunk characteristics are unknown because Asian elephants only have one 21 22 Fossil elephant experts Victoria Herridge and Adrian Lister disagree with the assignment stating that the claimed diagnostic dental features are actually contrast artifacts created due to the low image resolution of the figures in the scientific paper which are not evident in better quality photographs and that the Bronze age vessels could be the result of stylistic choice 23 References Edit a b 松本彦七郎 1924 日本産化石象の種類 略報 地質学雑誌 in Japanese 31 371 255 272 doi 10 5575 geosoc 31 371 255 Larramendi A 2015 Shoulder height body mass and shape of proboscideans PDF Acta Palaeontologica Polonica 60 doi 10 4202 app 00136 2014 Early signs of elephant butchers BBC News 30 June 2006 Shoshani J Ferretti M P Lister A M Agenbroad L D Saegusa H Mol D Takahashi K 2007 Relationships within the Elephantinae using hyoid characters Quaternary International 169 170 174 185 Bibcode 2007QuInt 169 174S doi 10 1016 j quaint 2007 02 003 Callaway E 2016 09 16 Elephant history rewritten by ancient genomes Nature doi 10 1038 nature 2016 20622 S2CID 89500906 Palkopoulou Eleftheria Lipson Mark Mallick Swapan Nielsen Svend Rohland Nadin Baleka Sina Karpinski Emil Ivancevic Atma M To Thu Hien Kortschak R Daniel Raison Joy M 2018 03 13 A comprehensive genomic history of extinct and living elephants Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 115 11 E2566 E2574 doi 10 1073 pnas 1720554115 ISSN 0027 8424 PMC 5856550 PMID 29483247 Turner A 2004 Prehistoric Mammals Larousse Kevrekidis C amp Mol D 2016 A new partial skeleton of Elephas Palaeoloxodon antiquus Falconer and Cautley 1847 Proboscidea Elephantidae from Amyntaio Macedonia Greece Quaternary International 406 35 56 https doi org 10 1016 j quaint 2015 11 110 van der Geer A Lyras G A de Vos J 2021 Japan Honshu Shikoku and Kyushu Evolution of Island Mammals Adaptation and Extinction of Placental Mammals on Islands Oxford Wiley Blackwell p 334 ISBN 9781119675730 a b c Larramendi Asier Zhang Hanwen Palombo Maria Rita Ferretti Marco P February 2020 The evolution of Palaeoloxodon skull structure Disentangling phylogenetic sexually dimorphic ontogenetic and allometric morphological signals Quaternary Science Reviews 229 106090 Bibcode 2020QSRv 22906090L doi 10 1016 j quascirev 2019 106090 Benoit J Legendre L J Tabuce R Obada T Mararescul V amp Manger P 2019 Brain evolution in Proboscidea Mammalia Afrotheria across the Cenozoic Scientific Reports 9 1 9323 https doi org 10 1038 s41598 019 45888 4 a b Lister Adrian M 2004 Ecological Interactions of Elephantids in Pleistocene Eurasia Human Paleoecology in the Levantine Corridor Oxbow Books pp 53 60 ISBN 978 1 78570 965 4 retrieved 2020 04 14 Manthi Fredrick Kyalo Sanders William J Plavcan J Michael Cerling Thure E Brown Francis H September 2020 Late Middle Pleistocene Elephants from Natodomeri Kenya and the Disappearance of Elephas Proboscidea Mammalia in Africa Journal of Mammalian Evolution 27 3 483 495 doi 10 1007 s10914 019 09474 9 ISSN 1064 7554 Kang Jia Cih Lin Chien Hsiang Chang Chun Hsiang 2021 04 14 Age and growth of Palaeoloxodon huaihoensis from Penghu Channel Taiwan significance of their age distribution based on fossils PeerJ 9 e11236 doi 10 7717 peerj 11236 ISSN 2167 8359 PMC 8052959 PMID 33954049 de Carvalho Carlos Neto Figueiredo Silverio Muniz Fernando Belo Joao Cunha Pedro P Baucon Andrea Caceres Luis M Rodriguez Vidal Joaquin 2020 07 02 Tracking the last elephants in Europe during the Wurm Pleniglacial the importance of the Late Pleistocene aeolianite record in SW Iberia Ichnos 27 3 352 360 doi 10 1080 10420940 2020 1744586 ISSN 1042 0940 S2CID 216504699 Iwase Akira Hashizume Jun Izuho Masami Takahashi Keiichi Sato Hiroyuki March 2012 Timing of megafaunal extinction in the late Late Pleistocene on the Japanese Archipelago Quaternary International 255 114 124 Bibcode 2012QuInt 255 114I doi 10 1016 j quaint 2011 03 029 Jukar A M Lyons S K Wagner P J Uhen M D January 2021 Late Quaternary extinctions in the Indian Subcontinent Palaeogeography Palaeoclimatology Palaeoecology 562 110137 doi 10 1016 j palaeo 2020 110137 Turvey Samuel T Tong Haowen Stuart Anthony J Lister Adrian M September 2013 Holocene survival of Late Pleistocene megafauna in China a critical review of the evidence Quaternary Science Reviews 76 156 166 doi 10 1016 j quascirev 2013 06 030 ISSN 0277 3791 Athanassiou Athanassios Herridge Victoria Reese David S Iliopoulos George Roussiakis Socrates Mitsopoulou Vassiliki Tsiolakis Efthymios Theodorou George August 2015 Cranial evidence for the presence of a second endemic elephant species on Cyprus Quaternary International 379 47 57 doi 10 1016 j quaint 2015 05 065 ISSN 1040 6182 Athanassiou Athanassios van der Geer Alexandra A E Lyras George A August 2019 Pleistocene insular Proboscidea of the Eastern Mediterranean A review and update Quaternary Science Reviews 218 306 321 doi 10 1016 j quascirev 2019 06 028 ISSN 0277 3791 Li J Hou Y Li Y Zhang J 2012 The latest straight tusked elephants Palaeoloxodon Wild elephants lived 3000 years ago in North China Quaternary International 281 84 88 Bibcode 2012QuInt 281 84L doi 10 1016 j quaint 2011 10 039 Warwicker Michelle 19 December 2012 Extinct elephant survived late in North China BBC News Switek Brian 27 December 2012 Bronze Age Art Sparks Debate over the Straight Tusked Elephant Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Palaeoloxodon amp oldid 1127243705, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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