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2021–22 Hunga Tonga–Hunga Haʻapai eruption and tsunami

January 15, 2023

In December 2021, an eruption began on Hunga Tonga–Hunga Haʻapai, a submarine volcano in the Tongan archipelago in the southern Pacific Ocean.[6] The eruption reached a very large and powerful climax nearly four weeks later, on 15 January 2022.[7] Hunga Tonga–Hunga Haʻapai is 65 km (40 mi) north of Tongatapu, the country's main island,[8] and is part of the highly active Tonga–Kermadec Islands volcanic arc, a subduction zone extending from New Zealand to Fiji.[9][10] In the Volcanic Explosivity Index scale, the eruption was rated at least a VEI-5.[1][11] Described by scientists as a "magma hammer", the volcano at its height produced a series of four underwater thrusts, displaced 10 cubic kilometers of rock, ash and sediment, and generated the largest atmospheric explosion recorded by modern instrumentation.[7]

2022 Hunga Tonga–Hunga Haʻapai eruption and tsunami
Satellite animation of the initial ash plume and shockwave on 15 January 2022
VolcanoHunga Tonga–Hunga Haʻapai
Start date20 December 2021[1][nb 1]
End date15 January 2022[1]
TypeSurtseyan, Plinian[3][4]
LocationPacific Ocean, Tonga
20°33′00″S 175°23′06″W / 20.550°S 175.385°W / -20.550; -175.385 (Hunga Tonga)
VEI5–6[5]
ImpactAt least 6 dead, 19 injured, and others reported missing, $90.4 million in damages in Tonga (estimated)

The eruption caused tsunamis in Tonga, Fiji, American Samoa, Vanuatu, and along the Pacific rim, including damaging tsunamis in New Zealand, Japan, the United States, the Russian Far East, Chile, and Peru. At least four people were killed, some were injured, and some remain possibly missing in Tonga from tsunami waves up to 20 m (66 ft) high. Two people drowned in Peru when 2 m (6 ft 7 in) waves struck the coast. It was the largest volcanic eruption since the 1991 eruption of Mount Pinatubo, and the most powerful eruption since the 1883 eruption of Krakatoa.[12] NASA determined that the eruption was "hundreds of times more powerful" than the atomic bomb dropped on Hiroshima.[13] The eruption was the largest explosion recorded in the atmosphere by modern instrumentation, far larger than any 20th century volcanic event or nuclear bomb test. It is thought that in recent centuries, only the Krakatoa eruption of 1883 rivalled the atmospheric disturbance produced.[14][15]

Volcanic activity

December 2021

Footage of the Hunga Tonga–Hunga Haʻapai eruption on 30 December 2021

After staying relatively inactive since 2014,[16] the Hunga Tonga–Hunga Haʻapai volcano erupted on 20 December 2021, sending particulates into the stratosphere. A large plume of ash was visible from Nukuʻalofa, the capital city of Tonga, about 70 km (43 mi) from the volcano.[1][17] The Volcanic Ash Advisory Center (VAAC) in Wellington, New Zealand, issued an advisory notice to airlines.[18] This initial eruption ended at 02:00 on 21 December 2021.[17]

On 22 December and 23 December 2021, 8-to-14-kilometre-high (5.0 to 8.7 mi) plumes containing sulfur dioxide drifted to the north-northeast and spread over the Niuatoputapu, Haʻapai and Vavaʻu island groups. Surtseyan explosions, steam plumes and steam bursts were recorded by a Tonga Navy crew on 23 December 2021, during which time the first ground-based images of the eruption were created.[3]

Between 24 December and 27 December 2021, steam and gas emissions reached altitudes of 10.3–12.2 kilometres (6.4–7.6 mi). Ash plumes reached heights of only 3 kilometres (1.9 mi), depositing ash only adjacent to the volcano.[3] On 25 December 2021, satellite imagery revealed that the island had increased in size by 300–600 metres (980–1,970 ft) on its eastern side.[3][19] During 29–30 December 2021, several surges of Surtseyan activity occurred, some of which were witnessed by passengers on a small South Seas Charters boat. Eruption plumes during the second half of December 2021 interrupted air travel to Tonga multiple times.[3]

January 2022

As activity on the island decreased, it was declared dormant by the Tonga Geological Services on 11 January 2022.[2][20] A large eruption commenced on 14 January 2022 at 04:20 local time (15:20 UTC, 13 January), sending clouds of ash 20 km (12 mi) into the atmosphere.[21][22] The government of Tonga issued a tsunami warning to residents, and waves of 30 cm (12 in) were observed in Nuku'alofa.[21][23] Later in the afternoon, Tongan geologists near the volcano observed explosions and a 5 km (3.1 mi)-wide ash column between 17:00 and 18:30 local time.[24] A much larger Plinian eruption started the following day (15 January 2022) at 17:14 local time (04:14:45 UTC, 15 January).[4][25] The eruption column from this eruption rose 58 km (36 mi) into the mesosphere.[26][27] The VAAC again issued an advisory notice to airlines.[28] Ash from the eruption made landfall on the main island of Tongatapu, blotting out the sun. Loud explosions were heard 65 km (40 mi) away in Nukuʻalofa, and small stones and ash rained down from the sky.[29] Many residents in Tonga were stuck in traffic whilst attempting to flee to higher ground.[30]

 
A four-hour observation of the January 2022 eruption over the southern Pacific Ocean from the GOES-West satellite
 
Shockwave from the Hunga Tonga eruption captured by GOES-17 (GOES-West) and shown using the Mid-level Water Vapor

The explosion was heard in Samoa, roughly 840 km (520 mi) away before the sound travelled to more distant countries.[31][32] Residents in Fiji, more than 700 km (430 mi) away, described the sounds of thunder, while the "thump" of the eruption was also reported in Niue and Vanuatu.[33] Tremors and shaking buildings were reported by residents in southwestern Niue, around Alofi and Avatele.[34] The United States Geological Survey (USGS) estimated the eruption at a surface-wave magnitude of 5.8.[25][nb 2] The eruption was heard more than 2,000 km (1,200 mi) away in New Zealand, where the sound arrived two hours later.[35] A series of bangs were heard around 3:30 a.m. local time in and around Anchorage, Alaska, approximately 9,700 km (6,000 mi) away from the volcano, lasting about 30 minutes. Low-frequency noise persisted for approximately two hours.[36] Booms were heard as far away as Yukon in Canada.[37][38]

Footage from an aircraft viewing the eruption on 14 January 2022

The volcanic explosion caused atmospheric shockwaves to propagate around the globe. Satellites visually captured shockwaves propagating across the Pacific Ocean and a very wide eruption column.[37] The pressure wave was measured by weather stations in many locations, including New Zealand to a maximum amplitude of about 7 hPa,[39] and Australia to 6.9 hPa at Lord Howe Island and 3.3 hPa at Perth.[40][41][42][43] Even in Europe, a pressure fluctuation of 2.5 hPa was measured in Switzerland,[44] and of just over 2 hPa when it reached the United Kingdom.[45] Shockwaves were reported as having gone around the earth as many as four times in Japan and Utah,[46][47] and at least twice at the Blue Hill Meteorological Observatory in Massachusetts.[48] The pressure shockwave was also observed in Chennai, India, which is 12,000 km from the eruption site.[49]

Intense lightning activity was recorded during the eruption phase. The Vaisala Global Lightning Dataset GLD360 detected lightning in the form of radio waves. Several hundred to a thousand flashes of lightning were recorded by the system during the two weeks before the eruption. From 14 to 15 January 2022, tens of thousands of lightning flashes occurred.[50] Between 05:00 and 06:00 UTC on 15 January 2022, 200,000 flashes were recorded.[50][51]

Preliminary observations showed that the eruption column ejected a large amount of volcanic material into the stratosphere, leading to speculation that it would cause a temporary climate cooling effect.[52] Later calculations showed it injected an estimated 400,000 tonnes of sulfur dioxide into the stratosphere and was unlikely to have any global cooling effect.[53] Despite this, the eruption can have a cooling effect in the Southern Hemisphere, causing slight cooling of winters and spectacular sunsets. People living in the Southern Hemisphere can expect purple sunsets for a few months after the eruption. A cooling effect of 0.1–0.5 °C (0.18–0.90 °F) may last until spring (September–November) 2022.[54] The eruption was described as a once-in-a-thousand-year event for the Hunga caldera.[55][56][57]

NASA satellite Aura detected the eruption using its microwave limb sounder. It measures ozone, water vapor, and other atmospheric gases, and can penetrate obstacles such as ash clouds.[58] The underwater explosion also sent 146 million tons of water from the South Pacific Ocean into the stratosphere.[59] The amount of water vapor ejected was 10 percent of the stratosphere's typical stock.[60] It was enough to temporarily warm the surface of Earth. It is estimated that an excess of water vapour should remain for 5–10 years.[58]

 
An image from the International Space Station of the spreading high altitude smoke cloud.

Academic research

According to a March 2022 paper in the journal Earthquake Research Advances, Hunga Tonga–Hunga Haʻapai's plume reached a peak height of 58 kilometres (36 mi) into the atmosphere and sustained heights greater than 30 kilometres (19 mi).[5] The initial explosive event was possibly more powerful than the Hatepe eruption, even though Hatepe ejected over ten times the volume of material in a longer eruption.[61] Hunga Tonga–Hunga Haʻapai erupted over a span of 12 hours, releasing 1.9 km3 (0.46 cu mi) of ejecta with an estimated mass of 2,900 teragram.

The ERA paper says the eruption correlated to a VEI of 5–6. An April 2022 research paper led by Poli and Shapiro and published by the American Geophysical Union indicates that the eruption is the largest ever observed with modern instrumentation and estimates its VEI to be approximately 6.[11] Meanwhile, Vergoz and others estimate the blast yield to be 100–200 megatons of TNT and place the corresponding VEI at 5.8.[62] Likewise, a study by Diaz and Rigby estimates the energetic output of the eruption to be equivalent to 61 megatons of TNT, making the event more powerful than the largest nuclear bomb ever detonated (Tsar Bomba).[63] The Smithsonian Institution Global Volcanism Program rated the eruption at VEI-5.[1]

The ERA paper also concludes that this eruption resulted in the formation of a new caldera. In May 2022, scientists at the National Institute of Water and Atmospheric Research (NIWA) released a bathymetry map indicating a large caldera measuring 4 km (2.5 mi) in width formed from the eruption. Surveys also indicated that the caldera floor is located 850 m (2,790 ft) below sea level. According to a volcanologist, the caldera walls continue to experience ongoing collapses.[64][65] Surveys of the seafloor around the volcano found large sediment piles, layers of fine mud and ash, and valleys up to 50 km (31 mi) from the volcano. The survey indicated that an estimated 6–7 km3 (1.4–1.7 cu mi) of debris was added to a 22,000 km2 (8,500 sq mi) area seafloor.[66] Scientists also suggest that the volcano may still be erupting underwater.[67]

A 2022 study in the journal Ocean Engineering by Heidarzadeh and others determined the size of the initial tsunami caused by the eruption. The study analyzed data from 22 tide gauges, eight Deep-ocean Assessment and Reporting of Tsunamis (DART) stations, eight atmospheric pressure time series, spectral analysis and computer simulation. It was concluded that the eruption displaced 6.60 × 109 m3 of seawater, 90 m (300 ft) in amplitude, with a length of 12 km (7.5 mi).[68]

  •  

    Hunga Tonga-Hunga Haʻapai in December 2021

  •  

    Hunga Tonga-Hunga Haʻapai in February 2022, after the eruption

Tsunami

Nuku'alofa Tonga
  Video of the tsunami waves hitting the capital, filmed by a resident, Mamani moe me'a fakaofō on YouTube.

Tsunamis are most frequently caused by earthquakes, while those caused by volcanic eruptions are rare.[69][70] Fewer than 100 volcanic tsunamis were recorded in the prior two centuries.[69] According to an official at GNS Science, the suspected cause of the tsunami was an undersea eruption that destroyed part of the island on 14 January. This allowed seawater to fill the volcanic vent, causing another undersea explosion the next day. The explosion was so huge that it penetrated through the overlying seawater and triggered the tsunami.[71]

Tsunami forecast models and alert systems which were intended to work for earthquake-generated tsunamis failed to consider the effects of the shockwaves on the tsunami as it radiated outwards. Shockwaves from the eruption caused abnormally high waves along the coasts of Peru and Japan. The tsunami waves also struck the coasts earlier than had been forecasted.[72]

Oceania

 
Travel time of the tsunami across the Pacific
 
NOAA tsunami energy map on Hunga Tonga–Hunga Haʻapai

As a result of the eruption, a 1.2 m (3 ft 11 in) tsunami[73] struck the Tongan capital Nukuʻalofa.[20][74] Tide gauges in the city recorded waves 1.5–2 m (4 ft 11 in – 6 ft 7 in) in height.[75] Videos posted on the Internet showed a series of waves hitting the shore and homes, sweeping away debris.[76] Other videos show ashfall and a cloud of ash obscuring the sun.[20] According to a resident in the Tongan capital, a series of initial smaller explosions was heard. It was followed by a tsunami approximately 15 minutes later. The first wave was said to be the largest. A long white wave was observed out at sea approaching the coast. Three waves reportedly struck the coast.[77] In the wake of the tsunami, King Tupou VI was evacuated from the Royal Palace and traffic jams formed as locals fled inland or to higher ground.[78]

Based on an unofficial first-hand account of the tsunami in Tonga, the Risklayer think tank developed a tsunami inundation map. From the map, a tsunami with a height of 15 m (49 ft) or greater may have struck the west coast of the island of Tongatapu, where heavy damage was observed.[79] The Tongan government, on 18 January 2022, confirmed waves of up to 15 m (49 ft) struck the west coast of Tongatapu, ʻEua and Haʻapai islands.[80] Tsunami surveys along the Tonga islands confirmed that a tsunami of 20 m (66 ft) struck Nomuka, 65 km northeast of the island. An 18 m (59 ft) wave struck Kanokupolu, on Tongatapu. Waves measuring 10 m (33 ft) were reported on islands greater than 85 km away.[64]

Animation of the tsunami's propagation

In Fiji, a tidal gauge in Suva recorded a wave measuring 20 cm (7.9 in) at 17:40 local time. Some tsunami activity was also reported in the Lau Islands.[75] The islands of Moce, Moala, Kadavu, and Taveuni were struck by low-level tsunamis that triggered flooding.[81]

In American Samoa, a tsunami measuring 61 cm (24 in) was recorded by tide gauges.[37] Niue, where residents evacuated coastal areas, reported no tsunami, despite tremors and the island's close proximity to Tonga.[34]

Tsunami waves of 1–2.5 m (3 ft 3 in – 8 ft 2 in) were observed in several islands in Vanuatu. The Vanuatu Meteorology and Geo-hazards Department said tsunami activity was expected to persist for the night of 15 January 2022.[82] Waves up to 0.8 m (2 ft 7 in) in height were recorded in Hanalei, Hawaii.[83]

A combination of a cyclone surge from Cyclone Cody and the tsunami caused extensive damage at a marina in Tutukaka in New Zealand.[84] The waves pulled boats away from their moorings, taking some out into the bay and smashing some together, as well as damaging the structures at the marina. About eight to ten boats were completely sunk, with the total damage amounting to $5.93 million.[85][86] According to Hauraki Gulf Weather, the tsunami struck on 16 January 2022 at between 01:05 and 01:10 local time on Great Barrier Island with a height of 1.33 m (4 ft 4 in).[87] The tsunami caused flooding at Mahinepua Bay, where a campsite was located; all 50 individuals at the site were safe. A group of people fishing in Hokianga Harbour had to run for their lives to escape the waves, and reported having to drive through water over 1 m (3 ft 3 in) deep.[88] Unusual waves were recorded in Port Taranaki in New Plymouth. They lasted 24 hours, with the largest having a peak-to-peak height of 1 m (3 ft 3 in) at 08:30 local time.[89] There were no casualties reported in New Zealand.[90]

In Australia, the Bureau of Meteorology said tsunami waves were observed throughout Saturday night on the shores along the east coast of Australia.[91] Maximum tsunami waves of 1.27 m (4 ft 2 in) were recorded at Norfolk Island, 1.10 m (3 ft 7 in) at Lord Howe Island, 0.82 m (2 ft 8 in) at the Gold Coast, Queensland, 0.77 m (2 ft 6 in) at Twofold Bay, New South Wales, and 0.50 m (1 ft 8 in) at Hobart, Tasmania.[92][93]

Asia

In Kominato, Amami, Kagoshima, Japan, a 1.2 m (3 ft 11 in) tsunami was reported at 23:55 on 15 January JST. At Tosashimizu, Kōchi, the tsunami was 0.9 m (2 ft 11 in) in height.[94][95] A tsunami measuring 0.9 m (2 ft 11 in) was also reported in Chichijima Futami.[96] On the Tohoku coast, a 0.7 m (2 ft 4 in) wave struck at 00:38 local time, on 16 January 2022. In the Sendai Port, the tsunami measured 0.9 m (2 ft 11 in) at 00:08.[97] In Iwate Prefecture, a 1.1 m (3 ft 7 in) tsunami was recorded at 02:26 on 16 January. The tallest tsunami was recorded 1.34 m (4 ft 5 in) at Amami Ōshima, Okinawa.[98] Tsunami waves of less than a metre were reported along the Hokkaido Pacific coast. This was the nation's first tsunami warning since the 2016 Fukushima earthquake.[99] The JMA said that the tsunami struck 2.5 hours earlier than predicted.[100] Small tsunami waves were observed on the coast of Taiwan. The heights of the tsunami were: 0.4 m (1 ft 4 in) at Houbi Lake in Pingtung County, followed by 0.38 m (1 ft 3 in).

On Orchid Island, Taitung County, 0.36 m (1 ft 2 in) in Yilan County, 0.31 m (1 ft 0 in) in Su'ao, and 0.29 m (11 in) at Hualien County. Waves were also observed at Chenggong with a height of 0.25 m (9.8 in), and at Kaohsiung for 0.24 m (9.4 in).[101]

In Jeju Island, South Korea, there were fluctuations of up to 15–20 cm (5.9–7.9 in) in the sea level.[102]

Russia's Kuril Islands, in the country's far east, had tsunami waves of about 20 cm (7.9 in).[103][104] At least two ports were warned.[104]

North America

The highest tsunami waves in the United States were 1.3 m (4 ft 3 in) in Port San Luis in San Luis Obispo County (Southern California) and 1.1 m (3 ft 7 in) in both Arena Cove and Crescent City (Northern California).[103][105] Significant waves hit the Santa Cruz Harbor,[106] and its parking lot was flooded with about 0.91 m (3 ft 0 in) of water,[105] while Soquel Creek in the neighboring city of Capitola flowed backwards.[107] A surfing competition was cancelled.[108] Strong currents in Half Moon Bay were reported,[106] while small waves were observed at Seal Beach.[109] Waves up to 0.37 m (1 ft 3 in) in height were recorded in Nikolski, Alaska.[110]

There was an unusually high tide along the coasts of British Columbia and Vancouver Island. At 11:55 am local time, the Pacific Tsunami Warning Center (PTWC) said tide levels rose 29 cm (11 in) in Winter Harbour. Large logs were pushed up by the high tides and deposited on the beaches.[111]

The tsunami was first detected along the coastline of Mexico on January 15 at 12:35 by tide gauges at Michoacán.[112] At the coasts of Guerrero, Oaxaca, and Baja California Peninsula, sea level rise was reported with waves of 30 cm (12 in) to 61 cm (24 in).[113] A tide level of 2.05 m (6 ft 9 in) was measured at Manzanillo, Colima, according to the Mareographic Service of the Institute of Geophysics of the National Autonomous University of Mexico. The tsunami had an amplitude of 1.19 m (3 ft 11 in) in Zihuatanejo. Waves of just under 1 m (3 ft 3 in) were recorded in Acapulco, Huatulco, and Salina Cruz.[114] Tsunami activity along the Pacific coast persisted until January 20. The tsunami measured taller than 2 m (6 ft 7 in) at Ensenada, Baja California. Sea level disturbances were recorded at the coast of the Gulf of Mexico and Caribbean Sea. The shockwave-triggered meteotsunami had a maximum wave height of 0.377 m (1 ft 2.8 in).[112]

Minor tsunamis were measured as far away as the Caribbean Sea and Texas, with National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) reporting a maximum rise of 12 cm (4.7 in) at the Isla de Mona in Puerto Rico at 16:11 UTC.[115] These may have been meteo-tsunamis related to slight atmospheric pressure changes.[116]

South America

In Peru, two people were killed in Lambayeque, where the tsunami measured 2 m (6 ft 7 in).[117] Waves measuring 0.68 m (2 ft 3 in) were recorded in the port of Callao, 0.72 m (2 ft 4 in) in Marcona District and 0.65 m (2 ft 2 in) in Paita.[118]

Significant sea level disturbances were measured off the coast of Ecuador's La Libertad, Esmeraldas, and Manta. At 2:33 am local time, a 50 cm rise in sea level was measured on the mainland. There were also sea level changes in the Galapagos Islands.[119] Sea level disturbances off the nation's coast persisted for nearly an hour.[120]

In northern Chile, waves of up to 2 m (6 ft 7 in) struck the coastline. Videos and images on social media from the Los Ríos Region showed the tsunami damaging piers, carrying boats and hitting beaches.[121] A tsunami of 1.74 m (5 ft 9 in) was measured at Chañaral.[122]

Response

14 January

 
A tsunami warning signboard at Gesashi Bay Mangrove Forest, Okinawa Prefecture, Japan

A tsunami warning was issued on 14 January in Tonga after an eruption was observed. Volcanic activity decreased following that eruption and the warning was lifted in the early morning of 15 January. A 30 cm (12 in) wave was observed during the first tsunami warning.[123]

15 January

Another warning was issued to the whole of Tonga on the evening of 15 January following the next eruption.[123] Warning sirens blared in Nukuʻalofa while authorities urged residents to flee to higher ground.[124]

The Mineral Resources Department in Fiji issued advisories to people living around the coastal areas to stay away from the shores.[125] Evacuations were made on the Lau Islands after wave activity was observed in the sea.[75] Fiji's Attorney General Aiyaz Sayed-Khaiyum urged the public to stay indoors and cover household water tanks in the event of rain due to the risk of fallout of sulfuric acid from the SO
2 emitted in the air by the eruption.[126] In Wallis and Futuna, a tsunami warning was issued, but no damage was reported and the alert was lifted in the evening of 15 January.[127]

Tsunami warnings were also issued to American Samoa by the PTWC.[128][129] The PTWC considered the tsunami "hazardous" and warned that changes in sea level, as well as strong currents, could pose a risk along the coast.[130] Samoa later issued a tsunami advisory.[131] The PTWC later cancelled the tsunami warning for American Samoa.[132]

The National Emergency Management Agency of New Zealand told residents to expect "strong and unusual currents and unpredictable surges" along the north and east coast of North Island, as well as the Chatham Islands.[133] The agency added that the currents have the potential to injure and drown people.[134]

A tsunami warning was issued by the Bureau of Meteorology in Australia, with a land warning issued for Norfolk Island and Lord Howe Island, and a marine warning for the east coast of Australia, Tasmania, and Macquarie Island.[92] On 16 January, at 06:55 AEDT (15 January 2022, 19:55 UTC), tsunami marine warnings were issued to New South Wales, Queensland, Victoria, and Tasmania for strong and dangerous currents.[135]

The Japan Meteorological Agency (JMA) informed residents that a slight disturbance in the sea could occur without any damage.[83] The tsunami would not pose a threat to the Japanese coastline. Officials from the JMA said that sea level rise of no more than 20 cm (7.9 in) could be expected for 24 hours from 9:00 p.m. Japan Standard Time (UTC+9).[136] A tsunami warning was issued in the Amami Islands and Tokara Islands by the JMA with forecasted waves of up to 3 m (9.8 ft). Additional warnings were issued to the east and southeast coast for waves of up to 1 m (3 ft 3 in).[137] A warning and evacuation order was issued to Iwate Prefecture, and evacuation orders were also issued to six other prefectures. The Fire and Disaster Management Agency (FDMA) said that 229,000 residents living in the eight prefectures were evacuated.[138] Japan downgraded its warnings the following morning. Russia issued a tsunami advisory for the Kuril Islands.[103]

The National Tsunami Warning Center issued a tsunami advisory along the West Coast of the United States and British Columbia, Canada.[139][140] The advisory contained all U.S. areas along the West Coast from Southern California to Alaska.[141] Beaches were closed,[142] and coastal residents were requested to move to higher ground.[143] A surfing contest with over 100 participants was cancelled in Santa Cruz, California.[105][144] Tsunami waves measuring 30–61 cm (12–24 in) were expected to hit the shores as early as 7:30 a.m. Pacific Standard Time (UTC−8) along the Central Coast.[139] San Francisco was expected to receive waves at 8:10.[145] The highest tsunami waves are expected one to two hours after the arrival of the first waves.[139] A tsunami advisory was put in place for the entirety of Hawaii.[146] Advisories in Canada were issued along the North and Central coasts of British Columbia, along with the Haida Gwaii archipelago and Vancouver Island. No evacuation order was issued, but people were urged to avoid beaches and marinas. The warning level was low due to the height of reported waves, as they were below the 91 cm (36 in) threshold which would warrant an upgrade.[147] By 12:35 local time, the tsunami advisory for British Columbia would be cancelled.[148] By the evening, the United States lifted advisories for Alaska, Hawaii, Washington, Oregon and portions of California. They remained in effect in California in parts of the Central and North Coast until early the following day.[103][149]

No warnings were issued to Peru initially. After the tsunami struck, authorities stopped all maritime activities at the coast. Twenty-two ports along north and central Peru were closed due to tsunami activity.[150]

Chile also issued a warning for a "minor tsunami" for most of its coastal area, including the island of Rapa Nui; evacuation was declared for 12 other regions.[151][152] The Hydrographic and Oceanographic Service of the Chilean Navy declared a "State of Precaution" and indicated that there is a possibility of a minor tsunami in the affected regions. Later, coastal evacuation notices were issued in 14 of the 16 regions in Chile. A "Red alert" level was issued to more than 6,400 km (4,000 mi) of its coastline. The Chilean National Office for Emergency (ONEMI) said that tsunami activity could persist overnight, so those impacted would need to hold onto their emergency supplies and aid.[121]

Ecuador issued a warning of maritime disturbance for the Galápagos Islands.[153]

Mexico issued tsunami warnings for the coasts of states of Baja California, Jalisco, Colima, Michoacán, Guerrero, Oaxaca, and Chiapas, urging people to avoid the coasts and entering the sea.[154]

Subsequent days

A tsunami advisory was issued to American Samoa following a new eruption at the volcano on 16 January. The advisory was cancelled almost two hours later. A tsunami alert that was issued to Fiji on 15 January was cancelled.[155][156]

On 17 January, the Department of Environment in Fiji confirmed that the sulfur dioxide concentration in the atmosphere increased overnight. As previously advised, the department urged the public to cover all household water tanks and stay indoors in the event of acid rain. The Ministry of Environment also advised the public not to consume rainwater.[157][158]

The first aid planes from New Zealand and Australia arrived on Tonga on 20 January, as phone lines were partially restored.[159][160]

On 2 February, after receiving aid shipments, the country went into a COVID-19 lockdown, as two port workers in Nukuʻalofa tested positive.[161][162]

Impact

Deaths, injuries and missings by country
Countries Deaths Injuries Missing Ref.
Tonga 4 14 Several [163][164][165][166]
Peru 2 0 0 [117]
United States 0 3 0 [167]
Japan 0 2 0 [168]
Total 6 19 Several

Tonga

 
Effects of the eruption in Saint George's Palace

Little information was made available on the extent of damage and casualties from Tonga due to communication issues involving a damaged undersea cable.[83] Video footage showing waves hitting coastal areas in Tonga was reported by Sky News.[169] Atatā, a small island off the capital city, was reportedly submerged and rescue operations were being carried out. Images confirmed that most of the island have been wiped out; the New Zealand Defence Force described the damages as "catastrophic".[170] There were some reports of residents in Tonga struggling to breathe as a result of the ash.[171][172]

According to a media release by the government via a tweet, all structures were destroyed on Mango Island. Only two buildings remained intact on Fonoifua Island, and Nomuka Island suffered major damage. Twenty-one homes were destroyed and another 35 were seriously damaged on Tongatapu's west coast. Eight homes were demolished and 20 seriously damaged in Nukuʻalofa. ʻEua Island saw the loss of 2 homes and 45 damaged.[80] An assessment by the United Nations Institute for Training and Research (UNITAR) revealed extensive damage on Atatā Island; at least 72 buildings were affected by the tsunami and the whole island was blanketed by ash.[173] Early reports said Atatā Island, which is located off the main Tongan island near Nukuʻalofa, was submerged by the tsunami.[171] A Facebook post by the Royal Sunset Island Resort on the island said all residents were accounted for and safely evacuated.[173] On Tongatapu, 50 homes were destroyed and 100 more suffered damage.[174]

 
Effects of the eruption in Tonga

A New Zealand government official in the capital Nukuʻalofa said extensive damage occurred on the waterfront of the city, as it was severely hit by the tsunami.[175] Acting High Commissioner Peter Lund said that several people were unaccounted for following the eruption and tsunami.[164] Tattoo parlour owner Angela Glover, a British resident in Tonga was among the people missing, swept away by the tsunami when it hit Nukuʻalofa.[176] Glover's body was later found.[177] Though the extent of the damage in Tonga is still not clear, a blanket of thick ash has contaminated water supplies, cut off communications and prevented surveillance flights, making it difficult for relief efforts to begin.[178] Another fatality was confirmed by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Trade on 18 January.[179] Lund added that there was an initially unconfirmed third death from the tsunami.[180] This third death was identified as a local resident, and the Tongan government has confirmed three deaths were the result of the tsunami.[163] The Government of Tonga said that the two locals who died were from Mango and Nomuka islands respectively.[80][181] A fourth fatality was confirmed by 30 January, but information about this victim was not disclosed.[166]

 
A P-3K2 Orion aircraft flies over an area of Tonga that shows the heavy ash fall from the recent volcanic eruption within the Tongan Islands.

On 23 January, the Tongan government confirmed that eight people on Nomuka island were injured, with six others sustaining minor injuries.[165]

Photos shared by a resident on the island of Lifuka, northeast of Nukuʻalofa showed minor damage to island communities and a wharf. Damage suggests the island was hit by smaller waves. The islands of ʻUiha and Haʻano also sustained limited damage from the tsunami. Several photographs showed debris left by the tsunami strewn across a road and on grass fields.[182] Owners of the Haʻatafu Beach Resort wrote on Facebook that their beach resort, located at the northern tip of the island of Tongatapu, was completely destroyed. The employees were able to escape. They added that the whole western coastline of the island and Kanokupolu village were destroyed.[183] The United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs stated that there was concern for two low-lying islands in the Haʻapai group, Fonoi and Mango, as a distress beacon had been detected on one of the islands (Fonoi has a population of 69 people, while Mango has 36 residents).[184] A surveillance flight confirmed "substantial property damage" on the two low-lying islands; the Tongan government later confirmed that all homes on Mango Island were destroyed.[185][186]

Southern Cross Cable reported that the eruption may have broken the Tonga Cable System, which connects Tonga to Southern Cross's trans-Pacific cable in Fiji.[187] Southern Cross cited a fault in the international cable 37 km (23 mi) from Nukuʻalofa, and a further fault in a domestic cable 47 km (29 mi) from Nukuʻalofa.[188] New Zealand prime minister Jacinda Ardern had earlier stated that an undersea cable serving Tonga was affected, probably due to power cuts, and authorities were urgently attempting to restore communications.[189] The chair of the Tonga Cable System, Samiuela Fonua, stated that repair crews would not be cleared to access the site of the faults before volcanic activity ceased at Hunga Tonga; with additional preparation time necessary for the repairs, internet services could be unavailable for over two weeks after the eruption.[190] Limited satellite connectivity was established on 21 January, mobile phone provider Digicel established a 2G cell network on Tongatapu using a satellite dish from the University of the South Pacific.[191][192] Reuters reported that a specialist cable repair ship would arrive at the Tongan archipelago on 30 January.[191] On 4 February, the Associated Press reported that Fonua stated that repair crews would need to replace 87 kilometres (54 mi) of cable, and that he hoped to have it restored the following week.[193] On 8 February, the Matangi Tonga website reported that more breaks were suspected within the cable, delaying the cable's restoration to 20 February.[194][195] Agence France-Presse followed up in a report on 15 February, stating that the cable was torn into multiple pieces and that a 55-kilometre (34 mi) section of cable had been lost. The report also stated that separate sections of cable had been moved 5 kilometres (3.1 mi) and buried under 30 centimetres (12 in) of silt.[196] The cable being cut repeatedly and moved long distances is consistent with a turbidity current damaging it, similar to the 1929 Grand Banks earthquake.[197] The cable connection to Tongatapu was repaired on 22 February.[198]

Severe damage on the west coast of Tongatapu was confirmed by the New Zealand High Commission in Tonga on 17 January.[199] Surveillance flights by the Australian Defence Forces reported extensive damage along the west coast.[200] The shores of Nukuʻalofa had substantial damage as debris and rocks were deposited inland by the tsunami waves, according to an early report from the UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA). A 2 cm (0.79 in) layer of volcanic ash blanketed the capital Nukuʻalofa.[201]

Satellite images of Nomuka island showed that nearly a fifth of the structures had been damaged, with more than 40 buildings covered in ash.[202] The Fuaʻamotu International Airport was covered with ash and dirt.[203] There were also reports of water damage in the district of Nukuʻalofa.[204] The Tongan navy that was dispatched to Haʻapai islands reported significant damage, where a tsunami estimated to be between 5–10 m (16–33 ft) in height traveled as far as 500 m (1,600 ft) inland.[185]

The World Bank's damage assessment report for the Tongan Government stated that the eruption and tsunami caused damage estimated at US $90.4 million; ~18.5% of Tonga's total gross domestic product (GDP). The Global Facility for Disaster Reduction and Recovery reported that 600 buildings including 300 homes were damaged or destroyed by the tsunami. The damage was estimated at US $43.7 million. At least 85% of Tonga's agricultural industry was severely affected by damage to crops and fisheries, estimating at US $20.9 million. Damage to roads, bridges, ports and submarine cables were an estimated US $20.9 million. The clean-up cost is also an additional US $5 million.[205]

Elsewhere

 
Volcanic ash from the eruption over Queensland, Australia on 17 January 2022
 
The atmospheric plume from the volcanic eruption in the Pacific nation of Tonga is pictured from the International Space Station as it orbited 433 km (269 mi) above the Pacific Ocean northwest of Auckland, New Zealand.
 
President Pedro Castillo and government officials at a beach in Peru after an oil spill caused by the tsunami.

In Fiji, the eruption triggered waves in Vanua Balavu, Kadavu, Gau, and Taveuni. In the village of Moce, Lau Islands, the tsunami severely damaged some homes on the beaches and debris was strewn across the village and boats were dragged inland.[206][207] There was sizeable damage to schools, infrastructure as well as fishing boats in the islands.[208]

Two people in Itoman, Okinawa, and Amami City, Japan suffered falls during the evacuations.[168] A number of fishing boats in Kōchi and Mie prefectures capsized or sank. A total of 30 fishing vessels were lost. In Muroto, five small boats sank and another five were lost. A small ship capsized and sank in Owase. The tsunami also damaged fishing nets on the coast of Tokushima Prefecture.[209] Land, sea and air transportation was affected; 27 domestic flights operated by Japan Air Lines were cancelled due to the warnings.[210]

The tsunami caused serious material damage to a tour operator at Kailua-Kona, Hawaii, where 80% of its inventory and gear was lost. Major damage to retail products and the business office totaled at least US$75,000.[211] Beaches and piers were flooded by the surging waves in the city. Canoes belonging to several clubs were damaged and strewn across the beach or on rock walls due to the waves. Boats were dumped inland or on piers after the waves retreated.[212]

Two women in northern Peru drowned in the swell when 2 m (6 ft 7 in) waves hit Naylamp beach, Lambayeque, dragging a truck into the sea. The driver escaped.[213][117] Twenty-two ports along northern and central Peru were closed due to the tsunami. Substantial material damage was inflicted on coastal businesses and the beach areas. Videos showed the tsunami flooding the streets.[150] Restaurants and boats in Lagunillas beach and San Andrés District were damaged by waves. Many beachgoers were evacuated to safety while businesses closed.[214] Damage to piers and some homes occurred in the capital, Lima. In some areas, boat owners dragged their boats onto shore to prevent the waves from damaging them.[215][216] The Peruvian Civil Defense Institute said on 17 January that an oil spill occurred at the La Pampilla refinery. The spill was caused by tsunami waves moving a ship while transporting oil onto the refinery.[217] The oil spill affected some 1,187 km2 (458 sq mi) of sea and 1,740 km2 (670 sq mi) of beach-coastal strip, and more than 500 ha (1,200 acres) of protected natural areas in Peru.[218]

Despite the warnings from officials, some residents in California strayed too close to the sea, and they were swept away by strong surges, such as the situation at San Gregorio, California, where four fishermen were swept out to sea by the tsunami. Two men were injured and received medical treatment, while another two were rescued unhurt.[219] A woman was rescued and treated by medical workers at China Beach, San Francisco.[167] San Francisco firefighters and the U.S. Coast Guard rescued three surfers.[105] The tsunami caused extensive damage at Santa Cruz harbor in Santa Cruz, California. Electrical systems, pilings, restrooms and showers were damaged and repair costs were estimated at US$6.5 million.[220]

Minor material damage occurred on the coast of Penco, and six people were trapped in Coliumo (near Tomé), in Chile's Biobío Region.[221] No casualties were reported due to the evacuations. A State of Precaution was still in place in Atacama, Coquimbo, Ñuble and Biobío as of 16 January 2022.[222]

Flights to Tonga and in the surrounding region were disrupted by lingering volcanic ash. Air New Zealand stated that a repatriation flight to Tonga that was originally scheduled for 20 January was postponed indefinitely, and Fiji Airways announced that all flights to Tonga were postponed and several services to Australia could face delays and longer flight times.[223] An Aircalin flight from Tokyo to Nouméa was diverted to Brisbane to avoid volcanic ash, with a subsequent flight from Nouméa to Sydney placed on hold.[224] The ash cloud reached Queensland on 17 January, creating an "eerie, spectacular, and incredible" sunrise.[225] In July, it reached Antarctica, causing "stunning" pink and purple skyscapes.[226]

Assistance

 
RNZAF 3SQN maintenance teams prepare two NH90 helicopters for long-term operations to assist Tonga.

New Zealand's Prime Minister Jacinda Ardern said officials from the Ministry of Foreign Affairs were discussing the provision of aid to Tonga.[227] Ardern described the events in Tonga as "hugely concerning".[171] On 16 January, she announced New Zealand was donating NZ$500,000, which was "very much the starting point". The Royal New Zealand Navy was preparing to sail and a RNZAF P-3 Orion would be sent on a reconnaissance flight as soon as it was safe to do so. The ash cloud was estimated at 19,000 m (62,000 ft) high, well above the Orion's service ceiling.[189] The C-130H Hercules airlift is ready to serve as well.[228] Following reports of no continued ashfall in Tonga, the P-3 Orion left RNZAF Base Auckland for Tonga on the morning of 17 January.[229] On 18 January, as an RNZAF Lockheed C-130 Hercules was unable to land following continued ashfall in Tonga, two Royal New Zealand Navy ships set sail for Tonga. HMNZS Wellington carried survey equipment and a helicopter, while HMNZS Aotearoa carried 250,000 L (55,000 imp gal; 66,000 US gal) of water and desalination equipment to produce a further 70,000 L (15,000 imp gal; 18,000 US gal) per day.[230] On 20 January, New Zealand announced that it would dispatch a third warship, HMNZS Canterbury with two NH90 helicopters to assist with relief efforts.[231]

Tonga accepted an offer by the Australian government of a surveillance flight to assess the damage. Two Boeing P-8A Poseidon maritime patrol aircraft and a Lockheed C-130J Hercules of the Royal Australian Air Force departed on the morning of 17 January 2022 for Tonga to survey damage to roadways, ports and power lines.[232][233][234] The Australian and New Zealand governments also announced they were coordinating their humanitarian response with France and the United States.[235][236] Assistance from France is provided through the humanitarian aid mechanism of the FRANZ agreement with Australia and New Zealand.[237] Australia would later announce that HMAS Adelaide would be deployed to Tonga with water purification and humanitarian supplies.[238] The United States dispatched USS Sampson as well as a Coast Guard vessel while the United Kingdom deployed HMS Spey.[239][240] After 23 crew members of the Adelaide tested positive for COVID-19 while enroute to Tonga, the ship made a contactless delivery.[241]

On 17 January, officials in Tonga called for immediate aid. Speaker of the Legislative Assembly of Tonga Fatafehi Fakafanua in a social media post wrote that "Tonga needs immediate assistance to provide its citizens with fresh drinking water and food". The International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement and the Pacific Island Forum has offered its assistance.[242] Tearfund and Oxfam provided immediate assistance by supporting people with food and water. Oxfam already had filtering units in Tongatapu which could turn salt water into drinking water. UNICEF will work with the Tongan government to reach affected children and families. The agency was also ready to transport its emergency supplies from Fiji and Brisbane.[243]

Fiji's Attorney General and Acting Prime Minister Aiyaz Sayed-Khaiyum said that Fiji was working with New Zealand and Australia to coordinate regional relief efforts. He added that Fiji had offered to dispatch Republic of Fiji Military Forces (RFMF) personnel and engineers that would join the Australian Defence Force (ADF). Relief supplies would also be sent to the Lau group that was affected by the tsunami.[244][245] On 29 January, a chartered commercial vessel was deployed to Tonga. Aboard the vessel were 11 shipping containers filled with relief supplies. Four containers were from the Tongan Community in Fiji while the rest were from donations by government and non-government organizations.[246][247]

The International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies (IFRC) Asia Pacific said that drinking water were hurriedly distributed to people in need due to the tsunami and ash affecting local water supply. The Tonga Red Cross provided temporary shelters and supplied water to affected communities. Emergency response teams were sent to Mango, Fonoifua and Namuka islands.[248]

International

  •   China: On 17 January, the Red Cross Society of China decided to provide US$100,000 of emergency humanitarian aid in cash to the Tongan side,[249] while the government of China said it would deliver a batch of disaster relief materials to Tonga at the request of the South Pacific island country.[250] On 19 January, the Chinese government delivered a batch of emergency supplies such as drinking water and food to Tonga through the embassy in Tonga. The Chinese Embassy in Fiji raised another batch of RMB 1 million materials to deliver to Tonga. On 27 and 31 January, the Chinese army dispatched air force transport aircraft Y-20 and naval ships to Tonga to deliver emergency and post-disaster reconstruction materials such as water purifiers, tents, personal protective equipment, generators, water pumps, tractors, radio communication equipment in two batches. The two batches of materials are 33 tons and more than 1,400 tons respectively. They arrived on 28 January and 15 February local time respectively.[251]
  •   Israel: Israeli Foreign Minister Yair Lapid stated that Israel was exploring ways of providing aid to Tonga through its aid agency Mashav including access to safe drinking water.[252]
  •   Singapore: On 18 January, the Singapore Red Cross Society pledged S$50,000 in aid to Tonga and also announced a fundraising effort to raise more help for those affected by the tsunami.[253][254]
  •   Japan: On 20 January, the Japanese Government dispatched two C-130H via Australia to Tonga. Subsequently, the Japanese Ministry of Defense decided to send JS Osumi with 60,000 L (13,000 imp gal; 16,000 US gal) of drinking water, high-pressure cleaning devices for removing volcanic ash, and two CH-47J onboard. The Ministry had also deployed its C-2 transport aircraft loaded with additional relief supplies.[255] The Japanese Government has also planned to offer more than ¥114 million (US$1 million) in funds for Tonga.[256]
  •   India: On 25 January, the Indian Government provided an immediate relief assistance of US$200,000 "to support relief, rehabilitation and reconstruction efforts" in Tonga, which it described as "a close friend and partner under the Forum for India-Pacific Islands Cooperation (FIPIC).[257]

Non-state actors

On 6 February, The New Zealand Herald and the Fiji Broadcasting Corporation's FBC News reported that SpaceX engineers were working to restore Internet access in Tonga. New Zealand National Party Member of Parliament Shane Reti had earlier petitioned SpaceX CEO Elon Musk for assistance in providing Starlink satellite technology to the island country. In response, Musk had asked on Twitter whether Tonga authorities could inform him on whether Starlink terminals were needed. The Fijian Minister for Communications Aiyaz Sayed-Khaiyum subsequently confirmed that SpaceX engineers would establish and operate a temporary ground station in Fiji to assist with efforts to restore Internet access in Tonga.[258][259]

By 23 February, Tonga Cable had managed to restore Tonga's fibre-optic cable with the assistance of SpaceX. The SubCom ship Reliance is working to restore the Southern Cross Cable connection, with repairs due to be completed on 1 March 2022.[needs update][260][261] On 21 February, repair works on the Southern Cross Cable were completed, restoring Internet to Tonga.[262][263]

Tongan Olympian flagbearer Pita Taufatofua, who became widely known during the 2016 Summer Olympics, gathered more than US$330,000 in aid to his native country, after he opened a GoFundMe fundraising website.[264]

See also

Notes

  1. ^ The volcano was declared dormant on January 11 after the December 2021 eruption sequence ended.[2]
  2. ^ This is an explosion which magnitude was calculated using techniques calibrated for earthquakes.[25]

References

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  40. ^ Bureau of Meteorology, Australia [@BOM_au] (16 January 2022). "Bureau data shows the shockwave from Hunga Tonga-Hunga Ha'apai volcanic eruption travelled at over 1000 km/h and was recorded as a noticeable jump in atmospheric pressure across Australia. By the time it reached Perth it had travelled almost 7000 kilometres" (Tweet). Archived from the original on 17 January 2021 – via Twitter.
  41. ^ Noyes, Jenny; Han, Esther (15 January 2022). . The Sydney Morning Herald. Archived from the original on 15 January 2022. Retrieved 15 January 2022.
  42. ^ @Ben_Domensino (15 January 2022). "This is phenomenal. It appears the atmospheric pressure waves created by the #Tonga #volcano have been detected on Australia's east coast. This graph shows MSLP fluctuating in Sydney around the same time satellite images showed the pressure wave reaching eastern Australia" (Tweet). Archived from the original on 16 January 2022 – via Twitter.
  43. ^ @Ben_Domensino (15 January 2022). "The pressure wave was also detected in #Perth, WA around 6:30 pm AWST, some 6900 km away from the Hunga Tonga-Hunga Haʻapai volcano" (Tweet). Archived from the original on 17 January 2022 – via Twitter.
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External links

 
Wikimedia Commons has media related to 2022 Hunga Tonga–Hunga Ha'apai eruption and tsunami.
  • EMSR558: Volcano eruption in Tonga (damage grading maps) – Copernicus Emergency Management Service
  • ReliefWeb's main page Tonga: Volcanic Eruption and Tsunami – January 2022
  • CIMSS Satellite Blog
  • The International Seismological Centre has a bibliography and/or authoritative data for this event.
  • Update on the eruption and consequences, Nature news, 8 June 2022
January 15, 2023
2021, hunga, tonga, hunga, haʻapai, eruption, tsunami, december, 2021, eruption, began, hunga, tonga, hunga, haʻapai, submarine, volcano, tongan, archipelago, southern, pacific, ocean, eruption, reached, very, large, powerful, climax, nearly, four, weeks, late. In December 2021 an eruption began on Hunga Tonga Hunga Haʻapai a submarine volcano in the Tongan archipelago in the southern Pacific Ocean 6 The eruption reached a very large and powerful climax nearly four weeks later on 15 January 2022 7 Hunga Tonga Hunga Haʻapai is 65 km 40 mi north of Tongatapu the country s main island 8 and is part of the highly active Tonga Kermadec Islands volcanic arc a subduction zone extending from New Zealand to Fiji 9 10 In the Volcanic Explosivity Index scale the eruption was rated at least a VEI 5 1 11 Described by scientists as a magma hammer the volcano at its height produced a series of four underwater thrusts displaced 10 cubic kilometers of rock ash and sediment and generated the largest atmospheric explosion recorded by modern instrumentation 7 2022 Hunga Tonga Hunga Haʻapai eruption and tsunamiSatellite animation of the initial ash plume and shockwave on 15 January 2022VolcanoHunga Tonga Hunga HaʻapaiStart date20 December 2021 1 nb 1 End date15 January 2022 1 TypeSurtseyan Plinian 3 4 LocationPacific Ocean Tonga20 33 00 S 175 23 06 W 20 550 S 175 385 W 20 550 175 385 Hunga Tonga VEI5 6 5 ImpactAt least 6 dead 19 injured and others reported missing 90 4 million in damages in Tonga estimated The eruption caused tsunamis in Tonga Fiji American Samoa Vanuatu and along the Pacific rim including damaging tsunamis in New Zealand Japan the United States the Russian Far East Chile and Peru At least four people were killed some were injured and some remain possibly missing in Tonga from tsunami waves up to 20 m 66 ft high Two people drowned in Peru when 2 m 6 ft 7 in waves struck the coast It was the largest volcanic eruption since the 1991 eruption of Mount Pinatubo and the most powerful eruption since the 1883 eruption of Krakatoa 12 NASA determined that the eruption was hundreds of times more powerful than the atomic bomb dropped on Hiroshima 13 The eruption was the largest explosion recorded in the atmosphere by modern instrumentation far larger than any 20th century volcanic event or nuclear bomb test It is thought that in recent centuries only the Krakatoa eruption of 1883 rivalled the atmospheric disturbance produced 14 15 Contents 1 Volcanic activity 1 1 December 2021 1 2 January 2022 1 3 Academic research 2 Tsunami 2 1 Oceania 2 2 Asia 2 3 North America 2 4 South America 3 Response 3 1 14 January 3 2 15 January 3 3 Subsequent days 4 Impact 4 1 Tonga 4 2 Elsewhere 5 Assistance 5 1 International 5 2 Non state actors 6 See also 7 Notes 8 References 9 External linksVolcanic activity EditDecember 2021 Edit source source source source source source source source source source source source source source source source Footage of the Hunga Tonga Hunga Haʻapai eruption on 30 December 2021 After staying relatively inactive since 2014 16 the Hunga Tonga Hunga Haʻapai volcano erupted on 20 December 2021 sending particulates into the stratosphere A large plume of ash was visible from Nukuʻalofa the capital city of Tonga about 70 km 43 mi from the volcano 1 17 The Volcanic Ash Advisory Center VAAC in Wellington New Zealand issued an advisory notice to airlines 18 This initial eruption ended at 02 00 on 21 December 2021 17 On 22 December and 23 December 2021 8 to 14 kilometre high 5 0 to 8 7 mi plumes containing sulfur dioxide drifted to the north northeast and spread over the Niuatoputapu Haʻapai and Vavaʻu island groups Surtseyan explosions steam plumes and steam bursts were recorded by a Tonga Navy crew on 23 December 2021 during which time the first ground based images of the eruption were created 3 Between 24 December and 27 December 2021 steam and gas emissions reached altitudes of 10 3 12 2 kilometres 6 4 7 6 mi Ash plumes reached heights of only 3 kilometres 1 9 mi depositing ash only adjacent to the volcano 3 On 25 December 2021 satellite imagery revealed that the island had increased in size by 300 600 metres 980 1 970 ft on its eastern side 3 19 During 29 30 December 2021 several surges of Surtseyan activity occurred some of which were witnessed by passengers on a small South Seas Charters boat Eruption plumes during the second half of December 2021 interrupted air travel to Tonga multiple times 3 January 2022 Edit As activity on the island decreased it was declared dormant by the Tonga Geological Services on 11 January 2022 2 20 A large eruption commenced on 14 January 2022 at 04 20 local time 15 20 UTC 13 January sending clouds of ash 20 km 12 mi into the atmosphere 21 22 The government of Tonga issued a tsunami warning to residents and waves of 30 cm 12 in were observed in Nuku alofa 21 23 Later in the afternoon Tongan geologists near the volcano observed explosions and a 5 km 3 1 mi wide ash column between 17 00 and 18 30 local time 24 A much larger Plinian eruption started the following day 15 January 2022 at 17 14 local time 04 14 45 UTC 15 January 4 25 The eruption column from this eruption rose 58 km 36 mi into the mesosphere 26 27 The VAAC again issued an advisory notice to airlines 28 Ash from the eruption made landfall on the main island of Tongatapu blotting out the sun Loud explosions were heard 65 km 40 mi away in Nukuʻalofa and small stones and ash rained down from the sky 29 Many residents in Tonga were stuck in traffic whilst attempting to flee to higher ground 30 A four hour observation of the January 2022 eruption over the southern Pacific Ocean from the GOES West satellite Shockwave from the Hunga Tonga eruption captured by GOES 17 GOES West and shown using the Mid level Water Vapor The explosion was heard in Samoa roughly 840 km 520 mi away before the sound travelled to more distant countries 31 32 Residents in Fiji more than 700 km 430 mi away described the sounds of thunder while the thump of the eruption was also reported in Niue and Vanuatu 33 Tremors and shaking buildings were reported by residents in southwestern Niue around Alofi and Avatele 34 The United States Geological Survey USGS estimated the eruption at a surface wave magnitude of 5 8 25 nb 2 The eruption was heard more than 2 000 km 1 200 mi away in New Zealand where the sound arrived two hours later 35 A series of bangs were heard around 3 30 a m local time in and around Anchorage Alaska approximately 9 700 km 6 000 mi away from the volcano lasting about 30 minutes Low frequency noise persisted for approximately two hours 36 Booms were heard as far away as Yukon in Canada 37 38 source source source source Footage from an aircraft viewing the eruption on 14 January 2022 The volcanic explosion caused atmospheric shockwaves to propagate around the globe Satellites visually captured shockwaves propagating across the Pacific Ocean and a very wide eruption column 37 The pressure wave was measured by weather stations in many locations including New Zealand to a maximum amplitude of about 7 hPa 39 and Australia to 6 9 hPa at Lord Howe Island and 3 3 hPa at Perth 40 41 42 43 Even in Europe a pressure fluctuation of 2 5 hPa was measured in Switzerland 44 and of just over 2 hPa when it reached the United Kingdom 45 Shockwaves were reported as having gone around the earth as many as four times in Japan and Utah 46 47 and at least twice at the Blue Hill Meteorological Observatory in Massachusetts 48 The pressure shockwave was also observed in Chennai India which is 12 000 km from the eruption site 49 Intense lightning activity was recorded during the eruption phase The Vaisala Global Lightning Dataset GLD360 detected lightning in the form of radio waves Several hundred to a thousand flashes of lightning were recorded by the system during the two weeks before the eruption From 14 to 15 January 2022 tens of thousands of lightning flashes occurred 50 Between 05 00 and 06 00 UTC on 15 January 2022 200 000 flashes were recorded 50 51 Preliminary observations showed that the eruption column ejected a large amount of volcanic material into the stratosphere leading to speculation that it would cause a temporary climate cooling effect 52 Later calculations showed it injected an estimated 400 000 tonnes of sulfur dioxide into the stratosphere and was unlikely to have any global cooling effect 53 Despite this the eruption can have a cooling effect in the Southern Hemisphere causing slight cooling of winters and spectacular sunsets People living in the Southern Hemisphere can expect purple sunsets for a few months after the eruption A cooling effect of 0 1 0 5 C 0 18 0 90 F may last until spring September November 2022 54 The eruption was described as a once in a thousand year event for the Hunga caldera 55 56 57 NASA satellite Aura detected the eruption using its microwave limb sounder It measures ozone water vapor and other atmospheric gases and can penetrate obstacles such as ash clouds 58 The underwater explosion also sent 146 million tons of water from the South Pacific Ocean into the stratosphere 59 The amount of water vapor ejected was 10 percent of the stratosphere s typical stock 60 It was enough to temporarily warm the surface of Earth It is estimated that an excess of water vapour should remain for 5 10 years 58 An image from the International Space Station of the spreading high altitude smoke cloud Academic research Edit According to a March 2022 paper in the journal Earthquake Research Advances Hunga Tonga Hunga Haʻapai s plume reached a peak height of 58 kilometres 36 mi into the atmosphere and sustained heights greater than 30 kilometres 19 mi 5 The initial explosive event was possibly more powerful than the Hatepe eruption even though Hatepe ejected over ten times the volume of material in a longer eruption 61 Hunga Tonga Hunga Haʻapai erupted over a span of 12 hours releasing 1 9 km3 0 46 cu mi of ejecta with an estimated mass of 2 900 teragram The ERA paper says the eruption correlated to a VEI of 5 6 An April 2022 research paper led by Poli and Shapiro and published by the American Geophysical Union indicates that the eruption is the largest ever observed with modern instrumentation and estimates its VEI to be approximately 6 11 Meanwhile Vergoz and others estimate the blast yield to be 100 200 megatons of TNT and place the corresponding VEI at 5 8 62 Likewise a study by Diaz and Rigby estimates the energetic output of the eruption to be equivalent to 61 megatons of TNT making the event more powerful than the largest nuclear bomb ever detonated Tsar Bomba 63 The Smithsonian Institution Global Volcanism Program rated the eruption at VEI 5 1 The ERA paper also concludes that this eruption resulted in the formation of a new caldera In May 2022 scientists at the National Institute of Water and Atmospheric Research NIWA released a bathymetry map indicating a large caldera measuring 4 km 2 5 mi in width formed from the eruption Surveys also indicated that the caldera floor is located 850 m 2 790 ft below sea level According to a volcanologist the caldera walls continue to experience ongoing collapses 64 65 Surveys of the seafloor around the volcano found large sediment piles layers of fine mud and ash and valleys up to 50 km 31 mi from the volcano The survey indicated that an estimated 6 7 km3 1 4 1 7 cu mi of debris was added to a 22 000 km2 8 500 sq mi area seafloor 66 Scientists also suggest that the volcano may still be erupting underwater 67 A 2022 study in the journal Ocean Engineering by Heidarzadeh and others determined the size of the initial tsunami caused by the eruption The study analyzed data from 22 tide gauges eight Deep ocean Assessment and Reporting of Tsunamis DART stations eight atmospheric pressure time series spectral analysis and computer simulation It was concluded that the eruption displaced 6 60 109 m3 of seawater 90 m 300 ft in amplitude with a length of 12 km 7 5 mi 68 Hunga Tonga Hunga Haʻapai in December 2021 Hunga Tonga Hunga Haʻapai in February 2022 after the eruptionTsunami EditNuku alofa Tonga Video of the tsunami waves hitting the capital filmed by a resident Mamani moe me a fakaofō on YouTube Tsunamis are most frequently caused by earthquakes while those caused by volcanic eruptions are rare 69 70 Fewer than 100 volcanic tsunamis were recorded in the prior two centuries 69 According to an official at GNS Science the suspected cause of the tsunami was an undersea eruption that destroyed part of the island on 14 January This allowed seawater to fill the volcanic vent causing another undersea explosion the next day The explosion was so huge that it penetrated through the overlying seawater and triggered the tsunami 71 Tsunami forecast models and alert systems which were intended to work for earthquake generated tsunamis failed to consider the effects of the shockwaves on the tsunami as it radiated outwards Shockwaves from the eruption caused abnormally high waves along the coasts of Peru and Japan The tsunami waves also struck the coasts earlier than had been forecasted 72 Oceania Edit Travel time of the tsunami across the Pacific NOAA tsunami energy map on Hunga Tonga Hunga Haʻapai As a result of the eruption a 1 2 m 3 ft 11 in tsunami 73 struck the Tongan capital Nukuʻalofa 20 74 Tide gauges in the city recorded waves 1 5 2 m 4 ft 11 in 6 ft 7 in in height 75 Videos posted on the Internet showed a series of waves hitting the shore and homes sweeping away debris 76 Other videos show ashfall and a cloud of ash obscuring the sun 20 According to a resident in the Tongan capital a series of initial smaller explosions was heard It was followed by a tsunami approximately 15 minutes later The first wave was said to be the largest A long white wave was observed out at sea approaching the coast Three waves reportedly struck the coast 77 In the wake of the tsunami King Tupou VI was evacuated from the Royal Palace and traffic jams formed as locals fled inland or to higher ground 78 Based on an unofficial first hand account of the tsunami in Tonga the Risklayer think tank developed a tsunami inundation map From the map a tsunami with a height of 15 m 49 ft or greater may have struck the west coast of the island of Tongatapu where heavy damage was observed 79 The Tongan government on 18 January 2022 confirmed waves of up to 15 m 49 ft struck the west coast of Tongatapu ʻEua and Haʻapai islands 80 Tsunami surveys along the Tonga islands confirmed that a tsunami of 20 m 66 ft struck Nomuka 65 km northeast of the island An 18 m 59 ft wave struck Kanokupolu on Tongatapu Waves measuring 10 m 33 ft were reported on islands greater than 85 km away 64 source source source source source source source source source source source source source source Animation of the tsunami s propagation In Fiji a tidal gauge in Suva recorded a wave measuring 20 cm 7 9 in at 17 40 local time Some tsunami activity was also reported in the Lau Islands 75 The islands of Moce Moala Kadavu and Taveuni were struck by low level tsunamis that triggered flooding 81 In American Samoa a tsunami measuring 61 cm 24 in was recorded by tide gauges 37 Niue where residents evacuated coastal areas reported no tsunami despite tremors and the island s close proximity to Tonga 34 Tsunami waves of 1 2 5 m 3 ft 3 in 8 ft 2 in were observed in several islands in Vanuatu The Vanuatu Meteorology and Geo hazards Department said tsunami activity was expected to persist for the night of 15 January 2022 82 Waves up to 0 8 m 2 ft 7 in in height were recorded in Hanalei Hawaii 83 A combination of a cyclone surge from Cyclone Cody and the tsunami caused extensive damage at a marina in Tutukaka in New Zealand 84 The waves pulled boats away from their moorings taking some out into the bay and smashing some together as well as damaging the structures at the marina About eight to ten boats were completely sunk with the total damage amounting to 5 93 million 85 86 According to Hauraki Gulf Weather the tsunami struck on 16 January 2022 at between 01 05 and 01 10 local time on Great Barrier Island with a height of 1 33 m 4 ft 4 in 87 The tsunami caused flooding at Mahinepua Bay where a campsite was located all 50 individuals at the site were safe A group of people fishing in Hokianga Harbour had to run for their lives to escape the waves and reported having to drive through water over 1 m 3 ft 3 in deep 88 Unusual waves were recorded in Port Taranaki in New Plymouth They lasted 24 hours with the largest having a peak to peak height of 1 m 3 ft 3 in at 08 30 local time 89 There were no casualties reported in New Zealand 90 In Australia the Bureau of Meteorology said tsunami waves were observed throughout Saturday night on the shores along the east coast of Australia 91 Maximum tsunami waves of 1 27 m 4 ft 2 in were recorded at Norfolk Island 1 10 m 3 ft 7 in at Lord Howe Island 0 82 m 2 ft 8 in at the Gold Coast Queensland 0 77 m 2 ft 6 in at Twofold Bay New South Wales and 0 50 m 1 ft 8 in at Hobart Tasmania 92 93 Asia Edit In Kominato Amami Kagoshima Japan a 1 2 m 3 ft 11 in tsunami was reported at 23 55 on 15 January JST At Tosashimizu Kōchi the tsunami was 0 9 m 2 ft 11 in in height 94 95 A tsunami measuring 0 9 m 2 ft 11 in was also reported in Chichijima Futami 96 On the Tohoku coast a 0 7 m 2 ft 4 in wave struck at 00 38 local time on 16 January 2022 In the Sendai Port the tsunami measured 0 9 m 2 ft 11 in at 00 08 97 In Iwate Prefecture a 1 1 m 3 ft 7 in tsunami was recorded at 02 26 on 16 January The tallest tsunami was recorded 1 34 m 4 ft 5 in at Amami Ōshima Okinawa 98 Tsunami waves of less than a metre were reported along the Hokkaido Pacific coast This was the nation s first tsunami warning since the 2016 Fukushima earthquake 99 The JMA said that the tsunami struck 2 5 hours earlier than predicted 100 Small tsunami waves were observed on the coast of Taiwan The heights of the tsunami were 0 4 m 1 ft 4 in at Houbi Lake in Pingtung County followed by 0 38 m 1 ft 3 in On Orchid Island Taitung County 0 36 m 1 ft 2 in in Yilan County 0 31 m 1 ft 0 in in Su ao and 0 29 m 11 in at Hualien County Waves were also observed at Chenggong with a height of 0 25 m 9 8 in and at Kaohsiung for 0 24 m 9 4 in 101 In Jeju Island South Korea there were fluctuations of up to 15 20 cm 5 9 7 9 in in the sea level 102 Russia s Kuril Islands in the country s far east had tsunami waves of about 20 cm 7 9 in 103 104 At least two ports were warned 104 North America Edit The highest tsunami waves in the United States were 1 3 m 4 ft 3 in in Port San Luis in San Luis Obispo County Southern California and 1 1 m 3 ft 7 in in both Arena Cove and Crescent City Northern California 103 105 Significant waves hit the Santa Cruz Harbor 106 and its parking lot was flooded with about 0 91 m 3 ft 0 in of water 105 while Soquel Creek in the neighboring city of Capitola flowed backwards 107 A surfing competition was cancelled 108 Strong currents in Half Moon Bay were reported 106 while small waves were observed at Seal Beach 109 Waves up to 0 37 m 1 ft 3 in in height were recorded in Nikolski Alaska 110 There was an unusually high tide along the coasts of British Columbia and Vancouver Island At 11 55 am local time the Pacific Tsunami Warning Center PTWC said tide levels rose 29 cm 11 in in Winter Harbour Large logs were pushed up by the high tides and deposited on the beaches 111 The tsunami was first detected along the coastline of Mexico on January 15 at 12 35 by tide gauges at Michoacan 112 At the coasts of Guerrero Oaxaca and Baja California Peninsula sea level rise was reported with waves of 30 cm 12 in to 61 cm 24 in 113 A tide level of 2 05 m 6 ft 9 in was measured at Manzanillo Colima according to the Mareographic Service of the Institute of Geophysics of the National Autonomous University of Mexico The tsunami had an amplitude of 1 19 m 3 ft 11 in in Zihuatanejo Waves of just under 1 m 3 ft 3 in were recorded in Acapulco Huatulco and Salina Cruz 114 Tsunami activity along the Pacific coast persisted until January 20 The tsunami measured taller than 2 m 6 ft 7 in at Ensenada Baja California Sea level disturbances were recorded at the coast of the Gulf of Mexico and Caribbean Sea The shockwave triggered meteotsunami had a maximum wave height of 0 377 m 1 ft 2 8 in 112 Minor tsunamis were measured as far away as the Caribbean Sea and Texas with National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration NOAA reporting a maximum rise of 12 cm 4 7 in at the Isla de Mona in Puerto Rico at 16 11 UTC 115 These may have been meteo tsunamis related to slight atmospheric pressure changes 116 South America Edit In Peru two people were killed in Lambayeque where the tsunami measured 2 m 6 ft 7 in 117 Waves measuring 0 68 m 2 ft 3 in were recorded in the port of Callao 0 72 m 2 ft 4 in in Marcona District and 0 65 m 2 ft 2 in in Paita 118 Significant sea level disturbances were measured off the coast of Ecuador s La Libertad Esmeraldas and Manta At 2 33 am local time a 50 cm rise in sea level was measured on the mainland There were also sea level changes in the Galapagos Islands 119 Sea level disturbances off the nation s coast persisted for nearly an hour 120 In northern Chile waves of up to 2 m 6 ft 7 in struck the coastline Videos and images on social media from the Los Rios Region showed the tsunami damaging piers carrying boats and hitting beaches 121 A tsunami of 1 74 m 5 ft 9 in was measured at Chanaral 122 Response Edit14 January Edit A tsunami warning signboard at Gesashi Bay Mangrove Forest Okinawa Prefecture JapanA tsunami warning was issued on 14 January in Tonga after an eruption was observed Volcanic activity decreased following that eruption and the warning was lifted in the early morning of 15 January A 30 cm 12 in wave was observed during the first tsunami warning 123 15 January Edit Another warning was issued to the whole of Tonga on the evening of 15 January following the next eruption 123 Warning sirens blared in Nukuʻalofa while authorities urged residents to flee to higher ground 124 The Mineral Resources Department in Fiji issued advisories to people living around the coastal areas to stay away from the shores 125 Evacuations were made on the Lau Islands after wave activity was observed in the sea 75 Fiji s Attorney General Aiyaz Sayed Khaiyum urged the public to stay indoors and cover household water tanks in the event of rain due to the risk of fallout of sulfuric acid from the SO2 emitted in the air by the eruption 126 In Wallis and Futuna a tsunami warning was issued but no damage was reported and the alert was lifted in the evening of 15 January 127 Tsunami warnings were also issued to American Samoa by the PTWC 128 129 The PTWC considered the tsunami hazardous and warned that changes in sea level as well as strong currents could pose a risk along the coast 130 Samoa later issued a tsunami advisory 131 The PTWC later cancelled the tsunami warning for American Samoa 132 The National Emergency Management Agency of New Zealand told residents to expect strong and unusual currents and unpredictable surges along the north and east coast of North Island as well as the Chatham Islands 133 The agency added that the currents have the potential to injure and drown people 134 A tsunami warning was issued by the Bureau of Meteorology in Australia with a land warning issued for Norfolk Island and Lord Howe Island and a marine warning for the east coast of Australia Tasmania and Macquarie Island 92 On 16 January at 06 55 AEDT 15 January 2022 19 55 UTC tsunami marine warnings were issued to New South Wales Queensland Victoria and Tasmania for strong and dangerous currents 135 The Japan Meteorological Agency JMA informed residents that a slight disturbance in the sea could occur without any damage 83 The tsunami would not pose a threat to the Japanese coastline Officials from the JMA said that sea level rise of no more than 20 cm 7 9 in could be expected for 24 hours from 9 00 p m Japan Standard Time UTC 9 136 A tsunami warning was issued in the Amami Islands and Tokara Islands by the JMA with forecasted waves of up to 3 m 9 8 ft Additional warnings were issued to the east and southeast coast for waves of up to 1 m 3 ft 3 in 137 A warning and evacuation order was issued to Iwate Prefecture and evacuation orders were also issued to six other prefectures The Fire and Disaster Management Agency FDMA said that 229 000 residents living in the eight prefectures were evacuated 138 Japan downgraded its warnings the following morning Russia issued a tsunami advisory for the Kuril Islands 103 The National Tsunami Warning Center issued a tsunami advisory along the West Coast of the United States and British Columbia Canada 139 140 The advisory contained all U S areas along the West Coast from Southern California to Alaska 141 Beaches were closed 142 and coastal residents were requested to move to higher ground 143 A surfing contest with over 100 participants was cancelled in Santa Cruz California 105 144 Tsunami waves measuring 30 61 cm 12 24 in were expected to hit the shores as early as 7 30 a m Pacific Standard Time UTC 8 along the Central Coast 139 San Francisco was expected to receive waves at 8 10 145 The highest tsunami waves are expected one to two hours after the arrival of the first waves 139 A tsunami advisory was put in place for the entirety of Hawaii 146 Advisories in Canada were issued along the North and Central coasts of British Columbia along with the Haida Gwaii archipelago and Vancouver Island No evacuation order was issued but people were urged to avoid beaches and marinas The warning level was low due to the height of reported waves as they were below the 91 cm 36 in threshold which would warrant an upgrade 147 By 12 35 local time the tsunami advisory for British Columbia would be cancelled 148 By the evening the United States lifted advisories for Alaska Hawaii Washington Oregon and portions of California They remained in effect in California in parts of the Central and North Coast until early the following day 103 149 No warnings were issued to Peru initially After the tsunami struck authorities stopped all maritime activities at the coast Twenty two ports along north and central Peru were closed due to tsunami activity 150 Chile also issued a warning for a minor tsunami for most of its coastal area including the island of Rapa Nui evacuation was declared for 12 other regions 151 152 The Hydrographic and Oceanographic Service of the Chilean Navy declared a State of Precaution and indicated that there is a possibility of a minor tsunami in the affected regions Later coastal evacuation notices were issued in 14 of the 16 regions in Chile A Red alert level was issued to more than 6 400 km 4 000 mi of its coastline The Chilean National Office for Emergency ONEMI said that tsunami activity could persist overnight so those impacted would need to hold onto their emergency supplies and aid 121 Ecuador issued a warning of maritime disturbance for the Galapagos Islands 153 Mexico issued tsunami warnings for the coasts of states of Baja California Jalisco Colima Michoacan Guerrero Oaxaca and Chiapas urging people to avoid the coasts and entering the sea 154 Subsequent days Edit A tsunami advisory was issued to American Samoa following a new eruption at the volcano on 16 January The advisory was cancelled almost two hours later A tsunami alert that was issued to Fiji on 15 January was cancelled 155 156 On 17 January the Department of Environment in Fiji confirmed that the sulfur dioxide concentration in the atmosphere increased overnight As previously advised the department urged the public to cover all household water tanks and stay indoors in the event of acid rain The Ministry of Environment also advised the public not to consume rainwater 157 158 The first aid planes from New Zealand and Australia arrived on Tonga on 20 January as phone lines were partially restored 159 160 On 2 February after receiving aid shipments the country went into a COVID 19 lockdown as two port workers in Nukuʻalofa tested positive 161 162 Impact EditDeaths injuries and missings by country Countries Deaths Injuries Missing Ref Tonga 4 14 Several 163 164 165 166 Peru 2 0 0 117 United States 0 3 0 167 Japan 0 2 0 168 Total 6 19 SeveralTonga Edit Effects of the eruption in Saint George s Palace Little information was made available on the extent of damage and casualties from Tonga due to communication issues involving a damaged undersea cable 83 Video footage showing waves hitting coastal areas in Tonga was reported by Sky News 169 Atata a small island off the capital city was reportedly submerged and rescue operations were being carried out Images confirmed that most of the island have been wiped out the New Zealand Defence Force described the damages as catastrophic 170 There were some reports of residents in Tonga struggling to breathe as a result of the ash 171 172 According to a media release by the government via a tweet all structures were destroyed on Mango Island Only two buildings remained intact on Fonoifua Island and Nomuka Island suffered major damage Twenty one homes were destroyed and another 35 were seriously damaged on Tongatapu s west coast Eight homes were demolished and 20 seriously damaged in Nukuʻalofa ʻEua Island saw the loss of 2 homes and 45 damaged 80 An assessment by the United Nations Institute for Training and Research UNITAR revealed extensive damage on Atata Island at least 72 buildings were affected by the tsunami and the whole island was blanketed by ash 173 Early reports said Atata Island which is located off the main Tongan island near Nukuʻalofa was submerged by the tsunami 171 A Facebook post by the Royal Sunset Island Resort on the island said all residents were accounted for and safely evacuated 173 On Tongatapu 50 homes were destroyed and 100 more suffered damage 174 Effects of the eruption in TongaA New Zealand government official in the capital Nukuʻalofa said extensive damage occurred on the waterfront of the city as it was severely hit by the tsunami 175 Acting High Commissioner Peter Lund said that several people were unaccounted for following the eruption and tsunami 164 Tattoo parlour owner Angela Glover a British resident in Tonga was among the people missing swept away by the tsunami when it hit Nukuʻalofa 176 Glover s body was later found 177 Though the extent of the damage in Tonga is still not clear a blanket of thick ash has contaminated water supplies cut off communications and prevented surveillance flights making it difficult for relief efforts to begin 178 Another fatality was confirmed by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Trade on 18 January 179 Lund added that there was an initially unconfirmed third death from the tsunami 180 This third death was identified as a local resident and the Tongan government has confirmed three deaths were the result of the tsunami 163 The Government of Tonga said that the two locals who died were from Mango and Nomuka islands respectively 80 181 A fourth fatality was confirmed by 30 January but information about this victim was not disclosed 166 A P 3K2 Orion aircraft flies over an area of Tonga that shows the heavy ash fall from the recent volcanic eruption within the Tongan Islands On 23 January the Tongan government confirmed that eight people on Nomuka island were injured with six others sustaining minor injuries 165 Photos shared by a resident on the island of Lifuka northeast of Nukuʻalofa showed minor damage to island communities and a wharf Damage suggests the island was hit by smaller waves The islands of ʻUiha and Haʻano also sustained limited damage from the tsunami Several photographs showed debris left by the tsunami strewn across a road and on grass fields 182 Owners of the Haʻatafu Beach Resort wrote on Facebook that their beach resort located at the northern tip of the island of Tongatapu was completely destroyed The employees were able to escape They added that the whole western coastline of the island and Kanokupolu village were destroyed 183 The United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs stated that there was concern for two low lying islands in the Haʻapai group Fonoi and Mango as a distress beacon had been detected on one of the islands Fonoi has a population of 69 people while Mango has 36 residents 184 A surveillance flight confirmed substantial property damage on the two low lying islands the Tongan government later confirmed that all homes on Mango Island were destroyed 185 186 Southern Cross Cable reported that the eruption may have broken the Tonga Cable System which connects Tonga to Southern Cross s trans Pacific cable in Fiji 187 Southern Cross cited a fault in the international cable 37 km 23 mi from Nukuʻalofa and a further fault in a domestic cable 47 km 29 mi from Nukuʻalofa 188 New Zealand prime minister Jacinda Ardern had earlier stated that an undersea cable serving Tonga was affected probably due to power cuts and authorities were urgently attempting to restore communications 189 The chair of the Tonga Cable System Samiuela Fonua stated that repair crews would not be cleared to access the site of the faults before volcanic activity ceased at Hunga Tonga with additional preparation time necessary for the repairs internet services could be unavailable for over two weeks after the eruption 190 Limited satellite connectivity was established on 21 January mobile phone provider Digicel established a 2G cell network on Tongatapu using a satellite dish from the University of the South Pacific 191 192 Reuters reported that a specialist cable repair ship would arrive at the Tongan archipelago on 30 January 191 On 4 February the Associated Press reported that Fonua stated that repair crews would need to replace 87 kilometres 54 mi of cable and that he hoped to have it restored the following week 193 On 8 February the Matangi Tonga website reported that more breaks were suspected within the cable delaying the cable s restoration to 20 February 194 195 Agence France Presse followed up in a report on 15 February stating that the cable was torn into multiple pieces and that a 55 kilometre 34 mi section of cable had been lost The report also stated that separate sections of cable had been moved 5 kilometres 3 1 mi and buried under 30 centimetres 12 in of silt 196 The cable being cut repeatedly and moved long distances is consistent with a turbidity current damaging it similar to the 1929 Grand Banks earthquake 197 The cable connection to Tongatapu was repaired on 22 February 198 Severe damage on the west coast of Tongatapu was confirmed by the New Zealand High Commission in Tonga on 17 January 199 Surveillance flights by the Australian Defence Forces reported extensive damage along the west coast 200 The shores of Nukuʻalofa had substantial damage as debris and rocks were deposited inland by the tsunami waves according to an early report from the UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs OCHA A 2 cm 0 79 in layer of volcanic ash blanketed the capital Nukuʻalofa 201 Satellite images of Nomuka island showed that nearly a fifth of the structures had been damaged with more than 40 buildings covered in ash 202 The Fuaʻamotu International Airport was covered with ash and dirt 203 There were also reports of water damage in the district of Nukuʻalofa 204 The Tongan navy that was dispatched to Haʻapai islands reported significant damage where a tsunami estimated to be between 5 10 m 16 33 ft in height traveled as far as 500 m 1 600 ft inland 185 The World Bank s damage assessment report for the Tongan Government stated that the eruption and tsunami caused damage estimated at US 90 4 million 18 5 of Tonga s total gross domestic product GDP The Global Facility for Disaster Reduction and Recovery reported that 600 buildings including 300 homes were damaged or destroyed by the tsunami The damage was estimated at US 43 7 million At least 85 of Tonga s agricultural industry was severely affected by damage to crops and fisheries estimating at US 20 9 million Damage to roads bridges ports and submarine cables were an estimated US 20 9 million The clean up cost is also an additional US 5 million 205 Elsewhere Edit Volcanic ash from the eruption over Queensland Australia on 17 January 2022 The atmospheric plume from the volcanic eruption in the Pacific nation of Tonga is pictured from the International Space Station as it orbited 433 km 269 mi above the Pacific Ocean northwest of Auckland New Zealand President Pedro Castillo and government officials at a beach in Peru after an oil spill caused by the tsunami In Fiji the eruption triggered waves in Vanua Balavu Kadavu Gau and Taveuni In the village of Moce Lau Islands the tsunami severely damaged some homes on the beaches and debris was strewn across the village and boats were dragged inland 206 207 There was sizeable damage to schools infrastructure as well as fishing boats in the islands 208 Two people in Itoman Okinawa and Amami City Japan suffered falls during the evacuations 168 A number of fishing boats in Kōchi and Mie prefectures capsized or sank A total of 30 fishing vessels were lost In Muroto five small boats sank and another five were lost A small ship capsized and sank in Owase The tsunami also damaged fishing nets on the coast of Tokushima Prefecture 209 Land sea and air transportation was affected 27 domestic flights operated by Japan Air Lines were cancelled due to the warnings 210 The tsunami caused serious material damage to a tour operator at Kailua Kona Hawaii where 80 of its inventory and gear was lost Major damage to retail products and the business office totaled at least US 75 000 211 Beaches and piers were flooded by the surging waves in the city Canoes belonging to several clubs were damaged and strewn across the beach or on rock walls due to the waves Boats were dumped inland or on piers after the waves retreated 212 Two women in northern Peru drowned in the swell when 2 m 6 ft 7 in waves hit Naylamp beach Lambayeque dragging a truck into the sea The driver escaped 213 117 Twenty two ports along northern and central Peru were closed due to the tsunami Substantial material damage was inflicted on coastal businesses and the beach areas Videos showed the tsunami flooding the streets 150 Restaurants and boats in Lagunillas beach and San Andres District were damaged by waves Many beachgoers were evacuated to safety while businesses closed 214 Damage to piers and some homes occurred in the capital Lima In some areas boat owners dragged their boats onto shore to prevent the waves from damaging them 215 216 The Peruvian Civil Defense Institute said on 17 January that an oil spill occurred at the La Pampilla refinery The spill was caused by tsunami waves moving a ship while transporting oil onto the refinery 217 The oil spill affected some 1 187 km2 458 sq mi of sea and 1 740 km2 670 sq mi of beach coastal strip and more than 500 ha 1 200 acres of protected natural areas in Peru 218 Despite the warnings from officials some residents in California strayed too close to the sea and they were swept away by strong surges such as the situation at San Gregorio California where four fishermen were swept out to sea by the tsunami Two men were injured and received medical treatment while another two were rescued unhurt 219 A woman was rescued and treated by medical workers at China Beach San Francisco 167 San Francisco firefighters and the U S Coast Guard rescued three surfers 105 The tsunami caused extensive damage at Santa Cruz harbor in Santa Cruz California Electrical systems pilings restrooms and showers were damaged and repair costs were estimated at US 6 5 million 220 Minor material damage occurred on the coast of Penco and six people were trapped in Coliumo near Tome in Chile s Biobio Region 221 No casualties were reported due to the evacuations A State of Precaution was still in place in Atacama Coquimbo Nuble and Biobio as of 16 January 2022 222 Flights to Tonga and in the surrounding region were disrupted by lingering volcanic ash Air New Zealand stated that a repatriation flight to Tonga that was originally scheduled for 20 January was postponed indefinitely and Fiji Airways announced that all flights to Tonga were postponed and several services to Australia could face delays and longer flight times 223 An Aircalin flight from Tokyo to Noumea was diverted to Brisbane to avoid volcanic ash with a subsequent flight from Noumea to Sydney placed on hold 224 The ash cloud reached Queensland on 17 January creating an eerie spectacular and incredible sunrise 225 In July it reached Antarctica causing stunning pink and purple skyscapes 226 Assistance Edit RNZAF 3SQN maintenance teams prepare two NH90 helicopters for long term operations to assist Tonga New Zealand s Prime Minister Jacinda Ardern said officials from the Ministry of Foreign Affairs were discussing the provision of aid to Tonga 227 Ardern described the events in Tonga as hugely concerning 171 On 16 January she announced New Zealand was donating NZ 500 000 which was very much the starting point The Royal New Zealand Navy was preparing to sail and a RNZAF P 3 Orion would be sent on a reconnaissance flight as soon as it was safe to do so The ash cloud was estimated at 19 000 m 62 000 ft high well above the Orion s service ceiling 189 The C 130H Hercules airlift is ready to serve as well 228 Following reports of no continued ashfall in Tonga the P 3 Orion left RNZAF Base Auckland for Tonga on the morning of 17 January 229 On 18 January as an RNZAF Lockheed C 130 Hercules was unable to land following continued ashfall in Tonga two Royal New Zealand Navy ships set sail for Tonga HMNZS Wellington carried survey equipment and a helicopter while HMNZS Aotearoa carried 250 000 L 55 000 imp gal 66 000 US gal of water and desalination equipment to produce a further 70 000 L 15 000 imp gal 18 000 US gal per day 230 On 20 January New Zealand announced that it would dispatch a third warship HMNZS Canterbury with two NH90 helicopters to assist with relief efforts 231 Tonga accepted an offer by the Australian government of a surveillance flight to assess the damage Two Boeing P 8A Poseidon maritime patrol aircraft and a Lockheed C 130J Hercules of the Royal Australian Air Force departed on the morning of 17 January 2022 for Tonga to survey damage to roadways ports and power lines 232 233 234 The Australian and New Zealand governments also announced they were coordinating their humanitarian response with France and the United States 235 236 Assistance from France is provided through the humanitarian aid mechanism of the FRANZ agreement with Australia and New Zealand 237 Australia would later announce that HMAS Adelaide would be deployed to Tonga with water purification and humanitarian supplies 238 The United States dispatched USS Sampson as well as a Coast Guard vessel while the United Kingdom deployed HMS Spey 239 240 After 23 crew members of the Adelaide tested positive for COVID 19 while enroute to Tonga the ship made a contactless delivery 241 On 17 January officials in Tonga called for immediate aid Speaker of the Legislative Assembly of Tonga Fatafehi Fakafanua in a social media post wrote that Tonga needs immediate assistance to provide its citizens with fresh drinking water and food The International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement and the Pacific Island Forum has offered its assistance 242 Tearfund and Oxfam provided immediate assistance by supporting people with food and water Oxfam already had filtering units in Tongatapu which could turn salt water into drinking water UNICEF will work with the Tongan government to reach affected children and families The agency was also ready to transport its emergency supplies from Fiji and Brisbane 243 Fiji s Attorney General and Acting Prime Minister Aiyaz Sayed Khaiyum said that Fiji was working with New Zealand and Australia to coordinate regional relief efforts He added that Fiji had offered to dispatch Republic of Fiji Military Forces RFMF personnel and engineers that would join the Australian Defence Force ADF Relief supplies would also be sent to the Lau group that was affected by the tsunami 244 245 On 29 January a chartered commercial vessel was deployed to Tonga Aboard the vessel were 11 shipping containers filled with relief supplies Four containers were from the Tongan Community in Fiji while the rest were from donations by government and non government organizations 246 247 The International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies IFRC Asia Pacific said that drinking water were hurriedly distributed to people in need due to the tsunami and ash affecting local water supply The Tonga Red Cross provided temporary shelters and supplied water to affected communities Emergency response teams were sent to Mango Fonoifua and Namuka islands 248 International Edit China On 17 January the Red Cross Society of China decided to provide US 100 000 of emergency humanitarian aid in cash to the Tongan side 249 while the government of China said it would deliver a batch of disaster relief materials to Tonga at the request of the South Pacific island country 250 On 19 January the Chinese government delivered a batch of emergency supplies such as drinking water and food to Tonga through the embassy in Tonga The Chinese Embassy in Fiji raised another batch of RMB 1 million materials to deliver to Tonga On 27 and 31 January the Chinese army dispatched air force transport aircraft Y 20 and naval ships to Tonga to deliver emergency and post disaster reconstruction materials such as water purifiers tents personal protective equipment generators water pumps tractors radio communication equipment in two batches The two batches of materials are 33 tons and more than 1 400 tons respectively They arrived on 28 January and 15 February local time respectively 251 Israel Israeli Foreign Minister Yair Lapid stated that Israel was exploring ways of providing aid to Tonga through its aid agency Mashav including access to safe drinking water 252 Singapore On 18 January the Singapore Red Cross Society pledged S 50 000 in aid to Tonga and also announced a fundraising effort to raise more help for those affected by the tsunami 253 254 Japan On 20 January the Japanese Government dispatched two C 130H via Australia to Tonga Subsequently the Japanese Ministry of Defense decided to send JS Osumi with 60 000 L 13 000 imp gal 16 000 US gal of drinking water high pressure cleaning devices for removing volcanic ash and two CH 47J onboard The Ministry had also deployed its C 2 transport aircraft loaded with additional relief supplies 255 The Japanese Government has also planned to offer more than 114 million US 1 million in funds for Tonga 256 India On 25 January the Indian Government provided an immediate relief assistance of US 200 000 to support relief rehabilitation and reconstruction efforts in Tonga which it described as a close friend and partner under the Forum for India Pacific Islands Cooperation FIPIC 257 Non state actors Edit On 6 February The New Zealand Herald and the Fiji Broadcasting Corporation s FBC News reported that SpaceX engineers were working to restore Internet access in Tonga New Zealand National Party Member of Parliament Shane Reti had earlier petitioned SpaceX CEO Elon Musk for assistance in providing Starlink satellite technology to the island country In response Musk had asked on Twitter whether Tonga authorities could inform him on whether Starlink terminals were needed The Fijian Minister for Communications Aiyaz Sayed Khaiyum subsequently confirmed that SpaceX engineers would establish and operate a temporary ground station in Fiji to assist with efforts to restore Internet access in Tonga 258 259 By 23 February Tonga Cable had managed to restore Tonga s fibre optic cable with the assistance of SpaceX The SubCom ship Reliance is working to restore the Southern Cross Cable connection with repairs due to be completed on 1 March 2022 needs update 260 261 On 21 February repair works on the Southern Cross Cable were completed restoring Internet to Tonga 262 263 Tongan Olympian flagbearer Pita Taufatofua who became widely known during the 2016 Summer Olympics gathered more than US 330 000 in aid to his native country after he opened a GoFundMe fundraising website 264 See also EditList of volcanic eruptions in the 21st century 1808 mystery eruption 2009 Samoa earthquake and tsunami 2009 Tonga undersea volcanic eruption List of earthquakes in Tonga Tonga TrenchNotes Edit The volcano was declared dormant on January 11 after the December 2021 eruption sequence ended 2 This is an explosion which magnitude was calculated using techniques calibrated for earthquakes 25 References Edit a b c d e Hunga Tonga Hunga Haʻapai Eruptive History Global Volcanism Program Smithsonian Institution Archived from the original on 12 June 2022 Retrieved 12 June 2022 a b Tonga Geological Services Government of Tonga 11 January 2022 7 Days with no further eruption from Hunga Volcano It is now declared dormant Archived from the original on 17 January 2022 Retrieved 17 January 2022 via Facebook a b c d e Report on Hunga Tonga Hunga Ha apai Tonga February 2022 Global Volcanism Program Smithsonian Institution 2022 doi 10 5479 si GVP BGVN202202 243040 inactive 31 December 2022 Archived from the original on 13 March 2022 Retrieved 24 May 2022 a href Template Cite web html title Template Cite web cite web a CS1 maint DOI inactive as of December 2022 link a b Walter Thomas R Cesca Simone 2022 Caldera subsidence during the Hunga Tonga explosive eruption EGU General Assembly 2022 Copernicus GmbH doi 10 5194 egusphere egu22 13590 Archived from the original on 25 May 2022 Retrieved 24 May 2022 a b David A Yuen Melissa A Scruggs Frank J Spera Yingcai Zheng Hao Hu Stephen R McNutt Glenn Thompson Kyle Mandli Barry R Keller Songqiao Shawn Wei Zhigang Peng Zili Zhou Francesco Mulargia Yuichiro Tanioka July 2022 Under the Surface Pressure Induced Planetary Scale Waves Volcanic Lightning and Gaseous Clouds Caused by the Submarine Eruption of Hunga Tonga Hunga Ha apai Volcano Provide an Excellent Research Opportunity Earthquake Research Advances 2 3 doi 10 1016 j eqrea 2022 100134 S2CID 247550313 Maya Wei Haas 21 November 2022 Tonga s strange volcanic eruption was even more massive than we knew National Geographic a b Amos Jonathan Tonga volcano eruption continues to astonish BBC News Retrieved 5 January 2023 Hunga Tonga Hunga Haʻapai Global Volcanism Program Smithsonian Institution Archived from the original on 2 February 2022 Retrieved 2 February 2022 Clift Peter D Rose Estelle F Shimizu Nobumichi Layne Graham D Draut Amy E and Regelous Marcel Tracing the Evolving Flux From the Subducting Plate in the Tonga Kermadec Arc System Using Boron in Volcanic Glass Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 65 19 October 2001 doi 10 1016 S0016 7037 01 00670 6 Gupta Alok K Igneous Rocks Mumbai India Allied Publishers 1998 ISBN 81 7023 784 X a b Poli Piero Shapiro Nikolai M 20 April 2022 Rapid Characterization of Large Volcanic Eruptions Measuring the Impulse of the Hunga Tonga Ha apai Explosion From Teleseismic Waves American Geophysical Union agupubs onlinelibrary wiley com 49 8 Bibcode 2022GeoRL 4998123P doi 10 1029 2022GL098123 S2CID 248309706 Archived from the original on 23 April 2022 Retrieved 22 April 2022 Hunt Katie 12 May 2022 Tonga volcano was the most ferocious eruption in 140 years CNN Archived from the original on 13 May 2022 Retrieved 14 May 2022 Tonga volcano Eruption more powerful than atomic bomb Nasa says BBC News 24 January 2022 Archived from the original on 24 January 2022 Retrieved 24 January 2022 Matoza Robin S Fee David Assink Jelle D Iezzi Alexandra M Green David N Kim Keehoon Toney Liam Lecocq Thomas Krishnamoorthy Siddharth Lalande Jean Marie Nishida Kiwamu Gee Kent L Haney Matthew M Ortiz Hugo D Brissaud Quentin Martire Leo Rolland Lucie Vergados Panagiotis Nippress Alexandra Park Junghyun Shani Kadmiel Shahar Witsil Alex Arrowsmith Stephen Caudron Corentin Watada Shingo Perttu Anna B Taisne Benoit Mialle Pierrick Le Pichon Alexis Vergoz Julien Hupe Patrick Blom Philip S Waxler Roger De Angelis Silvio Snively Jonathan B Ringler Adam T Anthony Robert E Jolly Arthur D Kilgour Geoff Averbuch Gil Ripepe Maurizio Ichihara Mie Arciniega Ceballos Alejandra Astafyeva Elvira Ceranna Lars Cevuard Sandrine Che Il Young De Negri Rodrigo Ebeling Carl W Evers Laslo G Franco Marin Luis E Gabrielson Thomas B Hafner Katrin Harrison R Giles Komjathy Attila Lacanna Giorgio Lyons John Macpherson Kenneth A Marchetti Emanuele McKee Kathleen F Mellors Robert J Mendo Perez Gerardo Mikesell T Dylan Munaibari Edhah Oyola Merced Mayra Park Iseul Pilger Christoph Ramos Cristina Ruiz Mario C Sabatini Roberto Schwaiger Hans F Tailpied Dorianne Talmadge Carrick Vidot Jerome Webster Jeremy Wilson David C 12 May 2022 Atmospheric waves and global seismoacoustic observations of the January 2022 Hunga eruption Tonga Science American Association for the Advancement of Science AAAS 377 6601 95 100 Bibcode 2022Sci 377 95M doi 10 1126 science abo7063 ISSN 0036 8075 PMID 35549311 Amos Jonathan 15 May 2022 Tonga eruption was record atmospheric explosion BBC News Archived from the original on 15 May 2022 Retrieved 15 May 2022 Khan Aina J 15 January 2022 Tsunami Reported in Tonga After an Underwater Volcano Eruption The New York Times Archived from the original on 15 January 2022 Retrieved 15 January 2022 a b Mary Lyn Fonua 21 December 2021 Air NZ funeral flight to Tonga cancelled as Hunga eruption continues Matangi Tonga Archived from the original on 21 December 2021 Retrieved 21 December 2021 VA ADVISORY DTG 20211219 2209Z VAAC WELLINGTON VOLCANO HUNGA TONGA HUNGA HA APAI 243040 VAAC 19 December 2021 Archived from the original on 20 December 2021 Retrieved 20 December 2021 Tonga volcano grows in size as eruption continues for sixth day RNZ 25 December 2021 Archived from the original on 25 December 2021 Retrieved 26 December 2021 a b c Waves hitting Tonga as volcano tsunami warning in place 1 News 15 January 2022 Archived from the original on 15 January 2022 Retrieved 15 January 2022 a b Underwater volcano Hunga Tonga Hunga Haʻapai erupts again Radio New Zealand 14 January 2022 Archived from the original on 14 January 2022 Retrieved 15 January 2022 Sennert Sally Kuhn ed 12 18 January 2022 Global Volcanism Program 2022 Report on Hunga Tonga Hunga Ha apai Tonga Weekly Volcanic Activity Report Smithsonian Institution and US Geological Survey doi 10 5479 si GVP WVAR20220112 243040 inactive 31 December 2022 Archived from the original on 20 January 2022 Retrieved 15 May 2022 a href Template Cite journal html title Template Cite journal cite journal a CS1 maint DOI inactive as of December 2022 link Tsunami Marine Warning for Tonga Government of Tonga 14 January 2022 Archived from the original on 14 January 2022 Retrieved 14 January 2022 Mary Lyn Fonua 15 January 2022 Tongan geologists observe stunning eruptions at Hunga Matangi Tonga Archived from the original on 16 January 2022 Retrieved 15 January 2022 a b c M 5 8 Volcanic Eruption 68 km NNW of Nuku alofa Tonga USGS 15 January 2022 Archived from the original on 17 January 2022 Retrieved 15 January 2022 This article incorporates text from this source which is in the public domain Simon Proud simon sat 20 January 2022 We ve been looking into the Tonga eruption in more detail Our latest data says that the main volcanic umbrella reached 35 km altitude but some points such as the image below may have reached 55 km altitude Shocking altitudes that show just how violent this eruption was Tweet Archived from the original on 24 March 2022 Retrieved 21 January 2022 via Twitter Tonga Volcano Plume Reached the Mesosphere earthobservatory nasa gov NASA Earth Observatory 16 February 2022 Archived from the original on 21 February 2022 Retrieved 19 February 2022 Hunga Tonga Hunga Ha apai Volcano Volcanic Ash Advisory NEW ERUPTION SEEN IN SATELLITE IMAGERY OBS VA DTG 15 0439Z to 52000 ft 15800 m Volcano discovery VAAC Wellington 15 January 2022 Archived from the original on 21 January 2022 Retrieved 15 January 2022 Kaniva Staff 15 January 2022 New tsunami warning as waves hitting Tonga Kaniva Tonga Archived from the original on 15 January 2022 Retrieved 15 January 2022 Cheer Louise Palu Kamilia 15 January 2022 Tsunami hits Tonga after catastrophic volcano eruption Yahoo News Australia Archived from the original on 15 January 2022 Retrieved 15 January 2022 Narayan Vijay 15 January 2022 Loud thundery sounds being experienced in Fiji are from the huge volcanic eruption in Tonga Fiji Village Archived from the original on 15 January 2022 Retrieved 15 January 2022 Martin Hannah Bohny Skara Ockhuysen Stephanie Tokalau Torika 15 January 2022 Screams everywhere Tsunami waves crash through homes in Tonga after eruption Stuff Archived from the original on 15 January 2022 Retrieved 15 January 2022 Cyclone Cody Latest developments from New Zealand and the Pacific after Tonga tsunami and eruption Radio New Zealand 16 January 2022 Archived from the original on 16 January 2022 Retrieved 16 January 2022 a b Pavihi Esther 16 January 2022 Yesterday s Hunga Tonga volcano eruption was heard and felt in Niue but no tsunami impact Television Niue Archived from the original on 16 January 2022 Retrieved 16 January 2022 Gates Charlie 16 January 2022 Rapid bang Kiwis hear Tongan volcano erupt from thousands of kilometres away stuff co nz Archived from the original on 16 January 2022 Retrieved 16 January 2022 Berman Annie 16 January 2022 Volcano eruption near Tonga causes booms heard by Alaskans nearly 6000 miles away Anchorage Daily News Archived from the original on 16 January 2022 Retrieved 17 January 2022 a b c Oli Smith 15 January 2022 Tonga tsunami Satellite footage shows moment of volcanic shockwave apocalyptic scenes Daily Express Archived from the original on 22 January 2022 Retrieved 22 January 2022 Carroll Luke 15 January 2022 Noise from underwater volcanic eruption across the Pacific heard in the Yukon cbc ca Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Archived from the original on 15 January 2022 Retrieved 16 January 2022 A pressure surge from the latest eruption of the Hunga Tonga Hunga Ha apai volcano in Tonga has been observed in our weather stations across the country this evening Note times are in UTC so 06 00 UTC is 19 00 NZ Time twitter com 15 January 2022 Archived from the original on 16 January 2022 Retrieved 15 January 2022 Bureau of Meteorology Australia BOM au 16 January 2022 Bureau data shows the shockwave from Hunga Tonga Hunga Ha apai volcanic eruption travelled at over 1000 km h and was recorded as a noticeable jump in atmospheric pressure across Australia By the time it reached Perth it had travelled almost 7000 kilometres Tweet Archived from the original on 17 January 2021 via Twitter Noyes Jenny Han Esther 15 January 2022 Waves crash into Tonga homes as tsunami warnings sound across the Pacific The Sydney Morning Herald Archived from the original on 15 January 2022 Retrieved 15 January 2022 Ben Domensino 15 January 2022 This is phenomenal It appears the atmospheric pressure waves created by the Tonga volcano have been detected on Australia s east coast This graph shows MSLP fluctuating in Sydney around the same time satellite images showed the pressure wave reaching eastern Australia Tweet Archived from the original on 16 January 2022 via Twitter Ben Domensino 15 January 2022 The pressure wave was also detected in Perth WA around 6 30 pm AWST some 6900 km away from the Hunga Tonga Hunga Haʻapai volcano Tweet Archived from the original on 17 January 2022 via Twitter Jorg Kachelmann Kachelmann 15 January 2022 Unglaublich Die Druckwelle aus Tonga ist gerade in der Schweiz angekommen 2 5 hPa Ausschlag Unbelievable The pressure wave from Tonga has just arrived in Switzerland 2 5 hPa rash Tweet in German and English Archived from the original on 17 January 2022 Retrieved 15 January 2022 via Twitter UK Met Office metoffice 16 January 2022 Our atmosphere acts as a fluid like dropping a pebble in a still pond and seeing the ripples A UK pressure trace for the past 24 hours shows how our atmosphere continues to see those ripples since the first pressure wave from the Tonga eruption arrived on Saturday evening Tweet Archived from the original on 26 March 2022 Retrieved 16 January 2022 via Twitter トンガ火山噴火による衝撃波が地球1周して再来か 今朝も各地で気圧変化 Is the shock wave from the eruption of Tonga going around the earth and coming back ウェザーニュース in Japanese Archived from the original on 17 January 2022 Retrieved 18 January 2022 Michael Bunds cataclasite 17 January 2022 Sure looks like we got a fourth passage of the Hunga Tonga Hunga Ha apai eruption shockwave in Utah Timing is spot on and signal is similar to previous passages Interesting for sure but worried for the people of Tonga Tweet Archived from the original on 19 January 2022 via Twitter Burnett A J 16 January 2022 Weather instruments around southern New England detect Hunga Tonga shockwave WCVB Archived from the original on 16 January 2022 Retrieved 18 January 2022 Staff Reporter 17 January 2022 Shockwave from Tonga volcanic eruption recorded in Chennai The Hindu Archived from the original on 17 January 2022 Retrieved 23 January 2022 a b Robin George Andrews 16 January 2022 The Tonga eruption explained from tsunami warnings to sonic booms National Geographic Archived from the original on 16 January 2022 Retrieved 16 January 2022 Chris Vagasky COweatherman 15 January 2022 Some hourly statistics from this latest HungaTongaHungaHaapai HungaTonga Volcano Eruption Peak hourly rate was 200 000 discharges between 0500 and 0600 UTC Just absolutely amazing Tweet Archived from the original on 19 January 2022 Retrieved 16 January 2022 via Twitter Weather West 15 January 2022 It appears likely that massive Hunga Tonga eruption produced powerful enough eruption plume to inject significant amount of material well into stratosphere Violent eruption of tropical volcano like this fits profile of event that could have small temporary climate effect Tweet Archived from the original on 16 January 2022 via Twitter Morton Jamie 17 January 2022 No Hunga Tonga eruption won t slow global warming The New Zealand Herald Archived from the original on 17 January 2022 Retrieved 17 January 2022 Hamish Cardwell 17 January 2022 Tonga eruption could have cooling effect on southern hemisphere Radio New Zealand Archived from the original on 17 January 2022 Retrieved 17 January 2022 Tonga volcano eruption and tsunami No power communications still down RNZ 16 January 2022 Archived from the original on 15 January 2022 Retrieved 16 January 2022 Shane Cronin 16 January 2022 Why the volcanic eruption in Tonga was so violent and what to expect next The Conversation Archived from the original on 15 January 2022 Retrieved 16 January 2022 Tonga eruption likely the world s largest in 30 years rnz co nz 17 January 2022 Archived from the original on 16 January 2022 Retrieved 16 January 2022 a b Koop Fermin 4 August 2022 The Tonga volcano sent enough water to the atmosphere to temporarily warm the planet ZME Science Retrieved 6 August 2022 O Callaghan Jonathan 8 June 2022 Burst of underwater explosions powered Tonga volcano eruption Nature Millan also found that the eruption sent up a water vapour plume that reached a height of 53 kilometres well into the stratosphere This plume increased the water vapour content of the stratosphere by 146 teragrams or 10 and will probably remain in the atmosphere for at least a year Millan L Santee M L Lambert A Livesey N J Werner F Schwartz M J Pumphrey H C Manney G L Wang Y Su H Wu L Read W G Froidevaux L 2022 The Hunga Tonga Hunga Ha apai Hydration of the Stratosphere Geophysical Research Letters American Geophysical Union AGU 49 13 e2022GL099381 Bibcode 2022GeoRL 4999381M doi 10 1029 2022gl099381 ISSN 0094 8276 PMC 9285945 PMID 35865735 Illsley Kemp Finnigan Barker Simon J Wilson Colin J N Chamberlain Calum J Hreinsdottir Sigrun Ellis Susan Hamling Ian J Savage Martha K Mestel Eleanor R H Wadsworth Fabian B 1 June 2021 Volcanic Unrest at Taupō Volcano in 2019 Causes Mechanisms and Implications Geochemistry Geophysics Geosystems 22 6 1 27 Bibcode 2021GGG 2209803I doi 10 1029 2021GC009803 Vergoz J Hupe P Listowski C Le Pichon A Garces M A Marchetti E Labazuy P Ceranna L Pilger C Gaebler P Nasholm S P Brissaud Q Poli P Shapiro N De Negri R Mialle P 2022 IMS observations of infrasound and acoustic gravity waves produced by the January 2022 volcanic eruption of Hunga Tonga A global analysis Earth and Planetary Science Letters Elsevier 591 117639 Bibcode 2022E amp PSL 59117639V doi 10 1016 j epsl 2022 117639 S2CID 249357349 Diaz J S Rigby S E 9 August 2022 Energetic output of the 2022 Hunga Tonga Hunga Ha apai volcanic eruption from pressure measurements Shock Waves 32 6 553 561 Bibcode 2022ShWav 32 553D doi 10 1007 s00193 022 01092 4 ISSN 1432 2153 S2CID 251480018 a b Amos Jonathan 24 May 2022 Immense crater hole created in Tonga volcano BBC Archived from the original on 24 May 2022 Retrieved 26 May 2022 Martin 25 May 2022 Hunga Tonga Hunga Ha apai volcano Tonga new bathymetry map of caldera www volcanodiscovery com Archived from the original on 26 May 2022 Retrieved 26 May 2022 Amos Jonathan 24 May 2022 Explosive Tonga volcano surprisingly intact BBC Archived from the original on 26 May 2022 Retrieved 26 May 2022 Evidence Tonga s volcano may still be erupting NIWA 1 News 23 May 2022 Archived from the original on 26 May 2022 Retrieved 26 May 2022 Mohammad Heidarzadeh Gusman Aditya Riadi Ishibe Takeo Sabeti Ramtin Sepic Jadranka 1 October 2022 Estimating the eruption induced water displacement source of the 15 January 2022 Tonga volcanic tsunami from tsunami spectra and numerical modelling Ocean Engineering 261 112165 doi 10 1016 j oceaneng 2022 112165 S2CID 251562949 a b Krieger Lisa M 15 January 2022 Volcanic tsunamis Why they are so difficult to predict The Mercury News Archived from the original on 16 January 2022 Retrieved 16 January 2022 Perry Nick 16 January 2022 Tsunami threat recedes from huge Pacific volcanic eruption The Washington Post Associated Press Archived from the original on 15 January 2022 Retrieved 16 January 2022 Shock waves landslides may have caused rare volcano tsunami experts France 24 Agence France Presse 17 January 2022 Archived from the original on 27 January 2022 Retrieved 26 January 2022 Tsunami models underestimated shockwave from Tonga eruption expert Radio New Zealand 1 February 2022 Archived from the original on 3 February 2022 Retrieved 3 February 2022 National No Threat Bulletin issued 4 58 pm AEDT Saturday 15 January 2022 Australian Bureau of Meteorology 15 January 2022 Archived from the original on 15 January 2022 Retrieved 15 January 2022 Waqairadovu Apenisa 15 January 2022 Another tsunami warning issued for Tonga FBC News Archived from the original on 15 January 2022 Retrieved 15 January 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in Nuku alofa probably overestimated Some areas still with question marks Tonga Tsunami Nukualofa Tweet via Twitter a b c Consulate of the Kingdom of Tonga ConsulateKoT 18 January 2022 FIRST OFFICIAL UPDATE FOLLOWING THE VOLCANIC ERUPTION FROM THE GOVERNMENT OF TONGA Flag of Tonga Tweet Archived from the original on 28 January 2022 Retrieved 18 January 2022 via Twitter Movono Lice 16 January 2022 Tongan tsunami felt around the Pacific RNZ Archived from the original on 15 January 2022 Retrieved 15 January 2022 Weather Alert Vanuatu Tsunami Advisory January 15 2022 US Embassy in Papua New Guinea Solomon islands and Vanuatu 15 January 2022 Archived from the original on 19 January 2022 Retrieved 15 January 2022 a b c A volcano erupts in the Pacific triggering a tsunami advisory for the West Coast Georgia Public Broadcasting Associated Press 15 January 2022 Archived from the original on 15 January 2022 Retrieved 15 January 2022 New Zealand Civil Defence issues stay off beach warning 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of Taiwan United Daily News in Chinese Archived from the original on 20 January 2022 Retrieved 20 January 2022 Choi Woo ri 17 January 2022 News analysis Volcano eruption in Tonga not likely to be last of this century scientists warn Archived from the original on 17 January 2022 Retrieved 17 January 2022 a b c d Live Updates Signs of Significant Tsunami Damage Are Seen in Tonga The New York Times 16 January 2022 Archived from the original on 16 January 2022 Retrieved 16 January 2022 a b Hramova Svetlana Guskova Anastasiya 15 January 2022 Na Kurilah obyavili ugrozu cunami Threat of tsunami has been declared in Kuril Islands Izvestiya in Russian Archived from the original on 15 January 2022 Retrieved 16 January 2022 a b c d Tsunami surges some flooding in the Bay Area after Pacific volcano eruption The Mercury News 15 January 2022 Archived from the original on 15 January 2022 Retrieved 16 January 2022 a b UPDATE Tsunami Advisory Issued For Northern California Following Violent Volcanic 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Management Agency issues tsunami advisory for New Zealand after Tonga volcano eruption Newshub Archived from the original on 15 January 2022 Retrieved 15 January 2022 Sam Hussey Gus Bruno 16 January 2022 Beaches evacuated and closed as Bureau of Meteorology updates tsunami warning for Australia s east coast 7News Archived from the original on 16 January 2022 Retrieved 16 January 2022 Officials No tsunami threat to Japan NHK 15 January 2022 Archived from the original on 15 January 2022 Retrieved 15 January 2022 奄美群島 トカラ列島に津波警報 予想高さ ３ｍ Tsunami warning on Amami Islands and Tokara Islands estimated height 3m in Japanese NHK 16 January 2022 Archived from the original on 15 January 2022 Retrieved 15 January 2022 津波注意報 全地域で解除 トンガ沖の海底噴火 Tsunami warning released in all areas Submarine eruption off Tonga in Japanese Nikkei Asia 15 January 2022 Archived from the original on 19 January 2022 Retrieved 15 January 2022 Nikkei a b c Cristal Hamer 15 January 2022 Tsunami advisory in effect on Central 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Warning Center 16 January 2022 Archived from the original on 16 January 2022 Retrieved 18 January 2022 a b Disponen el cierre de 22 puertos ante oleajes anomalos por erupcion volcanica They order the closure of 22 ports due to abnormal waves due to a volcanic eruption in Spanish Andina 16 January 2022 Archived from the original on 16 January 2022 Retrieved 16 January 2022 Chile alerta sobre posible tsunami menor tras erupcion de volcan en Tonga Chile alerts of a possible minor tsunami after volcanic eruption in Tonga in Spanish Deutsche Welle 15 January 2022 Archived from the original on 15 January 2022 Retrieved 15 January 2022 Chile evacuo las costas de siete regiones por un posible tsunami menor tras la erupcion del volcan submarino en Tonga Chile evacuated the coasts of seven regions due to a possible minor tsunami after the volcanic eruption in Tonga in Spanish Infobae 15 January 2022 Archived from the original on 15 January 2022 Retrieved 15 January 2022 Ecuador con advertencia de tsunami en Galapagos por erupcion en Tonga Ecuador with tsunami warning in Galapagos due to eruption in Tonga in Spanish SwissInfo 15 January 2022 Archived from the original on 16 January 2022 Retrieved 16 January 2022 Pachecho Adriana 15 January 2022 Tsunami en Tonga provoca actividades inusuales en costas de Mexico Tsunami in Tonga causes unusual activities on the coast of Mexico in Spanish Diario AS Archived from the original on 17 January 2022 Retrieved 17 January 2022 Waqairadovu Apenisa 16 January 2022 Tsunami alert cancelled for Fiji Fiji Broadcasting Corporation Archived from the original on 15 January 2022 Retrieved 15 January 2022 American Samoa Warn Adv Watch 4 Tonga Pacific Tsunami Warning Center 16 January 2022 Archived from the original on 17 January 2022 Retrieved 17 January 2022 Naveel Krishant 17 January 2022 Sulphur Dioxide concentration in the atmosphere has increased overnight which could result in acidic rainfall over Fiji Archived from the original on 17 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missing in Tonga NHK 16 January 2022 Archived from the original on 16 January 2022 Retrieved 16 January 2022 a b Tongan eruption 85 of the population impacted government RNZ 23 January 2022 Archived from the original on 25 January 2022 Retrieved 25 January 2022 a b Latu Kalino 30 January 2022 Prime Minister defends Deputy s no sirens reply as tsunami death toll rises to four Kaniva Tonga Archived from the original on 30 January 2022 Retrieved 7 April 2022 a b Rescue Crews Busy On San Francisco Bay Area Beaches During Tsunami Surge KPIX TV 16 January 2022 Archived from the original on 16 January 2022 Retrieved 16 January 2022 a b トンガ諸島の火山噴火に伴う津波による被害及び 消防機関等の対応状況 第６報 これは速報であり 数値等は今後も変わることがある Damage caused by the tsunami caused by the volcanic eruption of the Tonga Islands and Response status of fire departments 6th report This is a preliminary report and the figures may change in the future PDF www fdma go jp in Japanese Fire and Disaster Management Agency Archived PDF from the original 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News Archived from the original on 4 February 2022 Retrieved 9 February 2022 Tonga s internet finally restored five weeks after big eruption The New Zealand Herald 23 February 2022 Archived from the original on 23 February 2022 Retrieved 25 February 2022 Halpin James 22 February 2022 Internet restored to Tonga after cable destroyed by eruption is repaired Stuff Archived from the original on 22 February 2022 Retrieved 25 February 2022 Halpin James 22 February 2022 Internet restored to Tonga after cable destroyed by eruption is repaired Stuff Archived from the original on 22 February 2022 Retrieved 22 February 2022 Krishnamurthi Sri 22 February 2022 The Southern Cross cable that connects Tonga to the outside world is fixed Radio New Zealand Archived from the original on 17 March 2022 Retrieved 24 May 2022 Abdel Baqui Omar 19 January 2022 Pita Taufatofua the Shirtless Tongan Olympian Raises Hundreds of Thousands of Dollars for Tonga Relief Aid The Wall Street Journal Archived from the original on 20 January 2022 Retrieved 20 January 2022 External links Edit Wikimedia Commons has media related to 2022 Hunga Tonga Hunga Ha apai eruption and tsunami EMSR558 Volcano eruption in Tonga damage grading maps Copernicus Emergency Management Service ReliefWeb s main page Tonga Volcanic Eruption and Tsunami January 2022 CIMSS Satellite Blog The International Seismological Centre has a bibliography and or authoritative data for this event Update on the eruption and consequences Nature news 8 June 2022 Portals span, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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