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Wikipedia

Lord Howe Island

Lord Howe Island (/h/; formerly Lord Howe's Island) is an irregularly crescent-shaped volcanic remnant in the Tasman Sea between Australia and New Zealand, part of the Australian state of New South Wales. It lies 600 km (320 nmi) directly east of mainland Port Macquarie, 780 km (420 nmi) northeast of Sydney, and about 900 km (490 nmi) southwest of Norfolk Island. It is about 10 km (6.2 mi) long and between 0.3 and 2.0 km (0.19 and 1.24 mi) wide with an area of 14.55 km2 (3,600 acres), though just 3.98 km2 (980 acres) of that comprise the low-lying developed part of the island.[5]

Lord Howe Island
Satellite image of the island; north is toward the upper right corner
Geography
LocationLord Howe Island, Tasman Sea
Coordinates31°33′15″S 159°05′06″E / 31.55417°S 159.08500°E / -31.55417; 159.08500Coordinates: 31°33′15″S 159°05′06″E / 31.55417°S 159.08500°E / -31.55417; 159.08500
Total islands28
Major islandsLord Howe Island, Admiralty Group, Mutton Bird Islands, and Ball's Pyramid
Area14.55 km2 (5.62 sq mi)
Highest elevation875 m (2871 ft)
Highest pointMount Gower
Administration
Administrative DivisionUnincorporated area of New South Wales
Self-governed by the Lord Howe Island Board[1]
Part of the electoral district of Port Macquarie[2]
Part of the Division of Sydney[3]
Demographics
Population
  • 382
  • Tourists are restricted to 400 at any time.
(2016 census)[4]
Pop. density26.25/km2 (67.99/sq mi)
Additional information
Time zone
 • Summer (DST)
Official nameLord Howe Island Group
TypeNatural
Criteriavii, x
Designated1982 (6th session)
Reference no.186
RegionAsia-Pacific
Official nameLord Howe Island Group, Lord Howe Island, NSW, Australia
TypeNatural
Designated21 May 2007
Reference no.105694
File number1/00/373/0001
Official nameLord Howe Island Group
TypeState heritage (landscape)
Designated2 April 1999
Reference no.970
TypeOther – Landscape – Cultural
CategoryLandscape – Cultural

Along the west coast is a sandy semi-enclosed sheltered coral reef lagoon. Most of the population lives in the north, while the south is dominated by forested hills rising to the highest point on the island, Mount Gower (875 m, 2,871 ft).[6] The Lord Howe Island Group[6] comprises 28 islands, islets, and rocks. Apart from Lord Howe Island itself, the most notable of these is the volcanic and uninhabited Ball's Pyramid about 23 km (14 mi; 12 nmi) to the southeast of Howe. To the north lies a cluster of seven small uninhabited islands called the Admiralty Group.[7]

The first reported sighting by Europeans of Lord Howe Island took place on 17 February 1788, when Lieutenant Henry Lidgbird Ball, commander of the Armed Tender HMS Supply, was en route from Botany Bay to found a penal settlement on Norfolk Island.[8] On the return journey, Ball sent a party ashore on Lord Howe Island to claim it as a British possession.[9] It subsequently became a provisioning port for the whaling industry,[10] and was permanently settled in June 1834.[11] When whaling declined, the 1880s saw the beginning of the worldwide export of the endemic kentia palms,[12] which remains a key component of the island's economy. The other continuing industry, tourism, began after World War II ended in 1945.

The Lord Howe Island Group is part of the state of New South Wales[13] and is regarded legally as an unincorporated area administered by the Lord Howe Island Board,[13] which reports to the New South Wales Minister for Environment and Heritage.[13] The island's standard time zone is UTC+10:30, or UTC+11 when daylight saving time applies.[14] The currency is the Australian dollar. Commuter airlines provide flights to Sydney, Brisbane, and Port Macquarie.

UNESCO records the Lord Howe Island Group as a World Heritage Site of global natural significance.[15] Most of the island is virtually untouched forest, with many of the plants and animals found nowhere else in the world. Other natural attractions include the diversity of the landscapes, the variety of upper mantle and oceanic basalts, the world's southernmost barrier coral reef, nesting seabirds, and the rich historical and cultural heritage.[16] The Lord Howe Island Act 1981 established a "Permanent Park Preserve" (covering about 70% of the island).[14] The island was added to the Australian National Heritage List on 21 May 2007[17] and the New South Wales State Heritage Register on 2 April 1999.[18] The surrounding waters are a protected region designated the Lord Howe Island Marine Park.[19]

Bioregion

Lord Howe Island is part of the IBRA region Pacific Subtropical Islands (code PSI) and is subregion PSI01 with an area of 1,909 ha (4,720 acres).[20] In the WWF ecoregion system, Lord Howe Island constitutes the entirety of the 'Lord Howe Island subtropical forests' ecoregion (WWF ID#AA0109). This ecoregion is in the Australasian realm, and the tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests biome. The WWF ecoregion has an area of 14 km2.[21][22][23]

History

Prehistory

Before European discovery and settlement, Lord Howe Island apparently was uninhabited, and unknown to Polynesian peoples of the South Pacific.[24] No evidence to suggest prehistoric human activity has ever been found on Lord Howe Island, even after an extensive archaeological investigation in 1996.[25] In Australian Archaeology Atholl Anderson concluded in 2003 that, "the case for no pre-European settlement on Lord Howe Island is now more compelling than before" and that "the absence of pre-European settlement on Lord Howe Island is not easily explained. At 16 km2 it is twice the size of Pitcairn Island and half the size of Norfolk Island, two other remote subtropical islands that were inhabited prehistorically, and it had a biota very similar to that of Norfolk Island."[26]

1788–1834: First European visits

 
A silhouette of Lieutenant Henry Lidgbird Ball, the commander of HMS Supply

The first reported sighting of Lord Howe Island was on 17 February 1788 by Lieutenant Henry Lidgbird Ball, commander of the Armed Tender HMS Supply (the oldest and smallest of the First Fleet ships), which was on its way from Botany Bay with a cargo of nine male and six female convicts to found a penal settlement on Norfolk Island.[8] On the return journey of 13 March 1788, Ball observed Ball's Pyramid and sent a party ashore on Lord Howe Island to claim it as a British possession.[9] Numerous turtles and tame birds were captured and returned to Sydney.[27] Ball named Mount Lidgbird and Ball's Pyramid after himself and the main island after Richard Howe, 1st Earl Howe, who was First Lord of the Admiralty at the time.[9]

 
The extinct white gallinule (Porphyrio albus). A drawing made in May 1788 by Arthur Bowes Smyth who was the surgeon aboard Lady Penrhyn, a ship of the First Fleet heading for China on its return trip to England

Many names on the island date from this time, and also from May of the same year, when four ships of the First Fleet, HMS Supply, Charlotte, Lady Penrhyn and Scarborough, visited it. Much of the plant and animal life was first recorded in the journals and diaries of visitors such as David Blackburn, Master of Supply, and Arthur Bowes Smyth,[28] surgeon of the Lady Penrhyn.

Smyth was in Sydney when the Supply returned from the first voyage to Norfolk Island. His journal entry for 19 March 1788 noted that "the Supply, in her return, landed at the island she [discovered] in going out, and all were very agreeably surprised to find great numbers of a fine turtle on the beach and, on the land amongst the trees, great numbers of fowls very like a guinea hen, and another species of fowl not unlike the landrail in England, and all so perfectly tame that you could frequently take hold of them with your hands but could, at all times, knock down as many as you thought proper, with a short stick. Inside the reef also there were fish innumerable, which were so easily taken with a hook and line as to be able to catch a boat full in a short time. She brought thirteen large turtles to Port Jackson and many were distributed among the camp and fleet."[28]

Watercolour sketches of native birds including the Lord Howe woodhen (Gallirallus sylvestris), white gallinule (Porphyrio albus), and Lord Howe pigeon (Columba vitiensis godmanae) were made by artists including George Raper and John Hunter. As the latter two birds were soon hunted to extinction, these paintings are their only remaining pictorial record.[29][30] Over the next three years, the Supply returned to the island several times in search of turtles, and the island was also visited by ships of the Second and Third Fleets.[31] Between 1789 and 1791, the Pacific whale industry was born with British and American whaling ships chasing sperm whales (Physeter macrocephalus) along the equator to the Gilbert and Ellice archipelago, then south into Australian and New Zealand waters.[32] The American fleet numbered 675 ships and Lord Howe was located in a region known as the Middle Ground noted for sperm whales and southern right whales (Eubalaena australis).[33]

The island was subsequently visited by many governments and whaling ships sailing between New South Wales and Norfolk Island and across the Pacific, including many from the American whaling fleet, so its reputation as a provisioning port preceded settlement,[10] with some ships leaving goats and pigs on the island as food for future visitors. Between July and October 1791, the Third Fleet ships arrived at Sydney and within days, the deck work was being reconstructed for a future in the lucrative whaling industry. Whale oil was to become Australia's most profitable export until the 1830s, and the whaling industry shaped Lord Howe Island's early history.[34]

1834–1841: Settlement

 
Lord Howe Island Maritime Museum and Information Centre

Permanent settlement on Lord Howe was established in June 1834, when the British whaling barque Caroline, sailing from New Zealand and commanded by Captain John Blinkenthorpe, landed at what is now known as Blinky Beach. They left three men, George Ashdown, James Bishop, and Chapman, who was employed by a Sydney whaling firm to establish a supply station. The men were initially to provide meat by fishing and by raising pigs and goats from feral stock. They landed with (or acquired from a visiting ship) their Māori wives and two Māori boys. Huts were built in an area now known as Old Settlement, which had a supply of fresh water, and a garden was established west of Blinky Beach.[11][35]

This was a cashless society; the settlers bartered their stores of water, wood, vegetables, meat, fish, and bird feathers for clothes, tea, sugar, tools, tobacco, and other commodities not available on the island, but it was the whalers' valuation that had to be accepted.[36][37] These first settlers eventually left the island when they were bought out for £350 in September 1841 by businessmen Owen Poole and Richard Dawson (later joined by John Foulis), whose employees and others then settled on the island.[38]

1842–1860: Trading provisions

The new business was advertised and ships trading between Sydney and the New Hebrides (Vanuatu) would also be put into the island. Rover's Bride, a small cutter, became the first regular trading vessel.[39] Between 1839 and 1859, five to 12 ships made landfall each year, occasionally closer to 20, with seven or eight at a time laying off the reef.[40] In 1842 and 1844, the first children were born on the island. Then in 1847, Poole, Dawson, and Foulis, bitter at failing to obtain a land lease from the New South Wales government, abandoned the settlement although three of their employees remained.[41] One family, the Andrews, after finding some onions on the beach in 1848, cultivated them as the "Lord Howe red onion", which was popular in the Southern Hemisphere for about 30 years until the crop was attacked by smut disease.[42]

 
"Expedition to the South Seas: HMS Herald and steamship tender Torch" The Illustrated London News, 15 May 1852

In 1849, just 11 people were living on the island, but soon the island farms expanded.[42] In the 1850s, gold was discovered on mainland Australia, where crews would abandon their ships, preferring to dig for gold than risk their lives at sea. As a consequence, many vessels avoided the mainland and Lord Howe Island experienced an increasing trade, which peaked between 1855 and 1857.[43] In 1851, about 16 people were living on the island.[11] Vegetable crops now included potatoes, carrots, maize, pumpkin, taro, watermelon, and even grapes, passionfruit, and coffee.[35] Between 1851 and 1853, several aborted proposals were made by the NSW government to establish a penal settlement on the island.[44]

From 1851 to 1854, Henry Denham captain of HMS Herald, which was on a scientific expedition to the southwest Pacific (1852–1856), completed the island's first hydrographic survey. On board were three Scottish biologists, William Milne (a gardener-botanist from the Edinburgh Botanic Garden), John MacGillivray (naturalist) who collected fish and plant specimens, and assistant surgeon and zoologist Denis Macdonald. Together, these men established much basic information on the island's geology, flora, and fauna.[45]

Around 1853, a further three settlers arrived on the American whaling barque Belle, captained by Ichabod Handy.[46] George Campbell (who died in 1856) and Jack Brian (who left the island in 1854) arrived, and the third, Nathan Thompson, brought three women (called Botanga, Bogoroo, and a girl named Bogue) from the Gilbert Islands. When his first wife Botanga died, he then married Bogue. Thompson was the first resident to build a substantial house in the 1860s from mainland cedar washed up on the beach.[47] Most of the residents with island ancestors have blood relations or are connected by marriage to Thompson and his second wife Bogue.[48]

In 1855, the island was officially designated as part of New South Wales by the Constitution Act.[49]

1861–1890: Scientific expeditions

From the early 1860s, whaling declined rapidly with the increasing use of petroleum, the onset of the California Gold Rush, and the American Civil War—with unfortunate consequences for the people of the island. To explore alternative means of income, Thompson, in 1867, purchased the Sylph, which was the first local vessel to trade with Sydney (mainly pigs and onions). It anchored in deep water at what is now Sylph's Hole off Old Settlement Beach but was eventually tragically lost at sea in 1873, which added to the woes of the island at that time.[50]

In 1869, the island was visited by magistrate P. Cloete aboard the Thetis investigating a possible murder. He was accompanied by Charles Moore, director of the Botanic Gardens in Sydney, and his assistant William Carron, who forwarded plant specimens to Ferdinand Mueller at the botanic gardens in Melbourne, who by 1875, had catalogued and published 195 species.[51] Also on the ship was William Fitzgerald, a surveyor, and Mr. Masters from the Australian Museum. Together, they surveyed the island with the findings published in 1870 when the population was listed as 35 people, their 13 houses built of split palm battens thatched on the roof and sides with palm leaves.[52] Around this time, a downturn of trade began with the demise of the whaling industry, and sometimes six to 12 months passed without a vessel calling. The older families lost interest in market gardening with the provisions rotting in the storehouses.[53]

From 1860 to 1872, 43 ships had collected provisions, but from 1873 to 1887, fewer than a dozen had done so.[43] This prompted some activity from the mainland. In 1876, a government report on the island was submitted by surveyor William Fitzgerald based on a visit in the same year. He suggested that coffee be grown, but the kentia palm was already catching world attention.[12] In 1878, the island was declared a forest reserve and Captain Richard Armstrong became the first resident government administrator. He encouraged schools, tree-planting, and the palm trade, dynamited the north passage to the lagoon, and built roads. He also managed to upset the residents, and parliamentarian Bowie Wilson was sent from the mainland in April 1882 to investigate the situation.[54] With Wilson was a team of scientists who included H. Wilkinson from the Mines Department, W. Condor from the Survey Department, J. Duff from the Sydney Botanical Gardens, and A. Morton from the Australian Museum. J. Sharkey from the Government Printing Office took the earliest known photographs of the island and its residents. A full account of the island appeared in the report from this visit,[55] which recommended that Armstrong be replaced. Meanwhile, the population had increased considerably and included 29 children; the report recommended that a schoolmaster be appointed.[56] This study sealed a lasting relationship with three scientific organisations, the Australian Museum, Sydney Royal Botanic Gardens, and Kew Royal Botanic Gardens.

1890–1999

In 1883, the company Burns Philp started a regular shipping service and the number of tourists gradually increased. By 1932, with the regular tourist run of SS Morinda, tourism became the second-largest source of external income after palm sales to Europe.[11] Morinda was replaced by Makambo in 1932, and she in turn by other vessels. The service continues into the present day with the fortnightly Island Trader service from Port Macquarie.[57]

The palm trade began in the 1880s when the lowland kentia palm (Howea forsteriana) was first exported to Britain, Europe, and America, but the trade was only placed on a firm financial footing when the Lord Howe Island Kentia Palm Nursery was formed in 1906 (see below).

 
The 1965 wreck of The Favourite in North Bay is a popular site

The first plane to appear on the island was in 1931, when Francis Chichester alighted on the lagoon in a de Havilland Gipsy Moth converted into a floatplane. It was damaged there in an overnight storm, but repaired with the assistance of islanders and then took off successfully nine weeks later for a flight to Sydney.[58] After World War II, in 1947, tourists arrived on Catalina and then four-engined Sandringham flying boats of Ansett Flying Boat Services operating out of Rose Bay, Sydney, and landing on the lagoon, the journey taking about 3½ hours. When Lord Howe Island Airport was completed in 1974, the seaplanes were eventually replaced with QantasLink twin-engined turboprop Dash 8–200 aircraft.[59]

21st century

In 2002, the Royal Navy destroyer HMS Nottingham struck Wolf Rock, a reef at Lord Howe Island, and almost sank.[60] In recent times, tourism has increased and the government of New South Wales has been increasingly involved with issues of conservation.[11]

On 17 October 2011, a supply ship, M/V Island Trader, with 20 tons of fuel, ran aground in the lagoon. The ship refloated at high tide with no loss of crew or cargo.[61]

The 2016 film The Shallows starring Blake Lively was largely filmed on the island.[62]

During the COVID-19 pandemic in New South Wales, a public health order was issued on 22 March 2020 that declared Lord Howe Island a public risk area and directed restricted access. As of that date there were no known cases of COVID-19 on the Island.[63][64]

One of the most contentious issues amongst islanders in the 21st century is what to do about the rodent situation. Rodents have only been on the island since the SS Makambo ran aground in 1918, and have wiped out several endemic bird species and were thought to have done the same to the Lord Howe Island stick insect. A plan in 2016 was made to drop 42 tonnes of rat bait across the island, but the community was heavily divided.[65]

The island was due to be declared rodent-free in October 2021, two years after the last live rat was found, but a living male and pregnant female were discovered in April 2021.[66] The eradication, contrary to many community reservations, has seen birds, insects, and plants flourish at levels not seen in decades.[67]

Demographics

As at the 2016 census, the resident population was 382 people,[68] and the number of tourists was not allowed to exceed 400.[69] Early settlers were European and American whalers and many of their offspring have remained on the island for more than six generations. Residents now work in the kentia palm industry, tourism, retail, some fishing, and farming. In 1876 on Sundays, games and labour were suspended, but no religious services were held.[53] Nowadays, the area known locally as Church Paddock has Anglican, Roman Catholic, and Adventist churches, the religious affiliations on the island being 30% Anglican, 22% no religion, 18% Catholic and 12% Seventh Day Adventist.[70] The ratio of the sexes is roughly equal, with 47% of the population in the age group 25–54 and 92% holding Australian citizenship.[70]

Governance and land tenure

Official control of Lord Howe Island lay initially with the British Crown until it passed to New South Wales in 1855,[49][71] although, until at least 1876, the islanders lived in "a relatively harmonious and self-regulating community".[72] In 1878, Richard Armstrong was appointed administrator when the NSW Parliament declared the island a forest reserve, but as a result of ill feeling, and an enquiry, he was eventually removed from office on 31 May 1882 (he returned later that year though to view the transit of Venus from present-day Transit Hill).[73] After his removal, the island was administered by four successive magistrates until 1913, when a Sydney-based board was formed; in 1948, a resident superintendent was appointed.[74] In 1913, the three-man Lord Howe Island Board of Control was established, mostly to regulate the palm seed industry, but also administering the affairs of the island from Sydney until the present Lord Howe Island Board was set up in 1954.[75]

The Lord Howe Island Board is an NSW Statutory Authority established under the Lord Howe Island Act 1953, to administer the island as part of the state of New South Wales. It reports directly to the state's Minister for Environment and Heritage and is responsible for the island's care, control, and management. Its duties include the protection of World Heritage values; the control of development; the administration of Crown Land, including the island's protected area; provision of community services and infrastructure; and regulating sustainable tourism.[13] In 1981, the Lord Howe Island Amendment Act gave islanders the administrative power of three members on a five-member board.[76] The board also manages the Lord Howe Island kentia palm nursery, which together with tourism, provides the island's only source of external income.[13] Under an amendment bill in 2004, the board now comprises seven members, four of whom are elected from the islander community,[13] thus giving about 350 permanent residents a high level of autonomy. The remaining three members are appointed by the minister to represent the interests of business, tourism, and conservation.[13] The full board meets on the island every three months, while the day-to-day affairs of the island are managed by the board's administration, with a permanent staff that had increased to 22 people by 1988.[77]

Land tenure has been an issue since the first settlement, as island residents repeatedly requested freehold title or an absolute gift of cultivated land.[78] Original settlers were squatters. The granting of a 100-acre (40 ha) lease to Richard Armstrong in 1878 drew complaints, and a few short-term leases ("permissive occupancies") were granted.[79] In 1913, with the appointment of a board of control, permissive occupancies were revoked and the board itself given permissive occupancy of the island.[80] Then the Lord Howe Island Act 1953 made all land the property of the Crown. Direct descendants of islanders with permissive occupancies in 1913 were granted perpetual leases on blocks up to five acres (2.0 ha) for residential purposes. Short-term special leases were granted for larger areas used for agriculture, so in 1955, 55 perpetual leases and 43 special leases were granted.[81] The 1981 amendment to the act extended political and land rights to all residents of 10 years or more.[81] An active debate exists concerning the proportion of residents with tenure and the degree of influence on the board of resident islanders about long-term planning for visitors, and issues relating to the environment, amenities, and global heritage.[79]

Parliamentary representation

New South Wales

As a dependency of the Colony of New South Wales, Lord Howe Island was not represented in parliament until the 1894 New South Wales colonial election following the passage of the Parliamentary Electorates and Elections Act, 1893.[82] Since 1894, Lord Howe Island has been included in the following New South Wales Legislative Assembly districts:

Period District Notes
1894–1904 Sydney-King [83][82]
1904–1920 King [84]
1920–1927 Sydney [85]
1927–1973 King [86][87]
1973–1981 Phillip [88]
1981–1988 Elizabeth [89]
1988–1991 McKell [90]
1991–date Port Macquarie [91]

As part of the redistribution of electoral districts for the 2023 state election, a proposal was received to move Lord Howe Island back into the electorate of Sydney.[92] However, the NSW Electoral Commission eventually decided to retain the island within the electorate of Port Macquarie.[93]

Commonwealth

Since 1901, Lord Howe Island has been included in the following Australian House of Representatives electoral divisions:

Economy

Kentia palm industry

The first exporter of palm seeds was Ned King, a mountain guide for the Fitzgerald surveys of 1869 and 1876, who sent seed to the Sydney Botanic Gardens. Overseas trade began in the 1880s, when one of the four palms endemic to the island, the kentia palm (Howea forsteriana), which grows naturally in the lowlands, was found to be ideally suited to the fashionable conservatories of the well-to-do in Britain, Europe, and the United States.[14][56] The assistance of mainland magistrate, Frank Farnell, was needed to put the business on a sound commercial footing when in 1906, he became company director of the Lord Howe Island Kentia Palm Nursery, whose shareholders included 21 islanders and a Sydney-based seed company. However, the formation of the Lord Howe Island Board of Control was needed in 1913 to resolve outstanding issues.[102]

The kentia palm (known locally as the thatch palm, as it was used to roof the houses of the early settlers) is popular worldwide as a decorative palm that grows well both outdoors (in sufficiently warm climates) and indoors; the mild climate of the island has led to the evolution of a palm that can tolerate low light, a dry atmosphere, and lowish temperatures — ideal for indoor conditions,[14] particularly in higher-end venues such as hotel lobbies, galleries and large foyers where their high price (thanks to their relative rarity) is no disincentive to their use. Up until the 1980s, the palms were only sold as seed but from then onwards only as high-quality seedlings. The nursery received certification in 1997 for its high-quality management complying with the requirements of Australian Standard AS/NZS ISO 9002.[103]

Seed is gathered from both natural forests and plantations, most collectors being descendants of the original settlers. The seed is then germinated in soilless media and sealed from the atmosphere to prevent contamination. After testing, seedlings are picked, washed (bare-rooted), sanitized, and certified, then packed and sealed into insulated containers for export. Nursery profits, in turn, are used in projects that enhance the island's ecosystems. The nursery plans to expand the business to include the curly palm (Howea belmoreana) and other native plants of special interest.[14]

By the late 1980s, annual exports had begun to provide a revenue of over A$2 million, constituting the only major industry on the island apart from tourism.[104]

Tourism

 
Shopping centre on Ned's Beach Road

Lord Howe Island is known for its geology, birds, plants, and marine life. Popular tourist activities include scuba diving, birdwatching, snorkelling, surfing, kayaking, and fishing.[105] To relieve pressure on the small island environment, only 400 tourists are permitted at any one time.[69] The island is reached by plane from Sydney Airport or Brisbane Airport in less than two hours.[69] The Permanent Park Preserve declared in 1981 has similar management guidelines to a national park.[106]

 
Island Trader on a fortnightly delivery from Port Macquarie

Facilities

With fewer than 800 people on the island at any time, facilities are limited; they include a bakery, butcher, general store, liquor store, restaurants, post office, museum, and information centre, a police officer, a ranger, and an ATM at the bowling club. Stores are shipped to the island fortnightly by the Island Trader from Port Macquarie.[57] The island has a small four-bed hospital and dispensary.[107] A small botanic garden displays labelled local plants in its grounds. Diesel-generated power is 240 volts AC,[107] complemented by 1.3 MW solar power and 3.7 MWh battery.[108] No public transport or mobile phone coverage is available, but public telephones, fax facilities, and internet access are,[107] as well as a local radio station and newsletter, The Signal.

Tourist accommodation ranges from luxury lodges to apartments and villa units.[109] The currency is the Australian dollar, and there are two banks.[107] No camping facilities are on the island and remote-area camping is not permitted.[109] To protect the fragile environment of Ball's Pyramid (which carries the last remaining wild population of the endangered Lord Howe Island stick insect), recreational climbing there is prohibited. No pets are allowed without permission from the board. Islanders use tanked rainwater, supplemented by bore water for showers and washing clothes.[110]

Activities

 
Lord Howe Golf Course
 
Bushwalking to Little Island (bottom right) – Mount Lidgbird track

As distances to sites of interest are short, cycling is the main means of transport on the island. Tourist activities include golf (9-hole), lawn bowls, tennis, fishing (including deep-sea game fishing), yachting, windsurfing, kitesurfing, kayaking, and boat trips (including glass-bottom tours of the lagoon).[111][112] Swimming, snorkelling, and scuba diving are also popular in the lagoon, as well as off Tenth of June Island, a small rocky outcrop in the Admiralty group where an underwater plateau drops 36 m (118 ft) to reveal extensive gorgonia and black corals growing on the vertical walls. Other diving sites are found off Ball's Pyramid, 26 km (16 mi) away, where trenches, caves, and volcanic drop-offs occur.[113]

Bushwalking, natural history tours, talks, and guided walks take place along the many tracks, the most challenging being the eight-hour guided hike to the top of Mount Gower.[114] The island has 11 beaches, and hand-feeding the 1 m-long (3 ft) kingfish (Seriola lalandi) and large wrasse at Ned's Beach is very popular.[115] Walking tracks cover the island with difficulty graded from 1–5, they include—in the north: Transit Hill 2-hour return, 2 km (1.2 mi); Clear Place, 1– to 2-hour return; Stevens Reserve; North Bay, 4-hour return, 4 km (2.5 mi); Mount Eliza; Old Gulch, 20-minute return, 300 m (330 yd); Malabar Hill and Kims Lookout, 3 or 5-hour return, 7 km (4.3 mi) and—in the south: Goat House Cave, 5-hour return, 6 km (3.7 mi); Mount Gower, 8-hour return, 14 km (8.7 mi); Rocky Run and Boat Harbour; Intermediate Hill, 45-minute return, 1 km (0.62 mi); and Little Island, 40-minute return, 3 km (1.9 mi). Recreational climbers must obtain permission from the Lord Howe Island Board.[116][117]

Geography

 
Ball's Pyramid, 23 km (14 mi) southeast of the main island

Lord Howe Island is an irregularly crescent-shaped volcanic remnant in the southwest Pacific Ocean. Lying in the Tasman Sea between Australia and New Zealand, the island is 600 km (370 mi) east of mainland Port Macquarie, 702 km (436 mi) northeast of Sydney, and about 772 km (480 mi) from Norfolk Island to its northeast.[118] The island is about 10 km (6.2 mi) long and between 0.3 and 2.0 km (0.19 and 1.24 mi) wide with an area of 14.55 km2 (5.62 sq mi). Along the west coast is a semienclosed, sheltered coral reef lagoon with white sand, the most accessible of the island's 11 beaches.

 
Mount Lidgbird and Mount Gower viewed from Mount Eliza

Both the north and south sections of the island are the high ground of the relatively untouched forest, in the south comprising two volcanic mountains, Mount Lidgbird (777 m (2,549 ft)) and Mount Gower which, rising to 875 m (2,871 ft), is the highest point on the island.[119] The two mountains are separated by the saddle at the head of Erskine Valley. In the north, where most of the population lives, high points are Malabar (209 m (686 ft)) and Mount Eliza (147 m (482 ft)). Between these two uplands is an area of cleared lowland with some farming, an airstrip, and housing.

The Lord Howe Island Group of islands comprises 28 islands, islets, and rocks. Apart from Lord Howe Island itself, the most notable of these is the pointed rocky islet Balls Pyramid, a 551 m-high (1,808 ft) eroded volcano about 23 km (14 mi) to the southeast, which is uninhabited by humans but bird-colonised.[120] It contains the only known wild population of the Lord Howe Island stick insect, formerly thought to be extinct.[121] To the north is the Admiralty Group, a cluster of seven small, uninhabited islands.[7] Just off the east coast is 4.5 ha (11 acres) Mutton Bird Island, and in the lagoon is the 2.4 ha (5.9 acres) Blackburn (Rabbit) Island.

Geological origins

 
Skeleton of an extinct horned turtle (Meiolania platyceps) displayed in the Maritime Museum

Lord Howe Island is the highly eroded remains of a 7-million-year-old shield volcano,[122] the product of eruptions that lasted for about 500,000 years.[123] It is one of a chain of islands that occur on the western rim of an undersea shelf, the Lord Howe Rise, which is 3,000 km (1,900 mi) long and 300 km (190 mi) wide extending from New Zealand to the west of New Caledonia and consisting of continental rocks that separated from the Australian plate 60 to 80 million years ago to form a new crust in the deep Tasman Basin.[124] The shelf is part of Zealandia, a microcontinent nearly half the size of Australia that gradually submerged after breaking away from the Gondwanan supercontinent.[125] The Lord Howe Seamount Chain is defined by coral-capped guyots stretching to the north of the island for 1,000 km (620 mi) and including the Middleton (220 km (140 mi) away) and Elizabeth (160 km (99 mi) away) reefs of the Elizabeth and Middleton Reefs Marine National Park Reserve. This chain of nine volcanic peaks was probably produced by the northward movement of the Indo-Australian Plate over a stationary hotspot, so the oldest guyots were the first formed and most northerly as the plate moved northward at a rate of 6 cm (2.4 in) per year (see plate tectonics).[126][127]

Basalts and calcarenite

 
Basalt dikes on the eastern cliffs
 
Volcanic breccia on Mount Lidgbird beach

Two periods of volcanic activity produced the major features of the island. The first about 6.9 million years (Mya) ago produced the northern and central hills, while the younger and highly eroded Mount Gower and Mount Lidgbird were produced about 6.3 Mya by successive basalt (an extrusive igneous rock) lava flows that once filled a large volcanic caldera (crater)[128] and can now be seen as horizontal basalt strata on mountain cliffs (at Malabar and Mount Gower) occasionally interspersed with dikes (vertical lava intrusions).[129][130] Geological pyroclastic remnants of a volcanic eruption can be seen on the 15 ha (37-acre) Roach Island (where the oldest rocks occur) and Boat Harbour as tuff (ash), breccia (with angular blocks), and agglomerate (rounded 'bombs').[14] Offshore on the Lord Howe Rise, water depths reach 2,000 m (6,600 ft) falling to 4,000 m (13,000 ft) to the west of the rise. From the dimensions of the rock on which the island stands, the island has been calculated to erode to 1/40th of its original size.[131]

 
Close-up of calcarenite by Andersons Road
 
Stratified calcarenite at Lagoon Beach

Rocks and land at the foot of these mountains is calcarenite, coral sand, blown inland during the Pleistocene between 130,000 and 20,000 years ago and cemented into stratified layers by water percolation.[132] In this rock are fossils of bird bones and eggs, land and marine snails, and the extinct giant horned turtle (Meiolania platyceps) which is not closely related to any living kind of turtle. The crescent of the island protects a coral reef and lagoon; the barrier reef, at 31°30'S, is the most southerly in the world.[133] Beach sands, rather than consisting of quartz grains derived from granite, as on the mainland, are made of fragments of shell, coral, and coralline algae, together with basalt grains, and basaltic minerals such as black diopside and green olivine.[134] The lowland consists of alluvial soils.

The island continues to erode rapidly and is expected to be fully submerged within 200,000 years, taking an appearance akin to the Middleton and Elizabeth Reefs.[135]

Climate

Lord Howe Island has a humid subtropical climate (Cfa under the Köppen climate classification).[136]

In general, the summers are warm and humid with erratic rainfall, but occasionally heavy, while in winter it is very mild with rainfall more or less uniform. There is a gradual transition from summer to winter conditions and vice versa.[137] Winds are frequent and salt-laden, being moderate easterlies in the summer and fresh to strong westerlies in the winter.[137][138] July is the windiest month,[139] and the winter months are subject to frequent gales and strong winds. The island has 67.8 clear days, annually.[137]

Storms and occasional cyclones also affect the island.[137] Rainfall records are maintained in the north, where rainfall is less than in the frequently cloud-shrouded mountains of the south. Wide variations in rainfall can occur from year to year. July and August are the coldest months with average minimum temperatures around 13 °C (55 °F) and no frost. Average maximum temperatures range from 17–20 °C (63–68 °F) in the winter to 24–27 °C (75–81 °F) in the summer. The humidity averages in the 60–70% range year-round, becoming more noticeable on warmer summer days than in the cooler winter months.[140][141]

The average temperature of the sea ranges from 20.0 °C (68.0 °F) in July, August, and September to 25.3 °C (77.5 °F) in March.[142]

Climate data for Lord Howe Island Airport, (1991–2020 normals and extremes)
Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year
Record high °C (°F) 29.9
(85.8)
31.3
(88.3)
28.2
(82.8)
27.0
(80.6)
25.2
(77.4)
23.9
(75.0)
22.4
(72.3)
23.4
(74.1)
23.3
(73.9)
24.9
(76.8)
28.0
(82.4)
28.3
(82.9)
31.3
(88.3)
Mean maximum °C (°F) 27.6
(81.7)
27.5
(81.5)
26.6
(79.9)
24.8
(76.6)
23.2
(73.8)
21.6
(70.9)
20.7
(69.3)
20.9
(69.6)
21.9
(71.4)
23.0
(73.4)
24.6
(76.3)
26.2
(79.2)
27.6
(81.7)
Average high °C (°F) 25.5
(77.9)
25.8
(78.4)
25.0
(77.0)
23.4
(74.1)
21.6
(70.9)
19.9
(67.8)
19.1
(66.4)
19.1
(66.4)
20.1
(68.2)
21.0
(69.8)
22.4
(72.3)
24.1
(75.4)
22.3
(72.1)
Daily mean °C (°F) 23.2
(73.8)
23.5
(74.3)
22.6
(72.7)
20.8
(69.4)
19.0
(66.2)
17.4
(63.3)
16.5
(61.7)
16.4
(61.5)
17.4
(63.3)
18.4
(65.1)
19.7
(67.5)
21.7
(71.1)
19.7
(67.5)
Average low °C (°F) 20.8
(69.4)
21.1
(70.0)
20.1
(68.2)
18.1
(64.6)
16.3
(61.3)
14.8
(58.6)
13.9
(57.0)
13.6
(56.5)
14.7
(58.5)
15.7
(60.3)
17.4
(63.3)
19.2
(66.6)
17.1
(62.9)
Mean minimum °C (°F) 18.3
(64.9)
18.9
(66.0)
17.7
(63.9)
15.2
(59.4)
13.2
(55.8)
11.7
(53.1)
10.7
(51.3)
10.3
(50.5)
11.3
(52.3)
12.3
(54.1)
14.5
(58.1)
16.1
(61.0)
10.3
(50.5)
Record low °C (°F) 13.1
(55.6)
13.7
(56.7)
13.4
(56.1)
11.2
(52.2)
9.1
(48.4)
7.5
(45.5)
6.6
(43.9)
6.6
(43.9)
5.9
(42.6)
7.8
(46.0)
9.2
(48.6)
11.4
(52.5)
5.9
(42.6)
Average precipitation mm (inches) 102.5
(4.04)
107.0
(4.21)
126.8
(4.99)
138.7
(5.46)
153.2
(6.03)
169.4
(6.67)
138.0
(5.43)
104.7
(4.12)
109.5
(4.31)
99.0
(3.90)
110.9
(4.37)
101.1
(3.98)
1,460.8
(57.51)
Average precipitation days (≥ 1 mm) 8.9 9.2 10.8 13.0 14.7 17.1 17.1 14.4 11.3 9.3 9.4 9.1 144.3
Average relative humidity (%) 70.0 67.0 67.0 66.5 66.0 65.5 66.0 64.0 68.0 67.0 68.0 67.0 66.8
Average dew point °C (°F) 17.9
(64.2)
17.8
(64.0)
16.7
(62.1)
14.9
(58.8)
13.3
(55.9)
11.7
(53.1)
10.9
(51.6)
10.5
(50.9)
12.3
(54.1)
12.9
(55.2)
14.7
(58.5)
16.2
(61.2)
14.2
(57.5)
Average ultraviolet index 13.0 12.0 9.0 6.0 4.0 3.0 3.0 4.0 6.0 8.0 11.0 13.0 7.7
Source 1: Australian Bureau of Meteorology- 1991-2020 normals and extremes[143]
Source 2: Weather-Atlas (UV Index)[144]

Flora and fauna

Plants

 
Box-shaped fruit of Barringtonia asiatica, SW Pacific washed up on Blinky Beach

Lord Howe Island is a distinct terrestrial ecoregion known as the Lord Howe Island subtropical forests. It is part of the Australasian realm and shares many biotic affinities with Australia, New Guinea, and New Caledonia.[145] In geological terms at 7 million years old, Lord Howe Island is relatively young and was never part of any continent, its flora and fauna colonising the island from across the sea, carried by the wind, water, or birds, possibly assisted at a geological time when other islands were exposed, enabling island hopping.[146] Nevertheless, it has been sufficiently remote for long enough to evolve endemic species.

 
Wedding flower (Dietes robinsoniana)

The high degree of endemism is emphasised by the presence of five endemic genera: Negria, Lordhowea, Howea, Lepidorrhachis, and Hedyscepe.[147] Island plants are similar to those of Norfolk Island, the two islands sharing some endemic species, for example, the critically endangered species of creeping vine Calystegia affinis. The combined flora of these two islands is more closely related to that of New Zealand and New Caledonia than to that of Australia.[147] Also, a small but clear link exists with the plants of Vanuatu.[147] The closest mainland affinities are with the vegetation of subtropical southeastern Queensland. A link with Gondwanaland is indicated by the presence of endemic species such as the wedding lily (Dietes robinsoniana) whose only living relatives occur in South Africa.[148]

The flora of the island is relatively untouched, with a large number of rare plants, 44% being endemic to the island.[147] With a diversity of conditions ranging from valleys to ridges, plains, and misty mountain tops, habitat is available for a wide range of plant communities, which have been comprehensively analysed and mapped.[149] Many of the island's unique plants grow on or around the mountain summits, where the height has allowed the development of a true cloud forest and many different microhabitats, from sea level to the summits.[150] With the increased humidity brought by the clouds on Mount Gower and the other mountain tops, the range of endemic plants include mosses, ferns and flowering plants.[151]

One of the best-known plant genera endemic to Lord Howe Island is Howea, an endemic genus of palms (Arecaceae) that are commonly known as kentia palms and are popular houseplants.[152] Mosses include Spiridens muelleri. There are 57 species of ferns, of which 25 are endemic: they are most abundant in the moist environments of the southern island, especially the higher parts of Mount Gower,[153] perhaps the most apparent being the four endemic tree ferns in the genus Cyathea that occur on the southern mountains.[154] Hedyscepe and Lepidorrhachis are the other two palm genera that are also endemic to the island.[155]

Since the rodent eradication program, researchers have observed an increase in the amount of growth and seeds, especially of the "larger, fleshy, fruited plants", previously eaten by rats. As the understorey grows thicker, this in turn will provide habitat for small animals such as snails and insects, which in turn provide food for the birds.[151]

Number of different vascular plants[147]
Total Indigenous Endemic Naturalised
459 241 105 (43.6%) 218 (47.5%)

Communities and special plants

 
Little mountain palm (Lepidorrhachis mooreana) on the summit of Mount Gower

Plant communities have been classified into nine categories: lowland subtropical rainforest, submontane rainforest, cloud-forest and scrub, lowland swamp forest, mangrove scrub and seagrass, coastal scrub and cliff vegetation, inland scrub and herbland, offshore island vegetation, shoreline and beach vegetation, and disturbed vegetation.[147] Several plants are immediately evident to the visitor. Banyan (Ficus macrophylla subsp. columnaris) is a remarkable tree with a buttressed trunk and pendulous aerial roots; it can be seen on the track to Clear Place and near Ned's Beach.[156] Pandanus tree (Pandanus forsteri) has spectacular teepee-like prop roots and pineapple-like fruits that are orange-red when mature, the tough leaves being used for basketry. It occurs in damp areas such as creek beds, and fine specimens can be seen along the Boat Harbour track.[156] Ten species of orchids are on the island, the most noticeable being the bush orchid (Dendrobium macropus subsp. howeanum) on lowland trees and rocks, bearing cream flowers from August to September.[156] Other prominent flowering plants in the summer include, on the mountain slopes, the whiskery red flowers of mountain rose (Metrosideros nervulosa and Metrosideros sclerocarpa), the massed, small, yellow flowers of corokia (Corokia carpodetoides), orange, plump flowers of pumpkin tree (Negria rhabdothamnoides), and white spikes of Fitzgerald tree (Dracophyllum fitzgeraldii).[156] The kava bush has large, aromatic, heart-shaped leaves. After heavy rain, the endemic glowing mushroom Mycena chlorophanos, and Omphalotus nidiformis, can be found in the palm forests.[157]

The palms are the signature plants of the island as the kentia and curly palms especially dominate the landscape in many places, the kentia being of special economic importance.[158] All four species are endemic to the island, often occurring in dense, pure stands, the one that has proved such a worldwide success as an indoor plant being the kentia or thatch palm (Howea forsteriana). This is a lowland palm with drooping leaflets and seed branches in 'hands' of three to five, while the curly palm (H. belmoreana), which occurs on slightly higher ground, has upwardly directed leaflets and solitary 'hands'. Natural hybrids between these species occur on the island and a mature specimen of one is growing in the island nursery. On the mountain sides higher than about 350 m, the big mountain palm (Hedyscepe canterburyana) occurs; it has large, golf ball-sized fruits, while the little mountain palm (Lepidorrhachis mooreana) has marble-sized fruits and is only found on the mountain summits.[159]

Images of native flora

Animals

No snakes nor poisonous or venomous animals or plants occur, and no dangerous daytime sharks are found off the beaches, although tiger sharks have been reported on the cliff side of the island.[160]

Birds

 
Sooty terns are the most abundant breeding seabirds and are common along the east coast.

A total of 202 different birds have been recorded on the island. Eighteen species of land birds breed on the island and many more migratory species occur on the island and its adjacent islets, many tame enough that humans can get quite close.[161] The island has been identified by BirdLife International as an endemic bird area, and the Permanent Park Preserve as an important bird area because it supports the entire population of Lord Howe woodhens, most of the breeding population of providence petrels, over 1% of the world population of another five seabird species, and the whole populations of three endemic subspecies.[162]

Fourteen species of seabirds breed on the island.[161] Red-tailed tropicbirds can be seen in large numbers circling the Malabar cliffs, where they perform acrobatic courting rituals.[163] Between August and May, thousands of flesh-footed and wedge-tailed shearwaters return to the island at dusk each day. From the Little Island Track between March and November, one of the world's rarest birds, the providence petrel, also performs courtship displays during winter breeding, and it is extremely tame. The island was its only breeding location for many years after the breeding colony on Norfolk Island was exterminated in the late 19th century,[164] though a small population persists on the adjacent Phillip Island. The Kermadec petrel was discovered breeding on Mount Gower in 1914 by ornithologist Roy Bell while collecting specimens for Gregory Mathews[165] and the black-winged petrel was only confirmed as a breeder in 1971; its numbers have increased following the elimination of feral cats from the island.[166]

 
Black noddy on North Beach

The flesh-footed shearwater, which breeds in large numbers on the main island in spring-autumn, once had its chicks harvested for food by the islanders.[167] The wedge-tailed and little shearwaters breed on the main island and surrounding islets, though only a small number of the latter species can be found on the main island. Breeding white-bellied storm petrels was another discovery by Roy Bell.[168] Masked boobies are the largest seabirds breeding on Lord Howe[169] and can be seen nesting and gliding along the sea cliffs at Mutton Bird Point all year round. Sooty terns can be seen on the main island at Ned's and Middle Beaches, North Bay, and Blinkey Beach; the most numerous of the island's breeding seabirds, their eggs were formerly harvested for food. Common and black noddies build nests in trees and bushes, while white terns lay their single eggs precariously in a slight depression on a tree branch,[170] and grey ternlets lay their eggs in cliff hollows.[171]

Three endemic passerine subspecies are the Lord Howe golden whistler, Lord Howe silvereye, and Lord Howe currawong.[172] The iconic endemic rail, the flightless Lord Howe woodhen, is the only surviving member of its genus; its ancestors could fly, but with no predators and plenty of food on the island, this ability was lost. This made it easy prey for islanders and feral animals, so by the 1970s, the population was less than 30 birds. From 1978 to 1984, feral animals were removed and birds were raised in captivity to be successfully reintroduced to the wild. The population is now relatively safe and stable.[14][173]

List of endemic birds

 
Lord Howe silvereye (Zosterops lateralis tephropleurus)

Mammals, reptiles and amphibians

 
Skeleton of Meiolania platyceps, once native to Lorde Howe

Only one native mammal remains on the islands, the large forest bat. The endemic Lord Howe long-eared bat is known only from a skull and is now presumed extinct, possibly the result of the introduction of ship rats.[174]

Two terrestrial reptiles are native to the island group: the Lord Howe Island skink and the Lord Howe Island gecko. Both are rare on the main island, but more common on smaller islands offshore.[175] The garden skink and the bleating tree frog have been accidentally introduced from the Australian mainland. During the Pleistocene the giant terrestrial horned turtle Meiolania platyceps was endemic to the island, but this is currently thought to have gone extinct before human occupation as a result of postglacial sea-level rise.

Invertebrates

The Lord Howe Island stick insect disappeared from the main island soon after the accidental introduction of rats when the SS Makambo ran aground near Ned's Beach on 15 June 1918.[175][176] In 2001, a tiny population was discovered in a single Melaleuca howeana shrub on the slopes of Ball's Pyramid,[177] has been successfully bred in captivity, and is nearing re-introduction to the main island.[needs update][178] The Lord Howe stag beetle is a colourful endemic beetle seen during summers.[179] Another endemic invertebrate, the Lord Howe flax snail (or Lord Howe Placostylus), has also been affected by the introduction of rats.[175] Once common, the species is now endangered and a captive-breeding program is underway to save the snail from extinction. An endemic species that is likely to have become extinct due to human-introduced rats was the large rove beetle Hesperus gigas (Lea, 1929) comb. nov. (formerly Cafius gigas Lea, 1929) (Coleoptera: Staphylinidae).[180]

Marine life

 
Parrot fish swimming in the waters of Ned's Beach

Marine environments are near-pristine with a mixture of temperate, subtropical, and tropical species derived from cool-temperate ocean currents in the winter and the warm East Australian Current, which flows from the Great Barrier Reef, in summer.[181] Of the 490 fish species recorded, 13 are endemic and 60% are tropical.[181] The main angling fish are yellowtail kingfish and New Zealand bluefish, while game fish include marlin, tuna, and giant kingfish called "greenbacks".[182] Over 80 species of corals occur in the reefs surrounding the islands.[183][184] Australian underwater photographer Neville Coleman has photographed various nudibranchs at Lord Howe Island.[185]

Various species of cetaceans inhabit or migrate through the waters in the vicinity, but very little about their biology in the area is known due to a lack of studies and sighting efforts caused by locational conditions. Bottlenose dolphins are the most commonly observed and are the only species confirmed to be seasonal or yearly residents, while some other dolphin species have also been observed.[186] Humpback whales are the only large whales showing slow but steady recoveries as their numbers annually migrating past the island of Lord Howe are much smaller than those migrating along the Australian continent.

Historically, migratory whales such as blue, fin, and sei whales were very abundant in the island waters but were severely reduced in numbers to near-extinction by commercial and illegal hunts, including the mass illegal hunts by the Soviet Union and Japan in the 1960s to 1970s.[187] Southern right and sperm whales were most severely hunted among these, hence the area was called the Middle Ground by whalers.[188] These two were likely once seasonal residents around the island, where right whales prefer sheltered, very shallow bays,[189] while sperm whales mainly inhabit deep waters.

Conservation

 
Lord Howe white-throated pigeon (Columba vitiensis godmanae) painted by George Raper, 1790 – now extinct

About 10% of Lord Howe Island's forests have been cleared for agriculture, and another 20% has been disturbed, mostly by domestic cattle and feral sheep, goats, and pigs. As a result, 70% of the island remains relatively untouched, with a variety of plants and animals, many of which are endemic, and some of which are rare or threatened.[190] Two species of plants, nine terrestrial birds, one bat, and at least four invertebrates have become extinct since 1778.[191] Endemism at the generic level includes the palms Howea, Hedyscepe and Lepidorrhachis, a woody daisy Lordhowea insularis, the tree Negria, the leech Quantenobdella howensis, three annelid worm genera (Paraplutellus, Pericryptodrilus and Eastoniella), an isopod shrimp Stigmops, a hemipteran bug Howeria, and a cricket Howeta.[192]

The Lord Howe Island Board instigated an extensive biological and environmental survey (published in 1974), which has guided the island conservation program.[193] In 1981, the Lord Howe Island Amendment Act proclaimed a "Permanent Park Preserve" over the north and south ends of the island. Administration of the preserve was outlined in a management plan for the sustainable development of the island prepared by the NSW National Parks and Wildlife Service,[106][194] which has a ranger stationed on the island. The island was cited under the UNESCO World Heritage List in 1982.

Offshore environmental assets are protected by the Lord Howe Island Marine Park. This consists of a state marine park managed by the Marine Parks Authority of New South Wales in the waters out to three nautical miles around the island and including Ball's Pyramid.[19] It also includes a Commonwealth Marine Park extending from 3 to 12 nautical miles out and managed by the federal Department of the Environment and Heritage.[195] In total the Marine Park covers about 3,005 km2 (1,160 sq mi).[196]

Feral animals and plants

Pigs and goats were released on the island as potential food sources in the early 1800s; the goats destroyed shrubs and grasses used as nesting sites and the pigs ate eggs and chicks and disturbed the land by rooting for food.[197] Several birds have become extinct on the island since the arrival of humans. The first round of extinctions included the Lord Howe swamphen or white gallinule, the white-throated pigeon, the red-crowned parakeet, and the Tasman booby, which were eliminated by visitors and settlers during the 19th century, either from overhunting for food or protection of crops.[197] Black rats were released from provisioning whaling ships in the 1840s and mice from Norfolk Island in 1860.[197] In 1918, the black rat was accidentally introduced with the shipwreck of the S.S. Makambo, which ran aground at Ned's Beach. This triggered a second wave of extinctions, including the vinous-tinted thrush, the robust white-eye, the Lord Howe starling, the Lord Howe fantail and the Lord Howe gerygone, as well as the destruction of the native phasmid and the decimation of palm fruits.[198] Bounties were offered for rats and pig tails and 'ratting' became a popular pursuit. Subsequent poisoning programs have kept populations low.[199] The Lord Howe boobook may have become extinct through predation by, or competition with, the Tasmanian masked owls, which were introduced in the 1920s in a failed attempt to control the rat population.[197] Stray dogs are also a threat, as they could harm the native woodhen and other birds.[200]

Invasive plants such as Crofton weed[201] and Formosa lily[202] occur in inaccessible areas and probably cannot be eradicated, but others are currently being managed.[203] In 1995, the first action was taken to control the spread of introduced plants on the island, chiefly ground asparagus and bridal creeper, but also cherry guava, Madeira vine, Cotoneaster, Ochna, and Cestrum. This has been followed by weeding tours and the formation of the Friends of Lord Howe Island group in 2000. Programs have also been started to remove weeds from private properties and re-vegetate some formerly cultivated areas.[204] An environmental unit was created by the board and it includes a flora management officer and a permanent weed officer. Weeds have been mapped and an eradication program is in place, supported by improved education and quarantine procedures.[205]

Introduced species that harmed Lord Howe's native flora and fauna, namely feral pigs, cats, and goats, were eradicated by the early 2000s.[173][206][204][207]

In July 2012, the Australian federal Environment Minister Tony Burke and the New South Wales Environment Minister Robyn Parker announced that the Australian and New South Wales governments would each contribute 50% of the estimated A$9 million cost of implementing a rodent eradication plan for the island, using the aerial deployment of poison baits.[208] The plan was put to a local vote and is considered controversial.[209] Around 230 woodhens were captured before the rodent eradication commenced in early 2019. Following the successful eradication of the rodents, all woodhens and currawongs were released across the island in late 2019 and early 2020.[210]

A recovery program has restored the Lord Howe woodhen's numbers from only 20 in 1970 to about 200 in 2000, which is close to carrying capacity.[200][211]

Climate change

According to an analysis by eminent Australian academic Tim Flannery, the ecosystem of Lord Howe Island is threatened by climate change and global warming, with the reefs at risk from rises in water temperature.[133][212][213] The first international conference on global artificial photosynthesis as a climate-change solution occurred at Lord Howe Island in 2011,[214] the papers being published by the Australian Journal of Chemistry.[215]

Heritage listings

The Lord Howe Islands Group was inscribed on the World Heritage List for its unique landforms and biota, its diverse and largely intact ecosystems, its natural beauty, and its habitats for threatened species. It also has significant cultural heritage associations in the history of NSW.[18]

Lord Howe Island and adjacent islets, Admiralty Islands, Mutton Bird Islands, Ball's Pyramid, and associated coral reefs and marine environs were added to the Australian National Heritage List on 21 May 2007, based on the World Heritage List.[17]

Lord Howe Island was listed on the New South Wales State Heritage Register on 2 April 1999.[18]

In September 2019 it was revealed that, in 2017, federal environment minister Josh Frydenberg overruled a recommendation from his department to install two wind turbines. The project, which would have substantially reduced the island's dependence on diesel-powered electricity generators, had been considered not to endanger the island's heritage status and was supported by the islanders.[216]

Sport

See also

Citations

  1. ^ "Regional Statistics – New South Wales" (PDF). Australian Bureau of Statistics. 2004. (PDF) from the original on 26 February 2009. Retrieved 19 April 2009.
  2. ^ "Port Macquarie". New South Wales Electoral Commission. from the original on 28 February 2020. Retrieved 23 November 2019.
  3. ^ "Profile of the Electoral Division Sydney". Australian Electoral Commission. 2011. from the original on 29 June 2011. Retrieved 19 August 2011.
  4. ^ Australian Bureau of Statistics (27 June 2017). "Lord Howe Island (State Suburb)". 2016 Census QuickStats. Retrieved 7 July 2017.  
  5. ^ (PDF). State of New South Wales, Department of Environment, Climate Change and Water, February 2010. Archived from the original (PDF) on 21 March 2011. Retrieved 22 December 2011.
  6. ^ a b "Lord Howe Island Group". Australian Government Department of Sustainability, Environment, Water, Population and Communities. from the original on 22 September 2011. Retrieved 27 August 2011.
  7. ^ a b Hutton 1986, p. 81
  8. ^ a b Nichols 2006, p. 4
  9. ^ a b c Hutton 1986, p. 1
  10. ^ a b Nichols 2006, p. 28
  11. ^ a b c d e Hutton 1986, p. 2
  12. ^ a b Nichols 2006, p. 74
  13. ^ a b c d e f g "Lord Howe Island Board". Lord Howe Island Tourism Association. from the original on 5 October 2013. Retrieved 15 June 2011.
  14. ^ a b c d e f g "LHI Tourist Agency Fact Sheets". Lord Howe Island Tourism Association. from the original on 9 April 2011. Retrieved 15 June 2011.
  15. ^ "Lord Howe Island Group". UNESCO World Heritage Centre. 2009. from the original on 6 December 2019. Retrieved 20 April 2009.
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General and cited references

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  • National Library of Australia (1989). (PDF). National Library of Australia. ISBN 978-0-7316-3090-5. Archived from the original (PDF) on 20 December 2010. Retrieved 24 January 2014.
  • Nichols, Daphne (2006). Lord Howe Island Rising. Frenchs Forest, NSW: Tower Books. ISBN 978-0-646-45419-1.
  • Pickard, John (1983a). "Rare or threatened vascular plants of Lord Howe Island". Biological Conservation. 27 (2): 125–139. doi:10.1016/0006-3207(83)90084-8.
  • Pickard, John (1983b). "Vegetation of Lord Howe Island". Cunninghamia. 17: 133–266.
  • Pickard, John (1984). "Exotic plants of Lord Howe Island: distribution in space and time, 1853–1981". Journal of Biogeography. 11 (3): 181–208. doi:10.2307/2844639. JSTOR 2844639.
  • Rabone, Harold R (1972). Lord Howe Island: Its discovery and early associations 1788 to 1888. Sydney: Australis.
  • Recher, Harry F; Clark, Stephen S (1974a). Environmental survey of Lord Howe Island : a report to the Lord Howe Island Board / edited by Harry F. Recher and Stephen S. Clark Lord Howe Island Board (N.S.W.). Australian Museum: Dept. of Environmental Studies.Recher, H. F.; Clark, S. S. (1974b). "A biological survey of Lord Howe Island with recommendations for the conservation of the island's wildlife". Biological Conservation. 6 (4): 263. doi:10.1016/0006-3207(74)90005-6.
  • Starbuck, Alexander (1878). History of the American Whaling Fishery from its Earliest Inception to the Year 1876. Waltham, Massachusetts: author.
  • Veron, John E; Done, T J (1979). "Corals and coral communities of Lord Howe Island". Australian Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research. 30 (2): 203–236. doi:10.1071/mf9790203.
  • Wallis, G.P.; Trewick, Steve A. (2009). "New Zealand phylogeography: evolution on a small continent". Molecular Ecology. 18 (17): 3548–80. doi:10.1111/j.1365-294X.2009.04294.x. PMID 19674312. S2CID 22049973.

Attribution

  •   This Wikipedia article contains material from Lord Howe Island Group, entry number 00970 in the New South Wales State Heritage Register published by the State of New South Wales (Department of Planning and Environment) 2018 under CC-BY 4.0 licence, accessed on 2 June 2018.

Further reading

  • Anderson, Tara J.; Nichol, Scott L.; Syms, Craig; Przeslawski, Rachel; Harris, Peter T. (2010). "Deep-sea bio-physical variables as surrogates for biological assemblages, an example from the Lord Howe Rise". Deep-Sea Research Part II: Topical Studies in Oceanography. 58 (7–8): 979. Bibcode:2011DSRII..58..979A. doi:10.1016/j.dsr2.2010.10.053.
  • Brown, Dianne; Baker, Lynn (2009). "The Lord Howe Island Biodiversity Management Plan: An integrated approach to recovery planning". Ecological Management & Restoration. 10: S70–S78. doi:10.1111/j.1442-8903.2009.00449.x.
  • Harris, Peter T. (2010). "Benthic environments of the Lord Howe Rise submarine plateau: Introduction to the special volume". Deep-Sea Research Part II: Topical Studies in Oceanography. 58 (7–8): 883–888. Bibcode:2011DSRII..58..883H. doi:10.1016/j.dsr2.2010.10.044.
  • Lindsay, MJ; Patterson, HM; Swearer, SE (2008). "Habitat as a surrogate measure of reef fish diversity in the zoning of the Lord Howe Island Marine Park, Australia". Marine Ecology Progress Series. 353: 265–273. Bibcode:2008MEPS..353..265L. doi:10.3354/meps07155.
  • O'Hara, Timothy (2008). Bioregionalisation of the waters around Lord Howe and Norfolk Islands using brittle stars (Echinodermata: Ophiuroidea). ISBN 978-0-642-55462-8.

External links

  • Official site of the Lord Howe Island Board
  • World heritage listing (Australian Government Department of Sustainability, Environment, Water, Population and Communities)
  • Lord Howe Island Act, 1953 (Australian Legal Information Institute)
  • "Lord Howe" . Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). 1911.

lord, howe, island, atoll, solomon, islands, lord, howe, atoll, parts, this, article, those, related, australia, need, updated, please, help, update, this, article, reflect, recent, events, newly, available, information, december, 2022, formerly, lord, howe, i. For the atoll in the Solomon Islands see Lord Howe Atoll Parts of this article those related to Australia need to be updated Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information December 2022 Lord Howe Island h aʊ formerly Lord Howe s Island is an irregularly crescent shaped volcanic remnant in the Tasman Sea between Australia and New Zealand part of the Australian state of New South Wales It lies 600 km 320 nmi directly east of mainland Port Macquarie 780 km 420 nmi northeast of Sydney and about 900 km 490 nmi southwest of Norfolk Island It is about 10 km 6 2 mi long and between 0 3 and 2 0 km 0 19 and 1 24 mi wide with an area of 14 55 km2 3 600 acres though just 3 98 km2 980 acres of that comprise the low lying developed part of the island 5 Lord Howe IslandSatellite image of the island north is toward the upper right cornerGeographyLocationLord Howe Island Tasman SeaCoordinates31 33 15 S 159 05 06 E 31 55417 S 159 08500 E 31 55417 159 08500 Coordinates 31 33 15 S 159 05 06 E 31 55417 S 159 08500 E 31 55417 159 08500Total islands28Major islandsLord Howe Island Admiralty Group Mutton Bird Islands and Ball s PyramidArea14 55 km2 5 62 sq mi Highest elevation875 m 2871 ft Highest pointMount GowerAdministrationAustraliaAdministrative DivisionUnincorporated area of New South WalesSelf governed by the Lord Howe Island Board 1 Part of the electoral district of Port Macquarie 2 Part of the Division of Sydney 3 DemographicsPopulation382 Tourists are restricted to 400 at any time 2016 census 4 Pop density26 25 km2 67 99 sq mi Additional informationTime zoneUTC 10 30 UTC 10 30 Summer DST UTC 11 00 UTC 11 UNESCO World Heritage SiteOfficial nameLord Howe Island GroupTypeNaturalCriteriavii xDesignated1982 6th session Reference no 186RegionAsia PacificAustralian National Heritage ListOfficial nameLord Howe Island Group Lord Howe Island NSW AustraliaTypeNaturalDesignated21 May 2007Reference no 105694File number1 00 373 0001New South Wales Heritage RegisterOfficial nameLord Howe Island GroupTypeState heritage landscape Designated2 April 1999Reference no 970TypeOther Landscape CulturalCategoryLandscape CulturalAlong the west coast is a sandy semi enclosed sheltered coral reef lagoon Most of the population lives in the north while the south is dominated by forested hills rising to the highest point on the island Mount Gower 875 m 2 871 ft 6 The Lord Howe Island Group 6 comprises 28 islands islets and rocks Apart from Lord Howe Island itself the most notable of these is the volcanic and uninhabited Ball s Pyramid about 23 km 14 mi 12 nmi to the southeast of Howe To the north lies a cluster of seven small uninhabited islands called the Admiralty Group 7 The first reported sighting by Europeans of Lord Howe Island took place on 17 February 1788 when Lieutenant Henry Lidgbird Ball commander of the Armed Tender HMS Supply was en route from Botany Bay to found a penal settlement on Norfolk Island 8 On the return journey Ball sent a party ashore on Lord Howe Island to claim it as a British possession 9 It subsequently became a provisioning port for the whaling industry 10 and was permanently settled in June 1834 11 When whaling declined the 1880s saw the beginning of the worldwide export of the endemic kentia palms 12 which remains a key component of the island s economy The other continuing industry tourism began after World War II ended in 1945 The Lord Howe Island Group is part of the state of New South Wales 13 and is regarded legally as an unincorporated area administered by the Lord Howe Island Board 13 which reports to the New South Wales Minister for Environment and Heritage 13 The island s standard time zone is UTC 10 30 or UTC 11 when daylight saving time applies 14 The currency is the Australian dollar Commuter airlines provide flights to Sydney Brisbane and Port Macquarie UNESCO records the Lord Howe Island Group as a World Heritage Site of global natural significance 15 Most of the island is virtually untouched forest with many of the plants and animals found nowhere else in the world Other natural attractions include the diversity of the landscapes the variety of upper mantle and oceanic basalts the world s southernmost barrier coral reef nesting seabirds and the rich historical and cultural heritage 16 The Lord Howe Island Act 1981 established a Permanent Park Preserve covering about 70 of the island 14 The island was added to the Australian National Heritage List on 21 May 2007 17 and the New South Wales State Heritage Register on 2 April 1999 18 The surrounding waters are a protected region designated the Lord Howe Island Marine Park 19 Contents 1 Bioregion 2 History 2 1 Prehistory 2 2 1788 1834 First European visits 2 3 1834 1841 Settlement 2 4 1842 1860 Trading provisions 2 5 1861 1890 Scientific expeditions 2 6 1890 1999 2 7 21st century 3 Demographics 4 Governance and land tenure 4 1 Parliamentary representation 4 1 1 New South Wales 4 1 2 Commonwealth 5 Economy 5 1 Kentia palm industry 5 2 Tourism 5 2 1 Facilities 5 2 2 Activities 6 Geography 6 1 Geological origins 6 2 Basalts and calcarenite 6 3 Climate 7 Flora and fauna 7 1 Plants 7 1 1 Communities and special plants 7 1 1 1 Images of native flora 7 2 Animals 7 2 1 Birds 7 2 2 List of endemic birds 7 2 3 Mammals reptiles and amphibians 7 2 4 Invertebrates 7 2 5 Marine life 7 3 Conservation 7 3 1 Feral animals and plants 7 3 2 Climate change 8 Heritage listings 9 Sport 10 See also 11 Citations 12 General and cited references 12 1 Attribution 13 Further reading 14 External linksBioregion EditLord Howe Island is part of the IBRA region Pacific Subtropical Islands code PSI and is subregion PSI01 with an area of 1 909 ha 4 720 acres 20 In the WWF ecoregion system Lord Howe Island constitutes the entirety of the Lord Howe Island subtropical forests ecoregion WWF ID AA0109 This ecoregion is in the Australasian realm and the tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests biome The WWF ecoregion has an area of 14 km2 21 22 23 History EditPrehistory Edit Before European discovery and settlement Lord Howe Island apparently was uninhabited and unknown to Polynesian peoples of the South Pacific 24 No evidence to suggest prehistoric human activity has ever been found on Lord Howe Island even after an extensive archaeological investigation in 1996 25 In Australian Archaeology Atholl Anderson concluded in 2003 that the case for no pre European settlement on Lord Howe Island is now more compelling than before and that the absence of pre European settlement on Lord Howe Island is not easily explained At 16 km2 it is twice the size of Pitcairn Island and half the size of Norfolk Island two other remote subtropical islands that were inhabited prehistorically and it had a biota very similar to that of Norfolk Island 26 1788 1834 First European visits Edit A silhouette of Lieutenant Henry Lidgbird Ball the commander of HMS Supply The first reported sighting of Lord Howe Island was on 17 February 1788 by Lieutenant Henry Lidgbird Ball commander of the Armed Tender HMS Supply the oldest and smallest of the First Fleet ships which was on its way from Botany Bay with a cargo of nine male and six female convicts to found a penal settlement on Norfolk Island 8 On the return journey of 13 March 1788 Ball observed Ball s Pyramid and sent a party ashore on Lord Howe Island to claim it as a British possession 9 Numerous turtles and tame birds were captured and returned to Sydney 27 Ball named Mount Lidgbird and Ball s Pyramid after himself and the main island after Richard Howe 1st Earl Howe who was First Lord of the Admiralty at the time 9 The extinct white gallinule Porphyrio albus A drawing made in May 1788 by Arthur Bowes Smyth who was the surgeon aboard Lady Penrhyn a ship of the First Fleet heading for China on its return trip to England Many names on the island date from this time and also from May of the same year when four ships of the First Fleet HMS Supply Charlotte Lady Penrhyn and Scarborough visited it Much of the plant and animal life was first recorded in the journals and diaries of visitors such as David Blackburn Master of Supply and Arthur Bowes Smyth 28 surgeon of the Lady Penrhyn Smyth was in Sydney when the Supply returned from the first voyage to Norfolk Island His journal entry for 19 March 1788 noted that the Supply in her return landed at the island she discovered in going out and all were very agreeably surprised to find great numbers of a fine turtle on the beach and on the land amongst the trees great numbers of fowls very like a guinea hen and another species of fowl not unlike the landrail in England and all so perfectly tame that you could frequently take hold of them with your hands but could at all times knock down as many as you thought proper with a short stick Inside the reef also there were fish innumerable which were so easily taken with a hook and line as to be able to catch a boat full in a short time She brought thirteen large turtles to Port Jackson and many were distributed among the camp and fleet 28 Watercolour sketches of native birds including the Lord Howe woodhen Gallirallus sylvestris white gallinule Porphyrio albus and Lord Howe pigeon Columba vitiensis godmanae were made by artists including George Raper and John Hunter As the latter two birds were soon hunted to extinction these paintings are their only remaining pictorial record 29 30 Over the next three years the Supply returned to the island several times in search of turtles and the island was also visited by ships of the Second and Third Fleets 31 Between 1789 and 1791 the Pacific whale industry was born with British and American whaling ships chasing sperm whales Physeter macrocephalus along the equator to the Gilbert and Ellice archipelago then south into Australian and New Zealand waters 32 The American fleet numbered 675 ships and Lord Howe was located in a region known as the Middle Ground noted for sperm whales and southern right whales Eubalaena australis 33 The island was subsequently visited by many governments and whaling ships sailing between New South Wales and Norfolk Island and across the Pacific including many from the American whaling fleet so its reputation as a provisioning port preceded settlement 10 with some ships leaving goats and pigs on the island as food for future visitors Between July and October 1791 the Third Fleet ships arrived at Sydney and within days the deck work was being reconstructed for a future in the lucrative whaling industry Whale oil was to become Australia s most profitable export until the 1830s and the whaling industry shaped Lord Howe Island s early history 34 1834 1841 Settlement Edit Lord Howe Island Maritime Museum and Information Centre Permanent settlement on Lord Howe was established in June 1834 when the British whaling barque Caroline sailing from New Zealand and commanded by Captain John Blinkenthorpe landed at what is now known as Blinky Beach They left three men George Ashdown James Bishop and Chapman who was employed by a Sydney whaling firm to establish a supply station The men were initially to provide meat by fishing and by raising pigs and goats from feral stock They landed with or acquired from a visiting ship their Maori wives and two Maori boys Huts were built in an area now known as Old Settlement which had a supply of fresh water and a garden was established west of Blinky Beach 11 35 This was a cashless society the settlers bartered their stores of water wood vegetables meat fish and bird feathers for clothes tea sugar tools tobacco and other commodities not available on the island but it was the whalers valuation that had to be accepted 36 37 These first settlers eventually left the island when they were bought out for 350 in September 1841 by businessmen Owen Poole and Richard Dawson later joined by John Foulis whose employees and others then settled on the island 38 1842 1860 Trading provisions Edit The new business was advertised and ships trading between Sydney and the New Hebrides Vanuatu would also be put into the island Rover s Bride a small cutter became the first regular trading vessel 39 Between 1839 and 1859 five to 12 ships made landfall each year occasionally closer to 20 with seven or eight at a time laying off the reef 40 In 1842 and 1844 the first children were born on the island Then in 1847 Poole Dawson and Foulis bitter at failing to obtain a land lease from the New South Wales government abandoned the settlement although three of their employees remained 41 One family the Andrews after finding some onions on the beach in 1848 cultivated them as the Lord Howe red onion which was popular in the Southern Hemisphere for about 30 years until the crop was attacked by smut disease 42 Expedition to the South Seas HMS Herald and steamship tender Torch The Illustrated London News 15 May 1852 In 1849 just 11 people were living on the island but soon the island farms expanded 42 In the 1850s gold was discovered on mainland Australia where crews would abandon their ships preferring to dig for gold than risk their lives at sea As a consequence many vessels avoided the mainland and Lord Howe Island experienced an increasing trade which peaked between 1855 and 1857 43 In 1851 about 16 people were living on the island 11 Vegetable crops now included potatoes carrots maize pumpkin taro watermelon and even grapes passionfruit and coffee 35 Between 1851 and 1853 several aborted proposals were made by the NSW government to establish a penal settlement on the island 44 From 1851 to 1854 Henry Denham captain of HMS Herald which was on a scientific expedition to the southwest Pacific 1852 1856 completed the island s first hydrographic survey On board were three Scottish biologists William Milne a gardener botanist from the Edinburgh Botanic Garden John MacGillivray naturalist who collected fish and plant specimens and assistant surgeon and zoologist Denis Macdonald Together these men established much basic information on the island s geology flora and fauna 45 Around 1853 a further three settlers arrived on the American whaling barque Belle captained by Ichabod Handy 46 George Campbell who died in 1856 and Jack Brian who left the island in 1854 arrived and the third Nathan Thompson brought three women called Botanga Bogoroo and a girl named Bogue from the Gilbert Islands When his first wife Botanga died he then married Bogue Thompson was the first resident to build a substantial house in the 1860s from mainland cedar washed up on the beach 47 Most of the residents with island ancestors have blood relations or are connected by marriage to Thompson and his second wife Bogue 48 In 1855 the island was officially designated as part of New South Wales by the Constitution Act 49 1861 1890 Scientific expeditions Edit From the early 1860s whaling declined rapidly with the increasing use of petroleum the onset of the California Gold Rush and the American Civil War with unfortunate consequences for the people of the island To explore alternative means of income Thompson in 1867 purchased the Sylph which was the first local vessel to trade with Sydney mainly pigs and onions It anchored in deep water at what is now Sylph s Hole off Old Settlement Beach but was eventually tragically lost at sea in 1873 which added to the woes of the island at that time 50 In 1869 the island was visited by magistrate P Cloete aboard the Thetis investigating a possible murder He was accompanied by Charles Moore director of the Botanic Gardens in Sydney and his assistant William Carron who forwarded plant specimens to Ferdinand Mueller at the botanic gardens in Melbourne who by 1875 had catalogued and published 195 species 51 Also on the ship was William Fitzgerald a surveyor and Mr Masters from the Australian Museum Together they surveyed the island with the findings published in 1870 when the population was listed as 35 people their 13 houses built of split palm battens thatched on the roof and sides with palm leaves 52 Around this time a downturn of trade began with the demise of the whaling industry and sometimes six to 12 months passed without a vessel calling The older families lost interest in market gardening with the provisions rotting in the storehouses 53 From 1860 to 1872 43 ships had collected provisions but from 1873 to 1887 fewer than a dozen had done so 43 This prompted some activity from the mainland In 1876 a government report on the island was submitted by surveyor William Fitzgerald based on a visit in the same year He suggested that coffee be grown but the kentia palm was already catching world attention 12 In 1878 the island was declared a forest reserve and Captain Richard Armstrong became the first resident government administrator He encouraged schools tree planting and the palm trade dynamited the north passage to the lagoon and built roads He also managed to upset the residents and parliamentarian Bowie Wilson was sent from the mainland in April 1882 to investigate the situation 54 With Wilson was a team of scientists who included H Wilkinson from the Mines Department W Condor from the Survey Department J Duff from the Sydney Botanical Gardens and A Morton from the Australian Museum J Sharkey from the Government Printing Office took the earliest known photographs of the island and its residents A full account of the island appeared in the report from this visit 55 which recommended that Armstrong be replaced Meanwhile the population had increased considerably and included 29 children the report recommended that a schoolmaster be appointed 56 This study sealed a lasting relationship with three scientific organisations the Australian Museum Sydney Royal Botanic Gardens and Kew Royal Botanic Gardens 1890 1999 Edit In 1883 the company Burns Philp started a regular shipping service and the number of tourists gradually increased By 1932 with the regular tourist run of SS Morinda tourism became the second largest source of external income after palm sales to Europe 11 Morinda was replaced by Makambo in 1932 and she in turn by other vessels The service continues into the present day with the fortnightly Island Trader service from Port Macquarie 57 The palm trade began in the 1880s when the lowland kentia palm Howea forsteriana was first exported to Britain Europe and America but the trade was only placed on a firm financial footing when the Lord Howe Island Kentia Palm Nursery was formed in 1906 see below The 1965 wreck of The Favourite in North Bay is a popular site The first plane to appear on the island was in 1931 when Francis Chichester alighted on the lagoon in a de Havilland Gipsy Moth converted into a floatplane It was damaged there in an overnight storm but repaired with the assistance of islanders and then took off successfully nine weeks later for a flight to Sydney 58 After World War II in 1947 tourists arrived on Catalina and then four engined Sandringham flying boats of Ansett Flying Boat Services operating out of Rose Bay Sydney and landing on the lagoon the journey taking about 3 hours When Lord Howe Island Airport was completed in 1974 the seaplanes were eventually replaced with QantasLink twin engined turboprop Dash 8 200 aircraft 59 21st century Edit In 2002 the Royal Navy destroyer HMS Nottingham struck Wolf Rock a reef at Lord Howe Island and almost sank 60 In recent times tourism has increased and the government of New South Wales has been increasingly involved with issues of conservation 11 On 17 October 2011 a supply ship M V Island Trader with 20 tons of fuel ran aground in the lagoon The ship refloated at high tide with no loss of crew or cargo 61 The 2016 film The Shallows starring Blake Lively was largely filmed on the island 62 During the COVID 19 pandemic in New South Wales a public health order was issued on 22 March 2020 that declared Lord Howe Island a public risk area and directed restricted access As of that date there were no known cases of COVID 19 on the Island 63 64 One of the most contentious issues amongst islanders in the 21st century is what to do about the rodent situation Rodents have only been on the island since the SS Makambo ran aground in 1918 and have wiped out several endemic bird species and were thought to have done the same to the Lord Howe Island stick insect A plan in 2016 was made to drop 42 tonnes of rat bait across the island but the community was heavily divided 65 The island was due to be declared rodent free in October 2021 two years after the last live rat was found but a living male and pregnant female were discovered in April 2021 66 The eradication contrary to many community reservations has seen birds insects and plants flourish at levels not seen in decades 67 Demographics EditAs at the 2016 census the resident population was 382 people 68 and the number of tourists was not allowed to exceed 400 69 Early settlers were European and American whalers and many of their offspring have remained on the island for more than six generations Residents now work in the kentia palm industry tourism retail some fishing and farming In 1876 on Sundays games and labour were suspended but no religious services were held 53 Nowadays the area known locally as Church Paddock has Anglican Roman Catholic and Adventist churches the religious affiliations on the island being 30 Anglican 22 no religion 18 Catholic and 12 Seventh Day Adventist 70 The ratio of the sexes is roughly equal with 47 of the population in the age group 25 54 and 92 holding Australian citizenship 70 Governance and land tenure EditSee also Lord Howe Island Board Official control of Lord Howe Island lay initially with the British Crown until it passed to New South Wales in 1855 49 71 although until at least 1876 the islanders lived in a relatively harmonious and self regulating community 72 In 1878 Richard Armstrong was appointed administrator when the NSW Parliament declared the island a forest reserve but as a result of ill feeling and an enquiry he was eventually removed from office on 31 May 1882 he returned later that year though to view the transit of Venus from present day Transit Hill 73 After his removal the island was administered by four successive magistrates until 1913 when a Sydney based board was formed in 1948 a resident superintendent was appointed 74 In 1913 the three man Lord Howe Island Board of Control was established mostly to regulate the palm seed industry but also administering the affairs of the island from Sydney until the present Lord Howe Island Board was set up in 1954 75 The Lord Howe Island Board is an NSW Statutory Authority established under the Lord Howe Island Act 1953 to administer the island as part of the state of New South Wales It reports directly to the state s Minister for Environment and Heritage and is responsible for the island s care control and management Its duties include the protection of World Heritage values the control of development the administration of Crown Land including the island s protected area provision of community services and infrastructure and regulating sustainable tourism 13 In 1981 the Lord Howe Island Amendment Act gave islanders the administrative power of three members on a five member board 76 The board also manages the Lord Howe Island kentia palm nursery which together with tourism provides the island s only source of external income 13 Under an amendment bill in 2004 the board now comprises seven members four of whom are elected from the islander community 13 thus giving about 350 permanent residents a high level of autonomy The remaining three members are appointed by the minister to represent the interests of business tourism and conservation 13 The full board meets on the island every three months while the day to day affairs of the island are managed by the board s administration with a permanent staff that had increased to 22 people by 1988 77 Land tenure has been an issue since the first settlement as island residents repeatedly requested freehold title or an absolute gift of cultivated land 78 Original settlers were squatters The granting of a 100 acre 40 ha lease to Richard Armstrong in 1878 drew complaints and a few short term leases permissive occupancies were granted 79 In 1913 with the appointment of a board of control permissive occupancies were revoked and the board itself given permissive occupancy of the island 80 Then the Lord Howe Island Act 1953 made all land the property of the Crown Direct descendants of islanders with permissive occupancies in 1913 were granted perpetual leases on blocks up to five acres 2 0 ha for residential purposes Short term special leases were granted for larger areas used for agriculture so in 1955 55 perpetual leases and 43 special leases were granted 81 The 1981 amendment to the act extended political and land rights to all residents of 10 years or more 81 An active debate exists concerning the proportion of residents with tenure and the degree of influence on the board of resident islanders about long term planning for visitors and issues relating to the environment amenities and global heritage 79 Parliamentary representation Edit New South Wales Edit As a dependency of the Colony of New South Wales Lord Howe Island was not represented in parliament until the 1894 New South Wales colonial election following the passage of the Parliamentary Electorates and Elections Act 1893 82 Since 1894 Lord Howe Island has been included in the following New South Wales Legislative Assembly districts Period District Notes1894 1904 Sydney King 83 82 1904 1920 King 84 1920 1927 Sydney 85 1927 1973 King 86 87 1973 1981 Phillip 88 1981 1988 Elizabeth 89 1988 1991 McKell 90 1991 date Port Macquarie 91 As part of the redistribution of electoral districts for the 2023 state election a proposal was received to move Lord Howe Island back into the electorate of Sydney 92 However the NSW Electoral Commission eventually decided to retain the island within the electorate of Port Macquarie 93 Commonwealth Edit Since 1901 Lord Howe Island has been included in the following Australian House of Representatives electoral divisions Period District Notes1901 1955 East Sydney 94 95 96 97 98 1955 1969 West Sydney 99 100 1969 date Sydney 101 Economy EditKentia palm industry Edit The first exporter of palm seeds was Ned King a mountain guide for the Fitzgerald surveys of 1869 and 1876 who sent seed to the Sydney Botanic Gardens Overseas trade began in the 1880s when one of the four palms endemic to the island the kentia palm Howea forsteriana which grows naturally in the lowlands was found to be ideally suited to the fashionable conservatories of the well to do in Britain Europe and the United States 14 56 The assistance of mainland magistrate Frank Farnell was needed to put the business on a sound commercial footing when in 1906 he became company director of the Lord Howe Island Kentia Palm Nursery whose shareholders included 21 islanders and a Sydney based seed company However the formation of the Lord Howe Island Board of Control was needed in 1913 to resolve outstanding issues 102 The kentia palm known locally as the thatch palm as it was used to roof the houses of the early settlers is popular worldwide as a decorative palm that grows well both outdoors in sufficiently warm climates and indoors the mild climate of the island has led to the evolution of a palm that can tolerate low light a dry atmosphere and lowish temperatures ideal for indoor conditions 14 particularly in higher end venues such as hotel lobbies galleries and large foyers where their high price thanks to their relative rarity is no disincentive to their use Up until the 1980s the palms were only sold as seed but from then onwards only as high quality seedlings The nursery received certification in 1997 for its high quality management complying with the requirements of Australian Standard AS NZS ISO 9002 103 Seed is gathered from both natural forests and plantations most collectors being descendants of the original settlers The seed is then germinated in soilless media and sealed from the atmosphere to prevent contamination After testing seedlings are picked washed bare rooted sanitized and certified then packed and sealed into insulated containers for export Nursery profits in turn are used in projects that enhance the island s ecosystems The nursery plans to expand the business to include the curly palm Howea belmoreana and other native plants of special interest 14 By the late 1980s annual exports had begun to provide a revenue of over A 2 million constituting the only major industry on the island apart from tourism 104 Tourism Edit Shopping centre on Ned s Beach Road Lord Howe Island is known for its geology birds plants and marine life Popular tourist activities include scuba diving birdwatching snorkelling surfing kayaking and fishing 105 To relieve pressure on the small island environment only 400 tourists are permitted at any one time 69 The island is reached by plane from Sydney Airport or Brisbane Airport in less than two hours 69 The Permanent Park Preserve declared in 1981 has similar management guidelines to a national park 106 Island Trader on a fortnightly delivery from Port Macquarie Facilities Edit With fewer than 800 people on the island at any time facilities are limited they include a bakery butcher general store liquor store restaurants post office museum and information centre a police officer a ranger and an ATM at the bowling club Stores are shipped to the island fortnightly by the Island Trader from Port Macquarie 57 The island has a small four bed hospital and dispensary 107 A small botanic garden displays labelled local plants in its grounds Diesel generated power is 240 volts AC 107 complemented by 1 3 MW solar power and 3 7 MWh battery 108 No public transport or mobile phone coverage is available but public telephones fax facilities and internet access are 107 as well as a local radio station and newsletter The Signal Tourist accommodation ranges from luxury lodges to apartments and villa units 109 The currency is the Australian dollar and there are two banks 107 No camping facilities are on the island and remote area camping is not permitted 109 To protect the fragile environment of Ball s Pyramid which carries the last remaining wild population of the endangered Lord Howe Island stick insect recreational climbing there is prohibited No pets are allowed without permission from the board Islanders use tanked rainwater supplemented by bore water for showers and washing clothes 110 Activities Edit Lord Howe Golf Course Bushwalking to Little Island bottom right Mount Lidgbird track As distances to sites of interest are short cycling is the main means of transport on the island Tourist activities include golf 9 hole lawn bowls tennis fishing including deep sea game fishing yachting windsurfing kitesurfing kayaking and boat trips including glass bottom tours of the lagoon 111 112 Swimming snorkelling and scuba diving are also popular in the lagoon as well as off Tenth of June Island a small rocky outcrop in the Admiralty group where an underwater plateau drops 36 m 118 ft to reveal extensive gorgonia and black corals growing on the vertical walls Other diving sites are found off Ball s Pyramid 26 km 16 mi away where trenches caves and volcanic drop offs occur 113 Bushwalking natural history tours talks and guided walks take place along the many tracks the most challenging being the eight hour guided hike to the top of Mount Gower 114 The island has 11 beaches and hand feeding the 1 m long 3 ft kingfish Seriola lalandi and large wrasse at Ned s Beach is very popular 115 Walking tracks cover the island with difficulty graded from 1 5 they include in the north Transit Hill 2 hour return 2 km 1 2 mi Clear Place 1 to 2 hour return Stevens Reserve North Bay 4 hour return 4 km 2 5 mi Mount Eliza Old Gulch 20 minute return 300 m 330 yd Malabar Hill and Kims Lookout 3 or 5 hour return 7 km 4 3 mi and in the south Goat House Cave 5 hour return 6 km 3 7 mi Mount Gower 8 hour return 14 km 8 7 mi Rocky Run and Boat Harbour Intermediate Hill 45 minute return 1 km 0 62 mi and Little Island 40 minute return 3 km 1 9 mi Recreational climbers must obtain permission from the Lord Howe Island Board 116 117 Geography Edit Ball s Pyramid 23 km 14 mi southeast of the main island Lord Howe Island is an irregularly crescent shaped volcanic remnant in the southwest Pacific Ocean Lying in the Tasman Sea between Australia and New Zealand the island is 600 km 370 mi east of mainland Port Macquarie 702 km 436 mi northeast of Sydney and about 772 km 480 mi from Norfolk Island to its northeast 118 The island is about 10 km 6 2 mi long and between 0 3 and 2 0 km 0 19 and 1 24 mi wide with an area of 14 55 km2 5 62 sq mi Along the west coast is a semienclosed sheltered coral reef lagoon with white sand the most accessible of the island s 11 beaches Mount Lidgbird and Mount Gower viewed from Mount Eliza Both the north and south sections of the island are the high ground of the relatively untouched forest in the south comprising two volcanic mountains Mount Lidgbird 777 m 2 549 ft and Mount Gower which rising to 875 m 2 871 ft is the highest point on the island 119 The two mountains are separated by the saddle at the head of Erskine Valley In the north where most of the population lives high points are Malabar 209 m 686 ft and Mount Eliza 147 m 482 ft Between these two uplands is an area of cleared lowland with some farming an airstrip and housing The Lord Howe Island Group of islands comprises 28 islands islets and rocks Apart from Lord Howe Island itself the most notable of these is the pointed rocky islet Balls Pyramid a 551 m high 1 808 ft eroded volcano about 23 km 14 mi to the southeast which is uninhabited by humans but bird colonised 120 It contains the only known wild population of the Lord Howe Island stick insect formerly thought to be extinct 121 To the north is the Admiralty Group a cluster of seven small uninhabited islands 7 Just off the east coast is 4 5 ha 11 acres Mutton Bird Island and in the lagoon is the 2 4 ha 5 9 acres Blackburn Rabbit Island Geological origins Edit Skeleton of an extinct horned turtle Meiolania platyceps displayed in the Maritime Museum Lord Howe Island is the highly eroded remains of a 7 million year old shield volcano 122 the product of eruptions that lasted for about 500 000 years 123 It is one of a chain of islands that occur on the western rim of an undersea shelf the Lord Howe Rise which is 3 000 km 1 900 mi long and 300 km 190 mi wide extending from New Zealand to the west of New Caledonia and consisting of continental rocks that separated from the Australian plate 60 to 80 million years ago to form a new crust in the deep Tasman Basin 124 The shelf is part of Zealandia a microcontinent nearly half the size of Australia that gradually submerged after breaking away from the Gondwanan supercontinent 125 The Lord Howe Seamount Chain is defined by coral capped guyots stretching to the north of the island for 1 000 km 620 mi and including the Middleton 220 km 140 mi away and Elizabeth 160 km 99 mi away reefs of the Elizabeth and Middleton Reefs Marine National Park Reserve This chain of nine volcanic peaks was probably produced by the northward movement of the Indo Australian Plate over a stationary hotspot so the oldest guyots were the first formed and most northerly as the plate moved northward at a rate of 6 cm 2 4 in per year see plate tectonics 126 127 Basalts and calcarenite Edit Basalt dikes on the eastern cliffs Volcanic breccia on Mount Lidgbird beach Two periods of volcanic activity produced the major features of the island The first about 6 9 million years Mya ago produced the northern and central hills while the younger and highly eroded Mount Gower and Mount Lidgbird were produced about 6 3 Mya by successive basalt an extrusive igneous rock lava flows that once filled a large volcanic caldera crater 128 and can now be seen as horizontal basalt strata on mountain cliffs at Malabar and Mount Gower occasionally interspersed with dikes vertical lava intrusions 129 130 Geological pyroclastic remnants of a volcanic eruption can be seen on the 15 ha 37 acre Roach Island where the oldest rocks occur and Boat Harbour as tuff ash breccia with angular blocks and agglomerate rounded bombs 14 Offshore on the Lord Howe Rise water depths reach 2 000 m 6 600 ft falling to 4 000 m 13 000 ft to the west of the rise From the dimensions of the rock on which the island stands the island has been calculated to erode to 1 40th of its original size 131 Close up of calcarenite by Andersons Road Stratified calcarenite at Lagoon Beach Rocks and land at the foot of these mountains is calcarenite coral sand blown inland during the Pleistocene between 130 000 and 20 000 years ago and cemented into stratified layers by water percolation 132 In this rock are fossils of bird bones and eggs land and marine snails and the extinct giant horned turtle Meiolania platyceps which is not closely related to any living kind of turtle The crescent of the island protects a coral reef and lagoon the barrier reef at 31 30 S is the most southerly in the world 133 Beach sands rather than consisting of quartz grains derived from granite as on the mainland are made of fragments of shell coral and coralline algae together with basalt grains and basaltic minerals such as black diopside and green olivine 134 The lowland consists of alluvial soils The island continues to erode rapidly and is expected to be fully submerged within 200 000 years taking an appearance akin to the Middleton and Elizabeth Reefs 135 Climate Edit Lord Howe Island has a humid subtropical climate Cfa under the Koppen climate classification 136 In general the summers are warm and humid with erratic rainfall but occasionally heavy while in winter it is very mild with rainfall more or less uniform There is a gradual transition from summer to winter conditions and vice versa 137 Winds are frequent and salt laden being moderate easterlies in the summer and fresh to strong westerlies in the winter 137 138 July is the windiest month 139 and the winter months are subject to frequent gales and strong winds The island has 67 8 clear days annually 137 Storms and occasional cyclones also affect the island 137 Rainfall records are maintained in the north where rainfall is less than in the frequently cloud shrouded mountains of the south Wide variations in rainfall can occur from year to year July and August are the coldest months with average minimum temperatures around 13 C 55 F and no frost Average maximum temperatures range from 17 20 C 63 68 F in the winter to 24 27 C 75 81 F in the summer The humidity averages in the 60 70 range year round becoming more noticeable on warmer summer days than in the cooler winter months 140 141 The average temperature of the sea ranges from 20 0 C 68 0 F in July August and September to 25 3 C 77 5 F in March 142 Climate data for Lord Howe Island Airport 1991 2020 normals and extremes Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec YearRecord high C F 29 9 85 8 31 3 88 3 28 2 82 8 27 0 80 6 25 2 77 4 23 9 75 0 22 4 72 3 23 4 74 1 23 3 73 9 24 9 76 8 28 0 82 4 28 3 82 9 31 3 88 3 Mean maximum C F 27 6 81 7 27 5 81 5 26 6 79 9 24 8 76 6 23 2 73 8 21 6 70 9 20 7 69 3 20 9 69 6 21 9 71 4 23 0 73 4 24 6 76 3 26 2 79 2 27 6 81 7 Average high C F 25 5 77 9 25 8 78 4 25 0 77 0 23 4 74 1 21 6 70 9 19 9 67 8 19 1 66 4 19 1 66 4 20 1 68 2 21 0 69 8 22 4 72 3 24 1 75 4 22 3 72 1 Daily mean C F 23 2 73 8 23 5 74 3 22 6 72 7 20 8 69 4 19 0 66 2 17 4 63 3 16 5 61 7 16 4 61 5 17 4 63 3 18 4 65 1 19 7 67 5 21 7 71 1 19 7 67 5 Average low C F 20 8 69 4 21 1 70 0 20 1 68 2 18 1 64 6 16 3 61 3 14 8 58 6 13 9 57 0 13 6 56 5 14 7 58 5 15 7 60 3 17 4 63 3 19 2 66 6 17 1 62 9 Mean minimum C F 18 3 64 9 18 9 66 0 17 7 63 9 15 2 59 4 13 2 55 8 11 7 53 1 10 7 51 3 10 3 50 5 11 3 52 3 12 3 54 1 14 5 58 1 16 1 61 0 10 3 50 5 Record low C F 13 1 55 6 13 7 56 7 13 4 56 1 11 2 52 2 9 1 48 4 7 5 45 5 6 6 43 9 6 6 43 9 5 9 42 6 7 8 46 0 9 2 48 6 11 4 52 5 5 9 42 6 Average precipitation mm inches 102 5 4 04 107 0 4 21 126 8 4 99 138 7 5 46 153 2 6 03 169 4 6 67 138 0 5 43 104 7 4 12 109 5 4 31 99 0 3 90 110 9 4 37 101 1 3 98 1 460 8 57 51 Average precipitation days 1 mm 8 9 9 2 10 8 13 0 14 7 17 1 17 1 14 4 11 3 9 3 9 4 9 1 144 3Average relative humidity 70 0 67 0 67 0 66 5 66 0 65 5 66 0 64 0 68 0 67 0 68 0 67 0 66 8Average dew point C F 17 9 64 2 17 8 64 0 16 7 62 1 14 9 58 8 13 3 55 9 11 7 53 1 10 9 51 6 10 5 50 9 12 3 54 1 12 9 55 2 14 7 58 5 16 2 61 2 14 2 57 5 Average ultraviolet index 13 0 12 0 9 0 6 0 4 0 3 0 3 0 4 0 6 0 8 0 11 0 13 0 7 7Source 1 Australian Bureau of Meteorology 1991 2020 normals and extremes 143 Source 2 Weather Atlas UV Index 144 Flora and fauna EditPlants Edit Box shaped fruit of Barringtonia asiatica SW Pacific washed up on Blinky Beach Lord Howe Island is a distinct terrestrial ecoregion known as the Lord Howe Island subtropical forests It is part of the Australasian realm and shares many biotic affinities with Australia New Guinea and New Caledonia 145 In geological terms at 7 million years old Lord Howe Island is relatively young and was never part of any continent its flora and fauna colonising the island from across the sea carried by the wind water or birds possibly assisted at a geological time when other islands were exposed enabling island hopping 146 Nevertheless it has been sufficiently remote for long enough to evolve endemic species Wedding flower Dietes robinsoniana The high degree of endemism is emphasised by the presence of five endemic genera Negria Lordhowea Howea Lepidorrhachis and Hedyscepe 147 Island plants are similar to those of Norfolk Island the two islands sharing some endemic species for example the critically endangered species of creeping vine Calystegia affinis The combined flora of these two islands is more closely related to that of New Zealand and New Caledonia than to that of Australia 147 Also a small but clear link exists with the plants of Vanuatu 147 The closest mainland affinities are with the vegetation of subtropical southeastern Queensland A link with Gondwanaland is indicated by the presence of endemic species such as the wedding lily Dietes robinsoniana whose only living relatives occur in South Africa 148 The flora of the island is relatively untouched with a large number of rare plants 44 being endemic to the island 147 With a diversity of conditions ranging from valleys to ridges plains and misty mountain tops habitat is available for a wide range of plant communities which have been comprehensively analysed and mapped 149 Many of the island s unique plants grow on or around the mountain summits where the height has allowed the development of a true cloud forest and many different microhabitats from sea level to the summits 150 With the increased humidity brought by the clouds on Mount Gower and the other mountain tops the range of endemic plants include mosses ferns and flowering plants 151 One of the best known plant genera endemic to Lord Howe Island is Howea an endemic genus of palms Arecaceae that are commonly known as kentia palms and are popular houseplants 152 Mosses include Spiridens muelleri There are 57 species of ferns of which 25 are endemic they are most abundant in the moist environments of the southern island especially the higher parts of Mount Gower 153 perhaps the most apparent being the four endemic tree ferns in the genus Cyathea that occur on the southern mountains 154 Hedyscepe and Lepidorrhachis are the other two palm genera that are also endemic to the island 155 Since the rodent eradication program researchers have observed an increase in the amount of growth and seeds especially of the larger fleshy fruited plants previously eaten by rats As the understorey grows thicker this in turn will provide habitat for small animals such as snails and insects which in turn provide food for the birds 151 Number of different vascular plants 147 Total Indigenous Endemic Naturalised459 241 105 43 6 218 47 5 Communities and special plants Edit Little mountain palm Lepidorrhachis mooreana on the summit of Mount Gower Plant communities have been classified into nine categories lowland subtropical rainforest submontane rainforest cloud forest and scrub lowland swamp forest mangrove scrub and seagrass coastal scrub and cliff vegetation inland scrub and herbland offshore island vegetation shoreline and beach vegetation and disturbed vegetation 147 Several plants are immediately evident to the visitor Banyan Ficus macrophylla subsp columnaris is a remarkable tree with a buttressed trunk and pendulous aerial roots it can be seen on the track to Clear Place and near Ned s Beach 156 Pandanus tree Pandanus forsteri has spectacular teepee like prop roots and pineapple like fruits that are orange red when mature the tough leaves being used for basketry It occurs in damp areas such as creek beds and fine specimens can be seen along the Boat Harbour track 156 Ten species of orchids are on the island the most noticeable being the bush orchid Dendrobium macropus subsp howeanum on lowland trees and rocks bearing cream flowers from August to September 156 Other prominent flowering plants in the summer include on the mountain slopes the whiskery red flowers of mountain rose Metrosideros nervulosa and Metrosideros sclerocarpa the massed small yellow flowers of corokia Corokia carpodetoides orange plump flowers of pumpkin tree Negria rhabdothamnoides and white spikes of Fitzgerald tree Dracophyllum fitzgeraldii 156 The kava bush has large aromatic heart shaped leaves After heavy rain the endemic glowing mushroom Mycena chlorophanos and Omphalotus nidiformis can be found in the palm forests 157 The palms are the signature plants of the island as the kentia and curly palms especially dominate the landscape in many places the kentia being of special economic importance 158 All four species are endemic to the island often occurring in dense pure stands the one that has proved such a worldwide success as an indoor plant being the kentia or thatch palm Howea forsteriana This is a lowland palm with drooping leaflets and seed branches in hands of three to five while the curly palm H belmoreana which occurs on slightly higher ground has upwardly directed leaflets and solitary hands Natural hybrids between these species occur on the island and a mature specimen of one is growing in the island nursery On the mountain sides higher than about 350 m the big mountain palm Hedyscepe canterburyana occurs it has large golf ball sized fruits while the little mountain palm Lepidorrhachis mooreana has marble sized fruits and is only found on the mountain summits 159 Images of native flora Edit Kentia palms Curly palm Lord Howe bird s nest fern Asplenium milnei Lagunaria patersoniaAnimals Edit No snakes nor poisonous or venomous animals or plants occur and no dangerous daytime sharks are found off the beaches although tiger sharks have been reported on the cliff side of the island 160 Birds Edit Sooty terns are the most abundant breeding seabirds and are common along the east coast A total of 202 different birds have been recorded on the island Eighteen species of land birds breed on the island and many more migratory species occur on the island and its adjacent islets many tame enough that humans can get quite close 161 The island has been identified by BirdLife International as an endemic bird area and the Permanent Park Preserve as an important bird area because it supports the entire population of Lord Howe woodhens most of the breeding population of providence petrels over 1 of the world population of another five seabird species and the whole populations of three endemic subspecies 162 Fourteen species of seabirds breed on the island 161 Red tailed tropicbirds can be seen in large numbers circling the Malabar cliffs where they perform acrobatic courting rituals 163 Between August and May thousands of flesh footed and wedge tailed shearwaters return to the island at dusk each day From the Little Island Track between March and November one of the world s rarest birds the providence petrel also performs courtship displays during winter breeding and it is extremely tame The island was its only breeding location for many years after the breeding colony on Norfolk Island was exterminated in the late 19th century 164 though a small population persists on the adjacent Phillip Island The Kermadec petrel was discovered breeding on Mount Gower in 1914 by ornithologist Roy Bell while collecting specimens for Gregory Mathews 165 and the black winged petrel was only confirmed as a breeder in 1971 its numbers have increased following the elimination of feral cats from the island 166 Black noddy on North Beach The flesh footed shearwater which breeds in large numbers on the main island in spring autumn once had its chicks harvested for food by the islanders 167 The wedge tailed and little shearwaters breed on the main island and surrounding islets though only a small number of the latter species can be found on the main island Breeding white bellied storm petrels was another discovery by Roy Bell 168 Masked boobies are the largest seabirds breeding on Lord Howe 169 and can be seen nesting and gliding along the sea cliffs at Mutton Bird Point all year round Sooty terns can be seen on the main island at Ned s and Middle Beaches North Bay and Blinkey Beach the most numerous of the island s breeding seabirds their eggs were formerly harvested for food Common and black noddies build nests in trees and bushes while white terns lay their single eggs precariously in a slight depression on a tree branch 170 and grey ternlets lay their eggs in cliff hollows 171 Three endemic passerine subspecies are the Lord Howe golden whistler Lord Howe silvereye and Lord Howe currawong 172 The iconic endemic rail the flightless Lord Howe woodhen is the only surviving member of its genus its ancestors could fly but with no predators and plenty of food on the island this ability was lost This made it easy prey for islanders and feral animals so by the 1970s the population was less than 30 birds From 1978 to 1984 feral animals were removed and birds were raised in captivity to be successfully reintroduced to the wild The population is now relatively safe and stable 14 173 List of endemic birds Edit Lord Howe silvereye Zosterops lateralis tephropleurus Lord Howe currawong Strepera graculina crissalis vulnerable subspecies of pied currawong Lord Howe golden whistler Pachycephala pectoralis contempta least concern subspecies of golden whistler Lord Howe silvereye Zosterops lateralis tephropleurus vulnerable subspecies of silvereye Robust white eye Zosterops strenuus extinct Lord Howe gerygone Gerygone insularis extinct Lord Howe fantail Rhiphidura fuliginosa cervina extinct subspecies of NZ fantail Lord Howe starling Aplonis fusca hulliana extinct subspecies of extinct Tasman starling Lord Howe thrush Turdus poliocephalus vinitinctus extinct subspecies of Island thrush Lord Howe parakeet Cyanoramphus subflavescens extinct Lord Howe boobook Ninox novaeseelandiae albaria extinct Lord Howe woodhen Gallirallus sylvestris endangered Lord Howe swamphen Porphyrio albus extinct Lord Howe pigeon Columba vitiensis godmanae extinct Mammals reptiles and amphibians Edit Skeleton of Meiolania platyceps once native to Lorde Howe Only one native mammal remains on the islands the large forest bat The endemic Lord Howe long eared bat is known only from a skull and is now presumed extinct possibly the result of the introduction of ship rats 174 Two terrestrial reptiles are native to the island group the Lord Howe Island skink and the Lord Howe Island gecko Both are rare on the main island but more common on smaller islands offshore 175 The garden skink and the bleating tree frog have been accidentally introduced from the Australian mainland During the Pleistocene the giant terrestrial horned turtle Meiolania platyceps was endemic to the island but this is currently thought to have gone extinct before human occupation as a result of postglacial sea level rise Invertebrates Edit Lord Howe Island stick insect The Lord Howe Island stick insect disappeared from the main island soon after the accidental introduction of rats when the SS Makambo ran aground near Ned s Beach on 15 June 1918 175 176 In 2001 a tiny population was discovered in a single Melaleuca howeana shrub on the slopes of Ball s Pyramid 177 has been successfully bred in captivity and is nearing re introduction to the main island needs update 178 The Lord Howe stag beetle is a colourful endemic beetle seen during summers 179 Another endemic invertebrate the Lord Howe flax snail or Lord Howe Placostylus has also been affected by the introduction of rats 175 Once common the species is now endangered and a captive breeding program is underway to save the snail from extinction An endemic species that is likely to have become extinct due to human introduced rats was the large rove beetle Hesperus gigas Lea 1929 comb nov formerly Cafius gigas Lea 1929 Coleoptera Staphylinidae 180 Marine life Edit Parrot fish swimming in the waters of Ned s Beach Marine environments are near pristine with a mixture of temperate subtropical and tropical species derived from cool temperate ocean currents in the winter and the warm East Australian Current which flows from the Great Barrier Reef in summer 181 Of the 490 fish species recorded 13 are endemic and 60 are tropical 181 The main angling fish are yellowtail kingfish and New Zealand bluefish while game fish include marlin tuna and giant kingfish called greenbacks 182 Over 80 species of corals occur in the reefs surrounding the islands 183 184 Australian underwater photographer Neville Coleman has photographed various nudibranchs at Lord Howe Island 185 Various species of cetaceans inhabit or migrate through the waters in the vicinity but very little about their biology in the area is known due to a lack of studies and sighting efforts caused by locational conditions Bottlenose dolphins are the most commonly observed and are the only species confirmed to be seasonal or yearly residents while some other dolphin species have also been observed 186 Humpback whales are the only large whales showing slow but steady recoveries as their numbers annually migrating past the island of Lord Howe are much smaller than those migrating along the Australian continent Historically migratory whales such as blue fin and sei whales were very abundant in the island waters but were severely reduced in numbers to near extinction by commercial and illegal hunts including the mass illegal hunts by the Soviet Union and Japan in the 1960s to 1970s 187 Southern right and sperm whales were most severely hunted among these hence the area was called the Middle Ground by whalers 188 These two were likely once seasonal residents around the island where right whales prefer sheltered very shallow bays 189 while sperm whales mainly inhabit deep waters Images of native fauna Providence petrels on the summit of Mount Gower Woodhen by Neds Beach Road Masked booby with chick viewed off Malabar cliffs Coral skeleton on Little Island Beach Conservation Edit Lord Howe white throated pigeon Columba vitiensis godmanae painted by George Raper 1790 now extinct About 10 of Lord Howe Island s forests have been cleared for agriculture and another 20 has been disturbed mostly by domestic cattle and feral sheep goats and pigs As a result 70 of the island remains relatively untouched with a variety of plants and animals many of which are endemic and some of which are rare or threatened 190 Two species of plants nine terrestrial birds one bat and at least four invertebrates have become extinct since 1778 191 Endemism at the generic level includes the palms Howea Hedyscepe and Lepidorrhachis a woody daisy Lordhowea insularis the tree Negria the leech Quantenobdella howensis three annelid worm genera Paraplutellus Pericryptodrilus and Eastoniella an isopod shrimp Stigmops a hemipteran bug Howeria and a cricket Howeta 192 The Lord Howe Island Board instigated an extensive biological and environmental survey published in 1974 which has guided the island conservation program 193 In 1981 the Lord Howe Island Amendment Act proclaimed a Permanent Park Preserve over the north and south ends of the island Administration of the preserve was outlined in a management plan for the sustainable development of the island prepared by the NSW National Parks and Wildlife Service 106 194 which has a ranger stationed on the island The island was cited under the UNESCO World Heritage List in 1982 Offshore environmental assets are protected by the Lord Howe Island Marine Park This consists of a state marine park managed by the Marine Parks Authority of New South Wales in the waters out to three nautical miles around the island and including Ball s Pyramid 19 It also includes a Commonwealth Marine Park extending from 3 to 12 nautical miles out and managed by the federal Department of the Environment and Heritage 195 In total the Marine Park covers about 3 005 km2 1 160 sq mi 196 Feral animals and plants Edit Pigs and goats were released on the island as potential food sources in the early 1800s the goats destroyed shrubs and grasses used as nesting sites and the pigs ate eggs and chicks and disturbed the land by rooting for food 197 Several birds have become extinct on the island since the arrival of humans The first round of extinctions included the Lord Howe swamphen or white gallinule the white throated pigeon the red crowned parakeet and the Tasman booby which were eliminated by visitors and settlers during the 19th century either from overhunting for food or protection of crops 197 Black rats were released from provisioning whaling ships in the 1840s and mice from Norfolk Island in 1860 197 In 1918 the black rat was accidentally introduced with the shipwreck of the S S Makambo which ran aground at Ned s Beach This triggered a second wave of extinctions including the vinous tinted thrush the robust white eye the Lord Howe starling the Lord Howe fantail and the Lord Howe gerygone as well as the destruction of the native phasmid and the decimation of palm fruits 198 Bounties were offered for rats and pig tails and ratting became a popular pursuit Subsequent poisoning programs have kept populations low 199 The Lord Howe boobook may have become extinct through predation by or competition with the Tasmanian masked owls which were introduced in the 1920s in a failed attempt to control the rat population 197 Stray dogs are also a threat as they could harm the native woodhen and other birds 200 Invasive plants such as Crofton weed 201 and Formosa lily 202 occur in inaccessible areas and probably cannot be eradicated but others are currently being managed 203 In 1995 the first action was taken to control the spread of introduced plants on the island chiefly ground asparagus and bridal creeper but also cherry guava Madeira vine Cotoneaster Ochna and Cestrum This has been followed by weeding tours and the formation of the Friends of Lord Howe Island group in 2000 Programs have also been started to remove weeds from private properties and re vegetate some formerly cultivated areas 204 An environmental unit was created by the board and it includes a flora management officer and a permanent weed officer Weeds have been mapped and an eradication program is in place supported by improved education and quarantine procedures 205 Introduced species that harmed Lord Howe s native flora and fauna namely feral pigs cats and goats were eradicated by the early 2000s 173 206 204 207 In July 2012 the Australian federal Environment Minister Tony Burke and the New South Wales Environment Minister Robyn Parker announced that the Australian and New South Wales governments would each contribute 50 of the estimated A 9 million cost of implementing a rodent eradication plan for the island using the aerial deployment of poison baits 208 The plan was put to a local vote and is considered controversial 209 Around 230 woodhens were captured before the rodent eradication commenced in early 2019 Following the successful eradication of the rodents all woodhens and currawongs were released across the island in late 2019 and early 2020 210 A recovery program has restored the Lord Howe woodhen s numbers from only 20 in 1970 to about 200 in 2000 which is close to carrying capacity 200 211 Climate change Edit According to an analysis by eminent Australian academic Tim Flannery the ecosystem of Lord Howe Island is threatened by climate change and global warming with the reefs at risk from rises in water temperature 133 212 213 The first international conference on global artificial photosynthesis as a climate change solution occurred at Lord Howe Island in 2011 214 the papers being published by the Australian Journal of Chemistry 215 Heritage listings EditThe Lord Howe Islands Group was inscribed on the World Heritage List for its unique landforms and biota its diverse and largely intact ecosystems its natural beauty and its habitats for threatened species It also has significant cultural heritage associations in the history of NSW 18 Lord Howe Island and adjacent islets Admiralty Islands Mutton Bird Islands Ball s Pyramid and associated coral reefs and marine environs were added to the Australian National Heritage List on 21 May 2007 based on the World Heritage List 17 Lord Howe Island was listed on the New South Wales State Heritage Register on 2 April 1999 18 In September 2019 it was revealed that in 2017 federal environment minister Josh Frydenberg overruled a recommendation from his department to install two wind turbines The project which would have substantially reduced the island s dependence on diesel powered electricity generators had been considered not to endanger the island s heritage status and was supported by the islanders 216 Sport EditLord Howe Island Bowling Club 217 218 219 Lord Howe Island Golf Club 220 See also Edit Australia portal Islands portal Volcanoes portalJim Lacey former administrator List of islands of AustraliaCitations Edit Regional Statistics New South Wales PDF Australian Bureau of Statistics 2004 Archived PDF from the original on 26 February 2009 Retrieved 19 April 2009 Port Macquarie New South Wales Electoral Commission Archived from the original on 28 February 2020 Retrieved 23 November 2019 Profile of the Electoral Division Sydney Australian Electoral Commission 2011 Archived from the original on 29 June 2011 Retrieved 19 August 2011 Australian Bureau of Statistics 27 June 2017 Lord Howe Island State Suburb 2016 Census QuickStats Retrieved 7 July 2017 Draft Report Review of the Lord Howe Island Act of 1954 PDF State of New South Wales Department of Environment Climate Change and Water February 2010 Archived from the original PDF on 21 March 2011 Retrieved 22 December 2011 a b Lord Howe Island Group Australian Government Department of Sustainability Environment Water Population and Communities Archived from the original on 22 September 2011 Retrieved 27 August 2011 a b Hutton 1986 p 81 a b Nichols 2006 p 4 a b c Hutton 1986 p 1 a b Nichols 2006 p 28 a b c d e Hutton 1986 p 2 a b Nichols 2006 p 74 a b c d e f g Lord Howe Island Board Lord Howe Island Tourism Association Archived from the original on 5 October 2013 Retrieved 15 June 2011 a b c d e f g LHI Tourist Agency Fact Sheets Lord Howe Island Tourism Association Archived from the original on 9 April 2011 Retrieved 15 June 2011 Lord Howe Island Group UNESCO World Heritage Centre 2009 Archived from the original on 6 December 2019 Retrieved 20 April 2009 Hutton 1986 pp 5 6 a b Lord Howe Island Group Lord Howe Island NSW Australia Place ID 105694 Australian Heritage Database Australian Government 21 May 2007 Retrieved 18 July 2017 a b c Lord Howe Island Group New South Wales State Heritage Register Department of Planning amp Environment H00970 Retrieved 2 June 2018 Text is licensed by State of New South Wales Department of Planning and Environment under CC BY 4 0 licence a b Lord Howe Island Marine Park New South Wales Government Marine Parks Authority Archived from the original on 26 January 2014 Retrieved 20 August 2011 Interim Biogeographic Regionalisation for Australia IBRA7 regions and codes Department of Sustainability Environment Water Population and Communities Commonwealth of Australia 2012 Archived from the original on 31 January 2013 Retrieved 11 August 2018 Map of Ecoregions 2017 Resolve using WWF data Archived from the original on 12 April 2017 Retrieved 17 January 2021 Lord Howe Island subtropical forests Digital Observatory for Protected Areas Archived from the original on 17 April 2021 Retrieved 17 January 2021 Lord Howe Island subtropical forests The Encyclopedia of Earth Archived from the original on 7 November 2021 Retrieved 17 January 2021 Nichols 2006 p 5 https media australian museum media Uploads Journals 17923 1348 complete pdf bare URL PDF http australianarchaeology com wp content uploads 2013 11 Anderson 2003 pdf bare URL PDF Rabone 1972 p 10 a b Arthur Bowes Smyth illustrated journal 1787 1789 Titled A Journal of a Voyage from Portsmouth to New South Wales and China in the Lady Penrhyn Merchantman William Cropton Sever Commander by Arthur Bowes Smyth Surgeon 1787 1788 1789 being a fair copy compiled ca 1790 catalogue State Library of New South Wales Archived from the original on 6 January 2016 Retrieved 1 April 2014 See Hutton 1986 Lord Howe Island 1788 1988 PDF National Library of Australia 1988 ISBN 978 0 7316 3090 5 Archived from the original PDF on 21 November 2011 Retrieved 20 June 2011 Nichols 2006 p 8 Nichols 2006 p 21 Nichols 2006 pp 23 24 Nichols 2006 p 17 a b Nichols 2006 p 32 Rabone 1972 p 38 Rabone 1972 p 23 Rabone 1972 pp 26 30 Nichols 2006 p 34 Nichols 2006 p 24 Rabone 1972 p 30 a b Nichols 2006 p 36 a b Nichols 2006 p 30 Nichols 2006 pp 38 40 Rabone 1972 pp 30 31 See Starbuck 1878 Hutton 1986 pp 2 44 Rabone 1972 p 33 a b New South Wales Constitution Act 1855 UK Museum of Australian Democracy 1855 Archived from the original on 3 October 2011 Retrieved 31 August 2011 Nichols 2006 pp 58 59 Mueller 1875 pp 76 79 See Hill 1870 a b Rabone 1972 p 40 Nichols 2006 pp 76 77 82 3 Wilson J Bowie 1882 Report on the present state and prospects of Lord Howe Island T Richards Govt Printer Archived from the original on 14 August 2021 Retrieved 16 January 2021 a b Green 1994 p 15 a b Nichols 2006 p 139 Nichols 2006 p 132 Hutton 1986 pp 3 4 Battle to save stricken warship BBC News 7 July 2002 Archived from the original on 21 December 2011 Retrieved 15 June 2011 The Law Offices of Countryman amp McDaniel Archived 5 September 2012 at the Wayback Machine Cargolaw com Retrieved 16 July 2013 Behind the scenes facts about The Shallows Archived 27 September 2016 at the Wayback Machine Cosmopolitan COVID19 Q and A Lordhoweisland info Lord Howe Island Tourism Association 2 April 2020 Archived from the original on 4 May 2020 Retrieved 19 April 2020 COVID 19 Coronavirus statistics www health nsw gov au NSW Health 21 March 2020 Archived from the original on 22 March 2020 Retrieved 3 July 2021 Trouble in Paradise Lord Howe divided over plans to exterminate rats Archived 22 September 2016 at the Wayback Machine The Guardian Kurmelovs Royce 19 April 2021 Rats reappear on Lord Howe Island for the first time since 2019 eradication program The Guardian Archived from the original on 3 October 2021 Retrieved 2 October 2021 O Malley Nick 31 January 2021 Endangered animals bounce back on rat free Lord Howe Island Sydney Morning Herald Archived from the original on 30 January 2021 Retrieved 31 January 2021 2016 Census QuickStats Lord Howe Island censusdata abs gov au Archived from the original on 7 January 2018 Retrieved 7 January 2018 a b c Accommodation on Lord Howe Island Lord Howe Island Tourism Association Archived from the original on 7 January 2018 Retrieved 20 August 2011 a b Australian Bureau of Statistics 31 October 2012 Lord Howe Island State Suburb 2011 Census QuickStats Retrieved 1 September 2014 White Michael 2010 Australian Offshore Laws The Federation Press p 305 ISBN 978 1 86287 742 9 Archived from the original on 8 July 2019 Retrieved 7 November 2015 Nichols 2006 p 106 Nichols 2006 pp 82 83 Nichols 2006 pp 87 106 Nichols 2006 pp 107 108 Hutton 1986 p 3 Lord Howe Island 1788 1988 PDF National Library of Australia 1988 ISBN 978 0 7316 3090 5 Archived from the original PDF on 20 December 2010 Retrieved 24 January 2014 Nichols 2006 pp 110 115 a b Nichols 2006 p 110 Nichols 2006 p 111 a b Nichols 2006 p 114 a b The Lord Howe Island Franchise The Daily Telegraph New South Wales Australia 18 November 1893 p 8 Archived from the original on 7 November 2021 Retrieved 29 October 2021 via National Library of Australia IN THE MATTER OF THE PARLIAMENTARY ELECTORATES AND ELECTIONS ACT OF 1893 AND SECTIONS 13 AND 14 THEREOF New South Wales Government Gazette No 586 New South Wales Australia 22 August 1893 p 6565 Archived from the original on 7 November 2021 Retrieved 29 October 2021 via National Library of Australia ELECTORATES REDISTRIBUTION ACT 1904 Government Gazette Of The State Of New South Wales No 227 New South Wales Australia 22 April 1904 p 3227 Archived from the original on 7 November 2021 Retrieved 29 October 2021 via National Library of Australia ELECTORAL DISTRICTS COMMISSION Government Gazette Of The State Of New South Wales No 153 New South Wales Australia 27 June 1919 p 3599 Archived from the original on 7 November 2021 Retrieved 29 October 2021 via National Library of Australia PARLIAMENTARY ELECTORATES AND ELECTIONS ACT 1912 AND THE ACTS AMENDING THE SAME Government Gazette Of The State Of New South Wales No 151 New South Wales Australia 18 November 1926 p 4837 Archived from the original on 7 November 2021 Retrieved 29 October 2021 via National Library of Australia KING ELECTORATE The Sydney Morning Herald New South Wales Australia 28 May 1935 p 9 Archived from the original on 7 November 2021 Retrieved 29 October 2021 via National Library of Australia PARLIAMENTARY ELECTORATES AND ELECTIONS ACT 1912 1973 Government Gazette Of The State Of New South Wales No 89 New South Wales Australia 6 July 1973 p 2950 Archived from the original on 7 November 2021 Retrieved 29 October 2021 via National Library of Australia PARLIAMENTARY ELECTORATES AND ELECTIONS ACT 1912 PROCLAMATION Government Gazette Of The State Of New South Wales No 53 New South Wales Australia 28 March 1980 p 1503 Archived from the original on 7 November 2021 Retrieved 29 October 2021 via National Library of Australia PARLIAMENTARY ELECTORATES AND ELECTIONS ACT 1912 PROCLAMATION Government Gazette Of The State Of New South Wales No 164 New South Wales Australia 16 October 1987 p 5897 Archived from the original on 7 November 2021 Retrieved 29 October 2021 via National Library of Australia PARLIAMENTARY ELECTORATES AND ELECTIONS ACT 1912 Government Gazette Of The State Of New South Wales No 50 New South Wales Australia 22 March 1991 p 2431 Archived from the original on 7 November 2021 Retrieved 29 October 2021 via National Library of Australia Jambor Claudia 26 November 2020 Lord Howe Island s proposed move to Sydney electorate resisted by Port Macquarie MP Australian Broadcasting Corporation ABC Coffs Coast Archived from the original on 29 October 2021 Retrieved 29 October 2021 Electoral Districts Redistribution Panel determination of New South Wales electoral districts PDF New South Wales Electoral Commission 20 August 2021 Archived PDF from the original on 29 August 2021 Retrieved 29 October 2021 COMMONWEALTH ELECTORAL DIVISIONS Commonwealth of Australia Gazette No 51 2 October 1903 p 609 Archived from the original on 7 November 2021 Retrieved 29 October 2021 via National Library of Australia PROCLAMATION Commonwealth Of Australia Gazette No 20 27 March 1913 p 725 Archived from the original on 7 November 2021 Retrieved 29 October 2021 via National Library of Australia PROCLAMATION Commonwealth Of Australia Gazette No 72 14 September 1922 p 1355 Archived from the original on 7 November 2021 Retrieved 29 October 2021 via National Library of Australia PROCLAMATION Commonwealth Of Australia Gazette No 48 2 August 1934 p 1195 Archived from the original on 7 November 2021 Retrieved 29 October 2021 via National Library of Australia PROCLAMATION Commonwealth Of Australia Gazette No 44 6 March 1941 p 475 Retrieved 29 October 2021 via National Library of Australia PROCLAMATION Commonwealth Of Australia Gazette No 42 1 September 1955 p 2819 Retrieved 29 October 2021 via National Library of Australia PROCLAMATION Commonwealth Of Australia Gazette No 79 12 October 1961 p 3639 Retrieved 29 October 2021 via National Library of Australia PROCLAMATION Commonwealth Of Australia Gazette No 97 25 November 1968 p 6651 Retrieved 29 October 2021 via National Library of Australia Nichols 2006 pp 98 105 NY520 Implementation of quality management in Lord Howe Island Kentia Palm Nursery Nursery amp Garden Industry Australia Archived from the original on 5 October 2011 Retrieved 23 June 2011 Lord Howe Island 1788 1988 PDF National Library of Australia 1989 ISBN 978 0 7316 3090 5 Archived from the original PDF on 29 July 2019 Retrieved 27 August 2011 Lord Howe Island Visit NSW Archived from the original on 15 May 2013 Retrieved 25 May 2013 a b Nichols 2006 p 117 a b c d Getting to Lord Howe Island factsheet PDF Lord Howe Island Tourism Association Archived from the original PDF on 2 September 2011 Retrieved 20 August 2011 Hill Joshua S 20 September 2021 Lord Howe enjoys five days and nights with solar and Tesla battery only RenewEconomy Archived from the original on 5 October 2021 a b Lord Howe Island Accommodation Directory Lord Howe Island Tourism Association Archived from the original on 31 August 2011 Retrieved 20 August 2011 Nature experiences on Lord Howe Island Lord Howe Island Tourism Association Archived from the original on 17 September 2011 Retrieved 21 June 2011 Nichols 2006 pp 166 171 LHI Tourist Agency Fact Sheets activities Lord Howe Island Tourism Association Archived from the original on 3 May 2009 Retrieved 28 August 2011 LHI Tourist Agency Fact Sheets SCUBA diving Lord Howe Island Tourism Association Archived from the original on 2 September 2011 Retrieved 28 August 2011 LHI Tourist Agency Fact Sheets general activities Lord Howe Island Tourism Association Archived from the original on 9 April 2011 Retrieved 28 August 2011 LHI Tourist Agency Fact Sheets marine activities Lord Howe Island Tourism Association Archived from the original on 17 September 2011 Retrieved 28 August 2011 LHI Tourist Agency Fact Sheets walking Lord Howe Island Tourism Association Archived from the original on 4 August 2012 Retrieved 28 August 2011 Permanent Park Preserve and Walking Tracks PDF LHI Tourist Agency Fact Sheets Lord Howe Island Tourism Association Archived from the original PDF on 21 November 2011 Retrieved 28 August 2011 Rabone 1972 p 18 Mt Gower Lord Howe Island New South Wales Government Destination NSW Archived from the original on 15 May 2013 Retrieved 30 April 2014 Hutton 1986 pp 81 84 Krulwich Robert 29 February 2012 Six Legged Giant Finds Secret Hideaway Hides For 80 Years NPR Archived from the original on 17 March 2018 Retrieved 3 April 2018 McDougall Ian Embleton B J J Stone D B April 1981 Origin and evolution of Lord Howe Island Southwest Pacific Ocean Journal of the Geological Society of Australia 28 1 2 155 176 Bibcode 1981AuJES 28 155M doi 10 1080 00167618108729154 ISSN 0016 7614 Hutton 1986 p 7 Van Der Linden W J M 1969 Extinct mid ocean ridges in the Tasman sea and the Western Pacific Earth and Planetary Science Letters 6 6 483 490 Bibcode 1969E amp PSL 6 483V doi 10 1016 0012 821X 69 90120 4 Wallis amp Trewick 2009 p 3548 Hutton 1986 pp 7 14 Hutton 2009 p 30 Volcanic Geology Lord Howe Island Museum Archived from the original on 24 March 2012 Retrieved 27 August 2011 Lord Howe Island Blueswami Archived from the original on 7 October 2011 Retrieved 27 August 2011 Etheridge 1889 pp 112 113 Hutton amp Harrison 2004 p 11 Sedimentary Geology Lord Howe Island Museum Archived from the original on 24 March 2012 Retrieved 27 August 2011 a b Clarke Sarah 24 March 2010 Bleaching leaves Lord Howe reef on knife edge Australian Broadcasting Corporation Archived from the original on 13 November 2012 Retrieved 27 August 2011 See McDougall 1981harvnb error no target CITEREFMcDougall1981 help Gavrilets 2007 pp 2910 2921 sfn error no target CITEREFGavrilets2007 help Climate of Lord Howe Island Australian Government Bureau of Meteorology Archived from the original on 5 June 2011 Retrieved 29 August 2011 a b c d The Lord Howe Island Marine Park Commonwealth Waters Management Plan PDF Canberra Environment Australia 2001 p 5 Archived from the original PDF on 9 November 2011 Weather and Forecast Lord Howe Island Tours 2011 Archived from the original on 31 March 2012 Retrieved 29 August 2011 Climate statistics for Australian locations Australian Government Bureau of Meteorology Archived from the original on 19 April 2017 Retrieved 29 August 2011 Green 1994 pp 14 15 Climate of Lord Howe Island Australian Government Bureau of Meteorology Archived from the original on 5 June 2011 Retrieved 20 June 2011 Water Temperature Lord Howe Australia Archived from the original on 15 September 2017 Retrieved 15 September 2017 Climate statistics for Australian locations Lord Howe Island Australian Bureau of Meteorology August 2011 Archived from the original on 16 October 2021 Retrieved 23 March 2009 Lord Howe Island UV Index Weather Atlas Ecoregions World Wildlife Fund Archived from the original on 7 October 2006 Retrieved 23 August 2011 SeeHutton 1986 a b c d e f Green 1994 p 2 Green 1994 p 1 Pickard 1983b pp 133 236 Hutton 1986 p 35 a b Marshall Cameron 7 March 2021 Cloud forest thrives on World Heritage listed Lord Howe Island after pest eradication ABC News Australian Broadcasting Corporation Retrieved 20 April 2021 Burke s Backyard Kentia Palms CTC Productions Archived from the original on 27 September 2011 Retrieved 27 August 2011 Hutton 2010a p 4 Hutton 2010 p 37 sfn error no target CITEREFHutton2010 help Dransfield John Uhl Natalie W Asmussen Conny B Baker William J Harley Madeline M Lewis Carl E 2008 Genera Palmarum The Evolution and Classification of Palms Royal Botanic Gardens Kew ISBN 978 1 84246 182 2 a b c d Lord Howe Island Plant Life PDF Lord Howe Island Tourism Association 2007 Archived from the original PDF on 14 October 2013 Retrieved 24 January 2014 Barton Greg October November 2007 Ten ridiculously amazing things to do on Lord Howe Island PDF Australian Traveller 98 Archived from the original PDF on 19 April 2013 Nichols 206 pp 98 105 sfn error no target CITEREFNichols206 help Nichols 2006 p 98 Hutton 1986 p 15 a b Hutton 2010b p 2 BirdLife International 2011 Important Bird Areas factsheet Lord Howe Island Permanent Park Preserve Downloaded from BirdLife Partnership for nature and people Archived from the original on 30 June 2007 Retrieved 10 December 2012 on 2011 12 24 Hutton 1990 p 84 Hutton 1990 p 68 Hutton 1990 p 70 Hutton 1990 p 72 Hutton 1990 p 74 Hutton 1990 p 80 Hutton 1990 p 82 Hutton 1990 p 92 Hutton 1990 pp 92 94 Hutton 1990 page needed a b Nichols 2006 p 121 Daniel amp Williams 1984 a b c Recher amp Clark 1974a David Attenborough s rare sighting The Sydney Morning Herald Archived from the original on 12 August 2014 Retrieved 18 August 2012 Dryococelus australis in Species Profile and Threats Database Canberra Australian Government Department of Sustainability Environment Water Population and Communities 2011 Archived from the original on 2 June 2011 Retrieved 21 June 2011 Krulwich Robert 29 February 2012 Six Legged Giant Finds Secret Hideaway Hides For 80 Years NPR Archived from the original on 12 May 2015 Retrieved 3 April 2018 Lord Howe stag beetle Lamprima insularis Lord Howe Island Museum Archived from the original on 17 January 2012 Retrieved 19 August 2011 Arn Rytter Jensen Josh Jenkins Shaw Dagmara Zyla Alexey Solodovnikov 2020 A total evidence approach resolves phylogenetic placement of Cafius gigas a unique recently extinct rove beetle from Lord Howe Island Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society 190 4 1159 1174 doi 10 1093 zoolinnean zlaa020 a b Hutton amp Harrison 2004 pp 11 12 Hutton 1986 p 73 Veron amp Done 1979 See Harriott Harrison amp Banks 1995 See Coleman 2001 The Commonwealth of Australia 2002 Lord Howe Island Marine Park Commonwealth Waters MANAGEMENT PLAN Archived 18 December 2014 at the Wayback Machine Retrieved 18 December 2014 Berzin A Ivashchenko V Y Clapham J P Brownell L R Jr 2008 The Truth About Soviet Whaling A Memoir DigitalCommons University of Nebraska Lincoln Archived from the original on 5 March 2016 Retrieved 20 November 2015 Daphne D 2006 Lord Howe Island Rising Frenchs Forest NSW Tower Books ISBN 0 646 45419 6 Retrieved 18 December 2014 Richards R 2009 Past and present distributions of southern right whales Eubalaena australis Archived 25 February 2021 at the Wayback Machine New Zealand Journal of Zoology Vol 36 447 459 1175 8821 Online 0301 4223 Print 09 3604 0447 The Royal Society of New Zealand Retrieved 18 December 2014 See Pickard 1983a Hutton Parkes amp Sinclair 2007 p 22 Hutton Parkes amp Sinclair 2007 p 24 See Recher amp Clark 1974a Lord Howe Island Permanent Park Preserve Plan of Management PDF Lord Howe Island Board 2010 ISBN 978 1 74293 082 4 Archived PDF from the original on 31 March 2011 Retrieved 25 June 2011 Visitors guide Lord Howe Island Marine Park PDF New South Wales Government Marine Park Authority Archived PDF from the original on 22 August 2011 Retrieved 20 August 2011 Hutton amp Harrison 2004 p 6 a b c d Nichols 2006 p 118 Nichols 2006 pp 118 119 Nichols 2006 p 119 a b Species factsheet Gallirallus sylvestris BirdLife International 2011 Retrieved 19 June 2011 Background Crofton Weed biological control Archived from the original on 27 December 2019 Retrieved 27 December 2019 CAWS The Council of Australasian Weed Societies Inc caws org nz Archived from the original on 17 December 2019 Retrieved 27 December 2019 Hutton 1986 p 40 a b Nichols 2006 pp 122 123 Hutton 2010c p 5 Anonymous 21 June 2015 Pest Animal Control lhib nsw gov au Archived from the original on 27 December 2019 Retrieved 27 December 2019 Friends of Lord Howe Island Newsletter PDF Friends of Lord Howe Island Archived from the original PDF on 21 November 2011 Retrieved 31 August 2011 Silmalis Linda 15 July 2012 Bombs to fight the killer rats on Lord Howe Island The Courier Mail News Queensland Archived from the original on 26 September 2012 Retrieved 7 August 2012 Slezak Michael 8 February 2016 Trouble in paradise Lord Howe Island divided over plan to exterminate rats The Guardian Archived from the original on 9 February 2016 Retrieved 8 February 2016 Siossian Emma Wyllie Fiona 18 January 2020 Endangered Lord Howe Island woodhens successfully released back into the wild ABC News Archived from the original on 18 January 2020 Retrieved 18 January 2020 The incredible comeback of native wildlife on Lord Howe Island ABC News 19 February 2023 Retrieved 9 March 2023 Flannery Tim 2006 The Weather Makers The History and Future Impact of Climate Change Allen Lane ISBN 978 0 7139 9921 1 See Jones 2004 Towards Global Artificial Photosynthesis Conference Lord Howe Island 2011 Artificial photosynthesis News conferences amp events ANU Archived from the original on 28 March 2016 Retrieved 7 April 2016 Australian Journal of Chemistry Volume 65 Number 6 2012 Artificial Photosynthesis Energy Nanochemistry and Governance http www publish csiro au nid 52 issue 5915 htm Archived 23 April 2016 at the Wayback Machine Davies Anne 18 September 2019 Josh Frydenberg overruled department to block Lord Howe Island wind turbines The Guardian Archived from the original on 18 September 2019 Retrieved 18 September 2019 Sports and Activities Lord Howe Island Australia Archived from the original on 12 September 2020 Retrieved 12 October 2020 39th Gosford to Lord Howe Island Yacht Race Archived from the original on 18 October 2020 Retrieved 12 October 2020 Gosford Lord Howe Island race record threat Archived from the original on 16 October 2020 Retrieved 12 October 2020 Lord Howe Island NSW Official NSW Tourism Website Archived from the original on 21 October 2020 Retrieved 12 October 2020 General and cited references EditAllen Gerald R et al 1976 Annotated checklist of the fishes of Lord Howe Island Records of the Australian Museum 30 15 365 454 doi 10 3853 j 0067 1975 30 1976 287 Coleman Neville 2001 1001 Nudibranchs Catalogue of Indo Pacific Sea Slugs Springwood ISBN 978 0 947325 25 1 Coleman Neville 2002 Lord Howe Island Marine Park Sea Shore to Sea Floor World Heritage Wildlife Guide Rochedale Neville Coleman s Underwater Geographic ISBN 978 0 947325 27 5 Daniel M J Williams G R 1984 A survey of the distribution seasonal activity and roost sites of New Zealand bats PDF New Zealand Journal of Ecology 7 9 25 Archived PDF from the original on 13 April 2018 Retrieved 22 January 2019 Etheridge Robert 1889 Lord Howe Island its zoology geology and physical characters No 5 The physical and geological structure of Lord Howe Island PDF Australian Museum Memoir 2 5 99 126 doi 10 3853 j 0067 1967 2 1889 483 ISSN 0067 1967 Archived PDF from the original on 20 May 2018 Retrieved 29 August 2011 Flannery Tim 2006 The Weather Makers The History and Future Impact of Climate Change Allen Lane ISBN 978 0 7139 9921 1 Gaffney Eugene S 1975 A phylogeny and classification of the higher categories of turtles article 4 Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History 155 5 389 436 hdl 2246 614 Gavrilets Sergei Vose Arron 2007 Case studies and mathematical models of ecological speciation 2 Palms on an oceanic island Molecular Ecology 16 14 2910 2921 doi 10 1111 j 1365 294x 2007 03304 x PMID 17614906 S2CID 175637 Green Peter S 1994 Lord Howe Island In Orchard Anthony E ed Flora of Australia Volume 49 Oceanic Islands 1 Canberra Australian Government Publishing Service ISBN 0 644 29385 3 Harriott V J Harrison P L Banks S A 1995 The coral communities of Lord Howe Island Marine and Freshwater Research 46 2 457 465 doi 10 1071 mf9950457 Hill E S 1870 Lord Howe Island Official visit by the Water Police Magistrate and the Director of the Botanic Gardens Sydney together with a description of the island Votes amp Proc Legislative Assembly New South Wales 1870 635 654 Hutton Ian 1986 Lord Howe Island Australian Capital Territory Conservation Press ISBN 978 0 908198 40 5 Hutton Ian 1990 Birds of Lord Howe Island Past and Present Ian Hutton ISBN 978 0 646 02638 1 Hutton Ian 1998 The Australian Geographic Book of Lord Howe Island Australian Geographic ISBN 978 1 876276 27 0 Hutton Ian Parkes John P amp Sinclair Anthony R E 2007 Reassembling island ecosystems the case of Lord Howe Island PDF Animal Conservation 10 22 22 29 doi 10 1111 j 1469 1795 2006 00077 x archived PDF from the original on 21 November 2011 retrieved 25 June 2011 Hutton Ian 2009 A Guide to World Heritage Lord Howe Island Lord Howe Island Museum Hutton Ian 2010a A field guide to the ferns of Lord Howe Island Lord Howe Island Ian Hutton ISBN 978 0 9581286 7 4 Hutton Ian 2010b A field guide to the birds of Lord Howe Island Lord Howe Island Ian Hutton ISBN 978 0 9581286 2 9 Hutton Ian 2010c A field guide to the plants of Lord Howe Island Lord Howe Island Ian Hutton ISBN 978 0 9581286 1 2 Hutton Ian Harrison Peter 2004 A field guide to the marine life of Lord Howe Island Lord Howe Island Ian Hutton ISBN 978 0 9581286 3 6 Jones R N 2004 Managing Climate Change Risks In Agrawala S Corfee Morlot J eds The Benefits of Climate Change Policies Analytical and Framework Issues OECD cited in the CSIRO s Climate Change Impacts on Australia and the Benefits of Early Action to Reduce Global Greenhouse Gas Emissions Paris pp 249 298 dead link McDougall I Embleton B J Stone D B 1981 Origin and evolution of Lord Howe Island Southwest Pacific Ocean Journal of the Geological Association of Australia 28 1 2 155 176 Bibcode 1981AuJES 28 155M doi 10 1080 00167618108729154 Mueller Ferdinand J H von 1875 Fragmenta Phytographiae Australiae 9 Melbourne Government Printer pp 76 79 National Library of Australia 1989 Lord Howe Island 1788 1988 From Antipodean Isolation to World Heritage A Bicentennial Publication PDF National Library of Australia ISBN 978 0 7316 3090 5 Archived from the original PDF on 20 December 2010 Retrieved 24 January 2014 Nichols Daphne 2006 Lord Howe Island Rising Frenchs Forest NSW Tower Books ISBN 978 0 646 45419 1 Pickard John 1983a Rare or threatened vascular plants of Lord Howe Island Biological Conservation 27 2 125 139 doi 10 1016 0006 3207 83 90084 8 Pickard John 1983b Vegetation of Lord Howe Island Cunninghamia 17 133 266 Pickard John 1984 Exotic plants of Lord Howe Island distribution in space and time 1853 1981 Journal of Biogeography 11 3 181 208 doi 10 2307 2844639 JSTOR 2844639 Rabone Harold R 1972 Lord Howe Island Its discovery and early associations 1788 to 1888 Sydney Australis Recher Harry F Clark Stephen S 1974a Environmental survey of Lord Howe Island a report to the Lord Howe Island Board edited by Harry F Recher and Stephen S Clark Lord Howe Island Board N S W Australian Museum Dept of Environmental Studies Recher H F Clark S S 1974b A biological survey of Lord Howe Island with recommendations for the conservation of the island s wildlife Biological Conservation 6 4 263 doi 10 1016 0006 3207 74 90005 6 Starbuck Alexander 1878 History of the American Whaling Fishery from its Earliest Inception to the Year 1876 Waltham Massachusetts author Veron John E Done T J 1979 Corals and coral communities of Lord Howe Island Australian Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research 30 2 203 236 doi 10 1071 mf9790203 Wallis G P Trewick Steve A 2009 New Zealand phylogeography evolution on a small continent Molecular Ecology 18 17 3548 80 doi 10 1111 j 1365 294X 2009 04294 x PMID 19674312 S2CID 22049973 Attribution Edit This Wikipedia article contains material from Lord Howe Island Group entry number 00970 in the New South Wales State Heritage Register published by the State of New South Wales Department of Planning and Environment 2018 under CC BY 4 0 licence accessed on 2 June 2018 Further reading EditAnderson Tara J Nichol Scott L Syms Craig Przeslawski Rachel Harris Peter T 2010 Deep sea bio physical variables as surrogates for biological assemblages an example from the Lord Howe Rise Deep Sea Research Part II Topical Studies in Oceanography 58 7 8 979 Bibcode 2011DSRII 58 979A doi 10 1016 j dsr2 2010 10 053 Brown Dianne Baker Lynn 2009 The Lord Howe Island Biodiversity Management Plan An integrated approach to recovery planning Ecological Management amp Restoration 10 S70 S78 doi 10 1111 j 1442 8903 2009 00449 x Harris Peter T 2010 Benthic environments of the Lord Howe Rise submarine plateau Introduction to the special volume Deep Sea Research Part II Topical Studies in Oceanography 58 7 8 883 888 Bibcode 2011DSRII 58 883H doi 10 1016 j dsr2 2010 10 044 Lindsay MJ Patterson HM Swearer SE 2008 Habitat as a surrogate measure of reef fish diversity in the zoning of the Lord Howe Island Marine Park Australia Marine Ecology Progress Series 353 265 273 Bibcode 2008MEPS 353 265L doi 10 3354 meps07155 O Hara Timothy 2008 Bioregionalisation of the waters around Lord Howe and Norfolk Islands using brittle stars Echinodermata Ophiuroidea ISBN 978 0 642 55462 8 External links EditLord Howe Island at Wikipedia s sister projects Media from Commons Travel information from Wikivoyage Official site of the Lord Howe Island Board World heritage listing Australian Government Department of Sustainability Environment Water Population and Communities Lord Howe Island Act 1953 Australian Legal Information Institute Lord Howe Encyclopaedia Britannica 11th ed 1911 Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Lord Howe Island amp oldid 1152247896, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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