fbpx
Wikipedia

Ustaše

January 01, 1970

This article is about the World War II organization. For an ethnic slur against Croats, see Ustaša (pejorative).

The Ustaše (pronounced [ûstaʃe]), also known by anglicised versions Ustasha or Ustashe,[n 3] was a Croatian, fascist and ultranationalist organization[21] active, as one organization, between 1929 and 1945, formally known as the Ustaša – Croatian Revolutionary Movement (Croatian: Ustaša – Hrvatski revolucionarni pokret). Its members assisted in assassinating King Alexander I of Yugoslavia in 1934, and went on to perpetrate The Holocaust in the Independent State of Croatia, killing hundreds of thousands of Serbs, Jews,[22] Roma as well as Bosniak Muslims and Croatian political dissidents during World War II in Yugoslavia.[23][24][25][26]

Ustaša – Croatian Revolutionary Movement
Ustaša – Hrvatski revolucionarni pokret
Governing bodyMain Ustaša Headquarters
FoundersAnte Pavelić[n 1]
Vjekoslav Servatzy
Slavko Kvaternik
Founded
  • 7 January 1929 (1929-01-07)[2]
Dissolved25 May 1945 (1945-05-25) (de facto)
Preceded byMembers of the defunct Croatian Committee[3]
Radical Frankist wing of the Party of Rights[4]
Succeeded byVarious emigre groups[n 2]
Headquarters
NewspaperHrvatski Domobran  [hr][9]
Think tankHrvatski Domobran
Youth wingUstaše Youth (UM)
Paramilitary wingUstaše Militia
Membership100,000 (1941 est.)[10]
IdeologyUstašism
Political positionFar-right
ReligionRoman Catholicism, Islam
Colours  Red   White   Blue   Black
Slogan"Za dom spremni"[20]
("For the home—Ready!")
AnthemPuška puca

The ideology of the movement was a blend of fascism, Roman Catholicism and Croatian ultranationalism.[23] The Ustaše supported the creation of a Greater Croatia that would span the Drina River and extend to the border of Belgrade.[27] The movement advocated a racially "pure" Croatia and promoted genocide against Serbs—due to the Ustaše's anti-Serb sentiment—and Jews and Roma via Nazi racial theory, and persecution of anti-fascist or dissident Croats and Bosniaks. The Ustaše viewed the Bosniaks as "Muslim Croats", and as a result, Bosniaks were not persecuted on the basis of race.[28] The Ustaše espoused Roman Catholicism and Islam as the religions of the Croats and condemned Orthodox Christianity, which was the main religion of the Serbs. Roman Catholicism was identified with Croatian nationalism,[29] while Islam, which had a large following in Bosnia and Herzegovina, was praised by the Ustaše as the religion that "keeps true the blood of Croats."[30][page needed]

It was founded as a nationalist organization that sought to create an independent Croatian state. It functioned as a terrorist organization before World War II.[31][23] In April 1941, the Ustaše came to power when they were appointed to rule a part of Axis-occupied Yugoslavia as the Independent State of Croatia (NDH), a quasi-protectorate[32] puppet state established by Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany.[33][34][35] The Ustaše Militia (Croatian: Ustaška vojnica) became its military wing in the new state.[23]

The Ustaše regime was militarily weak and lacked general support among Croats, struggling to ever attain significant support among the populace. Therefore, terror was their means of controlling the "ethnically disparate" population.[36][37] The Ustaše regime was initially backed by some parts of the Croat population that in the interwar period had felt oppressed by the Serb-led Yugoslavia, but their brutal policies quickly alienated many ordinary Croats and resulted in a loss of the support they had gained by creating a Croatian national state.[38]

With the German surrender, end of World War II in Europe, and the establishment of socialist Yugoslavia in 1945, the Ustaše movement and their state totally collapsed. Many members of the Ustaše militia and Croatian Home Guard who subsequently fled the country were taken as prisoners of war and subjected to forced marches and executions during the Bleiburg repatriations. Various underground and exile successor organisations created by former Ustaše members, such as the Crusaders and the Croatian Liberation Movement, tried to continue the movement to little success.

Name

The word ustaša (plural: ustaše) is derived from the intransitive verb ustati (Croatian for rise up). "Pučki-ustaša" (German: Landsturm) was a military rank in the Imperial Croatian Home Guard (1868–1918). The same term was the name of Croatian third-class infantry regiments (German: Landsturm regiments) during World War I (1914–1918).[citation needed] Another variation of the word ustati is ustanik (plural: ustanici) which means an insurgent, or a rebel. The name ustaša did not have fascist connotations during the early years of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia as the term "ustat" was itself used in Herzegovina to denote the insurgents from the Herzegovinian rebellion of 1875. The full original name of the organization appeared in April 1931 as the Ustaša – Hrvatska revolucionarna organizacija or UHRO (Ustaša – Croatian Revolutionary Organization). In 1933 it was renamed the Ustaša – Hrvatski revolucionarni pokret (Ustaša – Croatian Revolutionary Movement), a name it kept until World War II.[23] In English, Ustasha, Ustashe, Ustashas and Ustashi are used for the movement or its members.[citation needed]

Ideology

Ideological roots

 
Poglavnik Ante Pavelić and Italy's Duce Benito Mussolini on 18 May 1941 in Rome. The Ustaše were heavily influenced by Italian Fascism and politically supported by Fascist Italy.
 
Germany's Führer Adolf Hitler with Pavelić at the Berghof outside Berchtesgaden, Germany. The Ustaše increasingly came under the influence of Nazism after the founding of the NDH in 1941.

One of the major ideological influences on the Croatian nationalism of the Ustaše was 19th century Croatian activist Ante Starčević,[28] an advocate of Croatian unity and independence, who was both anti-Habsburg and anti-Serbian in outlook.[28]

He envisioned the creation of a Greater Croatia that would include territories inhabited by Bosniaks, Serbs, and Slovenes, considering Bosniaks and Serbs to be Croats who had been converted to Islam and Orthodox Christianity, and considered the Slovenes "mountain Croats".[28] Starčević argued that the large Serb presence in territories claimed by a Greater Croatia was the result of recent settlement, encouraged by Habsburg rulers, and the influx of groups like Vlachs who took up Orthodox Christianity and identified themselves as Serbs. Starčević admired Bosniaks because in his view they were Croats who had adopted Islam in order to preserve the economic and political autonomy of Bosnia and Croatia under the Ottoman occupation.[28]

The Ustaše used Starčević's theories to promote their own annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina to Croatia and recognized Croatia as having two major ethnocultural components: Catholics and Muslims.[28] The Ustaše sought to represent Starčević as being connected to their views.[39] Josip Frank seceded his extreme fraction from Starčević's Party of Rights and formed his own, the Pure Party of Rights, which became the main pool of members of the subsequent Ustaše movement.[40][41][42][43] Historian John Paul Newman stated that Austro-Hungarian officers' "unfaltering opposition to Yugoslavia provided a blueprint for the Croatian radical right, the Ustaše".[44]

The Ustaše promoted the theories of Milan Šufflay, who is believed to have claimed that Croatia had been "one of the strongest ramparts of Western civilization for many centuries", which he claimed had been lost through its union with Serbia when the nation of Yugoslavia was formed in 1918.[45] Šufflay was killed in Zagreb in 1931 by government supporters.[46][47]

The Ustaše accepted the 1935 thesis of Krunoslav Draganović, a Catholic priest who claimed that many Catholics in southern Herzegovina had been converted to Orthodox Christianity in the 16th and 17th centuries, in order to justify their own policy of forcible conversion of Orthodox Christians to Catholicism.[48]

The Ustaše were heavily influenced by Nazism and fascism. Its leader, Ante Pavelić, held the position of Poglavnik, which was based on the similar positions of Duce held by Benito Mussolini and Führer held by Adolf Hitler.[28] The Ustaše, like fascists, promoted a corporatist economy.[49] Pavelić and the Ustaše were allowed sanctuary in Italy by Mussolini after being exiled from Yugoslavia. Pavelić had been in negotiations with Fascist Italy since 1927 that included advocating a territory-for-sovereignty swap in which he would tolerate Italy annexing its claimed territory in Dalmatia in exchange for Italy supporting the sovereignty of an independent Croatia.[28] The Ustaše ideology has also been characterized as clerical fascism[50] by several authors, who emphasize the importance the movement attached to Roman Catholicism.

Mussolini's support of the Ustaše was based on pragmatic considerations, such as maximizing Italian influence in the Balkans and the Adriatic. After 1937, with the weakening of French influence in Europe following Germany's remilitarization of the Rhineland and with the rise of a quasi-fascist government in Yugoslavia under Milan Stojadinović, Mussolini abandoned support for the Ustaše from 1937 to 1939 and sought to improve relations with Yugoslavia, fearing that continued hostility towards Yugoslavia would result in Yugoslavia entering Germany's sphere of influence.[51]

 
Anti-Chetnik (anti-Serb) and anti-communist Ustaše poster

The collapse of the quasi-fascist Stojadinović regime resulted in Italy restoring its support for the Ustaše, whose aim was to create an independent Croatia in personal union with Italy.[51] However, distrust of the Ustaše grew. Mussolini's son-in-law and Italian foreign minister Count Galeazzo Ciano noted in his diary that "The Duce is indignant with Pavelić, because he claims that the Croats are descendants of the Goths. This will have the effect of bringing them into the German orbit".[52]

Hungary strongly supported the Ustaše for two aims. One, in order to weaken Yugoslavia, Little Entente, in order to ultimately regain some of its lost territories. The other, Hungary also wished to establish later in the future a strong alliance with the Independent State of Croatia and possibly enter a personal union.[53]

Nazi Germany initially didn't support an independent Croatia, nor did it support the Ustaše, with Hitler stressing the importance of a "strong and united Yugoslavia".[51] Nazi officials, including Hermann Göring, wanted Yugoslavia stable and officially neutral during the war so Germany could continue to securely gain Yugoslavia's raw material exports.[51] The Nazis grew irritated with the Ustaše, among them Reichsfuhrer SS Heinrich Himmler, who was dissatisfied with the lack of full compliance by the NDH to the Nazis' agenda of extermination of the Jews, as the Ustaše permitted Jews who converted to Catholicism to be recognized as "honorary Croats", thus putatively exempt from persecution.[28]

Political programme and main agendas

In 1932, an editorial in the first issue of the Ustaše newspaper, signed by the Ustaše leader Ante Pavelić, proclaimed that violence and terror would be the main means for the Ustaše to attain their goals:

The KNIFE, REVOLVER, MACHINE GUN and TIME BOMB; these are the idols, these are bells that will announce the dawning and THE RESURRECTION OF THE INDEPENDENT STATE OF CROATIA.[54]

In 1933, the Ustaše presented "The Seventeen Principles" that formed the official ideology of the movement. The Principles stated the uniqueness of the Croatian nation, promoted collective rights over individual rights and declared that people who were not Croat by "blood" would be excluded from political life.[28]

Those considered "undesirables" were subjected to mass murder.[55] These principles called for the creation of a new economic system that would be neither capitalist nor communist[28] and which would emphasize the importance of the Roman Catholic Church and the patriarchial family as means to maintain social order and morality.[28] (The name given by modern historians to this particular aspect of Ustaše ideology varies; "national Catholicism",[56] "political Catholicism" and "Catholic Croatism"[17] have been proposed among others.) In power, the Ustaše banned contraception and tightened laws against blasphemy.[57]

Ustaše gathering in Zagreb

The Ustaše accepted that Croats are part of the Dinaric race,[58] but rejected the idea that Croats are primarily Slavic, claiming they primarily come from Germanic roots with the Goths.[59] The Ustaše believed that a government must naturally be strong and authoritarian. The movement opposed parliamentary democracy for being "corrupt" and Marxism and Bolshevism for interfering in family life and the economy and for their materialism. The Ustaše considered competing political parties and elected parliaments to be harmful to its own interests.[49][clarification needed]

The Ustaše recognized both Roman Catholicism and Islam as national religions of the Croatian people but initially rejected Orthodox Christianity as being incompatible with their objectives.[45] Although the Ustaše emphasized religious themes, it stressed that duty to the nation took precedence over religious custom.[60]

In power, the Ustaše banned the use of the term "Serbian Orthodox faith", requiring "Greek-Eastern faith" in its place.[55] The Ustaše forcefully converted many Orthodox to Catholicism, murdered and expelled 85% of Orthodox priests,[61] and plundered and burnt many Orthodox Christian churches.[61] The Ustaše also persecuted Old Catholics who did not recognize papal infallibility.[55] On 2 July 1942 the Croatian Orthodox Church was founded, as a further means to destroy the Serbian Orthodox Church, but this new Church gained very few followers.[62]

Antisemitism

See also: The Holocaust in the Independent State of Croatia

While initial focus was against Serbs, as the Ustaše grew closer to the Nazis they adopted antisemitism.[63] In 1936, in "The Croat Question", Ante Pavelić placed Jews third among "the Enemies of the Croats" (after Serbs and Freemasons, but before Communists): writing:

″Today, practically all finance and nearly all commerce in Croatia is in Jewish hands. This became possible only through the support of the state, which thereby seeks, on one hand, to strengthen the pro-Serbian Jews, and on the other, to weaken Croat national strength. The Jews celebrated the establishment of the so-called Yugoslav state with great joy, because a national Croatia could never be as useful to them as a multi-national Yugoslavia; for in national chaos lies the power of the Jews... In fact, as the Jews had foreseen, Yugoslavia became, in consequence of the corruption of official life in Serbia, a true Eldorado of Jewry."[64]

Once in power, the Ustaše immediately introduced a series of Nazi-style racial laws. On 30 April 1941, the Ustaše proclaimed the "Legal Decree on Racial Origins", the "Legal Decree on the Protection of Aryan Blood and the Honor of the Croatian People", and the "Legal Provision on Citizenship".[65] These decrees defined who was a Jew, and took away the citizenship rights of all non-Aryans, i.e. Jews and Roma. By the end of April 1941, months before the Nazis implemented similar measures in Germany and over a year after they were implemented in occupied Poland, the Ustaše required all Jews to wear insignia, typically a yellow Star of David.[66] The Ustaše declared the "Legal Provision on the Nationalization of the Property of Jews and Jewish Companies", on 10 October 1941, and with it they confiscated all Jewish property.[67]

Already on their first day, 10–11 April 1941, Ustaše arrested a group of prominent Zagreb Jews and held them for ransom. On 13 April the same was done in Osijek, where Ustaše and Volksdeutscher mobs also destroyed the synagogue and Jewish graveyard. This process was repeated multiple times in 1941 with groups of Jews. Simultaneously, the Ustaše initiated extensive antisemitic propaganda, with Ustaše papers writing that Croatians must "be more alert than any other ethnic group to protect their racial purity, ... We need to keep our blood clean of the Jews". They also wrote that Jews are synonymous with "treachery, cheating, greed, immorality and foreigness", and therefore "wide swaths of the Croatian people always despised the Jews and felt towards them natural revulsion".[68]

In May 1941, the Ustaše rounded up 165 Jewish youth in Zagreb, members of the Jewish sports club Makabi, and sent them to the Danica concentration camp. All but three were later killed by the Ustaše.[69] The Ustaše sent most Jews to Ustaše and Nazi concentration camps—including the notorious, Ustaše-run Jasenovac concentration camp—where nearly 32,000, or 80% of the Jews in the Independent State of Croatia, were killed.[70] In October 1941, the Ustaše mayor of Zagreb ordered the demolition of the Zagreb Synagogue, which was completely demolished by April 1942.[71] The Ustaše persecuted Jews who practiced Judaism but authorized Jewish converts to Catholicism to be recognized as Croatian citizens and be given honorary Aryan citizenship that allowed them to be reinstated at the jobs from which they had previously been separated.[60] After they stripped Jews of their citizenship rights, the Ustaše allowed some to apply for Aryan rights via bribes and/or through connections to prominent Ustaše. The whole process was highly arbitrary. Only 2% of Zagreb's Jews were granted Aryan rights, for example. Also, Aryan rights did not guarantee permanent protection from being sent to concentration camps or other persecution.[72]

Views on Muslims

Islam, which had a large following in Bosnia and Herzegovina was praised by the Ustaše as the religion that "keeps true the blood of Croats."[30] The Ustaše attached conditions to the Croatian citizenship of Muslims, such as asserting that a Muslim who supported Yugoslavia would not be considered a Croat nor a citizen but would instead be considered a "Muslim Serb" who could be denied property and imprisoned and had to earn Croat status.[citation needed] The Ustaše viewed the Bosniaks as "Muslim Croats", and as a result, they were not persecuted on the basis of race.[28] That being said, Muslims were not free from persecution and atrocities by the Ustaše, even if not on the basis of religion or ethnicity. The majority of Muslims preferred a return to autonomy under Habsburg rule. Most Muslims were reportedly either neutral or opposed to the Ustaše regime. Despite Pavelić’s promises of equality between Catholics and Muslims, many Muslims became dissatisfied with Croat rule.[73]

Other measures

See also: Croatian socialism

Economically, the Ustaše supported the creation of a corporatist economy.[49][57][74] The movement believed that natural rights existed to private property and ownership over small-scale means of production free from state control. Armed struggle, revenge and terrorism were glorified by the Ustaše.[49]

The Ustaše introduced widespread measures, to which many Croats themselves fell victim. Jozo Tomasevich in his book War and Revolution in Yugoslavia: 1941–1945, states that "never before in history had Croats been exposed to such legalized administrative, police and judicial brutality and abuse as during the Ustaša regime." Decrees enacted by the regime formed the basis that allowed it to get rid of all unwanted employees in state and local government and in state enterprises, the "unwanted" being all Jews, Serbs and Yugoslav-oriented Croats who were all thrown out except for some deemed specifically needed by the government. This would leave a multitude of jobs to be filled by Ustašes and pro-Ustaše adherents and would lead to government jobs being filled by people with no professional qualifications.[75]

History

Before World War II

During the 1920s, Ante Pavelić, lawyer, politician and one of the followers of Josip Frank's Pure Party of Rights, became the leading advocate of Croatian independence.[42] In 1927, he secretly contacted Benito Mussolini, dictator of Italy and founder of fascism, and presented his separatist ideas to him.[76] Pavelić proposed an independent Greater Croatia that should cover the entire historical and ethnic area of the Croats.[76] Historian Rory Yeomans claimed that as early as 1928, there were signs that Pavelić was considering the formation of a nationalist insurgency group.[77]

In October 1928, after the assassination of leading Croatian politician Stjepan Radić, (Croatian Peasant Party President in the Yugoslav Assembly) by radical Montenegrin politician Puniša Račić, a youth group named the Croat Youth Movement was founded by Branimir Jelić at the University of Zagreb. A year later Ante Pavelić was invited by the 21-year-old Jelić into the organization as a junior member. A related movement, the Domobranski Pokret—which had been the name of the legal Croatian army in Austria-Hungary—began publication of Hrvatski Domobran, a newspaper dedicated to Croatian national matters. The Ustaše sent Hrvatski Domobran to the United States to garner support for them from Croatian-Americans.[78] The organization around the Domobran tried to engage with and radicalize moderate Croats, using Radić's assassination to stir up emotions within the divided country. By 1929 two divergent Croatian political streams had formed: those who supported Pavelić's view that only violence could secure Croatia's national interests, and the Croatian Peasant Party, led then by Vladko Maček, successor to Stjepan Radić, which had much greater support among Croats.[49]

Various members of the Croatian Party of Rights contributed to the writing of the Domobran, until around Christmas 1928 when the newspaper was banned by authorities of the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes. In January 1929 the king banned all national parties,[79] and the radical wing of the Party of Rights was exiled, including Pavelić, Jelić and Gustav Perčec. This group was later joined by several other Croatian exiles. On 22 March 1929 Zvonimir Pospišil and Mijo Babić murdered Toni Šlegel, the chief editor of newspaper Novosti from Zagreb and president of Jugoštampa, which was the beginning of the terrorist actions of Ustaše.[80] On 20 April 1929 Pavelić and others co-signed a declaration in Sofia, Bulgaria, with members of the Macedonian National Committee, asserting that they would pursue "their legal activities for the establishment of human and national rights, political freedom and complete independence for both Croatia and Macedonia".[citation needed] The Court for the Preservation of the State in Belgrade sentenced Pavelić and Perčec to death on 17 July 1929.

The exiles started organizing support for their cause among the Croatian diaspora in Europe, as well as North and South America. In January 1932 they named their revolutionary organization "Ustaša". The Ustaše carried out terrorist acts, to cause as much damage as possible to Yugoslavia. From their training camps in fascist Italy and Hungary, they planted time bombs on international trains bound for Yugoslavia, causing deaths and material damage.[81] In November 1932 ten Ustaše, led by Andrija Artuković and supported by four local sympathizers, attacked a gendarme outpost at Brušani in the Lika/Velebit area, in an apparent attempt to intimidate the Yugoslav authorities. The incident has sometimes been termed the "Velebit uprising". [citation needed]

Assassination of King Alexander I

Universal Newsreel's film about the assassination of Alexander I

The Ustaše's most infamous terrorist act was carried out on 9 October 1934, when working with the Internal Macedonian Revolutionary Organization (IMRO), they assassinated King Alexander I of Yugoslavia in Marseille, France. The perpetrator, a Bulgarian revolutionary, Vlado Chernozemski, was killed by French police.[82] Three Ustaše members who had been waiting at different locations for the king—Mijo Kralj, Zvonimir Pospišil and Milan Rajić—were captured and sentenced to life imprisonment by a French court. Following the German invasion of France, the men were released from prison.[81]

Ante Pavelić, along with Eugen Kvaternik and Ivan Perčević, were subsequently sentenced to death in absentia by a French court, as the real organizers of the deed. The Ustaše believed that the assassination of King Alexander had effectively "broken the backbone of Yugoslavia" and that it was their "most important achievement."[82]

Soon after the assassination, all organizations related to the Ustaše as well as the Hrvatski Domobran, which continued as a civil organization, were banned throughout Europe. Under pressure from France, the Italian police arrested Pavelić and several Ustaše emigrants in October 1934. Pavelić was imprisoned in Turin and released in March 1936. After he met with Eugen Dido Kvaternik, he stated that assassination was "the only language Serbs understand". While in prison, Pavelić was informed of the 1935 election in Yugoslavia, when the coalition led by Croat Vladko Maček won. He stated that his victory was aided by the activity of Ustaše.[83] By the mid-1930s, graffiti with the initials ŽAP meaning "Long live Ante Pavelić" (Croatian: Živio Ante Pavelić) had begun to appear on the streets of Zagreb.[84] During the 1930s, a split developed between the "home" Ustaše members who stayed behind in Croatia and Bosnia to struggle against Yugoslavia and the "emigre" Ustaše who went abroad.[85] The "emigre" Ustaše who had a much lower educational level were viewed as violent, ignorant and fanatical by the "home" Ustaše while the "home" Ustaše were dismissed as "soft" by the "emigres" who saw themselves as a "warrior-elite".[85]

After March 1937, when Italy and Yugoslavia signed a pact of friendship, Ustaše and their activities had been banned, which attracted the attention of young Croats, especially university students, who would become sympathizers or members. In 1936, the Yugoslav government offered amnesty to those Ustaše abroad provided they promised to renounce violence; many of the "emigres" accepted the amnesty.[86]  In the late 1930s, the Ustaše started to infiltrate the para-military organizations of the Croat Peasant Party, the Croatian Defense Force and the Peasant Civil Party.[87] At the University of Zagreb, an Ustaše-linked student group become the largest single student group by 1939.[87] In February 1939 two returnees from detention, Mile Budak and Ivan Oršanić, became editors[citation needed] of the pro-Ustaše journal Hrvatski narod, known in English as The Croatian Nation.[88]

World War II

The Axis powers invaded Yugoslavia on 6 April 1941. Vladko Maček, the leader of the Croatian Peasant Party (HSS), which was the most influential party in Croatia at the time, rejected German offers to lead the new government. On 10 April the most senior home-based Ustaše, Slavko Kvaternik, took control of the police in Zagreb and in a radio broadcast that day proclaimed the formation of the Independent State of Croatia (Nezavisna Država Hrvatska, NDH). The name of the state was an attempt to capitalise on the Croat struggle for independence. Maček issued a statement that day, calling on all Croatians to cooperate with the new authorities.[89][better source needed]

 
A unit of Ustaše in Sarajevo

Meanwhile, Pavelić and several hundred Ustaše left their camps in Italy for Zagreb, where he declared a new government on 16 April 1941.[28] He accorded himself the title of "Poglavnik"—a Croatian approximation to "Führer". The Independent State of Croatia was declared on Croatian "ethnic and historical territory",[90] what is today Republic of Croatia (without Istria), Bosnia and Herzegovina, Syrmia and the Bay of Kotor. However, a few days after the declaration of independence, the Ustaše were forced[28] to sign the Treaty of Rome where they surrendered part of Dalmatia and Krk, Rab, Korčula, Biograd, Šibenik, Split, Čiovo, Šolta, Mljet and part of Konavle and the Bay of Kotor to Italy. De facto control over this territory varied for the majority of the war, as the Yugoslav Partisans grew more successful, while the Germans and Italians increasingly exercised direct control over areas of interest. The Germans and Italians split the NDH into two zones of influence, one in the southwest controlled by the Italians and the other in the northeast controlled by the Germans. As a result, the NDH has been described as "an Italian-German quasi-protectorate". In September 1943, after Italian capitulation, the NDH annexed the whole territory which was annexed by Italy according to Treaty of Rome.[91]

The decline in support for the Ustaše regime among ethnic Croats of those initially for the government began with the ceding of Dalmatia to Italy, considered as the heartland of the state and worsened with the internal lawlessness from Ustaše persecutions.[92]

Ustaše militia

 
Meeting in Bosnia between representatives of the Chetniks and Independent State of Croatia officers (including the Ustaše militia and the Croatian Home Guard)

The Army of the Independent State of Croatia was composed of enlistees who did not participate in Ustaše activities. The Ustaše Militia was organised in 1941 into five (later 15) 700-man battalions, two railway security battalions and the elite Black Legion and Poglavnik Bodyguard Battalion (later Brigade).[93] They were predominantly recruited among uneducated population and working class.[94]

On 27 April 1941 a newly formed unit of the Ustaše army killed members of the largely Serbian community of Gudovac, near Bjelovar. Eventually all who opposed and/or threatened the Ustaše were outlawed. The HSS was banned on 11 June 1941, in an attempt by the Ustaše to take their place as the primary representative of the Croatian peasantry. Vladko Maček was sent to the Jasenovac concentration camp, but later released to serve a house arrest sentence due to his popularity among the people. Maček was later again called upon by foreigners to take a stand and oppose the Pavelić government, but refused. In early 1941 Jews and Serbs were ordered to leave certain areas of Zagreb.[95][96]

In the months after Independent State of Croatia has been established, most of Ustaše groups were not under centralized control: besides 4,500 regular Ustaše Corps troops, there was some 25,000–30,0000 "Wild Ustaše" (hrv. "divlje ustaše"), boosted by government-controlled press as "peasant Ustaše" "begging" to be sent to fight enemies of the regime. After mass crimes against Serb populace committed during the summer months of 1941, the regime decided to blame all the atrocities to the irregular Ustaše—thoroughly undisciplined and paid for the service only with the booty; authorities even sentenced to death and executed publicly in August and September 1941 many of them for unauthorized use of extreme violence against Serbs and Gypsies. To put an end to Wild Ustaše uncontrolled looting and killing, the central government used some 6,000 gendarmes and some 45,000 newly recruited members of regular "Domobranstvo" forces.[97]

 
Nazi SS recruitment poster used in the NDH

Pavelić first met with Adolf Hitler on 6 June 1941. Mile Budak, then a minister in Pavelić's government, publicly proclaimed the violent racial policy of the state on 22 July 1941. Vjekoslav "Maks" Luburić, a chief of the secret police, started building concentration camps in the summer of the same year. Ustaše activities in villages across the Dinaric Alps led the Italians and the Germans to express their disquiet. According to writer/historian Srđa Trifković, as early as 10 July 1941 Wehrmacht Gen. Edmund Glaise von Horstenau reported the following to the German High Command, the Oberkommando der Wehrmacht (OKW):

Our troops have to be mute witnesses of such events; it does not reflect well on their otherwise high reputation. .. I am frequently told that German occupation troops would finally have to intervene against Ustaše crimes. This may happen eventually. Right now, with the available forces, I could not ask for such action. Ad hoc intervention in individual cases could make the German Army look responsible for countless crimes which it could not prevent in the past.[98][99]

Historian Jonathan Steinberg describes Ustaše crimes against Serbian and Jewish civilians: "Serbian and Jewish men, women and children were literally hacked to death". Reflecting on the photos of Ustaše crimes taken by Italians, Steinberg writes: "There are photographs of Serbian women with breasts hacked off by pocket knives, men with eyes gouged out, emasculated and mutilated".[100]

A Gestapo report to Reichsführer SS Heinrich Himmler, dated 17 February 1942, stated:

Increased activity of the bands [of rebels] is chiefly due to atrocities carried out by Ustaše units in Croatia against the Orthodox population. The Ustaše committed their deeds in a bestial manner not only against males of conscript age, but especially against helpless old people, women and children. The number of the Orthodox that the Ustaše have massacred and sadistically tortured to death is about three hundred thousand.[101]

In September 1942 an Ustaše Defensive Brigade was formed, and during 1943 the Ustaše battalions were re-organised into eight four-battalion brigades (1st to 8th).[93] In 1943 the Germans suffered major losses on the Eastern Front and the Italians signed an armistice with the Allies, leaving behind significant caches of arms which the Partisans would use.

 
An Ustaša disguised as a woman, captured by Partisans of the 6th Krajina Brigade

By 1944 Pavelić was almost totally reliant on Ustaše units, now 100,000 strong, formed in Brigades 1 to 20, Recruit Training Brigades 21 to 24, three divisions, two railway brigades, one defensive brigade and the new Mobile Brigade. In November 1944 the army was effectively put under Ustaše control when the Armed Forces of the Independent State of Croatia were combined with the units of the Ustaše to form 18 divisions, comprising 13 infantry, two mountain and two assault divisions and one replacement division, each with its own organic artillery and other support units. There were several armored units.[93]

Fighting continued for a short while after the formal surrender of German Army Group E on 9 May 1945, as Pavelić ordered the NDH forces to attempt to escape to Austria, together with a large number of civilians. The Battle of Poljana, between a mixed German and Ustaše column and a Partisan force, was the last battle of World War II on European soil.[dubious – discuss] Most of those fleeing, including both Ustaše and civilians, were handed over to the Partisans at Bleiburg and elsewhere on the Austrian border. Pavelić hid in Austria and Rome, with the help of Catholic clergy, later fleeing to Argentina.[102]

After the war

See also: Terrorism in Yugoslavia and Croatian Revolutionary Brotherhood

After World War II, many of the Ustaše went underground or fled to countries such as Canada, Australia, Germany and some countries in South America, notably Argentina, with the assistance of Roman Catholic churches and their own grassroots supporters.[103]

For several years some Ustaše tried to organize a resistance group called the Crusaders, but their efforts were largely foiled by the Yugoslav authorities.[23] With the defeat of the Independent State of Croatia, the active movement went dormant. Infighting fragmented the surviving Ustaše. Pavelić formed the Croatian Liberation Movement, which drew in several of the former state's leaders. Vjekoslav Vrančić founded a reformed Croatian Liberation Movement and was its leader. Maks Luburić formed the Croatian National Resistance. Branimir Jelić founded the Croatian National Committee. Former Crusader and Ustaša mobile police officer, Srecko Rover, helped establish Ustaše groups in Australia.[citation needed]

Blagoje Jovović, a Montenegrin, shot Pavelić near Buenos Aires on 9 April 1957; Pavelić later died of his injuries.[104]

Ethnic and religious persecution

See also: Genocide of Serbs in the Independent State of Croatia, The Holocaust in the Independent State of Croatia, and Genocide of Romani people in the Independent State of Croatia
 
An entire Serb family lies slaughtered in their home following a raid by the Ustaše militia, 1941

The Ustaše intended to create an ethnically "pure" Croatia, and they viewed the Serbs living in Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina as the biggest obstacle to this goal. Ustaše ministers Mile Budak, Mirko Puk [hr] and Milovan Žanić declared in May 1941 that the goal of the new Ustaše policy was an ethnically pure Croatia. The strategy to achieve their goal was:[105][106]

  1. One third of the Serbs were to be killed
  2. One third of the Serbs were to be expelled
  3. One third of the Serbs were to be forcibly converted to Catholicism

The NDH government cooperated with Nazi Germany in the Holocaust and exercised their own version of the genocide against Serbs, Jews and Roma (aka "gypsies") inside its borders. State policy towards Serbs had first been declared in the words of Milovan Žanić, a minister of the NDH Legislative council, on 2 May 1941:

This country can only be a Croatian country, and there is no method we would hesitate to use in order to make it truly Croatian and cleanse it of Serbs, who have for centuries endangered us and who will endanger us again if they are given the opportunity.[107]

The Ustaše enacted race laws patterned after those of the Third Reich, which persecuted Jews, Romani and Serbs, who were collectively declared to be enemies of the Croatian people.[28] Serbs, Jews, Roma and Croatian and Bosniak dissidents, including Communists, were interned in concentration camps, the largest of which was Jasenovac. By the end of the war the Ustaše, under Pavelić's leadership, had killed an estimated 30,000 Jews and 26,000–29,000 Roma,[108] while the number of Serb victims ranges as low as 200,000 to as high as 500,000[109] with historians generally listing between 300,000 and 350,000 deaths.[110][111][112][113]

The history textbooks in the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia cited 700,000 as the total number of victims at Jasenovac. This was promulgated from a 1946 calculation of the demographic loss of population (the difference between the actual number of people after the war and the number that would have been, had the pre-war growth trend continued). After that, it was used by Edvard Kardelj and Moša Pijade in the Yugoslav war reparations claim sent to Germany. In its entry on Jasenovac, the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum says:

Determining the number of victims is highly problematic, due to the destruction of many relevant documents, the long-term inaccessibility to independent scholars of those documents that survived, and the ideological agendas of postwar partisan scholarship and journalism, which has been and remains influenced by ethnic tension, religious prejudice, and ideological conflict.The Ustaše murdered between 320,000 and 340,000 ethnic Serb residents of Croatia and Bosnia during the period of Ustaša rule; more than 30,000 Croatian Jews were killed either in Croatia or at Auschwitz-Birkenau.[114]

The USHMM notes that estimates on the number of Serb victims, the Ustaše's primary victims, vary tremendously and that "the most reliable figures place the number between 330,000 and 390,000, with 45,000 to 52,000 Serbs murdered in Jasenovac."[115]

 
Serb civilians forced to convert to Catholicism by the Ustaše in Glina

The Jasenovac Memorial Area maintains a list of 83,145 names of Jasenovac victims that was gathered by government officials in Belgrade in 1964, as well as names and biographical data for the victims identified in recent inquiries.[116] As the gathering process was imperfect, they estimated that the list represented between 60%–75% of the total victims, putting the number of killed in that complex at between roughly 80,000–100,000. The previous head of the Memorial Area Simo Brdar estimated at least 365,000 dead at Jasenovac. The analyses of statisticians Vladimir Žerjavić and Bogoljub Kočović were similar to those of the Memorial Area. In all of Yugoslavia, the estimated number of Serb deaths was 487,000 according to Kočović, and 530,000 according to Žerjavić, out of a total of 1.014 million or 1.027 million deaths (respectively). Žerjavić further stated there were 197,000 Serb civilians killed in NDH (78,000 as prisoners in Jasenovac and elsewhere) as well as 125,000 Serb combatants.

The Belgrade Museum of Holocaust compiled a list of over 77,000 names of Jasenovac victims. It was previously headed by Milan Bulajić, who supported the claim of a total of 700,000 victims. The current administration of the museum has further expanded the list to include a bit over 80,000 names. During World War II various German military commanders and civilian authorities gave different figures for the number of Serbs, Jews and others killed inside the territory of the Independent State of Croatia. Historian Prof. Jozo Tomasevich has posited that some of these figures may have been a "deliberate exaggeration" fostered to create further hostility between Serbs and Croats so that they would not unite in resisting the Axis.[117] These figures included 400,000 Serbs (Alexander Löhr);[118] 500,000 Serbs (Lothar Rendulic);[119] 250,000 to March 1943 (Edmund Glaise von Horstenau);[117] more than "3/4 of a million Serbs" (Hermann Neubacher) in 1943;[120] 600,000–700,000 in concentration camps until March 1944 (Ernst Fick);[117] 700,000 (Massenbach).[121][unreliable source?]

Concentration camps

Main article: Concentration camps in the Independent State of Croatia
 
Ustaše militia execute prisoners near the Jasenovac concentration camp
 
A knife, nicknamed "Srbosjek" or "Serbcutter", strapped to the hand, which was used by the Ustaše militia for the speedy killing of inmates in Jasenovac

The first group of camps was formed in the spring of 1941. These included:

These camps were closed by October 1942. The Jasenovac complex was built between August 1941 and February 1942. The first two camps, Krapje and Bročica, were closed in November 1941. The three newer camps continued to function until the end of the war:

  • Ciglana (Jasenovac III)
  • Kozara (Jasenovac IV)
  • Stara Gradiška (Jasenovac V) – concentration camp for women and children

There were also other camps in:

Numbers of prisoners:

  • between 300,000 and 350,000 up to 700,000 in Jasenovac (disputed)
  • around 35,000 in Gospić
  • around 8,500 in Pag
  • around 3,000 in Đakovo
  • 1,018 in Jastrebarsko
  • around 1,000 in Lepoglava

Massacres of Serb civilians

Beyond mass killings in concentration camps, the Ustaše perpetrated many massacres of civilians in the field. The first mass killing of Serbs was carried out on 30 April 1941, when the Ustaše rounded up and killed 196 Serb villagers at Gudovac. Many other massacres soon followed, including at Blagaj, Glina, Korita, Nevesinje, Prebilovci, Metkovic, Otočac, Vočin, Šargovac, etc. Here is how the Croatian Catholic Bishop of Mostar, Alojzije Mišić, described the mass killings of Serb civilians just in one small area of Herzegovina, just during the first 6 months of the war:[122]

People were captured like beasts. Slaughtered, killed, thrown live into the abyss. Women, mothers with children, young women, girls and boys were thrown into pits. The vice-mayor of Mostar, Mr. Baljić, a Mohammedan, publicly states, although as an official he should be silent and not talk, that in Ljubinje alone 700 schismatics [i.e. Serb Orthodox Christians] were thrown into one pit. Six full train carriages of women, mothers and girls, children under age 10, were taken from Mostar and Čapljina to the Šurmanci station, where they were unloaded and taken into the hills, with live mothers and their children tossed down the cliffs. Everyone was tossed and killed. In the Klepci parish, from the surrounding villages, 3,700 schismatics were killed. Poor souls, they were calm. I will not enumerate further. I would go too far. In the city of Mostar, hundreds were tied up, taken outside the city and killed like animals.

German accounts of Ustaše massacres

German officers in Croatia and Bosnia repeatedly expressed abhorrence at Ustaše mass killings of Serbs, using words like "slaughter", "atrocities", "butchery" and "terror",[123] while citing hundreds of thousands of victims. Thus Major Walter Kleinenberger, officer with the 714th division, complained that Ustaše brutality "was in defiance of all laws of civilization. The Ustaše murder without exception men, women and children".[123] German Captain Konopatzki called the Ustaše Black Legion slaughter of Serb civilians in Eastern Bosnia "a new wave of butchery of innocents".[123] Ustaše "wholesale butchery" (Abschlachtung) of Serbs in Srem, in ISC-occupied Serbia, triggered German concerns of Serb uprisings.[123] Lieutenant Colonel von Wedel wrote that in western Bosnia Ustaše killed women and children "like cattle" in a series of "bestial executions".[123] This is how Hitler's Plenipotentiary to Croatia, General von Horstanau, described the aftermath of slaughter committed by Jasenovac concentration camp guards in a nearby village:[124]

At Crkveni Bok, an unfortunate place, over which about five hundred 15- to 20-year-old thugs descended under the leadership of an Ustasha lieutenant colonel, people were killed everywhere, women were raped and then tortured to death, children were killed. I saw in the Sava River the corpse of a young woman with her eyes dug out and a stake driven into her sexual parts. This woman was at most twenty years old when she fell into the hands of these monsters. All around, pigs devoured unburied human beings. "Fortunate" residents were shipped in terrifying freight cars; many of these involuntary "passengers" cut their veins during transport to the camp [Jasenovac]"

The German military even took the extraordinary step of trying the Ustaše chaplain, Miroslav Filipović, for the massacre of 2,300 civilians in 3 villages around Banja Luka in February 1942, including 52 children at a school.[125] On March 3, 1943, General von Horstanau, wrote "Thus far 250,000 Serbs have been killed".[126] General Lothar Rendulić wrote how in August 1942 he remarked to an Ustaše official that he could not conceive how 500,000 Serbs had been killed, to which the Ustaše replied "Half-a-million is a slanderous accusation, the number is not higher than 200,000". Other German sources put the total Serb victim numbers in the ISC, as high as 600,000 to 700,000.[127]

Religious persecution

As part of their policy to eliminate Serbs entirely, by killing one-third, converting one-third and expelling one-third, the Ustaše conducted forcible conversions of Christian Orthodox Serbs to Catholicism, with the participation of Catholic priests.[128] On occasion they used the prospect of conversion as a means to gather Serbs together so they could kill them, which is what occurred at Glina. On 18 May 1943, Archbishop Stepinac wrote a letter to the pope, in which he estimated 240,000 conversions to date.[129] The Ustaše killed 157 Orthodox priests, among them 3 Serb Orthodox bishops (cutting the throat of the bishop of Banja Luka and killing the archbishop of Sarajevo),[130] while they jailed and tortured the Orthodox archbishop of Zagreb. The Ustaše expelled to Serbia 327 Orthodox priests and one bishop, while 2 other bishops and 12 priests left on their own.[61]

According to NDH laws only uneducated Serbs were eligible for conversion to Catholicism; educated people (merchants, intelligentia, and especially Orthodox clergy) were to be exterminated or expelled.[131]

Thus 85% of the Orthodox priests in the Independent State of Croatia were either killed or expelled by the Ustaše, in order to "leave the Orthodox population without spiritual leadership so the Ustašas' policy of forced or fear-induced conversions to Catholicism would be easier to carry out" [61] The Ustaše destroyed and desecrated numerous Orthodox Churches,[61] forbade the Cyrillic script and Julian calendar (both used in the Orthodox Church), even prohibited the term "Serbian Orthodox Church". Orthodox schools were shut down,[132] and the Church was prohibited from collecting contributions from believers, robbing it of income.[132] Orthodox Church properties were confiscated by the Ustaše,[132] some turned over to the Croatian Catholic Church. Finally, to destroy the Serbian Orthodox Church, the Ustaše tried to create its own alternative Croatian Orthodox Church with an imported Russian priest, but failed to gain adherents.[133]

Despite these many actions by the Ustaše to destroy the Serbian Orthodox Church, the historian Jozo Tomasevich found no condemnations of these crimes, public or private, by Catholic Archbishop Stepinac or any other members of the Croatian Catholic Church. On the contrary, he states that this massive Ustaše attack on the Serbian Orthodox Church "was approved and supported by many Croatian Catholic priests",[132] and that the Croatian Roman Catholic Church hierarchy and the Vatican "regarded Ustaše policies against the Serbs and Serbian Orthodox Church as advantageous to Roman Catholicism".[134]

Connections with the Catholic Church

Main article: Catholic clergy involvement with the Ustaše

The historian Mark Biondich observes that the Catholic Church had historically been on the fringes of Croatian politics and public life, and that Church influence had further eroded during the interwar period due to the royal dictatorship and the popularity of the anti-clerical Croatian Peasant Party.[135] During the Kingdom of Yugoslavia, the Catholic Clergy was deeply dissatisfied with the regime: "... a massive press campaign was launched to mobilize Croatia's nearly three million Catholics against the central government's measures penalizing Saint Peter's apostolate. First of all its inequality in treatment was denounced: 'the budget for religion totals 141 million dinars, 70 of which go to the Serbian Church, and 34 to the Catholic one.(...) Pašić's government is kind in Serbia, where each citizen pays 55 dinars in yearly taxes, while it is cruel in Croatia and Slovenia, largely Catholic districts, where each citizen pays 165 dinars in taxes.'"[136]

Croatian Catholic Church antagonism toward the Orthodox Church became an important part of Ustaše antagonism toward Serbs, with fateful consequences during the war.[130] The Ustaše supported violent aggression or force to convert Serbo-Croatian speaking Orthodox believers to Roman Catholicism. The Ustaše held the position that Eastern Orthodoxy, as a symbol of Serbian nationalism, was their greatest foe and never recognized the existence of a Serb people on the territories of Croatia or Bosnia—they recognized only "Croats of the Eastern faith". Under the Ustaše policy of eliminating Serbs, the Catholic Church in Croatia participated in the forced conversion of Orthodox Serbs to Catholicism.[128] However, even conversion did not necessarily protect Serbs and Jews from slaughter. Bishop Alojzije Mišić of Mostar described how while Serb converts to Catholicism "were at Church attending holy Mass, they (Ustaše) seized them, the young and the old, men and women, drove them like cattle...and soon sent them to eternity, en masse."[137]

The Ustaše called Bosniaks "Croats of the Islamic faith" and in general tolerated Muslims; in turn the Bosniak community did not demonstrate any particular hostility to the Ustaše government.[138] Many Muslim conscripts served in the armed forces of Independent State of Croatia, or in its police forces; only a very small number of Muslims served in the ranks of the communist Partisans until the closing days of the war.[139] The October 12, 1941, Resolution of Sarajevo Muslims by 108 notable Muslims condemned Ustaše atrocities against Serbs.

 
Marko Došen (far left, giving Nazi salute) and Archbishop Alojzije Stepinac (far right)

On 28 April 1941, the head of the Catholic Church in Croatia, Archbishop Alojzije Stepinac, issued a public letter in support of the new Independent State of Croatia (under Ustaše-led government), and asked the clergy to pray for its leader, Ante Pavelić.[140] This despite the fact that the Ustaše had already proclaimed measures prohibiting Serbs, Jews and Gipsies to serve as policemen, judges and soldiers, and making easy for the state officials to fire members of those ethnic/religious groups from the public administration,[141] and he knew they were preparing Nazi-style racial laws, which Pavelić signed only 2 days after.[142]

While Stepinac later objected to certain Ustaše policies and helped some Jews and Serbs, he continued to publicly support the survival of Independent State of Croatia until its very end, served as the state's War Vicar, and in 1944 received a medal from Pavelić.[143] During the ongoing war, Stepinac publicly objected Ustaše policies—in fact, as regards for the relations with head of the Ustaše regime Ante Pavelić, "it is generally agreed that they thoroughly hated each other... archbishop also opposed Fascist and Nazi ideologies, especially Nazi racist ideology, and many Ustasha policies", unlike some other members of the Croatian Catholic clergy.[144] According to Historian Martin Gilbert, "Aloysius Stepinac, who in 1941 had welcomed Croat independence, subsequently condemned Croat atrocities against both Serbs and Jews, and himself saved a group of Jews in an old age home."[145]

The vast majority of the Catholic clergy in Croatia supported the Ustaše at the moment they succeeded in forming Independent State of Croatia; but later when it was clear the Allies would win, the Catholic hierarchy tried to distance the Church from the regime which involved itself in various abuses and war crimes.[146] Yet in its pastoral letter of 24 March 1945, the Croatian Catholic Church still proclaimed its support for the puppet state and its rulers, despite the fact that most senior regime figures were preparing to flee the country.[147] The Catholic press also maintained its support of Pavelić right to the end,[148] and Stepinac himself performed a final Te Deum to the NDH on the anniversary of its founding, on 10 April 1945, while the NDH was carrying out the final mass killings to liquidate the Jasenovac concentration camp.

Some priests, mostly Franciscans, particularly in, but not limited to, Herzegovina and Bosnia, took part in the atrocities themselves. Priests like Ivan Guberina served as Pavelić's bodyguards, while Dionizije Juričev, responsible for the forced conversion of Serbs in the Ustaše government, wrote that it was no longer a crime to kill seven-year-olds if they stood in the way of the Ustaše movement.[149] In his diocesan newspaper, the Archbishop of Sarajevo, Ivan Šarić, published that the "liberation of the world from the Jews is a movement for the renewal of humanity".[150] In Bosnia the Ustaše largely ruled through the Catholic clergy, with the priest Božidar Bralo serving as a chief Ustaše delegate for Bosnia.[151]

Miroslav Filipović was a Franciscan friar (from the Petrićevac monastery) who allegedly joined the Ustaše as chaplain and, on 7 February 1942, joined in the massacre of roughly 2730 Serbs of the nearby villages, including some 500 children. He was allegedly subsequently dismissed from his order and defrocked, although he wore his clerical garb when he was hanged for war crimes. He became Chief Guard of Jasenovac concentration camp where he was nicknamed "Fra Sotona" (Father Satan) by fellow Croats. Mladen Lorković, the Croat minister of foreign affairs, formulated it like this: "In Croatia, we can find few real Serbs. The majority of Pravoslavs are as a matter of fact Croats who were forced by foreign invaders to accept the infidel faith. Now it's our duty to bring them back into the Roman Catholic fold."[152]

For the duration of the war, "in accordance with Vatican's long-term diplomatic practice of not recognizing new states in wartime before they were legitimized by peace treaties, the pope did not send a nuncio or diplomat to Croatia as requested, but an apostolic visitor, the abbot Giuseppe Marcone, who was to represent the Vatican to Croatian Catholic Church, not to the government. The government ignored this nuance, bestowing a prominent place for Marcone at all official functions".[153] After World War II ended, the Ustaše who had managed to escape from Yugoslav territory (including Pavelić) were smuggled to South America.[102] This was largely done through ratlines operated by Catholic priests who had previously secured positions at the Vatican. Some of the more infamous members of the Illyrian College of San Girolamo in Rome involved in this were Franciscan friars Krunoslav Draganović and Dominik Mandić, and a third friar surnamed Petranović (first name unknown).[154]

The Ustaše regime had deposited large amounts of gold—including the gold plundered from Serbs and Jews during World War II—into Swiss bank accounts. It seems a substantial quantity of gold was additionally transported by Ustaše to Austria at the end of the WWII. Out of a total, by some estimates, of 350 million Swiss francs, an intelligence report estimated 200 million (ca. $47 million) reached the Vatican.[155] The question remains unclarified.[156][154]

Cardinal Alojzije Stepinac, Archbishop of Zagreb was accused sentenced to prison after the end of World War II by Yugoslav communist authorities of supporting the Ustaše and of exonerating those in the clergy who collaborated with them and were hence complicit in forced conversions. Stepinac stated on 28 March 1941, noting early attempts to unite Croatians and Serbs:

"All in all, Croats and Serbs are of two worlds, northpole and southpole, never will they be able to get together unless by a miracle of God. The schism (between the Catholic Church and Eastern Orthodoxy) is the greatest curse in Europe, almost greater than Protestantism. There is no moral, no principles, no truth, no justice, no honesty."[157]

On 22 July 2016, the Zagreb County Court annulled his post-war conviction due to "gross violations of current and former fundamental principles of substantive and procedural criminal law".[158]

In 1998 Stepinac was beatified by Pope John Paul II. On 22 June 2003 John Paul II visited Banja Luka. During the visit he held a Mass at the aforementioned Petrićevac monastery. This caused public uproar due to the connection of the monastery with Filipović. At the same location the Pope proclaimed the beatification of a Roman Catholic layman Ivan Merz (1896–1928), who was the founder of the "Association of Croatian Eagles" in 1923, which some view as a precursor to the Ustaše. Roman Catholic apologists defend the Pope's actions by stating the convent at Petrićevac was one of the places that went up in flames, causing the death of 80-year-old Friar Alojzije Atlija. Further, it was claimed by the apologists that the war had produced "a total exodus of the Catholic population from this region"; that the few who remained were "predominantly elderly"; and that the church in Bosnia then allegedly risked "total extinction" due to the war.[citation needed]

Ustaše-Chetnik collaboration

See also: Chetniks § Collaboration with the Independent State of Croatia
 
Ustaše and Domobran officers with the chetnik commander Uroš Drenović (left)

Despite representing opposing nationalisms, when confronted with the growing strength of their common enemy (i.e. the partisans), Ustaše and Chetniks throughout the Independent State of Croatia signed collaboration agreements in the spring of 1942, which for the most part held until the very end of the war.[159] The introduction to these agreements stated:[159]

As long as there is a danger of armed partisan gangs, Chetnik formations will voluntarily cooperate with the Croatian armed forces in fighting and destroying the partisans and will be under the command of the Croatian armed forces in these operations.

Beyond that, the agreements specified that the NDH military will supply Chetniks with arms and ammunition, Chetniks wounded in anti-partisan operations will be treated at NDH military hospitals, and widows and orphans of killed Chetnik soldiers, will receive state financial aid equal to aid received by widows and orphans of NDH soldiers. The NDH authorities arranged for Serbs in Ustaše concentration camps to be released, but only on the special recommendation of Chetnik commanders (thus, not partisans and their sympathizers).[160] On 30 June 1942, the Chief Headquarters of the Poglavnik (i.e. Ante Pavelić), sent a statement, signed by Marshall Slavko Kvaternik, to other NDH ministries, summarizing these agreements with NDH Chetniks.[160]

The Ustaše signed collaboration agreements with key NDH Chetnik commanders, in the following order:

  • Momčilo Đujić (commander of Chetnik Dinara Division), Brane Bogunović (commander of Gavrilo Princip Corps, Dinara Division), Mane Rokvić (commander of King Alexander I Corps, Dinara Division), Pajica Omčikus (King Petar II Corps, Dinara Division) and Pajo Popović (commander of Onisin Popović Corps, Dinara Division) in December 1941 first started negotiations with the Ustaše mayor of Knin, David Sinčić, in Knin.[161]
  • Uroš Drenović, the commander of the Chetnik »Kočić« detachment, signed an agreement with the Ustaše in Mrkonjić Grad on 27. April, 1942.[162]
  • Lazar Tešanović, commander of the Chetnik battalion, »Mrkonjić«, signed an agreement with the NDH on 23. May, 1942.
  • Cvijetin Todić and Savo Božić, commanders of the Chetnik Ozren and Trebava detachments, signed agreements with the NDH on 28. May 1942. in the village Lipac[163][164][165]
  • Representatives of the Majevica Chetnik detachment, signed agreements with the NDH on 30 May 1942.[166]
  • Rade Radić, commander of the Chetnik detachment, "Borja", reached agreement with the NDH authorities on 9 June 1942.[167]
  • Slavko Bjelajac and Jovan Dabović, Chetnik commanders from the Otočac area, signed agreements with the NDH on 17 December 1942.[161]

On 26 May 1942, the Ustaše minister, Mladen Lorković, wrote in a communique to local NDH authorities, that pursuant to these agreements "Home Guard Headquarters agrees with your proposal to grant one million kuna aid to the leaders of the Greek-Eastern community [i.e. Serb Orthodox], Momčilo Djujić, Mane Rokvić, [Branko] Bogunović, Paja Popović and Paja Omčikus, 200 Yugoslav guns and 10 machine guns".[161] Ustaše and Chetniks simultaneously participated, alongside German and Italian forces, in major battles against the Partisans in the NDH: the Kozara Offensive, Case White, Operation Rösselsprung, the Battle for Knin (1944), etc.

In 1945, the Chetnik commander, Momčilo Djujić and his troops, with Ustaše leader Ante Pavelić's permission, escaped across the NDH to the West.[168] In April 1945, by his own admission, Ante Pavelić received "two generals from the headquarters Draža Mihailović and reached an agreement with them on a joint fight against Tito's communists", while in the first days of May, Chetnik units passed through Ustaše-held Zagreb, on their way to Bleiburg, after which Chetniks and members of the Ustaše army, were killed by the Partisans in various sites, including Tezno near Maribor.[169]

Structure

At the top of the command was the Poglavnik (meaning "head") Ante Pavelić. Pavelić was appointed the office as Head of State of Croatia after Adolf Hitler had accepted Benito Mussolini's proposal of Pavelić, on 10 April 1941. The Croatian Home Guard was the armed forces of Croatia, it subsequently merged into the Croatian Armed Forces.[10] The Ustaše command structure was further broken down into administrations at a stožer (district), logor (country) and tabor (county) level.[170]

Symbols

 
Symbol used in the Independent State of Croatia

The symbol of the Ustaše was a capital blue letter "U" with an exploding grenade emblem within it.[171][172]

The flag of the Independent State of Croatia was a red-white-blue horizontal tricolor with the shield of the coat of arms or Croatia in the middle and the U in the upper left. Its currency was the NDH kuna.

The Ustaše greeting was "Za dom – spremni!":

Salute: Za dom! For home(land)!
Reply: Spremni! (We are) ready!

This was used instead of the Nazi greeting Heil Hitler by the Ustaše. Today it is nominally associated with Ustaše sympathisers by Serbs or non-Ustaše conservatives associated with the Croatian Party of Rights. However, some Croats see it as a patriotic salute, emphasising defending one's home and country. On the internet, it is sometimes abbreviated as ZDS.[173][174]

Legacy

 
Young boy wearing a shirt with a Black Legion, Ustaše Militia sign at a Thompson concert

In popular culture

The Ustaše plays an important role in Harry Turtledove's short alternate history story Ready for the Fatherland. It plays a brief background role in In the Presence of Mine Enemies, an unrelated work by the same author. In both these works, the regime founded by Pavelić lasted several decades beyond the 1940s.

Popular Croatian singer Thompson regularly starts his concerts with the Ustaše salute.[175] The Wiesenthal Center has protested this, along with other attempts at revisionism and Holocaust-denial in Croatia.[176]

Modern-day Croatia

Seeking to unify support for Croatia's independence, Franjo Tuđman, Croatia's first president, in the late 1980s advocated "pomirba", i.e. national reconciliation between Ustaše and Partisans.[177] This led to a revival of pro-Ustaše views, symbols and salutes among the Croatian political right.[178] Following Croatia's Independence in the 1990s, streets were renamed to carry the name of Ustaše leaders, such as Mile Budak and Jure Francetić. Although some of these were later removed, Radio Free Europe noted that of some 20 streets dedicated to Mile Budak in the '90s, half still remained in Croatia in 2019.[179]

Jewish and Serb organizations, Croat historians and antifascists, as well as international observers, have repeatedly warned of revisionism in Croatia, which seeks to minimize Ustaše crimes and even celebrates the Ustaše regime. Recent examples include the publication of a book celebrating "the Croatian knight" Maks Luburić,[180] who as head of Ustaše concentration camps was responsible for over 100,000 deaths, during Ustaše genocides against Jews, Serbs and Roma, and a documentary minimizing children's deaths in Ustaše concentration camps.[181] The Luburić book was promoted with the assistance of the Croatian Catholic Church,[180] and Church sources minimized children's deaths in concentration camps. Croat historians have noted that the Church has been a leader in promoting revisionism and minimizing Ustaše crimes.[181] In 2013, the newspaper of Croatian Catholic archdioceses, Glas Koncila, published a series on Jasenovac, by the Jasenovac-denier Igor Vukić,[182] who claims Jasenovac was a "mere work-camp," where no mass executions took place. In 2015, the head of the Croatian Bishops' Conference asked that the Ustaše "Za dom spremni" salute be adopted by the Croatian army.[183]

Croatian soccer fans have repeatedly chanted the Ustaše "Za dom spremni" salute, for which FIFA and UEFA have repeatedly leveled penalties against the Croatian soccer federation, for "fascists outburst".[184][185] In 2014, the Croatian soccer player Josip Šimunić was banned from the FIFA World Cup for leading a stadium full of fans in the Ustaše salute.[186]

In 2014 the then-mayor of Split, Croatia, unveiled a monument dedicated to the 1990s HOS brigade named "The Knight Rafael Boban", after the Ustaše commander, which includes the HOS emblem with the Ustaše "Za dom spremni" salute.[187] Since then the HOS organization has organized annual commemorations at the memorial on 10 April (the anniversary of the founding of the Independent State of Croatia), during which the black-uniformed participants shout the Ustaše "Za dom spremni" salute.[188]

In 2016 the Croatian HOS war veterans' organization posted a plaque at Jasenovac concentration camp with the Ustaše "Za dom spremni" salute.[189] Despite protests by Jewish and other organizations, this was allowed to remain until criticism by the US State Department special envoy on Holocaust issues,[190] forced the government to move it to a nearby town. As a result of this, and allegations of the government's tolerance for the minimization of Ustaše crimes, Jewish, Serb and Croat WWII resistance groups refused to appear with government representatives at the annual Jasenovac commemoration.[191]

In 2019 the Austrian government passed a law forbidding the display of Ustaše symbols,[192] along with previously banned Nazi symbols, largely as a result of the display of same by Croatian nationalists at the annual, Croatian government-sponsored Bleiburg commemoration, where Austrian police have repeatedly arrested Croat nationalists for Nazi and fascist salutes. Three Austrian EU parliamentarians declared the Bleiburg ceremony, which tens-of-thousands of Croat nationalists attend, "the largest fascist gathering in Europe."[193] The Austrian Catholic Church banned a Mass by the Croatian Catholic Church at Bleiburg because, as they stated, "the Mass at Bleiburg has become part of a manifestation that is politically instrumentalised and is part of a political-national ritual that serves to selectively experience and interpret history," adding that it misuses "a religious service for political purposes while not distancing itself from the Fascist worldview."[194][195]

Modern usage of the term "Ustaše"

After World War II, the Ustaše movement was split into several organizations and there is presently no political or paramilitary movement that claims its legacy as their "successor." The term "ustaše" is today used as a derogatory term for Croatian ultranationalism. The term "Ustaše" is sometimes used among Serbs to describe Serbophobia or more generally to defame political opponents.[citation needed]

Use by Serbian nationalists

Since the end of World War II, Serbian historians have used the Ustaše to promote that Serbs resisted the Axis, while Croats and Bosniaks widely supported them. However, the Ustaše lacked support among ordinary Croats and never accrued any significant support among the populace.[36][37] The Ustaše regime was backed by parts of the Croatian population that during the interwar period had felt oppressed in the Serbian-led Yugoslavia. Most of the support it had initially gained by creating a Croat national state was lost because of the brutal practices it used.[38] In the 1980s, Serbian historians produced many works about the forced conversion during World War II of Serbs to Catholicism in Ustaše Croatia.[196] These debates between historians openly became nationalistic and also entered the wider media.[197] Historians in Belgrade during the 1980s who had close government connections often went on television during the evenings to discuss invented or real details about the Ustaše genocide against Serbs during World War II.[198] Serb clergy and nationalists blamed all Croats for crimes committed by the Ustaše, and for planning a genocide against Serb people. These propagandistic activities were aimed at justifying planned crimes and ethno-demographic engineering in Croatia.[199][198]

See also

Notes

  1. ^ Ante Pavelić first began using the title of Poglavnik[1] (pronounced [pǒɡlaːʋniːk]) when it was prescribed as the official title for the supreme leader of the Ustaše movement in the organization's founding charter in 1930.
  2. ^ Ustaše supporters who emigrated abroad established various pro-Ustaše-style organizations after the war. These included the Crusaders, Croatian Liberation Movement,[5] Croatian Revolutionary Brotherhood[6] and the Croatian National Resistance.[7]
  3. ^ They are variously known in English as the Ustaše, Ustashe, Ustashi, Ustahis, or Ustashas (OED 2020 adds Ustachi, Ustaci, Ustasha, Ustaša, and Ustasi); with the associated adjective sometimes being Ustashe or Ustasha, apart from Ustaše. This variance stems from the fact that Ustaše is the plural form of Ustaša in the Serbo-Croatian language.

References

  1. ^ Cetin, Onder (February 2010). (PDF). European Journal of Economic and Political Studies: 76. OCLC 664122357. Archived from the original (PDF) on 23 May 2011.
  2. ^ Schäuble, Michaela (2014). Narrating Victimhood: Gender, Religion and the Making of Place in Post-War Croatia. Berghahn Books. p. 323. ISBN 978-1-78238-261-4.
  3. ^ Martina Grđan: Ustaška emigracija za vrijeme Kraljevine Jugoslavije Filozofski fakultet u Zagrebu, Zagreb, lipnja 2014. str. 7.
  4. ^ Bernd Jürgen Fischer (2007). Balkan Strongmen: Dictators and Authoritarian Rulers of South Eastern Europe. Purdue University Press. p. 208. ISBN 978-1-55753-455-2. Retrieved 30 August 2013. Pavelić belonged to the most anti-Serbian branch of the Party
  5. ^ (PDF) (in Croatian). Croatian Information-Documentation Referral Agency. Archived from the original (PDF) on 14 January 2017. Retrieved 29 April 2012.
  6. ^ Alexander, Yonah; Myers, Kenneth (2015). Terrorism in Europe. Routledge Library Editions: Terrorism and Insurgency. London: Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group. p. 59. ISBN 978-1-317-44933-1. OCLC 907773295. The third terrorist international aggregate which has caused problems for Western Europe is composed of various Croatian emigre terrorist groups. These groups operating under names ... Croatian Revolutionary Brotherhood ...
  7. ^ (PDF). Freedom of Information Act Electronic Reading Room. CIA. 29 May 1980. Archived from the original (PDF) on 23 January 2017.
  8. ^ Berend, Iván Tibor (1998). Decades of Crisis: Central and Eastern Europe Before World War II. University of California Press. p. 329. ISBN 978-0-52020-617-5.
  9. ^ Peter Kivisto. The Ethnic enigma: the salience of ethnicity for European-origin groups. Cranbury, New Jersey; London; Mississauga, Ontario: Associated University Presses, 1989. p. 107.
  10. ^ a b Goldstein, Ivo (2001). Croatia: A History. Hurst & Co. p. 133. ISBN 978-0-7735-2017-2.
  11. ^ Meier, Viktor (1999). Yugoslavia: a history of its demise. Psychology Press. p. 125. ISBN 978-0-415-18595-0. Retrieved 23 December 2011.
  12. ^ Lampe, John; Mazower, Mark (2006). Ideologies and National Identities. Central European University Press. pp. 54–109. ISBN 9789639241824.
  13. ^ Yeomans 2015, p. 53.
  14. ^ Yeomans, Rory (2012). Visions of Annihilation: The Ustasha Regime and the Cultural Politics of Fascism, 1941–1945. Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press. p. 196. ISBN 978-0-82297-793-3.
  15. ^ Badie, Bertrand; Berg-Schlosser, Dirk; Morlino, Leonardo, eds. (2011). International Encyclopedia of Political Science. Sage Publications. ISBN 9781483305394. Retrieved 9 September 2020. [...] fascist Italy [...] developed a state structure known as the corporate state with the ruling party acting as a mediator between 'corporations' making up the body of the nation. Similar designs were quite popular elsewhere in the 1930s. The most prominent examples were Estado Novo in Portugal (1932–1968) and Brazil (1937–1945), the Austrian Standestaat (1933–1938), and authoritarian experiments in Estonia, Romania, and some other countries of East and East-Central Europe,
  16. ^ Tomasevich (2001), p. 391

    Serbia proper was under strict German occupation, a situation which allowed the Ustasha to pursue its radical anti-Serbian policy
  17. ^ a b John R. Lampe (2004). Ideologies and National Identities: The Case of Twentieth-Century Southeastern Europe. Central European University Press. p. 102. ISBN 978-963-9241-82-4.
  18. ^ "The Doctrine of Fascism". Enciclopedia Italiana. Rome: Istituto Giovanni Treccani. 1932.
  19. ^ Lampe, John; Iordachi, Constantin (2019). Battling Over the Balkans: Historiographical Questions and Controversies. Budapest: Central European University Press. p. 267. ISBN 978-963-386-325-1.
  20. ^ 'Za dom spremni' je isto što i 'Sieg Heil'!, Danas.hr 09.01.2012.
  21. ^ Tomasevich 2001, p. 32.
  22. ^ Tomasevich 2001, pp. 351–352.
  23. ^ a b c d e f Ladislaus Hory und Martin Broszat. Der kroatische Ustascha-Staat, Deutsche Verlag-Anstalt, Stuttgart, 2. Auflage 1965, pp. 13–38, 75–80. (in German)
  24. ^ "Croatian holocaust still stirs controversy". BBC News. 29 November 2001. Retrieved 29 September 2010.
  25. ^ "Balkan 'Auschwitz' haunts Croatia". BBC News. 25 April 2005. Retrieved 29 September 2010. No one really knows how many died here. Serbs talk of 700,000. Most estimates put the figure nearer 100,000.
  26. ^ Lepre, George (1997). Himmler's Bosnian Division: The Waffen-SS Handschar Division 1943–1945. p. 14–18.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  27. ^ Meier, Viktor. Yugoslavia: a history of its demise (English), London: Routledge, 1999, p. 125. ISBN 9780415185950
  28. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p Fischer 2007, pp. 207–208, 210, 226
  29. ^ Kent, Peter C. The lonely Cold War of Pope Pius XII: the Roman Catholic Church and the division of Europe, 1943–1950, McGill-Queen's Press (MQUP), 2002 p. 46; ISBN 978-0-7735-2326-5
    "Fiercely nationalistic, the Ustaše were also fervently Catholic, identifying, in the Yugoslav political context, Catholicism with Croatian nationalism..."
  30. ^ a b Jelić-Butić, Fikreta (1977). Ustaše i Nezavisna Država Hrvatska 1941–1945. Sveučilišna naklada Liber.
  31. ^ Tomasevich 2001, p. 30.
  32. ^ Tomasevich 2001, pp. 233–241.
  33. ^ Yugoslavia, Holocaust Encyclopedia, United States Holocaust Memorial Museum website; accessed 25 April 2014.
  34. ^ Watch, Helsinki (1993). War Crimes in Bosnia-Hercegovina. Human Rights Watch. ISBN 978-1-56432-083-4. Retrieved 23 April 2008.
  35. ^ Raič, David (2002). Statehood and the law of self-determination. Martinus Nijhoff Publishers. ISBN 978-90-411-1890-5. Retrieved 23 April 2008.
  36. ^ a b Shepherd 2012, p. 78.
  37. ^ a b Israeli, Raphael (2017). The Death Camps of Croatia: Visions and Revisions, 1941–1945. Routledge. p. 45. ISBN 978-1-35148-403-9.
  38. ^ a b Sindbaek, Tina (2002). Usable History?: Representations of Yugoslavia's Difficult Past from 1945 to 2002. Aarhus University Press. p. 27.
  39. ^ Ramet 2006, p. 117.
  40. ^ Kallis 2008, p. 130.
  41. ^ Yeomans 2015, p. 265.
  42. ^ a b McCormick 2008.
  43. ^ Newman 2017.
  44. ^ Newman 2014.
  45. ^ a b Ramet 2006, p. 118.
  46. ^ "Einstein accuses Yugoslavian rulers in savant's murder", The New York Times, 6 May 1931. mirror
  47. ^ "Raditch left tale of Yugoslav plot". The New York Times. 23 August 1931. p. N2. Retrieved 6 December 2008.mirror
  48. ^ Ramet 2006, p. 126.
  49. ^ a b c d e Đilas, Aleksa. The Contested Country: Yugoslav Unity and Communist Revolution, 1919–1953, Harvard University Press, 1991, pp. 114–115, 129. ISBN 9780674166981
  50. ^ Fascism: Past, Present, Future By Walter Laqueur. p. 263
  51. ^ a b c d Van Creveld, Martin L. Hitler's Strategy 1940–1941: The Balkan Clue. 2nd ed. London/New York: Cambridge University Press, 1974. pp. 6–8 ISBN 9780521201438
  52. ^ Galeazzo Ciano, Count; Malcolm Muggeridge (translator). Ciano's diary, 1939–1943. W. Heinemann, 1950, p. 392.
  53. ^ Hamerli 2015.
  54. ^ Goldstein & Goldstein 2016, p. 92.
  55. ^ a b c Ramet 2006, p. 119.
  56. ^ Stanley G. Payne (1996). A History of Fascism, 1914–1945. University of Wisconsin Press. p. 406. ISBN 978-0-299-14873-7.
  57. ^ a b Atkin, Nicholas and Frank Tallet. Priests, Prelates and People: A History of European Catholicism since 1750. New York: I.B. Tauris & Co. Ltd., 2003. p. 248. ISBN 9781860646652
  58. ^ Caccamo, Francesco and Trinchese, Stefano. Rotte adriatiche. Tra Italia, Balcani e Mediterraneo. FrancoAngeli, 2011. p. 158. ISBN 9788856833027
  59. ^ Rich, Norman. Hitler's War Aims: the Establishment of the New Order (1974), pp. 276–277. W.W. Norton & Co: New York. ISBN 9780393332902
  60. ^ a b Greble, Emily. Sarajevo, 1941–1945: Muslims, Christians, and Jews in Hitler's Europe. Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press, 2011. p. 125. ISBN 9780801449215
  61. ^ a b c d e Tomasevich 2001, p. 529.
  62. ^ Tomasevich 2001, p. 546.
  63. ^ Goldstein & Goldstein 2016, p. 93.
  64. ^ (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 25 October 2017. Retrieved 25 November 2017.
  65. ^ Goldstein & Goldstein 2016, p. 115.
  66. ^ Goldstein & Goldstein 2016, p. 121.
  67. ^ Goldstein & Goldstein 2016, p. 170.
  68. ^ Zuckerman 2010.
  69. ^ Despot, Zvonimir. . Vecernji list. Archived from the original on 1 February 2014. Retrieved 30 March 2020.
  70. ^ "Holocaust Era in Croatia 1941–1945: Jasenovac" United States Holocaust Memorial Museum
  71. ^ Knežević, Snješka (2001). "The Synagogue of Zagreb, 1867–1942". The Synagogue and Zagreb (PDF). Jewish Community of Zagreb. pp. 42–46. Retrieved 13 December 2018.
  72. ^ Goldstein & Goldstein 2016, pp. 127–135.
  73. ^ Lepre, George (1997). Himmler's Bosnian Division: The Waffen-SS Handschar Division 1943–1945. pp. 14–18.
  74. ^ Griffin, Roger. The Nature of Fascism. Digital Printing edition. New York: Routledge, 2003, p. 120. ISBN 9781136145889
  75. ^ Tomasevich 2001, pp. 381–382.
  76. ^ a b Suppan 2014, pp. 39, 592.
  77. ^ Yeomans 2013, p. 6.
  78. ^ Kivisto, Peter. The Ethnic enigma: the salience of ethnicity for European-origin groups. Cranbury, NJ/London, UK/Mississauga, Canada: Associated University Press, 1989. p. 107 ISBN 9780944190036
  79. ^ Jović, Dejan. Yugoslavia: a state that withered away, p. 51
  80. ^ (Colić 1973, p. 34):"Ustaške terorističke akcije počele su 22. marta 1929. godine u Zagrebu, gdje su Mijo Babić i Zvonko Pospišil revolverskim hicima ubili glavnog urednika zagrebačkih »Novosti« i predsjednika »Jugoštampe« Toni Šlegela."
  81. ^ a b Tomasevich 2001, p. 33.
  82. ^ a b Tomasevich 2001, pp. 33–34.
  83. ^ Matković 2002, p. 17.
  84. ^ Goldstein 2006, p. 229.
  85. ^ a b Yeomans 2011, p. 190.
  86. ^ Yeomans 2011, pp. 190–191.
  87. ^ a b Yeomans 2011, p. 191.
  88. ^ "Hrvatski Narod (Croatian Nation), Croatian periodical". Holocaust Museum LA. Retrieved 27 September 2021.
  89. ^ Maček, Vladko. In the Struggle for Freedom (New York: Robert Speller & Sons, 1957), p. 230.
  90. ^ Tomasevich 2001, p. 466.
  91. ^ Tomasevich 2001, pp. 233–302.
  92. ^ Trifković 2020, p. 85.
  93. ^ a b c Thomas & Mikulan 1995.
  94. ^ (Yeomans 2015, p. 301):"The social background of rankand-file Ustasha recruits was overwhelmingly working class and uneducated;"
  95. ^ . Jewish Historical Museum of Yugoslavia. 1941. Archived from the original on 13 February 2008. Retrieved 3 December 2007.
  96. ^ Some were sent to concentration camps and subsequently killed. For a description of these deportations and the treatment in the camps C.f. Djuro Schwartz, "In the Jasenovac camps of death" (ג'ורו שווארץ, במחנות המוות של יאסנובאץ", קובץ מחקרים כ"ה, יד-ושם)
  97. ^ Alonso, Kramer & Rodrigo 2019.
  98. ^ Trifković, Srđa (21 April 2000). "The Real Genocide in Yugoslavia: Independent Croatia of 1941 Revisited". Chronicles.
  99. ^ Trifković, Srđa (21 April 2000). "The Real Genocide in Yugoslavia: Independent Croatia of 1941 Revisited". The Centre for Peace in the Balkans.
  100. ^ Steinberg 1990, p. 30.
  101. ^ Goñi, Uki. The Real Odessa: Smuggling The Nazis to Perón's Argentina; Granta, 2002, p. 202. ISBN 9781862075818
  102. ^ a b "Tied up in the Rat Lines", Haaretz, 17 January 2006.
  103. ^ "Serbian Genocide". combatgenocide.org. The Combat Genocide Association.
  104. ^ (PDF). 2003. Archived from the original (PDF) on 23 April 2009.
  105. ^ Jones, Adam & Nicholas A. Robins. (2009), Genocides by The Oppressed: Subaltern Genocide in Theory and Practice, p. 106, Indiana University Press; ISBN 978-0-253-22077-6
  106. ^ Jacobs, Steven L. Confronting Genocide: Judaism, Christianity, Islam, pp. 158–159, Lexington Books, 2009
  107. ^ (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 13 November 2005. Retrieved 3 June 2011.
  108. ^ Ball, Howard (2011). Genocide: A Reference Handbook. ABC-CLIO. p. 124. ISBN 978-1-59884-488-7.[better source needed]
  109. ^ Yeomans 2013, p. 18.
  110. ^ Ramet 2006, p. 114.
  111. ^ Baker 2015, p. 18.
  112. ^ Bellamy 2013, p. 96.
  113. ^ Pavlowitch 2008, p. 34.
  114. ^ "Jasenovac". encyclopedia.ushmm.org. Retrieved 24 March 2020.
  115. ^ "Croatian WWII Concentration Camp records made available for first time by United States Holocaust". United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. 2001. Retrieved 26 September 2007.
  116. ^ Jasenovac Memorial Site official web site; accessed 25 August 2016.
  117. ^ a b c Tomasevich 2001, p. 722.
  118. ^ Summers, Craig & Eric Markusen. Collective violence: harmful behavior in groups and governments; Rowman & Littlefield, 1999, p. 55 ISBN 9780847688135
  119. ^ Rummel, Rudolph J. Democide: Nazi Genocide and Mass Murder; Transaction Publishers, 1992, p. 75. ISBN 9781412821476;
    "While German troops were still in several places in Croatia, the Croatians began a beastly persecution of the Orthodox [Serbs]. At this time at least a half-million people were killed. An unbelievable governing mentality was responsible, as I learned in August 1943 when I received the answer to a question of mine from a government functionary in the circle of the chief of state."
  120. ^ Neubacher, p. 31
  121. ^ Lituchy 2006, p. 8.
  122. ^ Vukušić, Tomo (21 September 2006). "MOSTARSKI BISKUP ALOJZIJE MIŠIĆ (1912–1942.) ZA VRIJEME DRUGOGA SVJETSKOG RATA (II.) Prilog proučavanju međucrkvenih i međunacionalnih odnosa*". Crkva U Svijetu (in Croatian). 41 (3): 326–341. ISSN 0352-4000.
  123. ^ a b c d e Gumz 2001.
  124. ^ Horstenau, Edmund Glaise von; Broucek, Peter (1988). Ein General im Zwielicht: die Erinnerungen Edmund Glaises von Horstenau (in German). Böhlau Verlag Wien. pp. 166'167. ISBN 978-3-205-08749-6.
  125. ^ BiH Supreme Court Archive, B.I.I.k171-13/15-1
  126. ^ Tomasevich 2001, p. 721.
  127. ^ Tomasevich 2001.
  128. ^ a b Tomasevich 2001, p. 530.
  129. ^ Tomasevich 2001, p. 541.
  130. ^ a b Tomasevich 2001, p. 528.
  131. ^ McCormick 2014, p. 81.
  132. ^ a b c d Tomasevich 2001, p. 531.
  133. ^ Tomasevich 2001, p. 545.
  134. ^ Tomasevich 2001, p. 565.
  135. ^ Biondich 2007, p. 41.
  136. ^ Adriano & Cingolani 2018, p. 31.
  137. ^ Tomasevich 2001, p. 537.
  138. ^ Bosnia and Herzegovina in the Second World War, Enver Redžić, Enver Redzic, Psychology Press, 2005 68–73, 79–83
  139. ^ [Ethnic Conflict and International Intervention: Crisis in Bosnia-Herzegovina, 1990–93: Crisis in Bosnia-Herzegovina], Steven L. Burg, Paul S. Shoup Routledge, 4. ožu 2015.
  140. ^ Tomasevich 2001, p. 555.
  141. ^ Tomasevich 2001, pp. 381–384.
  142. ^ Goldstein & Goldstein 2016, p. 490.
  143. ^ "Što je nama Stepinac?". autograf.hr. 10 February 2014.
  144. ^ Tomasevich 2001, p. 567.
  145. ^ Gilbert 2010, p. 236.
  146. ^ Cardinal Stepinac: a witness to the truth: a collection of papers from the international conference, Zagreb, September 19, 2008, Željko Tanjić, pp. 23, 45, 62, 76, 84, 170
  147. ^ Tomasevich 2001, p. 558.
  148. ^ Tomasevich 2001, p. 370.
  149. ^ Phayer 2000, p. 34.
  150. ^ Phayer 2000, p. 35.
  151. ^ Tomasevich 2001, pp. 490, 496.
  152. ^ Berenbaum, Michael (editor), A Mosaic of Victims. Non-Jews Persecuted and Murdered by the Nazis, NYU Press, pp. 74–79 (1992); ISBN 978-0814711750
  153. ^ The Pope's Dilemma: Pius XII Faces Atrocities and Genocide in the Second World War, Jacques Kornberg, University of Toronto Press, 2015, p. 87
  154. ^ a b Gorin, Julia (23 February 2010). "Mass grave of history: Vatican's WWII identity crisis". The Jerusalem Post. Retrieved 17 January 2018.
  155. ^ U.S. and Allied Wartime and Postwar Relations and Negotiations with Argentina, Portugal, Spain, Sweden, and Turkey on Looted Gold and German External Assets and U.S. Concerns about the Fate of the Wartime Ustasha Treasury: Supplement to Preliminary Study on U.S. and Allied Efforts to Recover and Restore Gold and Other Assets Stolen Or Hidden by Germany During World War II, William Z. Slany, Department of State, Bureau of Public Affairs, Office of the Historian, 1998, pp. 149–151
  156. ^ Money and the Rise of the Modern Papacy: Financing the Vatican, 1850–1950, John F. Pollard, Pollard John F. Cambridge University Press, 6. sij 2005, pp. 200–201
  157. ^ Stanojević, Branimir. Alojzije Stepinac, zločinac ili svetac: dokumenti o izdaji i zločinu, Nova knjiga, 1986, p. 51
  158. ^ Court Annuls Verdict against Cardinal Stepinac 8 August 2016 at the Wayback Machine, Vedran Pavlic, Total Croatia News, 22. July 2016.
  159. ^ a b Tomasevich 1975, p. 227.
  160. ^ a b Tomasevich 1975, p. 228.
  161. ^ a b c Popović, Lolić & Latas 1988.
  162. ^ "ZAPISNIK O SPORAZUMU PREDSTAVNIKA ČETNIČKOG ODREDA »KOČIĆ« I NDH OD 27. APRILA 1942. O PRIZNAVANjU VLASTI NDH I SARADNjI U BORBI PROTIV NOP-a, Zbornik dkumenata i podataka NOR-a, tom XIV (četnički dokumenti), knjiga 1 (1941. i 1942. godina), Vojnoizdavački zavod, Beograd - dokument broj 74". www.znaci.net. from the original on 20 January 2020. Retrieved 13 April 2020.
  163. ^ "PREDLOG ŠTABA OZRENSKOG ČETNIČKOG ODREDA OD 10. MAJA 1942. KOMANDANTU 4. DOMOBRANSKE DIVIZIJE ZA SASTANAK RADI SKLAPANjA SPORAZUMA O SARADNjI U BORBI PROTIV NOP, Zbornik dkumenata i podataka NOR-a, tom XIV (četnički dokumenti), knjiga 1 (1941. i 1942. godina), Vojnoizdavački zavod, Beograd - dokument broj 82". www.znaci.net. from the original on 23 February 2020. Retrieved 13 April 2020.
  164. ^ "ZAPISNIK O SPORAZUMU IZMEĐU PREDSTAVNIKA OZRENSKOG, TREBAVSKOG I ODREDA »KRALj PETAR II« I NDH OD 28. MAJA 1942. O SARADNjI U BORBI PROTIV NOP-a U ISTOČNOJ BOSNI, Zbornik dkumenata i podataka NOR-a, tom XIV (četnički dokumenti), knjiga 1 (1941. i 1942. godina), Vojnoizdavački zavod, Beograd - dokument broj 89". www.znaci.net. from the original on 20 February 2020. Retrieved 13 April 2020.
  165. ^ "DODATAK ZAPISNIKU O SPORAZUMU IZMEĐU OZRENSKOG I TREBAVSKOG ČETNIČKOG ODREDA I PREDSTAVNIKA NDH OD 28. MAJA 1942. SAČINjEN 9. JULA 1942. GODINE, Zbornik dkumenata i podataka NOR-a, tom XIV (četnički dokumenti), knjiga 1 (1941. i 1942. godina), Vojnoizdavački zavod, Beograd - dokument broj 117". www.znaci.net. from the original on 25 February 2020. Retrieved 13 April 2020.
  166. ^ "ZAPISNIK O PREGOVORIMA PREDSTAVNIKA MAJEVIČKE ČETNIČKE GRUPE I KOMANDANTA 3. DOMOBRANSKE DIVIZIJE OD 30. MAJA 1942. O PRIZNAVANjU NDH I SARADNjI SA VLASTIMA NDH, Zbornik dkumenata i podataka NOR-a, tom XIV (četnički dokumenti), knjiga 1 (1941. i 1942. godina), Vojnoizdavački zavod, Beograd - dokument broj 91". www.znaci.net. from the original on 16 February 2020. Retrieved 13 April 2020.
  167. ^ "ZAPISNIK O SPORAZUMU IZMEĐU PREDSTAVNIKA ČETNIČKOG ODREDA »BORJE« I NDH OD 9. JUNA 1942. O PRIZNAVANjU SUVERENITETA NDH I O SARADNjI U BORBI PROTIV NOP-a, Zbornik dkumenata i podataka NOR-a, tom XIV (četnički dokumenti), knjiga 1 (1941. i 1942. godina), Vojnoizdavački zavod, Beograd - dokument broj 103". www.znaci.net. from the original on 20 January 2020. Retrieved 13 April 2020.
  168. ^ Zovak, Domagoj. . Archived from the original on 3 February 2022. Retrieved 13 April 2020.
  169. ^ Goldstein 2018.
  170. ^ Miljan, Goran (2016). "From Obscure Beginnings to State 'Resurrection': Ideas and Practices of the Ustaša Organization". Fascism. 5: 11. doi:10.1163/22116257-00501002. Retrieved 16 August 2022.
  171. ^ Littlejohn 1994, pp. 216–217.
  172. ^ Tomasevich 2001, p. 327.
  173. ^ Leo Crnogorcevic (20 November 2021). "Ultranationalists Are Seeing an Organizing Boom in Australia". jacobinmag.com. Retrieved 3 April 2022.
  174. ^ Aleksandar Holiga (17 June 2015). "Croatia's footballers may become biggest losers in swastika fallout". theguardian.com. Retrieved 3 April 2022.
  175. ^ "Angela Merkel in Croatian Nationalist Song Controversy". Balkan Insight. 22 May 2019. Retrieved 11 April 2020.
  176. ^ "Croatian team celebrates World Cup success with performance by 'fascist singer'". The Times of Israel. JTA. Retrieved 11 April 2020.
  177. ^ Ragazzi 2017.
  178. ^ Hedges, Chris (12 April 1997). "Fascists Reborn as Croatia's Founding Fathers". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 12 April 2020.
  179. ^ Zebić, Enis (14 June 2019). "Mile Budak ostao bez ulice u Virovitici". Radio Slobodna Evropa (in Serbo-Croatian). Retrieved 12 April 2020.
  180. ^ a b Komunikacije, Neomedia. "U Crkvi predstavljaju "lik i djelo hrvatskog viteza Maksa Luburića", čovjeka koji je osmislio logor u Jasenovcu / Novi list". www.novilist.hr (in Croatian). Retrieved 12 April 2020.
  181. ^ a b "Crkva se u reviziju povijesti uključila na brutalan način". Nacional.hr (in Croatian). Retrieved 12 April 2020.
  182. ^ Komunikacije, Neomedia. "Revizionistički odnos prema povijesti: Učiteljica života u Hrvatskoj zakazala / Novi list". www.novilist.hr (in Croatian). Retrieved 12 April 2020.
  183. ^ "Puljić: Pitanje o pozdravu "Za dom spremni" na referendum". www.vecernji.ba (in Croatian). Retrieved 12 April 2020.
  184. ^ "Genocidal Chants at Croat Soccer – Jewish World". Israel National News. 9 September 2009. Retrieved 12 April 2020.
  185. ^ Holiga, Aleksandar (17 June 2015). "Croatia's footballers may become biggest losers in swastika fallout | Aleksandar Holiga". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved 12 April 2020.
  186. ^ Agencies (16 December 2013). "Croatia's Josip Simunic hit with 10-match ban and will miss World Cup". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved 11 April 2020.
  187. ^ "Slobodna Dalmacija – Split: tisuću građana pozdravilo spomenik HOS-ovcima; Baldasar se prevario: Na današnji dan pobjede nad antifašizmom…". slobodnadalmacija.hr (in Croatian). 9 May 2014. Retrieved 12 April 2020.
  188. ^ "SPLITOM OPET MARŠIRALI LJUDI U CRNOM, GRADOM ODJEKIVAO USTAŠKI POZDRAV 'ZA DOM SPREMNI' Skejo prijetio s govornice: 'Mrzitelji nas i dalje pljuju' – Jutarnji List". www.jutarnji.hr. 10 April 2019. Retrieved 12 April 2020.
  189. ^ Veselica, Lajla. "Croatia government under fire for failing to tackle pro-Nazis". The Times of Israel. Retrieved 12 April 2020.
  190. ^ "Američki izaslanik za holokaust pozvao hrvatsku vladu da ubrza povrat imovine preživjelima holokausta – Jutarnji List". www.jutarnji.hr. 23 March 2017. Retrieved 12 April 2020.
  191. ^ Zebić, Enis (22 April 2017). "Više tisuća ljudi na alternativnoj komemoraciji u Jasenovcu". Radio Slobodna Evropa (in Serbo-Croatian). Retrieved 12 April 2020.
  192. ^ . www.total-croatia-news.com. 12 February 2019. Archived from the original on 17 May 2023. Retrieved 11 April 2020.
  193. ^ "Slobodna Dalmacija – Austrija će na Bleiburgu organizirati instant-sud za hrvatske neofašiste: evo kako će kazniti sve koji budu isticali ustaške simbole i grb HOS-a". slobodnadalmacija.hr (in Croatian). 26 April 2018. Retrieved 11 April 2020.
  194. ^ "Catholic Church in Austria Bans Bleiburg Mass". www.total-croatia-news.com. 8 March 2019. Retrieved 11 April 2020.
  195. ^ "Austrijska Crkva zabranila misu u Bleiburgu, HBK ogorčen". www.vecernji.hr (in Croatian). Retrieved 12 April 2020.
  196. ^ Aleksov 2007, p. 106
  197. ^ Brunnbauer, Ulf (2011). "Historical Writing in the Balkans". In Woolf, Daniel; Schneider, Axel (eds.). The Oxford History of Historical Writing: Volume 5: Historical Writing Since 1945. Oxford University Press. p. 364. ISBN 9780199225996.
  198. ^ a b Stojanović 2011, p. 221
  199. ^ Michael A. Sells (10 December 1998). The Bridge Betrayed: Religion and Genocide in Bosnia. University of California Press. pp. 61–62. ISBN 9780520216624.

Bibliography

  • Aleksov, Bojan (2007). "Adamant and treacherous: Serbian historians on religious conversions". In Washburn, Dennis; Reinhart, Kevin (eds.). Converting Cultures: Religion, Ideology and Transformations of Modernity. Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-15822-1.
  • Baker, Catherine (2015). The Yugoslav Wars of the 1990s. Macmillan International Higher Education. ISBN 9781137398994.
  • Bellamy, Alex J. (2013). The Formation of Croatian National Identity: A Centuries-Old Dream?. Manchester University Press. ISBN 9781847795731.
  • Colić, Mladen (1973). Takozvana Nezavisna Država Hrvatska 1941. Delta-pres.
  • Paris, Edmond (1961). Genocide in Satellite Croatia, 1941–1945: A Record of Racial and Religious Persecutions and Massacres. Chicago: American Institute for Balkan Affairs.
  • Aarons, Mark and Loftus, John: Unholy Trinity: How the Vatican's Nazi Networks Betrayed Western Intelligence to the Soviets. New York: St. Martin's Press, 1992. 372 pages; ISBN 978-0-312-07111-0.
  • Krizman, Bogdan (1978). ANTE PAVELIĆ I USTAŠE. Zagreb: Globus.
  • Krizman, Bogdan (1980). PAVELIĆ IZMEĐU HITLERA I MUSSOLINIJA. Zagreb: Globus.
  • Krizman, Bogdan (1983). USTAŠE I TREĆI REICH – knjiga 1. Zagreb: Globus.
  • Krizman, Bogdan (1983). USTAŠE I TREĆI REICH – knjiga 2. Zagreb: Globus.
  • Neubacher, Hermann. Sonderauftrag Suedost 1940–1945, Bericht eines fliegendes Diplomaten, 2. durchgesehene Auflage, Goettingen, 1956.
  • Bulajić, Milan (1994). The Role of the Vatican in the break-up of the Yugoslav State: The Mission of the Vatican in the Independent State of Croatia. Ustashi Crimes of Genocide. Belgrade: Stručna knjiga.
  • Bulajić, Milan (2002). Jasenovac: The Jewish-Serbian Holocaust (the role of the Vatican) in Nazi-Ustasha Croatia (1941–1945). Belgrade: Fund for Genocide Research, Stručna knjiga. ISBN 9788641902211.
  • Goldstein, Ivo (2006). "Ante Pavelić, Charisma and National Mission in Wartime Croatia". Totalitarian Movements and Political Religions. 7 (2): 225–234. doi:10.1080/14690760600642289. S2CID 144163142.
  • Goldstein, Ivo; Goldstein, Slavko (2016). The Holocaust in Croatia. Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press. ISBN 9780822944515.
  • Lituchy, Barry M. (2006). Jasenovac and the Holocaust in Yugoslavia. New York: Jasenovac Research Institute. ISBN 978-0-9753432-0-3.
  • Matković, Hrvoje (2002). Povijest Nezavisne Države Hrvatske (in Croatian). Naklada Pavičić. ISBN 978-953-6308-39-2.
  • McCormick, Robert B. (2014). Croatia Under Ante Pavelić: America, the Ustaše and Croatian Genocide. London-New York: I.B. Tauris. ISBN 978-0-8577-2535-6.
  • Pavlowitch, Stevan K. (2008). Hitler's New Disorder: The Second World War in Yugoslavia. New York: Columbia University Press. ISBN 9780231700504.
  • Phayer, Michael (2000). The Catholic Church and the Holocaust, 1930–1965. Bloomington and Indianapolis: Indiana University Press. ISBN 978-0253214713.
  • Srdja Trifkovic: Ustaša: Croatian Separatism and European Politics 1929–1945 Lord Byron Foundation for Balkan Studies, London, 1998.
  • Encyclopedia of the Holocaust, Israel Gutman (editor-in-chief), Vol. 4, "Ustase" entry. Macmillan, 1990.
  • Biondich, Mark (2007). "Controversies Surrounding the Catholic Church in Wartime Croatia, 1941–45". The Independent State of Croatia 1941–45. Routledge. pp. 31–59. ISBN 9780415440554.
  • Biondich, Mark (2005). "Religion and Nation in Wartime Croatia: Reflections on the Ustaša Policy of Forced Religious Conversions, 1941–1942". The Slavonic and East European Review. 83 (1): 71–116. doi:10.1353/see.2005.0063. JSTOR 4214049. S2CID 151704526.
  • Ramet, Sabrina P. (2006). The Three Yugoslavias: State-Building and Legitimation, 1918–2005. Bloomington, Indiana: Indiana University Press. ISBN 978-0-253-34656-8.
  • Rivelli, Marco Aurelio (1998). Le génocide occulté: État Indépendant de Croatie 1941–1945 [Hidden Genocide: The Independent State of Croatia 1941–1945] (in French). Lausanne: L'age d'Homme. ISBN 9782825111529.
  • Rivelli, Marco Aurelio (1999). L'arcivescovo del genocidio: Monsignor Stepinac, il Vaticano e la dittatura ustascia in Croazia, 1941–1945 [The Archbishop of Genocide: Monsignor Stepinac, the Vatican and the Ustaše dictatorship in Croatia, 1941–1945] (in Italian). Milano: Kaos. ISBN 9788879530798.
  • Rivelli, Marco Aurelio (2002). "Dio è con noi!": La Chiesa di Pio XII complice del nazifascismo ["God is with us!": The Church of Pius XII accomplice to Nazi Fascism] (in Italian). Milano: Kaos. ISBN 9788879531047.
  • Shepherd, Ben H. (2012). Terror in the Balkans: German Armies and Partisan Warfare. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-04891-1.
  • Steinberg, Jonathan (1990). All Or Nothing: The Axis and the Holocaust, 1941–1943. Psychology Press. ISBN 978-0-4150-4757-9.
  • Tomasevich, Jozo (1975). War and Revolution in Yugoslavia, 1941–1945: The Chetniks. Stanford Univ: Stanford University Press. ISBN 978-0-8047-0857-9.
  • Tomasevich, Jozo (2001). War and Revolution in Yugoslavia, 1941–1945: Occupation and Collaboration. Stanford Univ: Stanford University Press. ISBN 978-0-8047-3615-2.
  • Yeomans, Rory (2011). ""For Us, Beloved Commander, You Will Never Die!", Morning Jure Francetic, Ustasha Death Squad Leader". In the Shadow of Hitler: Personalities of the Right in Central and Eastern Europe. London: I.B Tauris.
  • Yeomans, Rory (2013). Visions of Annihilation: The Ustasha Regime and the Cultural Politics of Fascism, 1941–1945. University of Pittsburgh Press. ISBN 978-0-82297-793-3.
  • Yeomans, Rory (2015). The Utopia of Terror: Life and Death in Wartime Croatia. Boydell & Brewer. ISBN 978-1-58046-545-8.
  • Korb, Alexander (2010). "A Multipronged Attack: Ustaša Persecution of Serbs, Jews, and Roma in Wartime Croatia". Eradicating Differences: The Treatment of Minorities in Nazi-Dominated Europe. Newcastle upon Tyne: Cambridge Scholars Publishing. pp. 145–163. ISBN 9781443824491.
  • Novak, Viktor (2011). Magnum Crimen: Half a Century of Clericalism in Croatia. Vol. 1. Jagodina: Gambit. ISBN 9788676240494.
  • Novak, Viktor (2011). Magnum Crimen: Half a Century of Clericalism in Croatia. Vol. 2. Jagodina: Gambit. ISBN 9788676240494.
  • Stojanović, Dubravka (2011). "Value changes in the interpretations of history in Serbia". In Listhaug, Ola (ed.). Civic and uncivic values: Serbia in the post-Milošević era. Central European University Press. ISBN 978-963-9776-98-2.
  • Kallis, Aristotle (2008). Genocide and Fascism: The Eliminationist Drive in Fascist Europe. Routledge. ISBN 9781134300341.
  • Suppan, Arnold (2014). Hitler – Beneš – Tito: Konflikt, Krieg und Völkermord in Ostmittel- und Südosteuropa. Austrian Academy of Sciences.
  • Thomas, Nigel; Mikulan, Krunoslav (1995). Axis Forces in Yugoslavia 1941–45. Bloomsbury Publishing. ISBN 9781855324732.
  • Newman, John Paul (2017). "War Veterans, Fascism, and Para-Fascist Departures in the Kingdom of Yugoslavia, 1918–1941". Fascism. 6: 42–74. doi:10.1163/22116257-00601003.
  • Newman, John Paul (2014). "Serbian and Habsburg Military institutional legacies in Yugoslavia after 1918" (PDF). First World War Studies. 5 (3): 319–335. doi:10.1080/19475020.2014.1001519. S2CID 73611212.
  • McCormick, Rob (2008). "The United States' Response to Genocide in the Independent State of Croatia, 1941–1945". Genocide Studies and Prevention. 3 (1): 75–98. doi:10.1353/gsp.2011.0060. S2CID 145309437.
  • Hamerli, Petra (2015). "The Hungarian-Italian Support of the Croatian Separatism between 1928 and 1934". West Bohemian Historical Review (1). ISSN 1804-5480.
  • Zuckerman, Boško (2010). "Prilog proučavanju antisemitizma i protužidovske propagande u vodećem zagrebačkom ustaškom tisku (1941-1943)". Journal of the Institute of Croatian History (in Croatian). 42 (1): 355–385. ISSN 0353-295X.
  • Gumz, Jonathan E. (2001). "Wehrmacht Perceptions of Mass Violence in Croatia, 1941–1942". The Historical Journal. 44 (4): 1015–1038. doi:10.1017/S0018246X01001996. ISSN 0018-246X. JSTOR 3133549. S2CID 159947669.
  • Trifković, Gaj (2020). Parleying with the Devil: Prisoner Exchange in Yugoslavia, 1941‒1945. University Press of Kentucky. ISBN 978-1-94966-811-7.
  • Alonso, Miguel; Kramer, Alan; Rodrigo, Javier (2019). Fascist Warfare, 1922–1945: Aggression, Occupation, Annihilation. Springer Nature. pp. 243–261. ISBN 978-3-03027-648-5.
  • Adriano, Pino; Cingolani, Giorgio (2018). Nationalism and Terror: Ante Pavelić and Ustasha Terrorism from Fascism to the Cold War. Central European University Press. ISBN 978-9-63386-206-3.
  • Gilbert, Martin (2010). The Righteous: The Unsung Heroes of the Holocaust. Henry Holt and Company. ISBN 978-1-4299-0036-2.
  • Popović, Jovo; Lolić, Marko; Latas, Branko (1988). Pop izdaje (in Croatian). Zagreb: Stvarnost. ISBN 9788670750395. at Google Books at znaci.net
  • Goldstein, Ivo (2018). Jasenovac. Fraktura. p. 731. ISBN 978-953-266-987-9.
  • Littlejohn, David (1994). Foreign Legions of the Third Reich. Vol. 3. R. James Bender Publishing. ISBN 978-0-912138-29-9.
  • Ragazzi, Francesco (2017). Governing Diasporas in International Relations: The Transnational Politics of Croatia and Former Yugoslavia. Taylor & Francis Group. ISBN 978-1-138-73963-5.
  • Fischer, Bernd J., ed. (2007). Balkan Strongmen: Dictators and Authoritarian Rulers of South-Eastern Europe. Purdue University Press. ISBN 978-1-55753-455-2.

External links

 
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Ustaše.
  • Holocaust era in Croatia: Jasenovac 1941–1945 16 September 2007 at the Wayback Machine, an on-line museum by the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum
  • , guskova.ru
  • Eichmann Trial, Tel Aviv 1961 3 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine, nizkor.org
  • Lawsuit against the Vatican Bank and Franciscans for return of the Ustaše Treasury by Holocaust victims

January 01, 1970
ustaše, this, article, about, world, organization, ethnic, slur, against, croats, ustaša, pejorative, pronounced, ûstaʃe, also, known, anglicised, versions, ustasha, ustashe, croatian, fascist, ultranationalist, organization, active, organization, between, 192. This article is about the World War II organization For an ethnic slur against Croats see Ustasa pejorative The Ustase pronounced ustaʃe also known by anglicised versions Ustasha or Ustashe n 3 was a Croatian fascist and ultranationalist organization 21 active as one organization between 1929 and 1945 formally known as the Ustasa Croatian Revolutionary Movement Croatian Ustasa Hrvatski revolucionarni pokret Its members assisted in assassinating King Alexander I of Yugoslavia in 1934 and went on to perpetrate The Holocaust in the Independent State of Croatia killing hundreds of thousands of Serbs Jews 22 Roma as well as Bosniak Muslims and Croatian political dissidents during World War II in Yugoslavia 23 24 25 26 Ustasa Croatian Revolutionary Movement Ustasa Hrvatski revolucionarni pokretGoverning bodyMain Ustasa HeadquartersFoundersAnte Pavelic n 1 Vjekoslav ServatzySlavko KvaternikFounded7 January 1929 1929 01 07 2 Dissolved25 May 1945 1945 05 25 de facto Preceded byMembers of the defunct Croatian Committee 3 Radical Frankist wing of the Party of Rights 4 Succeeded byVarious emigre groups n 2 HeadquartersTurin Italy until 1941 8 Zagreb Croatia from 1941 NewspaperHrvatski Domobran hr 9 Think tankHrvatski DomobranYouth wingUstase Youth UM Paramilitary wingUstase MilitiaMembership100 000 1941 est 10 IdeologyUstasism Croatian irredentism 11 12 Croatian ultranationalism 13 Corporate statism 14 15 Anti Serb sentiment 16 National Catholicism 17 Class collaboration 18 Antisemitism 19 Political positionFar rightReligionRoman Catholicism IslamColours Red White Blue BlackSlogan Za dom spremni 20 For the home Ready AnthemPuska pucaPolitics of CroatiaPolitical partiesElections The ideology of the movement was a blend of fascism Roman Catholicism and Croatian ultranationalism 23 The Ustase supported the creation of a Greater Croatia that would span the Drina River and extend to the border of Belgrade 27 The movement advocated a racially pure Croatia and promoted genocide against Serbs due to the Ustase s anti Serb sentiment and Jews and Roma via Nazi racial theory and persecution of anti fascist or dissident Croats and Bosniaks The Ustase viewed the Bosniaks as Muslim Croats and as a result Bosniaks were not persecuted on the basis of race 28 The Ustase espoused Roman Catholicism and Islam as the religions of the Croats and condemned Orthodox Christianity which was the main religion of the Serbs Roman Catholicism was identified with Croatian nationalism 29 while Islam which had a large following in Bosnia and Herzegovina was praised by the Ustase as the religion that keeps true the blood of Croats 30 page needed It was founded as a nationalist organization that sought to create an independent Croatian state It functioned as a terrorist organization before World War II 31 23 In April 1941 the Ustase came to power when they were appointed to rule a part of Axis occupied Yugoslavia as the Independent State of Croatia NDH a quasi protectorate 32 puppet state established by Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany 33 34 35 The Ustase Militia Croatian Ustaska vojnica became its military wing in the new state 23 The Ustase regime was militarily weak and lacked general support among Croats struggling to ever attain significant support among the populace Therefore terror was their means of controlling the ethnically disparate population 36 37 The Ustase regime was initially backed by some parts of the Croat population that in the interwar period had felt oppressed by the Serb led Yugoslavia but their brutal policies quickly alienated many ordinary Croats and resulted in a loss of the support they had gained by creating a Croatian national state 38 With the German surrender end of World War II in Europe and the establishment of socialist Yugoslavia in 1945 the Ustase movement and their state totally collapsed Many members of the Ustase militia and Croatian Home Guard who subsequently fled the country were taken as prisoners of war and subjected to forced marches and executions during the Bleiburg repatriations Various underground and exile successor organisations created by former Ustase members such as the Crusaders and the Croatian Liberation Movement tried to continue the movement to little success Contents 1 Name 2 Ideology 2 1 Ideological roots 2 2 Political programme and main agendas 2 3 Antisemitism 2 4 Views on Muslims 2 5 Other measures 3 History 3 1 Before World War II 3 1 1 Assassination of King Alexander I 3 2 World War II 3 3 Ustase militia 3 4 After the war 4 Ethnic and religious persecution 4 1 Concentration camps 4 2 Massacres of Serb civilians 4 2 1 German accounts of Ustase massacres 4 3 Religious persecution 5 Connections with the Catholic Church 6 Ustase Chetnik collaboration 7 Structure 8 Symbols 9 Legacy 9 1 In popular culture 9 2 Modern day Croatia 9 3 Modern usage of the term Ustase 9 4 Use by Serbian nationalists 10 See also 11 Notes 12 References 13 Bibliography 14 External linksNameThe word ustasa plural ustase is derived from the intransitive verb ustati Croatian for rise up Pucki ustasa German Landsturm was a military rank in the Imperial Croatian Home Guard 1868 1918 The same term was the name of Croatian third class infantry regiments German Landsturm regiments during World War I 1914 1918 citation needed Another variation of the word ustati is ustanik plural ustanici which means an insurgent or a rebel The name ustasa did not have fascist connotations during the early years of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia as the term ustat was itself used in Herzegovina to denote the insurgents from the Herzegovinian rebellion of 1875 The full original name of the organization appeared in April 1931 as the Ustasa Hrvatska revolucionarna organizacija or UHRO Ustasa Croatian Revolutionary Organization In 1933 it was renamed the Ustasa Hrvatski revolucionarni pokret Ustasa Croatian Revolutionary Movement a name it kept until World War II 23 In English Ustasha Ustashe Ustashas and Ustashi are used for the movement or its members citation needed IdeologyIdeological roots nbsp Poglavnik Ante Pavelic and Italy s Duce Benito Mussolini on 18 May 1941 in Rome The Ustase were heavily influenced by Italian Fascism and politically supported by Fascist Italy nbsp Germany s Fuhrer Adolf Hitler with Pavelic at the Berghof outside Berchtesgaden Germany The Ustase increasingly came under the influence of Nazism after the founding of the NDH in 1941 One of the major ideological influences on the Croatian nationalism of the Ustase was 19th century Croatian activist Ante Starcevic 28 an advocate of Croatian unity and independence who was both anti Habsburg and anti Serbian in outlook 28 He envisioned the creation of a Greater Croatia that would include territories inhabited by Bosniaks Serbs and Slovenes considering Bosniaks and Serbs to be Croats who had been converted to Islam and Orthodox Christianity and considered the Slovenes mountain Croats 28 Starcevic argued that the large Serb presence in territories claimed by a Greater Croatia was the result of recent settlement encouraged by Habsburg rulers and the influx of groups like Vlachs who took up Orthodox Christianity and identified themselves as Serbs Starcevic admired Bosniaks because in his view they were Croats who had adopted Islam in order to preserve the economic and political autonomy of Bosnia and Croatia under the Ottoman occupation 28 The Ustase used Starcevic s theories to promote their own annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina to Croatia and recognized Croatia as having two major ethnocultural components Catholics and Muslims 28 The Ustase sought to represent Starcevic as being connected to their views 39 Josip Frank seceded his extreme fraction from Starcevic s Party of Rights and formed his own the Pure Party of Rights which became the main pool of members of the subsequent Ustase movement 40 41 42 43 Historian John Paul Newman stated that Austro Hungarian officers unfaltering opposition to Yugoslavia provided a blueprint for the Croatian radical right the Ustase 44 The Ustase promoted the theories of Milan Sufflay who is believed to have claimed that Croatia had been one of the strongest ramparts of Western civilization for many centuries which he claimed had been lost through its union with Serbia when the nation of Yugoslavia was formed in 1918 45 Sufflay was killed in Zagreb in 1931 by government supporters 46 47 The Ustase accepted the 1935 thesis of Krunoslav Draganovic a Catholic priest who claimed that many Catholics in southern Herzegovina had been converted to Orthodox Christianity in the 16th and 17th centuries in order to justify their own policy of forcible conversion of Orthodox Christians to Catholicism 48 The Ustase were heavily influenced by Nazism and fascism Its leader Ante Pavelic held the position of Poglavnik which was based on the similar positions of Duce held by Benito Mussolini and Fuhrer held by Adolf Hitler 28 The Ustase like fascists promoted a corporatist economy 49 Pavelic and the Ustase were allowed sanctuary in Italy by Mussolini after being exiled from Yugoslavia Pavelic had been in negotiations with Fascist Italy since 1927 that included advocating a territory for sovereignty swap in which he would tolerate Italy annexing its claimed territory in Dalmatia in exchange for Italy supporting the sovereignty of an independent Croatia 28 The Ustase ideology has also been characterized as clerical fascism 50 by several authors who emphasize the importance the movement attached to Roman Catholicism Mussolini s support of the Ustase was based on pragmatic considerations such as maximizing Italian influence in the Balkans and the Adriatic After 1937 with the weakening of French influence in Europe following Germany s remilitarization of the Rhineland and with the rise of a quasi fascist government in Yugoslavia under Milan Stojadinovic Mussolini abandoned support for the Ustase from 1937 to 1939 and sought to improve relations with Yugoslavia fearing that continued hostility towards Yugoslavia would result in Yugoslavia entering Germany s sphere of influence 51 nbsp Anti Chetnik anti Serb and anti communist Ustase poster The collapse of the quasi fascist Stojadinovic regime resulted in Italy restoring its support for the Ustase whose aim was to create an independent Croatia in personal union with Italy 51 However distrust of the Ustase grew Mussolini s son in law and Italian foreign minister Count Galeazzo Ciano noted in his diary that The Duce is indignant with Pavelic because he claims that the Croats are descendants of the Goths This will have the effect of bringing them into the German orbit 52 Hungary strongly supported the Ustase for two aims One in order to weaken Yugoslavia Little Entente in order to ultimately regain some of its lost territories The other Hungary also wished to establish later in the future a strong alliance with the Independent State of Croatia and possibly enter a personal union 53 Nazi Germany initially didn t support an independent Croatia nor did it support the Ustase with Hitler stressing the importance of a strong and united Yugoslavia 51 Nazi officials including Hermann Goring wanted Yugoslavia stable and officially neutral during the war so Germany could continue to securely gain Yugoslavia s raw material exports 51 The Nazis grew irritated with the Ustase among them Reichsfuhrer SS Heinrich Himmler who was dissatisfied with the lack of full compliance by the NDH to the Nazis agenda of extermination of the Jews as the Ustase permitted Jews who converted to Catholicism to be recognized as honorary Croats thus putatively exempt from persecution 28 Political programme and main agendasIn 1932 an editorial in the first issue of the Ustase newspaper signed by the Ustase leader Ante Pavelic proclaimed that violence and terror would be the main means for the Ustase to attain their goals The KNIFE REVOLVER MACHINE GUN and TIME BOMB these are the idols these are bells that will announce the dawning and THE RESURRECTION OF THE INDEPENDENT STATE OF CROATIA 54 In 1933 the Ustase presented The Seventeen Principles that formed the official ideology of the movement The Principles stated the uniqueness of the Croatian nation promoted collective rights over individual rights and declared that people who were not Croat by blood would be excluded from political life 28 Those considered undesirables were subjected to mass murder 55 These principles called for the creation of a new economic system that would be neither capitalist nor communist 28 and which would emphasize the importance of the Roman Catholic Church and the patriarchial family as means to maintain social order and morality 28 The name given by modern historians to this particular aspect of Ustase ideology varies national Catholicism 56 political Catholicism and Catholic Croatism 17 have been proposed among others In power the Ustase banned contraception and tightened laws against blasphemy 57 source source source source Ustase gathering in Zagreb The Ustase accepted that Croats are part of the Dinaric race 58 but rejected the idea that Croats are primarily Slavic claiming they primarily come from Germanic roots with the Goths 59 The Ustase believed that a government must naturally be strong and authoritarian The movement opposed parliamentary democracy for being corrupt and Marxism and Bolshevism for interfering in family life and the economy and for their materialism The Ustase considered competing political parties and elected parliaments to be harmful to its own interests 49 clarification needed The Ustase recognized both Roman Catholicism and Islam as national religions of the Croatian people but initially rejected Orthodox Christianity as being incompatible with their objectives 45 Although the Ustase emphasized religious themes it stressed that duty to the nation took precedence over religious custom 60 In power the Ustase banned the use of the term Serbian Orthodox faith requiring Greek Eastern faith in its place 55 The Ustase forcefully converted many Orthodox to Catholicism murdered and expelled 85 of Orthodox priests 61 and plundered and burnt many Orthodox Christian churches 61 The Ustase also persecuted Old Catholics who did not recognize papal infallibility 55 On 2 July 1942 the Croatian Orthodox Church was founded as a further means to destroy the Serbian Orthodox Church but this new Church gained very few followers 62 Antisemitism See also The Holocaust in the Independent State of CroatiaWhile initial focus was against Serbs as the Ustase grew closer to the Nazis they adopted antisemitism 63 In 1936 in The Croat Question Ante Pavelic placed Jews third among the Enemies of the Croats after Serbs and Freemasons but before Communists writing Today practically all finance and nearly all commerce in Croatia is in Jewish hands This became possible only through the support of the state which thereby seeks on one hand to strengthen the pro Serbian Jews and on the other to weaken Croat national strength The Jews celebrated the establishment of the so called Yugoslav state with great joy because a national Croatia could never be as useful to them as a multi national Yugoslavia for in national chaos lies the power of the Jews In fact as the Jews had foreseen Yugoslavia became in consequence of the corruption of official life in Serbia a true Eldorado of Jewry 64 Once in power the Ustase immediately introduced a series of Nazi style racial laws On 30 April 1941 the Ustase proclaimed the Legal Decree on Racial Origins the Legal Decree on the Protection of Aryan Blood and the Honor of the Croatian People and the Legal Provision on Citizenship 65 These decrees defined who was a Jew and took away the citizenship rights of all non Aryans i e Jews and Roma By the end of April 1941 months before the Nazis implemented similar measures in Germany and over a year after they were implemented in occupied Poland the Ustase required all Jews to wear insignia typically a yellow Star of David 66 The Ustase declared the Legal Provision on the Nationalization of the Property of Jews and Jewish Companies on 10 October 1941 and with it they confiscated all Jewish property 67 Already on their first day 10 11 April 1941 Ustase arrested a group of prominent Zagreb Jews and held them for ransom On 13 April the same was done in Osijek where Ustase and Volksdeutscher mobs also destroyed the synagogue and Jewish graveyard This process was repeated multiple times in 1941 with groups of Jews Simultaneously the Ustase initiated extensive antisemitic propaganda with Ustase papers writing that Croatians must be more alert than any other ethnic group to protect their racial purity We need to keep our blood clean of the Jews They also wrote that Jews are synonymous with treachery cheating greed immorality and foreigness and therefore wide swaths of the Croatian people always despised the Jews and felt towards them natural revulsion 68 In May 1941 the Ustase rounded up 165 Jewish youth in Zagreb members of the Jewish sports club Makabi and sent them to the Danica concentration camp All but three were later killed by the Ustase 69 The Ustase sent most Jews to Ustase and Nazi concentration camps including the notorious Ustase run Jasenovac concentration camp where nearly 32 000 or 80 of the Jews in the Independent State of Croatia were killed 70 In October 1941 the Ustase mayor of Zagreb ordered the demolition of the Zagreb Synagogue which was completely demolished by April 1942 71 The Ustase persecuted Jews who practiced Judaism but authorized Jewish converts to Catholicism to be recognized as Croatian citizens and be given honorary Aryan citizenship that allowed them to be reinstated at the jobs from which they had previously been separated 60 After they stripped Jews of their citizenship rights the Ustase allowed some to apply for Aryan rights via bribes and or through connections to prominent Ustase The whole process was highly arbitrary Only 2 of Zagreb s Jews were granted Aryan rights for example Also Aryan rights did not guarantee permanent protection from being sent to concentration camps or other persecution 72 Views on Muslims Islam which had a large following in Bosnia and Herzegovina was praised by the Ustase as the religion that keeps true the blood of Croats 30 The Ustase attached conditions to the Croatian citizenship of Muslims such as asserting that a Muslim who supported Yugoslavia would not be considered a Croat nor a citizen but would instead be considered a Muslim Serb who could be denied property and imprisoned and had to earn Croat status citation needed The Ustase viewed the Bosniaks as Muslim Croats and as a result they were not persecuted on the basis of race 28 That being said Muslims were not free from persecution and atrocities by the Ustase even if not on the basis of religion or ethnicity The majority of Muslims preferred a return to autonomy under Habsburg rule Most Muslims were reportedly either neutral or opposed to the Ustase regime Despite Pavelic s promises of equality between Catholics and Muslims many Muslims became dissatisfied with Croat rule 73 Other measures See also Croatian socialism Economically the Ustase supported the creation of a corporatist economy 49 57 74 The movement believed that natural rights existed to private property and ownership over small scale means of production free from state control Armed struggle revenge and terrorism were glorified by the Ustase 49 The Ustase introduced widespread measures to which many Croats themselves fell victim Jozo Tomasevich in his book War and Revolution in Yugoslavia 1941 1945 states that never before in history had Croats been exposed to such legalized administrative police and judicial brutality and abuse as during the Ustasa regime Decrees enacted by the regime formed the basis that allowed it to get rid of all unwanted employees in state and local government and in state enterprises the unwanted being all Jews Serbs and Yugoslav oriented Croats who were all thrown out except for some deemed specifically needed by the government This would leave a multitude of jobs to be filled by Ustases and pro Ustase adherents and would lead to government jobs being filled by people with no professional qualifications 75 HistoryBefore World War II During the 1920s Ante Pavelic lawyer politician and one of the followers of Josip Frank s Pure Party of Rights became the leading advocate of Croatian independence 42 In 1927 he secretly contacted Benito Mussolini dictator of Italy and founder of fascism and presented his separatist ideas to him 76 Pavelic proposed an independent Greater Croatia that should cover the entire historical and ethnic area of the Croats 76 Historian Rory Yeomans claimed that as early as 1928 there were signs that Pavelic was considering the formation of a nationalist insurgency group 77 In October 1928 after the assassination of leading Croatian politician Stjepan Radic Croatian Peasant Party President in the Yugoslav Assembly by radical Montenegrin politician Punisa Racic a youth group named the Croat Youth Movement was founded by Branimir Jelic at the University of Zagreb A year later Ante Pavelic was invited by the 21 year old Jelic into the organization as a junior member A related movement the Domobranski Pokret which had been the name of the legal Croatian army in Austria Hungary began publication of Hrvatski Domobran a newspaper dedicated to Croatian national matters The Ustase sent Hrvatski Domobran to the United States to garner support for them from Croatian Americans 78 The organization around the Domobran tried to engage with and radicalize moderate Croats using Radic s assassination to stir up emotions within the divided country By 1929 two divergent Croatian political streams had formed those who supported Pavelic s view that only violence could secure Croatia s national interests and the Croatian Peasant Party led then by Vladko Macek successor to Stjepan Radic which had much greater support among Croats 49 Various members of the Croatian Party of Rights contributed to the writing of the Domobran until around Christmas 1928 when the newspaper was banned by authorities of the Kingdom of Serbs Croats and Slovenes In January 1929 the king banned all national parties 79 and the radical wing of the Party of Rights was exiled including Pavelic Jelic and Gustav Percec This group was later joined by several other Croatian exiles On 22 March 1929 Zvonimir Pospisil and Mijo Babic murdered Toni Slegel the chief editor of newspaper Novosti from Zagreb and president of Jugostampa which was the beginning of the terrorist actions of Ustase 80 On 20 April 1929 Pavelic and others co signed a declaration in Sofia Bulgaria with members of the Macedonian National Committee asserting that they would pursue their legal activities for the establishment of human and national rights political freedom and complete independence for both Croatia and Macedonia citation needed The Court for the Preservation of the State in Belgrade sentenced Pavelic and Percec to death on 17 July 1929 The exiles started organizing support for their cause among the Croatian diaspora in Europe as well as North and South America In January 1932 they named their revolutionary organization Ustasa The Ustase carried out terrorist acts to cause as much damage as possible to Yugoslavia From their training camps in fascist Italy and Hungary they planted time bombs on international trains bound for Yugoslavia causing deaths and material damage 81 In November 1932 ten Ustase led by Andrija Artukovic and supported by four local sympathizers attacked a gendarme outpost at Brusani in the Lika Velebit area in an apparent attempt to intimidate the Yugoslav authorities The incident has sometimes been termed the Velebit uprising citation needed Assassination of King Alexander I source source source source track Universal Newsreel s film about the assassination of Alexander I The Ustase s most infamous terrorist act was carried out on 9 October 1934 when working with the Internal Macedonian Revolutionary Organization IMRO they assassinated King Alexander I of Yugoslavia in Marseille France The perpetrator a Bulgarian revolutionary Vlado Chernozemski was killed by French police 82 Three Ustase members who had been waiting at different locations for the king Mijo Kralj Zvonimir Pospisil and Milan Rajic were captured and sentenced to life imprisonment by a French court Following the German invasion of France the men were released from prison 81 Ante Pavelic along with Eugen Kvaternik and Ivan Percevic were subsequently sentenced to death in absentia by a French court as the real organizers of the deed The Ustase believed that the assassination of King Alexander had effectively broken the backbone of Yugoslavia and that it was their most important achievement 82 Soon after the assassination all organizations related to the Ustase as well as the Hrvatski Domobran which continued as a civil organization were banned throughout Europe Under pressure from France the Italian police arrested Pavelic and several Ustase emigrants in October 1934 Pavelic was imprisoned in Turin and released in March 1936 After he met with Eugen Dido Kvaternik he stated that assassination was the only language Serbs understand While in prison Pavelic was informed of the 1935 election in Yugoslavia when the coalition led by Croat Vladko Macek won He stated that his victory was aided by the activity of Ustase 83 By the mid 1930s graffiti with the initials ZAP meaning Long live Ante Pavelic Croatian Zivio Ante Pavelic had begun to appear on the streets of Zagreb 84 During the 1930s a split developed between the home Ustase members who stayed behind in Croatia and Bosnia to struggle against Yugoslavia and the emigre Ustase who went abroad 85 The emigre Ustase who had a much lower educational level were viewed as violent ignorant and fanatical by the home Ustase while the home Ustase were dismissed as soft by the emigres who saw themselves as a warrior elite 85 After March 1937 when Italy and Yugoslavia signed a pact of friendship Ustase and their activities had been banned which attracted the attention of young Croats especially university students who would become sympathizers or members In 1936 the Yugoslav government offered amnesty to those Ustase abroad provided they promised to renounce violence many of the emigres accepted the amnesty 86 In the late 1930s the Ustase started to infiltrate the para military organizations of the Croat Peasant Party the Croatian Defense Force and the Peasant Civil Party 87 At the University of Zagreb an Ustase linked student group become the largest single student group by 1939 87 In February 1939 two returnees from detention Mile Budak and Ivan Orsanic became editors citation needed of the pro Ustase journal Hrvatski narod known in English as The Croatian Nation 88 World War II The Axis powers invaded Yugoslavia on 6 April 1941 Vladko Macek the leader of the Croatian Peasant Party HSS which was the most influential party in Croatia at the time rejected German offers to lead the new government On 10 April the most senior home based Ustase Slavko Kvaternik took control of the police in Zagreb and in a radio broadcast that day proclaimed the formation of the Independent State of Croatia Nezavisna Drzava Hrvatska NDH The name of the state was an attempt to capitalise on the Croat struggle for independence Macek issued a statement that day calling on all Croatians to cooperate with the new authorities 89 better source needed nbsp A unit of Ustase in Sarajevo Meanwhile Pavelic and several hundred Ustase left their camps in Italy for Zagreb where he declared a new government on 16 April 1941 28 He accorded himself the title of Poglavnik a Croatian approximation to Fuhrer The Independent State of Croatia was declared on Croatian ethnic and historical territory 90 what is today Republic of Croatia without Istria Bosnia and Herzegovina Syrmia and the Bay of Kotor However a few days after the declaration of independence the Ustase were forced 28 to sign the Treaty of Rome where they surrendered part of Dalmatia and Krk Rab Korcula Biograd Sibenik Split Ciovo Solta Mljet and part of Konavle and the Bay of Kotor to Italy De facto control over this territory varied for the majority of the war as the Yugoslav Partisans grew more successful while the Germans and Italians increasingly exercised direct control over areas of interest The Germans and Italians split the NDH into two zones of influence one in the southwest controlled by the Italians and the other in the northeast controlled by the Germans As a result the NDH has been described as an Italian German quasi protectorate In September 1943 after Italian capitulation the NDH annexed the whole territory which was annexed by Italy according to Treaty of Rome 91 The decline in support for the Ustase regime among ethnic Croats of those initially for the government began with the ceding of Dalmatia to Italy considered as the heartland of the state and worsened with the internal lawlessness from Ustase persecutions 92 Ustase militia nbsp Meeting in Bosnia between representatives of the Chetniks and Independent State of Croatia officers including the Ustase militia and the Croatian Home Guard The Army of the Independent State of Croatia was composed of enlistees who did not participate in Ustase activities The Ustase Militia was organised in 1941 into five later 15 700 man battalions two railway security battalions and the elite Black Legion and Poglavnik Bodyguard Battalion later Brigade 93 They were predominantly recruited among uneducated population and working class 94 On 27 April 1941 a newly formed unit of the Ustase army killed members of the largely Serbian community of Gudovac near Bjelovar Eventually all who opposed and or threatened the Ustase were outlawed The HSS was banned on 11 June 1941 in an attempt by the Ustase to take their place as the primary representative of the Croatian peasantry Vladko Macek was sent to the Jasenovac concentration camp but later released to serve a house arrest sentence due to his popularity among the people Macek was later again called upon by foreigners to take a stand and oppose the Pavelic government but refused In early 1941 Jews and Serbs were ordered to leave certain areas of Zagreb 95 96 In the months after Independent State of Croatia has been established most of Ustase groups were not under centralized control besides 4 500 regular Ustase Corps troops there was some 25 000 30 0000 Wild Ustase hrv divlje ustase boosted by government controlled press as peasant Ustase begging to be sent to fight enemies of the regime After mass crimes against Serb populace committed during the summer months of 1941 the regime decided to blame all the atrocities to the irregular Ustase thoroughly undisciplined and paid for the service only with the booty authorities even sentenced to death and executed publicly in August and September 1941 many of them for unauthorized use of extreme violence against Serbs and Gypsies To put an end to Wild Ustase uncontrolled looting and killing the central government used some 6 000 gendarmes and some 45 000 newly recruited members of regular Domobranstvo forces 97 nbsp Nazi SS recruitment poster used in the NDHPavelic first met with Adolf Hitler on 6 June 1941 Mile Budak then a minister in Pavelic s government publicly proclaimed the violent racial policy of the state on 22 July 1941 Vjekoslav Maks Luburic a chief of the secret police started building concentration camps in the summer of the same year Ustase activities in villages across the Dinaric Alps led the Italians and the Germans to express their disquiet According to writer historian Srđa Trifkovic as early as 10 July 1941 Wehrmacht Gen Edmund Glaise von Horstenau reported the following to the German High Command the Oberkommando der Wehrmacht OKW Our troops have to be mute witnesses of such events it does not reflect well on their otherwise high reputation I am frequently told that German occupation troops would finally have to intervene against Ustase crimes This may happen eventually Right now with the available forces I could not ask for such action Ad hoc intervention in individual cases could make the German Army look responsible for countless crimes which it could not prevent in the past 98 99 Historian Jonathan Steinberg describes Ustase crimes against Serbian and Jewish civilians Serbian and Jewish men women and children were literally hacked to death Reflecting on the photos of Ustase crimes taken by Italians Steinberg writes There are photographs of Serbian women with breasts hacked off by pocket knives men with eyes gouged out emasculated and mutilated 100 A Gestapo report to Reichsfuhrer SS Heinrich Himmler dated 17 February 1942 stated Increased activity of the bands of rebels is chiefly due to atrocities carried out by Ustase units in Croatia against the Orthodox population The Ustase committed their deeds in a bestial manner not only against males of conscript age but especially against helpless old people women and children The number of the Orthodox that the Ustase have massacred and sadistically tortured to death is about three hundred thousand 101 In September 1942 an Ustase Defensive Brigade was formed and during 1943 the Ustase battalions were re organised into eight four battalion brigades 1st to 8th 93 In 1943 the Germans suffered major losses on the Eastern Front and the Italians signed an armistice with the Allies leaving behind significant caches of arms which the Partisans would use nbsp An Ustasa disguised as a woman captured by Partisans of the 6th Krajina Brigade By 1944 Pavelic was almost totally reliant on Ustase units now 100 000 strong formed in Brigades 1 to 20 Recruit Training Brigades 21 to 24 three divisions two railway brigades one defensive brigade and the new Mobile Brigade In November 1944 the army was effectively put under Ustase control when the Armed Forces of the Independent State of Croatia were combined with the units of the Ustase to form 18 divisions comprising 13 infantry two mountain and two assault divisions and one replacement division each with its own organic artillery and other support units There were several armored units 93 Fighting continued for a short while after the formal surrender of German Army Group E on 9 May 1945 as Pavelic ordered the NDH forces to attempt to escape to Austria together with a large number of civilians The Battle of Poljana between a mixed German and Ustase column and a Partisan force was the last battle of World War II on European soil dubious discuss Most of those fleeing including both Ustase and civilians were handed over to the Partisans at Bleiburg and elsewhere on the Austrian border Pavelic hid in Austria and Rome with the help of Catholic clergy later fleeing to Argentina 102 After the war See also Terrorism in Yugoslavia and Croatian Revolutionary Brotherhood After World War II many of the Ustase went underground or fled to countries such as Canada Australia Germany and some countries in South America notably Argentina with the assistance of Roman Catholic churches and their own grassroots supporters 103 For several years some Ustase tried to organize a resistance group called the Crusaders but their efforts were largely foiled by the Yugoslav authorities 23 With the defeat of the Independent State of Croatia the active movement went dormant Infighting fragmented the surviving Ustase Pavelic formed the Croatian Liberation Movement which drew in several of the former state s leaders Vjekoslav Vrancic founded a reformed Croatian Liberation Movement and was its leader Maks Luburic formed the Croatian National Resistance Branimir Jelic founded the Croatian National Committee Former Crusader and Ustasa mobile police officer Srecko Rover helped establish Ustase groups in Australia citation needed Blagoje Jovovic a Montenegrin shot Pavelic near Buenos Aires on 9 April 1957 Pavelic later died of his injuries 104 Ethnic and religious persecutionSee also Genocide of Serbs in the Independent State of Croatia The Holocaust in the Independent State of Croatia and Genocide of Romani people in the Independent State of Croatia nbsp An entire Serb family lies slaughtered in their home following a raid by the Ustase militia 1941The Ustase intended to create an ethnically pure Croatia and they viewed the Serbs living in Croatia Bosnia and Herzegovina as the biggest obstacle to this goal Ustase ministers Mile Budak Mirko Puk hr and Milovan Zanic declared in May 1941 that the goal of the new Ustase policy was an ethnically pure Croatia The strategy to achieve their goal was 105 106 One third of the Serbs were to be killed One third of the Serbs were to be expelled One third of the Serbs were to be forcibly converted to Catholicism The NDH government cooperated with Nazi Germany in the Holocaust and exercised their own version of the genocide against Serbs Jews and Roma aka gypsies inside its borders State policy towards Serbs had first been declared in the words of Milovan Zanic a minister of the NDH Legislative council on 2 May 1941 This country can only be a Croatian country and there is no method we would hesitate to use in order to make it truly Croatian and cleanse it of Serbs who have for centuries endangered us and who will endanger us again if they are given the opportunity 107 The Ustase enacted race laws patterned after those of the Third Reich which persecuted Jews Romani and Serbs who were collectively declared to be enemies of the Croatian people 28 Serbs Jews Roma and Croatian and Bosniak dissidents including Communists were interned in concentration camps the largest of which was Jasenovac By the end of the war the Ustase under Pavelic s leadership had killed an estimated 30 000 Jews and 26 000 29 000 Roma 108 while the number of Serb victims ranges as low as 200 000 to as high as 500 000 109 with historians generally listing between 300 000 and 350 000 deaths 110 111 112 113 The history textbooks in the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia cited 700 000 as the total number of victims at Jasenovac This was promulgated from a 1946 calculation of the demographic loss of population the difference between the actual number of people after the war and the number that would have been had the pre war growth trend continued After that it was used by Edvard Kardelj and Mosa Pijade in the Yugoslav war reparations claim sent to Germany In its entry on Jasenovac the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum says Determining the number of victims is highly problematic due to the destruction of many relevant documents the long term inaccessibility to independent scholars of those documents that survived and the ideological agendas of postwar partisan scholarship and journalism which has been and remains influenced by ethnic tension religious prejudice and ideological conflict The Ustase murdered between 320 000 and 340 000 ethnic Serb residents of Croatia and Bosnia during the period of Ustasa rule more than 30 000 Croatian Jews were killed either in Croatia or at Auschwitz Birkenau 114 The USHMM notes that estimates on the number of Serb victims the Ustase s primary victims vary tremendously and that the most reliable figures place the number between 330 000 and 390 000 with 45 000 to 52 000 Serbs murdered in Jasenovac 115 nbsp Serb civilians forced to convert to Catholicism by the Ustase in Glina The Jasenovac Memorial Area maintains a list of 83 145 names of Jasenovac victims that was gathered by government officials in Belgrade in 1964 as well as names and biographical data for the victims identified in recent inquiries 116 As the gathering process was imperfect they estimated that the list represented between 60 75 of the total victims putting the number of killed in that complex at between roughly 80 000 100 000 The previous head of the Memorial Area Simo Brdar estimated at least 365 000 dead at Jasenovac The analyses of statisticians Vladimir Zerjavic and Bogoljub Kocovic were similar to those of the Memorial Area In all of Yugoslavia the estimated number of Serb deaths was 487 000 according to Kocovic and 530 000 according to Zerjavic out of a total of 1 014 million or 1 027 million deaths respectively Zerjavic further stated there were 197 000 Serb civilians killed in NDH 78 000 as prisoners in Jasenovac and elsewhere as well as 125 000 Serb combatants The Belgrade Museum of Holocaust compiled a list of over 77 000 names of Jasenovac victims It was previously headed by Milan Bulajic who supported the claim of a total of 700 000 victims The current administration of the museum has further expanded the list to include a bit over 80 000 names During World War II various German military commanders and civilian authorities gave different figures for the number of Serbs Jews and others killed inside the territory of the Independent State of Croatia Historian Prof Jozo Tomasevich has posited that some of these figures may have been a deliberate exaggeration fostered to create further hostility between Serbs and Croats so that they would not unite in resisting the Axis 117 These figures included 400 000 Serbs Alexander Lohr 118 500 000 Serbs Lothar Rendulic 119 250 000 to March 1943 Edmund Glaise von Horstenau 117 more than 3 4 of a million Serbs Hermann Neubacher in 1943 120 600 000 700 000 in concentration camps until March 1944 Ernst Fick 117 700 000 Massenbach 121 unreliable source Concentration camps Main article Concentration camps in the Independent State of Croatia nbsp Ustase militia execute prisoners near the Jasenovac concentration camp nbsp A knife nicknamed Srbosjek or Serbcutter strapped to the hand which was used by the Ustase militia for the speedy killing of inmates in Jasenovac The first group of camps was formed in the spring of 1941 These included Danica near Koprivnica Slana and Metajna on the Island of Pag Jadovno near Gospic Kruscica near Vitez and Travnik in Bosnia Đakovo Loborgrad in Zagorje Tenja near Osijek These camps were closed by October 1942 The Jasenovac complex was built between August 1941 and February 1942 The first two camps Krapje and Brocica were closed in November 1941 The three newer camps continued to function until the end of the war Ciglana Jasenovac III Kozara Jasenovac IV Stara Gradiska Jasenovac V concentration camp for women and children There were also other camps in Sisak concentration camp Jastrebarsko Children s Concentration Camp Gospic Kerestinec prison near Zagreb Lepoglava near Varazdin Numbers of prisoners between 300 000 and 350 000 up to 700 000 in Jasenovac disputed around 35 000 in Gospic around 8 500 in Pag around 3 000 in Đakovo 1 018 in Jastrebarsko around 1 000 in Lepoglava Massacres of Serb civiliansBeyond mass killings in concentration camps the Ustase perpetrated many massacres of civilians in the field The first mass killing of Serbs was carried out on 30 April 1941 when the Ustase rounded up and killed 196 Serb villagers at Gudovac Many other massacres soon followed including at Blagaj Glina Korita Nevesinje Prebilovci Metkovic Otocac Vocin Sargovac etc Here is how the Croatian Catholic Bishop of Mostar Alojzije Misic described the mass killings of Serb civilians just in one small area of Herzegovina just during the first 6 months of the war 122 People were captured like beasts Slaughtered killed thrown live into the abyss Women mothers with children young women girls and boys were thrown into pits The vice mayor of Mostar Mr Baljic a Mohammedan publicly states although as an official he should be silent and not talk that in Ljubinje alone 700 schismatics i e Serb Orthodox Christians were thrown into one pit Six full train carriages of women mothers and girls children under age 10 were taken from Mostar and Capljina to the Surmanci station where they were unloaded and taken into the hills with live mothers and their children tossed down the cliffs Everyone was tossed and killed In the Klepci parish from the surrounding villages 3 700 schismatics were killed Poor souls they were calm I will not enumerate further I would go too far In the city of Mostar hundreds were tied up taken outside the city and killed like animals German accounts of Ustase massacres German officers in Croatia and Bosnia repeatedly expressed abhorrence at Ustase mass killings of Serbs using words like slaughter atrocities butchery and terror 123 while citing hundreds of thousands of victims Thus Major Walter Kleinenberger officer with the 714th division complained that Ustase brutality was in defiance of all laws of civilization The Ustase murder without exception men women and children 123 German Captain Konopatzki called the Ustase Black Legion slaughter of Serb civilians in Eastern Bosnia a new wave of butchery of innocents 123 Ustase wholesale butchery Abschlachtung of Serbs in Srem in ISC occupied Serbia triggered German concerns of Serb uprisings 123 Lieutenant Colonel von Wedel wrote that in western Bosnia Ustase killed women and children like cattle in a series of bestial executions 123 This is how Hitler s Plenipotentiary to Croatia General von Horstanau described the aftermath of slaughter committed by Jasenovac concentration camp guards in a nearby village 124 At Crkveni Bok an unfortunate place over which about five hundred 15 to 20 year old thugs descended under the leadership of an Ustasha lieutenant colonel people were killed everywhere women were raped and then tortured to death children were killed I saw in the Sava River the corpse of a young woman with her eyes dug out and a stake driven into her sexual parts This woman was at most twenty years old when she fell into the hands of these monsters All around pigs devoured unburied human beings Fortunate residents were shipped in terrifying freight cars many of these involuntary passengers cut their veins during transport to the camp Jasenovac The German military even took the extraordinary step of trying the Ustase chaplain Miroslav Filipovic for the massacre of 2 300 civilians in 3 villages around Banja Luka in February 1942 including 52 children at a school 125 On March 3 1943 General von Horstanau wrote Thus far 250 000 Serbs have been killed 126 General Lothar Rendulic wrote how in August 1942 he remarked to an Ustase official that he could not conceive how 500 000 Serbs had been killed to which the Ustase replied Half a million is a slanderous accusation the number is not higher than 200 000 Other German sources put the total Serb victim numbers in the ISC as high as 600 000 to 700 000 127 Religious persecution As part of their policy to eliminate Serbs entirely by killing one third converting one third and expelling one third the Ustase conducted forcible conversions of Christian Orthodox Serbs to Catholicism with the participation of Catholic priests 128 On occasion they used the prospect of conversion as a means to gather Serbs together so they could kill them which is what occurred at Glina On 18 May 1943 Archbishop Stepinac wrote a letter to the pope in which he estimated 240 000 conversions to date 129 The Ustase killed 157 Orthodox priests among them 3 Serb Orthodox bishops cutting the throat of the bishop of Banja Luka and killing the archbishop of Sarajevo 130 while they jailed and tortured the Orthodox archbishop of Zagreb The Ustase expelled to Serbia 327 Orthodox priests and one bishop while 2 other bishops and 12 priests left on their own 61 According to NDH laws only uneducated Serbs were eligible for conversion to Catholicism educated people merchants intelligentia and especially Orthodox clergy were to be exterminated or expelled 131 Thus 85 of the Orthodox priests in the Independent State of Croatia were either killed or expelled by the Ustase in order to leave the Orthodox population without spiritual leadership so the Ustasas policy of forced or fear induced conversions to Catholicism would be easier to carry out 61 The Ustase destroyed and desecrated numerous Orthodox Churches 61 forbade the Cyrillic script and Julian calendar both used in the Orthodox Church even prohibited the term Serbian Orthodox Church Orthodox schools were shut down 132 and the Church was prohibited from collecting contributions from believers robbing it of income 132 Orthodox Church properties were confiscated by the Ustase 132 some turned over to the Croatian Catholic Church Finally to destroy the Serbian Orthodox Church the Ustase tried to create its own alternative Croatian Orthodox Church with an imported Russian priest but failed to gain adherents 133 Despite these many actions by the Ustase to destroy the Serbian Orthodox Church the historian Jozo Tomasevich found no condemnations of these crimes public or private by Catholic Archbishop Stepinac or any other members of the Croatian Catholic Church On the contrary he states that this massive Ustase attack on the Serbian Orthodox Church was approved and supported by many Croatian Catholic priests 132 and that the Croatian Roman Catholic Church hierarchy and the Vatican regarded Ustase policies against the Serbs and Serbian Orthodox Church as advantageous to Roman Catholicism 134 Connections with the Catholic ChurchMain article Catholic clergy involvement with the Ustase The historian Mark Biondich observes that the Catholic Church had historically been on the fringes of Croatian politics and public life and that Church influence had further eroded during the interwar period due to the royal dictatorship and the popularity of the anti clerical Croatian Peasant Party 135 During the Kingdom of Yugoslavia the Catholic Clergy was deeply dissatisfied with the regime a massive press campaign was launched to mobilize Croatia s nearly three million Catholics against the central government s measures penalizing Saint Peter s apostolate First of all its inequality in treatment was denounced the budget for religion totals 141 million dinars 70 of which go to the Serbian Church and 34 to the Catholic one Pasic s government is kind in Serbia where each citizen pays 55 dinars in yearly taxes while it is cruel in Croatia and Slovenia largely Catholic districts where each citizen pays 165 dinars in taxes 136 Croatian Catholic Church antagonism toward the Orthodox Church became an important part of Ustase antagonism toward Serbs with fateful consequences during the war 130 The Ustase supported violent aggression or force to convert Serbo Croatian speaking Orthodox believers to Roman Catholicism The Ustase held the position that Eastern Orthodoxy as a symbol of Serbian nationalism was their greatest foe and never recognized the existence of a Serb people on the territories of Croatia or Bosnia they recognized only Croats of the Eastern faith Under the Ustase policy of eliminating Serbs the Catholic Church in Croatia participated in the forced conversion of Orthodox Serbs to Catholicism 128 However even conversion did not necessarily protect Serbs and Jews from slaughter Bishop Alojzije Misic of Mostar described how while Serb converts to Catholicism were at Church attending holy Mass they Ustase seized them the young and the old men and women drove them like cattle and soon sent them to eternity en masse 137 The Ustase called Bosniaks Croats of the Islamic faith and in general tolerated Muslims in turn the Bosniak community did not demonstrate any particular hostility to the Ustase government 138 Many Muslim conscripts served in the armed forces of Independent State of Croatia or in its police forces only a very small number of Muslims served in the ranks of the communist Partisans until the closing days of the war 139 The October 12 1941 Resolution of Sarajevo Muslims by 108 notable Muslims condemned Ustase atrocities against Serbs nbsp Marko Dosen far left giving Nazi salute and Archbishop Alojzije Stepinac far right On 28 April 1941 the head of the Catholic Church in Croatia Archbishop Alojzije Stepinac issued a public letter in support of the new Independent State of Croatia under Ustase led government and asked the clergy to pray for its leader Ante Pavelic 140 This despite the fact that the Ustase had already proclaimed measures prohibiting Serbs Jews and Gipsies to serve as policemen judges and soldiers and making easy for the state officials to fire members of those ethnic religious groups from the public administration 141 and he knew they were preparing Nazi style racial laws which Pavelic signed only 2 days after 142 While Stepinac later objected to certain Ustase policies and helped some Jews and Serbs he continued to publicly support the survival of Independent State of Croatia until its very end served as the state s War Vicar and in 1944 received a medal from Pavelic 143 During the ongoing war Stepinac publicly objected Ustase policies in fact as regards for the relations with head of the Ustase regime Ante Pavelic it is generally agreed that they thoroughly hated each other archbishop also opposed Fascist and Nazi ideologies especially Nazi racist ideology and many Ustasha policies unlike some other members of the Croatian Catholic clergy 144 According to Historian Martin Gilbert Aloysius Stepinac who in 1941 had welcomed Croat independence subsequently condemned Croat atrocities against both Serbs and Jews and himself saved a group of Jews in an old age home 145 The vast majority of the Catholic clergy in Croatia supported the Ustase at the moment they succeeded in forming Independent State of Croatia but later when it was clear the Allies would win the Catholic hierarchy tried to distance the Church from the regime which involved itself in various abuses and war crimes 146 Yet in its pastoral letter of 24 March 1945 the Croatian Catholic Church still proclaimed its support for the puppet state and its rulers despite the fact that most senior regime figures were preparing to flee the country 147 The Catholic press also maintained its support of Pavelic right to the end 148 and Stepinac himself performed a final Te Deum to the NDH on the anniversary of its founding on 10 April 1945 while the NDH was carrying out the final mass killings to liquidate the Jasenovac concentration camp Some priests mostly Franciscans particularly in but not limited to Herzegovina and Bosnia took part in the atrocities themselves Priests like Ivan Guberina served as Pavelic s bodyguards while Dionizije Juricev responsible for the forced conversion of Serbs in the Ustase government wrote that it was no longer a crime to kill seven year olds if they stood in the way of the Ustase movement 149 In his diocesan newspaper the Archbishop of Sarajevo Ivan Saric published that the liberation of the world from the Jews is a movement for the renewal of humanity 150 In Bosnia the Ustase largely ruled through the Catholic clergy with the priest Bozidar Bralo serving as a chief Ustase delegate for Bosnia 151 Miroslav Filipovic was a Franciscan friar from the Petricevac monastery who allegedly joined the Ustase as chaplain and on 7 February 1942 joined in the massacre of roughly 2730 Serbs of the nearby villages including some 500 children He was allegedly subsequently dismissed from his order and defrocked although he wore his clerical garb when he was hanged for war crimes He became Chief Guard of Jasenovac concentration camp where he was nicknamed Fra Sotona Father Satan by fellow Croats Mladen Lorkovic the Croat minister of foreign affairs formulated it like this In Croatia we can find few real Serbs The majority of Pravoslavs are as a matter of fact Croats who were forced by foreign invaders to accept the infidel faith Now it s our duty to bring them back into the Roman Catholic fold 152 For the duration of the war in accordance with Vatican s long term diplomatic practice of not recognizing new states in wartime before they were legitimized by peace treaties the pope did not send a nuncio or diplomat to Croatia as requested but an apostolic visitor the abbot Giuseppe Marcone who was to represent the Vatican to Croatian Catholic Church not to the government The government ignored this nuance bestowing a prominent place for Marcone at all official functions 153 After World War II ended the Ustase who had managed to escape from Yugoslav territory including Pavelic were smuggled to South America 102 This was largely done through ratlines operated by Catholic priests who had previously secured positions at the Vatican Some of the more infamous members of the Illyrian College of San Girolamo in Rome involved in this were Franciscan friars Krunoslav Draganovic and Dominik Mandic and a third friar surnamed Petranovic first name unknown 154 The Ustase regime had deposited large amounts of gold including the gold plundered from Serbs and Jews during World War II into Swiss bank accounts It seems a substantial quantity of gold was additionally transported by Ustase to Austria at the end of the WWII Out of a total by some estimates of 350 million Swiss francs an intelligence report estimated 200 million ca 47 million reached the Vatican 155 The question remains unclarified 156 154 Cardinal Alojzije Stepinac Archbishop of Zagreb was accused sentenced to prison after the end of World War II by Yugoslav communist authorities of supporting the Ustase and of exonerating those in the clergy who collaborated with them and were hence complicit in forced conversions Stepinac stated on 28 March 1941 noting early attempts to unite Croatians and Serbs All in all Croats and Serbs are of two worlds northpole and southpole never will they be able to get together unless by a miracle of God The schism between the Catholic Church and Eastern Orthodoxy is the greatest curse in Europe almost greater than Protestantism There is no moral no principles no truth no justice no honesty 157 On 22 July 2016 the Zagreb County Court annulled his post war conviction due to gross violations of current and former fundamental principles of substantive and procedural criminal law 158 In 1998 Stepinac was beatified by Pope John Paul II On 22 June 2003 John Paul II visited Banja Luka During the visit he held a Mass at the aforementioned Petricevac monastery This caused public uproar due to the connection of the monastery with Filipovic At the same location the Pope proclaimed the beatification of a Roman Catholic layman Ivan Merz 1896 1928 who was the founder of the Association of Croatian Eagles in 1923 which some view as a precursor to the Ustase Roman Catholic apologists defend the Pope s actions by stating the convent at Petricevac was one of the places that went up in flames causing the death of 80 year old Friar Alojzije Atlija Further it was claimed by the apologists that the war had produced a total exodus of the Catholic population from this region that the few who remained were predominantly elderly and that the church in Bosnia then allegedly risked total extinction due to the war citation needed Ustase Chetnik collaborationSee also Chetniks Collaboration with the Independent State of Croatia nbsp Ustase and Domobran officers with the chetnik commander Uros Drenovic left Despite representing opposing nationalisms when confronted with the growing strength of their common enemy i e the partisans Ustase and Chetniks throughout the Independent State of Croatia signed collaboration agreements in the spring of 1942 which for the most part held until the very end of the war 159 The introduction to these agreements stated 159 As long as there is a danger of armed partisan gangs Chetnik formations will voluntarily cooperate with the Croatian armed forces in fighting and destroying the partisans and will be under the command of the Croatian armed forces in these operations Beyond that the agreements specified that the NDH military will supply Chetniks with arms and ammunition Chetniks wounded in anti partisan operations will be treated at NDH military hospitals and widows and orphans of killed Chetnik soldiers will receive state financial aid equal to aid received by widows and orphans of NDH soldiers The NDH authorities arranged for Serbs in Ustase concentration camps to be released but only on the special recommendation of Chetnik commanders thus not partisans and their sympathizers 160 On 30 June 1942 the Chief Headquarters of the Poglavnik i e Ante Pavelic sent a statement signed by Marshall Slavko Kvaternik to other NDH ministries summarizing these agreements with NDH Chetniks 160 The Ustase signed collaboration agreements with key NDH Chetnik commanders in the following order Momcilo Đujic commander of Chetnik Dinara Division Brane Bogunovic commander of Gavrilo Princip Corps Dinara Division Mane Rokvic commander of King Alexander I Corps Dinara Division Pajica Omcikus King Petar II Corps Dinara Division and Pajo Popovic commander of Onisin Popovic Corps Dinara Division in December 1941 first started negotiations with the Ustase mayor of Knin David Sincic in Knin 161 Uros Drenovic the commander of the Chetnik Kocic detachment signed an agreement with the Ustase in Mrkonjic Grad on 27 April 1942 162 Lazar Tesanovic commander of the Chetnik battalion Mrkonjic signed an agreement with the NDH on 23 May 1942 Cvijetin Todic and Savo Bozic commanders of the Chetnik Ozren and Trebava detachments signed agreements with the NDH on 28 May 1942 in the village Lipac 163 164 165 Representatives of the Majevica Chetnik detachment signed agreements with the NDH on 30 May 1942 166 Rade Radic commander of the Chetnik detachment Borja reached agreement with the NDH authorities on 9 June 1942 167 Slavko Bjelajac and Jovan Dabovic Chetnik commanders from the Otocac area signed agreements with the NDH on 17 December 1942 161 On 26 May 1942 the Ustase minister Mladen Lorkovic wrote in a communique to local NDH authorities that pursuant to these agreements Home Guard Headquarters agrees with your proposal to grant one million kuna aid to the leaders of the Greek Eastern community i e Serb Orthodox Momcilo Djujic Mane Rokvic Branko Bogunovic Paja Popovic and Paja Omcikus 200 Yugoslav guns and 10 machine guns 161 Ustase and Chetniks simultaneously participated alongside German and Italian forces in major battles against the Partisans in the NDH the Kozara Offensive Case White Operation Rosselsprung the Battle for Knin 1944 etc In 1945 the Chetnik commander Momcilo Djujic and his troops with Ustase leader Ante Pavelic s permission escaped across the NDH to the West 168 In April 1945 by his own admission Ante Pavelic received two generals from the headquarters Draza Mihailovic and reached an agreement with them on a joint fight against Tito s communists while in the first days of May Chetnik units passed through Ustase held Zagreb on their way to Bleiburg after which Chetniks and members of the Ustase army were killed by the Partisans in various sites including Tezno near Maribor 169 StructureAt the top of the command was the Poglavnik meaning head Ante Pavelic Pavelic was appointed the office as Head of State of Croatia after Adolf Hitler had accepted Benito Mussolini s proposal of Pavelic on 10 April 1941 The Croatian Home Guard was the armed forces of Croatia it subsequently merged into the Croatian Armed Forces 10 The Ustase command structure was further broken down into administrations at a stozer district logor country and tabor county level 170 Symbols nbsp Symbol used in the Independent State of Croatia The symbol of the Ustase was a capital blue letter U with an exploding grenade emblem within it 171 172 The flag of the Independent State of Croatia was a red white blue horizontal tricolor with the shield of the coat of arms or Croatia in the middle and the U in the upper left Its currency was the NDH kuna The Ustase greeting was Za dom spremni Salute Za dom For home land Reply Spremni We are ready This was used instead of the Nazi greeting Heil Hitler by the Ustase Today it is nominally associated with Ustase sympathisers by Serbs or non Ustase conservatives associated with the Croatian Party of Rights However some Croats see it as a patriotic salute emphasising defending one s home and country On the internet it is sometimes abbreviated as ZDS 173 174 LegacyThis section should include a summary of Far right politics in Croatia See Wikipedia Summary style for information on how to incorporate it into this article s main text April 2018 nbsp Young boy wearing a shirt with a Black Legion Ustase Militia sign at a Thompson concert In popular culture The Ustase plays an important role in Harry Turtledove s short alternate history story Ready for the Fatherland It plays a brief background role in In the Presence of Mine Enemies an unrelated work by the same author In both these works the regime founded by Pavelic lasted several decades beyond the 1940s Popular Croatian singer Thompson regularly starts his concerts with the Ustase salute 175 The Wiesenthal Center has protested this along with other attempts at revisionism and Holocaust denial in Croatia 176 Modern day Croatia Seeking to unify support for Croatia s independence Franjo Tuđman Croatia s first president in the late 1980s advocated pomirba i e national reconciliation between Ustase and Partisans 177 This led to a revival of pro Ustase views symbols and salutes among the Croatian political right 178 Following Croatia s Independence in the 1990s streets were renamed to carry the name of Ustase leaders such as Mile Budak and Jure Francetic Although some of these were later removed Radio Free Europe noted that of some 20 streets dedicated to Mile Budak in the 90s half still remained in Croatia in 2019 179 Jewish and Serb organizations Croat historians and antifascists as well as international observers have repeatedly warned of revisionism in Croatia which seeks to minimize Ustase crimes and even celebrates the Ustase regime Recent examples include the publication of a book celebrating the Croatian knight Maks Luburic 180 who as head of Ustase concentration camps was responsible for over 100 000 deaths during Ustase genocides against Jews Serbs and Roma and a documentary minimizing children s deaths in Ustase concentration camps 181 The Luburic book was promoted with the assistance of the Croatian Catholic Church 180 and Church sources minimized children s deaths in concentration camps Croat historians have noted that the Church has been a leader in promoting revisionism and minimizing Ustase crimes 181 In 2013 the newspaper of Croatian Catholic archdioceses Glas Koncila published a series on Jasenovac by the Jasenovac denier Igor Vukic 182 who claims Jasenovac was a mere work camp where no mass executions took place In 2015 the head of the Croatian Bishops Conference asked that the Ustase Za dom spremni salute be adopted by the Croatian army 183 Croatian soccer fans have repeatedly chanted the Ustase Za dom spremni salute for which FIFA and UEFA have repeatedly leveled penalties against the Croatian soccer federation for fascists outburst 184 185 In 2014 the Croatian soccer player Josip Simunic was banned from the FIFA World Cup for leading a stadium full of fans in the Ustase salute 186 In 2014 the then mayor of Split Croatia unveiled a monument dedicated to the 1990s HOS brigade named The Knight Rafael Boban after the Ustase commander which includes the HOS emblem with the Ustase Za dom spremni salute 187 Since then the HOS organization has organized annual commemorations at the memorial on 10 April the anniversary of the founding of the Independent State of Croatia during which the black uniformed participants shout the Ustase Za dom spremni salute 188 In 2016 the Croatian HOS war veterans organization posted a plaque at Jasenovac concentration camp with the Ustase Za dom spremni salute 189 Despite protests by Jewish and other organizations this was allowed to remain until criticism by the US State Department special envoy on Holocaust issues 190 forced the government to move it to a nearby town As a result of this and allegations of the government s tolerance for the minimization of Ustase crimes Jewish Serb and Croat WWII resistance groups refused to appear with government representatives at the annual Jasenovac commemoration 191 In 2019 the Austrian government passed a law forbidding the display of Ustase symbols 192 along with previously banned Nazi symbols largely as a result of the display of same by Croatian nationalists at the annual Croatian government sponsored Bleiburg commemoration where Austrian police have repeatedly arrested Croat nationalists for Nazi and fascist salutes Three Austrian EU parliamentarians declared the Bleiburg ceremony which tens of thousands of Croat nationalists attend the largest fascist gathering in Europe 193 The Austrian Catholic Church banned a Mass by the Croatian Catholic Church at Bleiburg because as they stated the Mass at Bleiburg has become part of a manifestation that is politically instrumentalised and is part of a political national ritual that serves to selectively experience and interpret history adding that it misuses a religious service for political purposes while not distancing itself from the Fascist worldview 194 195 Modern usage of the term Ustase After World War II the Ustase movement was split into several organizations and there is presently no political or paramilitary movement that claims its legacy as their successor The term ustase is today used as a derogatory term for Croatian ultranationalism The term Ustase is sometimes used among Serbs to describe Serbophobia or more generally to defame political opponents citation needed Use by Serbian nationalists Since the end of World War II Serbian historians have used the Ustase to promote that Serbs resisted the Axis while Croats and Bosniaks widely supported them However the Ustase lacked support among ordinary Croats and never accrued any significant support among the populace 36 37 The Ustase regime was backed by parts of the Croatian population that during the interwar period had felt oppressed in the Serbian led Yugoslavia Most of the support it had initially gained by creating a Croat national state was lost because of the brutal practices it used 38 In the 1980s Serbian historians produced many works about the forced conversion during World War II of Serbs to Catholicism in Ustase Croatia 196 These debates between historians openly became nationalistic and also entered the wider media 197 Historians in Belgrade during the 1980s who had close government connections often went on television during the evenings to discuss invented or real details about the Ustase genocide against Serbs during World War II 198 Serb clergy and nationalists blamed all Croats for crimes committed by the Ustase and for planning a genocide against Serb people These propagandistic activities were aimed at justifying planned crimes and ethno demographic engineering in Croatia 199 198 See alsoIndependent State of Croatia World War II in YugoslaviaNotes Ante Pavelic first began using the title of Poglavnik 1 pronounced pǒɡlaːʋniːk when it was prescribed as the official title for the supreme leader of the Ustase movement in the organization s founding charter in 1930 Ustase supporters who emigrated abroad established various pro Ustase style organizations after the war These included the Crusaders Croatian Liberation Movement 5 Croatian Revolutionary Brotherhood 6 and the Croatian National Resistance 7 They are variously known in English as the Ustase Ustashe Ustashi Ustahis or Ustashas OED 2020 adds Ustachi Ustaci Ustasha Ustasa and Ustasi with the associated adjective sometimes being Ustashe or Ustasha apart from Ustase This variance stems from the fact that Ustase is the plural form of Ustasa in the Serbo Croatian language References Cetin Onder February 2010 1941 Resolutions of El Hidaje in Bosnia and Herzegovina as a Case of Traditional Conflict Transformation PDF European Journal of Economic and Political Studies 76 OCLC 664122357 Archived from the original PDF on 23 May 2011 Schauble Michaela 2014 Narrating Victimhood Gender Religion and the Making of Place in Post War Croatia Berghahn Books p 323 ISBN 978 1 78238 261 4 Martina Grđan Ustaska emigracija za vrijeme Kraljevine Jugoslavije Filozofski fakultet u Zagrebu Zagreb lipnja 2014 str 7 Bernd Jurgen Fischer 2007 Balkan Strongmen Dictators and Authoritarian Rulers of South Eastern Europe Purdue University Press p 208 ISBN 978 1 55753 455 2 Retrieved 30 August 2013 Pavelic belonged to the most anti Serbian branch of the Party Croatian Liberation Movement PDF in Croatian Croatian Information Documentation Referral Agency Archived from the original PDF on 14 January 2017 Retrieved 29 April 2012 Alexander Yonah Myers Kenneth 2015 Terrorism in Europe Routledge Library Editions Terrorism and Insurgency London Routledge Taylor amp Francis Group p 59 ISBN 978 1 317 44933 1 OCLC 907773295 The third terrorist international aggregate which has caused problems for Western Europe is composed of various Croatian emigre terrorist groups These groups operating under names Croatian Revolutionary Brotherhood Yugoslav Emigre Extremists PDF Freedom of Information Act Electronic Reading Room CIA 29 May 1980 Archived from the original PDF on 23 January 2017 Berend Ivan Tibor 1998 Decades of Crisis Central and Eastern Europe Before World War II University of California Press p 329 ISBN 978 0 52020 617 5 Peter Kivisto The Ethnic enigma the salience of ethnicity for European origin groups Cranbury New Jersey London Mississauga Ontario Associated University Presses 1989 p 107 a b Goldstein Ivo 2001 Croatia A History Hurst amp Co p 133 ISBN 978 0 7735 2017 2 Meier Viktor 1999 Yugoslavia a history of its demise Psychology Press p 125 ISBN 978 0 415 18595 0 Retrieved 23 December 2011 Lampe John Mazower Mark 2006 Ideologies and National Identities Central European University Press pp 54 109 ISBN 9789639241824 Yeomans 2015 p 53 Yeomans Rory 2012 Visions of Annihilation The Ustasha Regime and the Cultural Politics of Fascism 1941 1945 Pittsburgh University of Pittsburgh Press p 196 ISBN 978 0 82297 793 3 Badie Bertrand Berg Schlosser Dirk Morlino Leonardo eds 2011 International Encyclopedia of Political Science Sage Publications ISBN 9781483305394 Retrieved 9 September 2020 fascist Italy developed a state structure known as the corporate state with the ruling party acting as a mediator between corporations making up the body of the nation Similar designs were quite popular elsewhere in the 1930s The most prominent examples were Estado Novo in Portugal 1932 1968 and Brazil 1937 1945 the Austrian Standestaat 1933 1938 and authoritarian experiments in Estonia Romania and some other countries of East and East Central Europe Tomasevich 2001 p 391 Serbia proper was under strict German occupation a situation which allowed the Ustasha to pursue its radical anti Serbian policy a b John R Lampe 2004 Ideologies and National Identities The Case of Twentieth Century Southeastern Europe Central European University Press p 102 ISBN 978 963 9241 82 4 The Doctrine of Fascism Enciclopedia Italiana Rome Istituto Giovanni Treccani 1932 Lampe John Iordachi Constantin 2019 Battling Over the Balkans Historiographical Questions and Controversies Budapest Central European University Press p 267 ISBN 978 963 386 325 1 Za dom spremni je isto sto i Sieg Heil Danas hr 09 01 2012 Tomasevich 2001 p 32 Tomasevich 2001 pp 351 352 a b c d e f Ladislaus Hory und Martin Broszat Der kroatische Ustascha Staat Deutsche Verlag Anstalt Stuttgart 2 Auflage 1965 pp 13 38 75 80 in German Croatian holocaust still stirs controversy BBC News 29 November 2001 Retrieved 29 September 2010 Balkan Auschwitz haunts Croatia BBC News 25 April 2005 Retrieved 29 September 2010 No one really knows how many died here Serbs talk of 700 000 Most estimates put the figure nearer 100 000 Lepre George 1997 Himmler s Bosnian Division The Waffen SS Handschar Division 1943 1945 p 14 18 a href Template Cite book html title Template Cite book cite book a CS1 maint numeric names authors list link Meier Viktor Yugoslavia a history of its demise English London Routledge 1999 p 125 ISBN 9780415185950 a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p Fischer 2007 pp 207 208 210 226 Kent Peter C The lonely Cold War of Pope Pius XII the Roman Catholic Church and the division of Europe 1943 1950 McGill Queen s Press MQUP 2002 p 46 ISBN 978 0 7735 2326 5 Fiercely nationalistic the Ustase were also fervently Catholic identifying in the Yugoslav political context Catholicism with Croatian nationalism a b Jelic Butic Fikreta 1977 Ustase i Nezavisna Drzava Hrvatska 1941 1945 Sveucilisna naklada Liber Tomasevich 2001 p 30 Tomasevich 2001 pp 233 241 Yugoslavia Holocaust Encyclopedia United States Holocaust Memorial Museum website accessed 25 April 2014 Watch Helsinki 1993 War Crimes in Bosnia Hercegovina Human Rights Watch ISBN 978 1 56432 083 4 Retrieved 23 April 2008 Raic David 2002 Statehood and the law of self determination Martinus Nijhoff Publishers ISBN 978 90 411 1890 5 Retrieved 23 April 2008 a b Shepherd 2012 p 78 a b Israeli Raphael 2017 The Death Camps of Croatia Visions and Revisions 1941 1945 Routledge p 45 ISBN 978 1 35148 403 9 a b Sindbaek Tina 2002 Usable History Representations of Yugoslavia s Difficult Past from 1945 to 2002 Aarhus University Press p 27 Ramet 2006 p 117 Kallis 2008 p 130 Yeomans 2015 p 265 a b McCormick 2008 Newman 2017 Newman 2014 a b Ramet 2006 p 118 Einstein accuses Yugoslavian rulers in savant s murder The New York Times 6 May 1931 mirror Raditch left tale of Yugoslav plot The New York Times 23 August 1931 p N2 Retrieved 6 December 2008 mirror Ramet 2006 p 126 a b c d e Đilas Aleksa The Contested Country Yugoslav Unity and Communist Revolution 1919 1953 Harvard University Press 1991 pp 114 115 129 ISBN 9780674166981 Fascism Past Present Future By Walter Laqueur p 263 a b c d Van Creveld Martin L Hitler s Strategy 1940 1941 The Balkan Clue 2nd ed London New York Cambridge University Press 1974 pp 6 8 ISBN 9780521201438 Galeazzo Ciano Count Malcolm Muggeridge translator Ciano s diary 1939 1943 W Heinemann 1950 p 392 Hamerli 2015 Goldstein amp Goldstein 2016 p 92 a b c Ramet 2006 p 119 Stanley G Payne 1996 A History of Fascism 1914 1945 University of Wisconsin Press p 406 ISBN 978 0 299 14873 7 a b Atkin Nicholas and Frank Tallet Priests Prelates and People A History of European Catholicism since 1750 New York I B Tauris amp Co Ltd 2003 p 248 ISBN 9781860646652 Caccamo Francesco and Trinchese Stefano Rotte adriatiche Tra Italia Balcani e Mediterraneo FrancoAngeli 2011 p 158 ISBN 9788856833027 Rich Norman Hitler s War Aims the Establishment of the New Order 1974 pp 276 277 W W Norton amp Co New York ISBN 9780393332902 a b Greble Emily Sarajevo 1941 1945 Muslims Christians and Jews in Hitler s Europe Ithaca New York Cornell University Press 2011 p 125 ISBN 9780801449215 a b c d e Tomasevich 2001 p 529 Tomasevich 2001 p 546 Goldstein amp Goldstein 2016 p 93 Ante Pavelic The Croat Question PDF Archived from the original PDF on 25 October 2017 Retrieved 25 November 2017 Goldstein amp Goldstein 2016 p 115 Goldstein amp Goldstein 2016 p 121 Goldstein amp Goldstein 2016 p 170 Zuckerman 2010 Despot Zvonimir Kako je osnovan prvi ustaski logor u NDH Vecernji list Archived from the original on 1 February 2014 Retrieved 30 March 2020 Holocaust Era in Croatia 1941 1945 Jasenovac United States Holocaust Memorial Museum Knezevic Snjeska 2001 The Synagogue of Zagreb 1867 1942 The Synagogue and Zagreb PDF Jewish Community of Zagreb pp 42 46 Retrieved 13 December 2018 Goldstein amp Goldstein 2016 pp 127 135 Lepre George 1997 Himmler s Bosnian Division The Waffen SS Handschar Division 1943 1945 pp 14 18 Griffin Roger The Nature of Fascism Digital Printing edition New York Routledge 2003 p 120 ISBN 9781136145889 Tomasevich 2001 pp 381 382 a b Suppan 2014 pp 39 592 Yeomans 2013 p 6 Kivisto Peter The Ethnic enigma the salience of ethnicity for European origin groups Cranbury NJ London UK Mississauga Canada Associated University Press 1989 p 107 ISBN 9780944190036 Jovic Dejan Yugoslavia a state that withered away p 51 Colic 1973 p 34 Ustaske teroristicke akcije pocele su 22 marta 1929 godine u Zagrebu gdje su Mijo Babic i Zvonko Pospisil revolverskim hicima ubili glavnog urednika zagrebackih Novosti i predsjednika Jugostampe Toni Slegela a b Tomasevich 2001 p 33 a b Tomasevich 2001 pp 33 34 Matkovic 2002 p 17 Goldstein 2006 p 229 a b Yeomans 2011 p 190 Yeomans 2011 pp 190 191 a b Yeomans 2011 p 191 Hrvatski Narod Croatian Nation Croatian periodical Holocaust Museum LA Retrieved 27 September 2021 Macek Vladko In the Struggle for Freedom New York Robert Speller amp Sons 1957 p 230 Tomasevich 2001 p 466 Tomasevich 2001 pp 233 302 Trifkovic 2020 p 85 a b c Thomas amp Mikulan 1995 Yeomans 2015 p 301 The social background of rankand file Ustasha recruits was overwhelmingly working class and uneducated Photography Jewish Historical Museum of Yugoslavia 1941 Archived from the original on 13 February 2008 Retrieved 3 December 2007 Some were sent to concentration camps and subsequently killed For a description of these deportations and the treatment in the camps C f Djuro Schwartz In the Jasenovac camps of death ג ורו שווארץ במחנות המוות של יאסנובאץ קובץ מחקרים כ ה יד ושם Alonso Kramer amp Rodrigo 2019 Trifkovic Srđa 21 April 2000 The Real Genocide in Yugoslavia Independent Croatia of 1941 Revisited Chronicles Trifkovic Srđa 21 April 2000 The Real Genocide in Yugoslavia Independent Croatia of 1941 Revisited The Centre for Peace in the Balkans Steinberg 1990 p 30 Goni Uki The Real Odessa Smuggling The Nazis to Peron s Argentina Granta 2002 p 202 ISBN 9781862075818 a b Tied up in the Rat Lines Haaretz 17 January 2006 Serbian Genocide combatgenocide org The Combat Genocide Association Two Bullets for Pavelic PDF 2003 Archived from the original PDF on 23 April 2009 Jones Adam amp Nicholas A Robins 2009 Genocides by The Oppressed Subaltern Genocide in Theory and Practice p 106 Indiana University Press ISBN 978 0 253 22077 6 Jacobs Steven L Confronting Genocide Judaism Christianity Islam pp 158 159 Lexington Books 2009 Deciphering the Balkan Enigma Using History to Inform Policy PDF Archived from the original PDF on 13 November 2005 Retrieved 3 June 2011 Ball Howard 2011 Genocide A Reference Handbook ABC CLIO p 124 ISBN 978 1 59884 488 7 better source needed Yeomans 2013 p 18 Ramet 2006 p 114 Baker 2015 p 18 Bellamy 2013 p 96 Pavlowitch 2008 p 34 Jasenovac encyclopedia ushmm org Retrieved 24 March 2020 Croatian WWII Concentration Camp records made available for first time by United States Holocaust United States Holocaust Memorial Museum 2001 Retrieved 26 September 2007 Jasenovac Memorial Site official web site accessed 25 August 2016 a b c Tomasevich 2001 p 722 Summers Craig amp Eric Markusen Collective violence harmful behavior in groups and governments Rowman amp Littlefield 1999 p 55 ISBN 9780847688135 Rummel Rudolph J Democide Nazi Genocide and Mass Murder Transaction Publishers 1992 p 75 ISBN 9781412821476 While German troops were still in several places in Croatia the Croatians began a beastly persecution of the Orthodox Serbs At this time at least a half million people were killed An unbelievable governing mentality was responsible as I learned in August 1943 when I received the answer to a question of mine from a government functionary in the circle of the chief of state Neubacher p 31 Lituchy 2006 p 8 Vukusic Tomo 21 September 2006 MOSTARSKI BISKUP ALOJZIJE MISIC 1912 1942 ZA VRIJEME DRUGOGA SVJETSKOG RATA II Prilog proucavanju međucrkvenih i međunacionalnih odnosa Crkva U Svijetu in Croatian 41 3 326 341 ISSN 0352 4000 a b c d e Gumz 2001 Horstenau Edmund Glaise von Broucek Peter 1988 Ein General im Zwielicht die Erinnerungen Edmund Glaises von Horstenau in German Bohlau Verlag Wien pp 166 167 ISBN 978 3 205 08749 6 BiH Supreme Court Archive B I I k171 13 15 1 Tomasevich 2001 p 721 Tomasevich 2001 a b Tomasevich 2001 p 530 Tomasevich 2001 p 541 a b Tomasevich 2001 p 528 McCormick 2014 p 81 a b c d Tomasevich 2001 p 531 Tomasevich 2001 p 545 Tomasevich 2001 p 565 Biondich 2007 p 41 Adriano amp Cingolani 2018 p 31 Tomasevich 2001 p 537 Bosnia and Herzegovina in the Second World War Enver Redzic Enver Redzic Psychology Press 2005 68 73 79 83 Ethnic Conflict and International Intervention Crisis in Bosnia Herzegovina 1990 93 Crisis in Bosnia Herzegovina Steven L Burg Paul S Shoup Routledge 4 ozu 2015 Tomasevich 2001 p 555 Tomasevich 2001 pp 381 384 Goldstein amp Goldstein 2016 p 490 Sto je nama Stepinac autograf hr 10 February 2014 Tomasevich 2001 p 567 Gilbert 2010 p 236 Cardinal Stepinac a witness to the truth a collection of papers from the international conference Zagreb September 19 2008 Zeljko Tanjic pp 23 45 62 76 84 170 Tomasevich 2001 p 558 Tomasevich 2001 p 370 Phayer 2000 p 34 Phayer 2000 p 35 Tomasevich 2001 pp 490 496 Berenbaum Michael editor A Mosaic of Victims Non Jews Persecuted and Murdered by the Nazis NYU Press pp 74 79 1992 ISBN 978 0814711750 The Pope s Dilemma Pius XII Faces Atrocities and Genocide in the Second World War Jacques Kornberg University of Toronto Press 2015 p 87 a b Gorin Julia 23 February 2010 Mass grave of history Vatican s WWII identity crisis The Jerusalem Post Retrieved 17 January 2018 U S and Allied Wartime and Postwar Relations and Negotiations with Argentina Portugal Spain Sweden and Turkey on Looted Gold and German External Assets and U S Concerns about the Fate of the Wartime Ustasha Treasury Supplement to Preliminary Study on U S and Allied Efforts to Recover and Restore Gold and Other Assets Stolen Or Hidden by Germany During World War II William Z Slany Department of State Bureau of Public Affairs Office of the Historian 1998 pp 149 151 Money and the Rise of the Modern Papacy Financing the Vatican 1850 1950 John F Pollard Pollard John F Cambridge University Press 6 sij 2005 pp 200 201 Stanojevic Branimir Alojzije Stepinac zlocinac ili svetac dokumenti o izdaji i zlocinu Nova knjiga 1986 p 51 Court Annuls Verdict against Cardinal Stepinac Archived 8 August 2016 at the Wayback Machine Vedran Pavlic Total Croatia News 22 July 2016 a b Tomasevich 1975 p 227 a b Tomasevich 1975 p 228 a b c Popovic Lolic amp Latas 1988 ZAPISNIK O SPORAZUMU PREDSTAVNIKA CETNICKOG ODREDA KOCIC I NDH OD 27 APRILA 1942 O PRIZNAVANjU VLASTI NDH I SARADNjI U BORBI PROTIV NOP a Zbornik dkumenata i podataka NOR a tom XIV cetnicki dokumenti knjiga 1 1941 i 1942 godina Vojnoizdavacki zavod Beograd dokument broj 74 www znaci net Archived from the original on 20 January 2020 Retrieved 13 April 2020 PREDLOG STABA OZRENSKOG CETNICKOG ODREDA OD 10 MAJA 1942 KOMANDANTU 4 DOMOBRANSKE DIVIZIJE ZA SASTANAK RADI SKLAPANjA SPORAZUMA O SARADNjI U BORBI PROTIV NOP Zbornik dkumenata i podataka NOR a tom XIV cetnicki dokumenti knjiga 1 1941 i 1942 godina Vojnoizdavacki zavod Beograd dokument broj 82 www znaci net Archived from the original on 23 February 2020 Retrieved 13 April 2020 ZAPISNIK O SPORAZUMU IZMEĐU PREDSTAVNIKA OZRENSKOG TREBAVSKOG I ODREDA KRALj PETAR II I NDH OD 28 MAJA 1942 O SARADNjI U BORBI PROTIV NOP a U ISTOCNOJ BOSNI Zbornik dkumenata i podataka NOR a tom XIV cetnicki dokumenti knjiga 1 1941 i 1942 godina Vojnoizdavacki zavod Beograd dokument broj 89 www znaci net Archived from the original on 20 February 2020 Retrieved 13 April 2020 DODATAK ZAPISNIKU O SPORAZUMU IZMEĐU OZRENSKOG I TREBAVSKOG CETNICKOG ODREDA I PREDSTAVNIKA NDH OD 28 MAJA 1942 SACINjEN 9 JULA 1942 GODINE Zbornik dkumenata i podataka NOR a tom XIV cetnicki dokumenti knjiga 1 1941 i 1942 godina Vojnoizdavacki zavod Beograd dokument broj 117 www znaci net Archived from the original on 25 February 2020 Retrieved 13 April 2020 ZAPISNIK O PREGOVORIMA PREDSTAVNIKA MAJEVICKE CETNICKE GRUPE I KOMANDANTA 3 DOMOBRANSKE DIVIZIJE OD 30 MAJA 1942 O PRIZNAVANjU NDH I SARADNjI SA VLASTIMA NDH Zbornik dkumenata i podataka NOR a tom XIV cetnicki dokumenti knjiga 1 1941 i 1942 godina Vojnoizdavacki zavod Beograd dokument broj 91 www znaci net Archived from the original on 16 February 2020 Retrieved 13 April 2020 ZAPISNIK O SPORAZUMU IZMEĐU PREDSTAVNIKA CETNICKOG ODREDA BORJE I NDH OD 9 JUNA 1942 O PRIZNAVANjU SUVERENITETA NDH I O SARADNjI U BORBI PROTIV NOP a Zbornik dkumenata i podataka NOR a tom XIV cetnicki dokumenti knjiga 1 1941 i 1942 godina Vojnoizdavacki zavod Beograd dokument broj 103 www znaci net Archived from the original on 20 January 2020 Retrieved 13 April 2020 Zovak Domagoj Odlazak cetnicke divizije iz kninske krajine i predaja saveznicima Hrvatski povijesni portal Archived from the original on 3 February 2022 Retrieved 13 April 2020 Goldstein 2018 Miljan Goran 2016 From Obscure Beginnings to State Resurrection Ideas and Practices of the Ustasa Organization Fascism 5 11 doi 10 1163 22116257 00501002 Retrieved 16 August 2022 Littlejohn 1994 pp 216 217 Tomasevich 2001 p 327 Leo Crnogorcevic 20 November 2021 Ultranationalists Are Seeing an Organizing Boom in Australia jacobinmag com Retrieved 3 April 2022 Aleksandar Holiga 17 June 2015 Croatia s footballers may become biggest losers in swastika fallout theguardian com Retrieved 3 April 2022 Angela Merkel in Croatian Nationalist Song Controversy Balkan Insight 22 May 2019 Retrieved 11 April 2020 Croatian team celebrates World Cup success with performance by fascist singer The Times of Israel JTA Retrieved 11 April 2020 Ragazzi 2017 Hedges Chris 12 April 1997 Fascists Reborn as Croatia s Founding Fathers The New York Times ISSN 0362 4331 Retrieved 12 April 2020 Zebic Enis 14 June 2019 Mile Budak ostao bez ulice u Virovitici Radio Slobodna Evropa in Serbo Croatian Retrieved 12 April 2020 a b Komunikacije Neomedia U Crkvi predstavljaju lik i djelo hrvatskog viteza Maksa Luburica covjeka koji je osmislio logor u Jasenovcu Novi list www novilist hr in Croatian Retrieved 12 April 2020 a b Crkva se u reviziju povijesti ukljucila na brutalan nacin Nacional hr in Croatian Retrieved 12 April 2020 Komunikacije Neomedia Revizionisticki odnos prema povijesti Uciteljica zivota u Hrvatskoj zakazala Novi list www novilist hr in Croatian Retrieved 12 April 2020 Puljic Pitanje o pozdravu Za dom spremni na referendum www vecernji ba in Croatian Retrieved 12 April 2020 Genocidal Chants at Croat Soccer Jewish World Israel National News 9 September 2009 Retrieved 12 April 2020 Holiga Aleksandar 17 June 2015 Croatia s footballers may become biggest losers in swastika fallout Aleksandar Holiga The Guardian ISSN 0261 3077 Retrieved 12 April 2020 Agencies 16 December 2013 Croatia s Josip Simunic hit with 10 match ban and will miss World Cup The Guardian ISSN 0261 3077 Retrieved 11 April 2020 Slobodna Dalmacija Split tisucu građana pozdravilo spomenik HOS ovcima Baldasar se prevario Na danasnji dan pobjede nad antifasizmom slobodnadalmacija hr in Croatian 9 May 2014 Retrieved 12 April 2020 SPLITOM OPET MARSIRALI LJUDI U CRNOM GRADOM ODJEKIVAO USTASKI POZDRAV ZA DOM SPREMNI Skejo prijetio s govornice Mrzitelji nas i dalje pljuju Jutarnji List www jutarnji hr 10 April 2019 Retrieved 12 April 2020 Veselica Lajla Croatia government under fire for failing to tackle pro Nazis The Times of Israel Retrieved 12 April 2020 Americki izaslanik za holokaust pozvao hrvatsku vladu da ubrza povrat imovine prezivjelima holokausta Jutarnji List www jutarnji hr 23 March 2017 Retrieved 12 April 2020 Zebic Enis 22 April 2017 Vise tisuca ljudi na alternativnoj komemoraciji u Jasenovcu Radio Slobodna Evropa in Serbo Croatian Retrieved 12 April 2020 Austria Bans Ustasha Symbols www total croatia news com 12 February 2019 Archived from the original on 17 May 2023 Retrieved 11 April 2020 Slobodna Dalmacija Austrija ce na Bleiburgu organizirati instant sud za hrvatske neofasiste evo kako ce kazniti sve koji budu isticali ustaske simbole i grb HOS a slobodnadalmacija hr in Croatian 26 April 2018 Retrieved 11 April 2020 Catholic Church in Austria Bans Bleiburg Mass www total croatia news com 8 March 2019 Retrieved 11 April 2020 Austrijska Crkva zabranila misu u Bleiburgu HBK ogorcen www vecernji hr in Croatian Retrieved 12 April 2020 Aleksov 2007 p 106 Brunnbauer Ulf 2011 Historical Writing in the Balkans In Woolf Daniel Schneider Axel eds The Oxford History of Historical Writing Volume 5 Historical Writing Since 1945 Oxford University Press p 364 ISBN 9780199225996 a b Stojanovic 2011 p 221 Michael A Sells 10 December 1998 The Bridge Betrayed Religion and Genocide in Bosnia University of California Press pp 61 62 ISBN 9780520216624 BibliographyAleksov Bojan 2007 Adamant and treacherous Serbian historians on religious conversions In Washburn Dennis Reinhart Kevin eds Converting Cultures Religion Ideology and Transformations of Modernity Brill ISBN 978 90 04 15822 1 Baker Catherine 2015 The Yugoslav Wars of the 1990s Macmillan International Higher Education ISBN 9781137398994 Bellamy Alex J 2013 The Formation of Croatian National Identity A Centuries Old Dream Manchester University Press ISBN 9781847795731 Colic Mladen 1973 Takozvana Nezavisna Drzava Hrvatska 1941 Delta pres Paris Edmond 1961 Genocide in Satellite Croatia 1941 1945 A Record of Racial and Religious Persecutions and Massacres Chicago American Institute for Balkan Affairs Aarons Mark and Loftus John Unholy Trinity How the Vatican s Nazi Networks Betrayed Western Intelligence to the Soviets New York St Martin s Press 1992 372 pages ISBN 978 0 312 07111 0 Krizman Bogdan 1978 ANTE PAVELIC I USTASE Zagreb Globus Krizman Bogdan 1980 PAVELIC IZMEĐU HITLERA I MUSSOLINIJA Zagreb Globus Krizman Bogdan 1983 USTASE I TRECI REICH knjiga 1 Zagreb Globus Krizman Bogdan 1983 USTASE I TRECI REICH knjiga 2 Zagreb Globus Neubacher Hermann Sonderauftrag Suedost 1940 1945 Bericht eines fliegendes Diplomaten 2 durchgesehene Auflage Goettingen 1956 Bulajic Milan 1994 The Role of the Vatican in the break up of the Yugoslav State The Mission of the Vatican in the Independent State of Croatia Ustashi Crimes of Genocide Belgrade Strucna knjiga Bulajic Milan 2002 Jasenovac The Jewish Serbian Holocaust the role of the Vatican in Nazi Ustasha Croatia 1941 1945 Belgrade Fund for Genocide Research Strucna knjiga ISBN 9788641902211 Goldstein Ivo 2006 Ante Pavelic Charisma and National Mission in Wartime Croatia Totalitarian Movements and Political Religions 7 2 225 234 doi 10 1080 14690760600642289 S2CID 144163142 Goldstein Ivo Goldstein Slavko 2016 The Holocaust in Croatia Pittsburgh University of Pittsburgh Press ISBN 9780822944515 Lituchy Barry M 2006 Jasenovac and the Holocaust in Yugoslavia New York Jasenovac Research Institute ISBN 978 0 9753432 0 3 Matkovic Hrvoje 2002 Povijest Nezavisne Drzave Hrvatske in Croatian Naklada Pavicic ISBN 978 953 6308 39 2 McCormick Robert B 2014 Croatia Under Ante Pavelic America the Ustase and Croatian Genocide London New York I B Tauris ISBN 978 0 8577 2535 6 Pavlowitch Stevan K 2008 Hitler s New Disorder The Second World War in Yugoslavia New York Columbia University Press ISBN 9780231700504 Phayer Michael 2000 The Catholic Church and the Holocaust 1930 1965 Bloomington and Indianapolis Indiana University Press ISBN 978 0253214713 Srdja Trifkovic Ustasa Croatian Separatism and European Politics 1929 1945 Lord Byron Foundation for Balkan Studies London 1998 Encyclopedia of the Holocaust Israel Gutman editor in chief Vol 4 Ustase entry Macmillan 1990 Biondich Mark 2007 Controversies Surrounding the Catholic Church in Wartime Croatia 1941 45 The Independent State of Croatia 1941 45 Routledge pp 31 59 ISBN 9780415440554 Biondich Mark 2005 Religion and Nation in Wartime Croatia Reflections on the Ustasa Policy of Forced Religious Conversions 1941 1942 The Slavonic and East European Review 83 1 71 116 doi 10 1353 see 2005 0063 JSTOR 4214049 S2CID 151704526 Ramet Sabrina P 2006 The Three Yugoslavias State Building and Legitimation 1918 2005 Bloomington Indiana Indiana University Press ISBN 978 0 253 34656 8 Rivelli Marco Aurelio 1998 Le genocide occulte Etat Independant de Croatie 1941 1945 Hidden Genocide The Independent State of Croatia 1941 1945 in French Lausanne L age d Homme ISBN 9782825111529 Rivelli Marco Aurelio 1999 L arcivescovo del genocidio Monsignor Stepinac il Vaticano e la dittatura ustascia in Croazia 1941 1945 The Archbishop of Genocide Monsignor Stepinac the Vatican and the Ustase dictatorship in Croatia 1941 1945 in Italian Milano Kaos ISBN 9788879530798 Rivelli Marco Aurelio 2002 Dio e con noi La Chiesa di Pio XII complice del nazifascismo God is with us The Church of Pius XII accomplice to Nazi Fascism in Italian Milano Kaos ISBN 9788879531047 Shepherd Ben H 2012 Terror in the Balkans German Armies and Partisan Warfare Cambridge Harvard University Press ISBN 978 0 674 04891 1 Steinberg Jonathan 1990 All Or Nothing The Axis and the Holocaust 1941 1943 Psychology Press ISBN 978 0 4150 4757 9 Tomasevich Jozo 1975 War and Revolution in Yugoslavia 1941 1945 The Chetniks Stanford Univ Stanford University Press ISBN 978 0 8047 0857 9 Tomasevich Jozo 2001 War and Revolution in Yugoslavia 1941 1945 Occupation and Collaboration Stanford Univ Stanford University Press ISBN 978 0 8047 3615 2 Yeomans Rory 2011 For Us Beloved Commander You Will Never Die Morning Jure Francetic Ustasha Death Squad Leader In the Shadow of Hitler Personalities of the Right in Central and Eastern Europe London I B Tauris Yeomans Rory 2013 Visions of Annihilation The Ustasha Regime and the Cultural Politics of Fascism 1941 1945 University of Pittsburgh Press ISBN 978 0 82297 793 3 Yeomans Rory 2015 The Utopia of Terror Life and Death in Wartime Croatia Boydell amp Brewer ISBN 978 1 58046 545 8 Korb Alexander 2010 A Multipronged Attack Ustasa Persecution of Serbs Jews and Roma in Wartime Croatia Eradicating Differences The Treatment of Minorities in Nazi Dominated Europe Newcastle upon Tyne Cambridge Scholars Publishing pp 145 163 ISBN 9781443824491 Novak Viktor 2011 Magnum Crimen Half a Century of Clericalism in Croatia Vol 1 Jagodina Gambit ISBN 9788676240494 Novak Viktor 2011 Magnum Crimen Half a Century of Clericalism in Croatia Vol 2 Jagodina Gambit ISBN 9788676240494 Stojanovic Dubravka 2011 Value changes in the interpretations of history in Serbia In Listhaug Ola ed Civic and uncivic values Serbia in the post Milosevic era Central European University Press ISBN 978 963 9776 98 2 Kallis Aristotle 2008 Genocide and Fascism The Eliminationist Drive in Fascist Europe Routledge ISBN 9781134300341 Suppan Arnold 2014 Hitler Benes Tito Konflikt Krieg und Volkermord in Ostmittel und Sudosteuropa Austrian Academy of Sciences Thomas Nigel Mikulan Krunoslav 1995 Axis Forces in Yugoslavia 1941 45 Bloomsbury Publishing ISBN 9781855324732 Newman John Paul 2017 War Veterans Fascism and Para Fascist Departures in the Kingdom of Yugoslavia 1918 1941 Fascism 6 42 74 doi 10 1163 22116257 00601003 Newman John Paul 2014 Serbian and Habsburg Military institutional legacies in Yugoslavia after 1918 PDF First World War Studies 5 3 319 335 doi 10 1080 19475020 2014 1001519 S2CID 73611212 McCormick Rob 2008 The United States Response to Genocide in the Independent State of Croatia 1941 1945 Genocide Studies and Prevention 3 1 75 98 doi 10 1353 gsp 2011 0060 S2CID 145309437 Hamerli Petra 2015 The Hungarian Italian Support of the Croatian Separatism between 1928 and 1934 West Bohemian Historical Review 1 ISSN 1804 5480 Zuckerman Bosko 2010 Prilog proucavanju antisemitizma i protuzidovske propagande u vodecem zagrebackom ustaskom tisku 1941 1943 Journal of the Institute of Croatian History in Croatian 42 1 355 385 ISSN 0353 295X Gumz Jonathan E 2001 Wehrmacht Perceptions of Mass Violence in Croatia 1941 1942 The Historical Journal 44 4 1015 1038 doi 10 1017 S0018246X01001996 ISSN 0018 246X JSTOR 3133549 S2CID 159947669 Trifkovic Gaj 2020 Parleying with the Devil Prisoner Exchange in Yugoslavia 1941 1945 University Press of Kentucky ISBN 978 1 94966 811 7 Alonso Miguel Kramer Alan Rodrigo Javier 2019 Fascist Warfare 1922 1945 Aggression Occupation Annihilation Springer Nature pp 243 261 ISBN 978 3 03027 648 5 Adriano Pino Cingolani Giorgio 2018 Nationalism and Terror Ante Pavelic and Ustasha Terrorism from Fascism to the Cold War Central European University Press ISBN 978 9 63386 206 3 Gilbert Martin 2010 The Righteous The Unsung Heroes of the Holocaust Henry Holt and Company ISBN 978 1 4299 0036 2 Popovic Jovo Lolic Marko Latas Branko 1988 Pop izdaje in Croatian Zagreb Stvarnost ISBN 9788670750395 at Google Books at znaci net Goldstein Ivo 2018 Jasenovac Fraktura p 731 ISBN 978 953 266 987 9 Littlejohn David 1994 Foreign Legions of the Third Reich Vol 3 R James Bender Publishing ISBN 978 0 912138 29 9 Ragazzi Francesco 2017 Governing Diasporas in International Relations The Transnational Politics of Croatia and Former Yugoslavia Taylor amp Francis Group ISBN 978 1 138 73963 5 Fischer Bernd J ed 2007 Balkan Strongmen Dictators and Authoritarian Rulers of South Eastern Europe Purdue University Press ISBN 978 1 55753 455 2 External links nbsp Wikimedia Commons has media related to Ustase Holocaust era in Croatia Jasenovac 1941 1945 Archived 16 September 2007 at the Wayback Machine an on line museum by the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum Fund For Genocide Research Jasenovac death camp guskova ru Eichmann Trial Tel Aviv 1961 Archived 3 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine nizkor org Lawsuit against the Vatican Bank and Franciscans for return of the Ustase Treasury by Holocaust victims Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Ustase amp oldid 1219838534, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

article

, read, download, free, free download, mp3, video, mp4, 3gp, jpg, jpeg, gif, png, picture, music, song, movie, book, game, games.