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Genocide of Serbs in the Independent State of Croatia

December 28, 2022

The Genocide of Serbs in the Independent State of Croatia (Serbo-Croatian: Genocid nad Srbima u Nezavisnoj Državi Hrvatskoj / Геноцид над Србима у Независној Држави Хрватској) was the systematic persecution of Serbs which was committed during World War II by the fascist Ustaše regime in the Nazi German puppet state known as the Independent State of Croatia (Serbo-Croatian: Nezavisna Država Hrvatska, NDH) between 1941 and 1945. It was carried out through executions in death camps, as well as through mass murder, ethnic cleansing, deportations, forced conversions, and war rape. This genocide was simultaneously carried out with the Holocaust in the NDH as well as the genocide of Roma, by combining Nazi racial policies with the ultimate goal of creating an ethnically pure Greater Croatia.

Genocide of Serbs in the Independent State of Croatia
Part of World War II in Yugoslavia
(clockwise from top)
Location
Date1941–1945
TargetSerbs (largely Serbs of Croatia and Bosnia and Herzegovina)
Attack type
Genocide, ethnic cleansing, massacres, deportation, forced conversion
Deathsseveral estimates
PerpetratorsUstaše
MotiveAnti-Serb sentiment,[7] Croatian irredentism,[8] anti-Yugoslavism,[9] Croatisation[10]

The ideological foundation of the Ustaše movement reaches back to the 19th century. Several Croatian nationalists and intellectuals established theories about Serbs as an inferior race. The World War I legacy, as well as the opposition of a group of nationalists to the unification into a common state of South Slavs, influenced ethnic tensions in the newly formed Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes (since 1929 Kingdom of Yugoslavia). The 6 January Dictatorship and the later anti-Croat policies of the Serb-dominated Yugoslav government in the 1920s and 1930s fueled the rise of nationalist and far-right movements. This culminated in the rise of the Ustaše, an ultranationalist, terrorist organization, founded by Ante Pavelić. The movement was financially and ideologically supported by Benito Mussolini, and it was also involved in the assassination of King Alexander I.

Following the Axis invasion of Yugoslavia in April 1941, a German puppet state known as the Independent State of Croatia (NDH) was established, comprising most of modern-day Croatia and Bosnia and Herzegovina as well as parts of modern-day Serbia and Slovenia, ruled by the Ustaše. The Ustaše's goal was to create an ethnically homogeneous Greater Croatia by eliminating all non-Croats, with the Serbs being the primary target but Jews, Roma and political dissidents were also targeted for elimination. Large scale massacres were committed and concentration camps were built, the largest one was the Jasenovac, which was notorious for its high mortality rate and the barbaric practices which occurred in it. Furthermore, the NDH was the only Axis puppet state to establish concentration camps specifically for children. The regime systematically murdered approximately 200,000 to 500,000 Serbs. 300,000 Serbs were further expelled and at least 200,000 more Serbs were forcibly converted, most of whom de-converted following the war. Proportional to the population, the NDH was one of the most lethal European regimes.

Mile Budak and other NDH high officials were tried and convicted of war crimes by the communist authorities. Concentration camp commandants such as Ljubo Miloš and Miroslav Filipović were captured and executed, while Aloysius Stepinac was found guilty of forced conversion. Many others escaped, including the supreme leader Ante Pavelić, most to Latin America. The genocide was not properly examined in the aftermath of the war, because the post-war Yugoslav government did not encourage independent scholars out of concern that ethnic tensions would destabilize the new communist regime. Nowadays, оn 22 April, Serbia marks the public holiday dedicated to the victims of genocide and fascism, while Croatia holds an official commemoration at the Jasenovac Memorial Site.

Historical background

Some scholars claim that the ideological foundation of the Ustaše movement reaches back to the 19th century when Ante Starčević established the Party of Rights,[11] as well as when Josip Frank seceded his extreme fraction from it and formed his own Pure Party of Rights.[12] Starčević was a major ideological influence on the Croatian nationalism of the Ustaše.[13][14] He was an advocate of Croatian unity and independence and was both anti-Habsburg, as Starčević saw the main Croatian enemy in the Habsburg Monarchy, and anti-Serb.[13] He envisioned the creation of a Greater Croatia that would include territories inhabited by Bosniaks, Serbs, and Slovenes, considering Bosniaks and Serbs to be Croats who had been converted to Islam and Eastern Orthodox Christianity.[13] In his demonization of the Serbs he claimed " how the Serbs today are dangerous for their ideas and their racial composition, how a bent for conspiracies, revolutions and coups is in their blood."[15] Starčević called the Serbs an "unclean race", a "nomadic people" and "a race of slaves, the most loathsome beasts", while the co-founder of his party, Eugen Kvaternik, denied the existence of Serbs in Croatia, seeing their political consciousness as a threat.[16][17][18][19] The writer Milovan Đilas cites Starčević as the "father of racism" and "ideological father" of the Ustaše, while some Ustaše ideologues have linked Starčević's racial ideas to Adolf Hitler's racial ideology.[20][21]

Frank's party embraced Starčević's position that Serbs are an obstacle to Croatian political and territorial ambitions, and the aggressive anti-Serb attitudes became one of the main characteristics of the party.[22][23][19][24] The followers of the ultranationalist Pure Party of Right were known as the Frankists (Frankovci) and they would become the main pool of members of the subsequent Ustaše movement.[25][17][19][24] Following the defeat of the Central Powers in World War I and the collapse of Austria-Hungarian Empire, the provisional state was formed on the southern territories of the Empire which joined the Allies-associate Kingdom of Serbia to form the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes (later known as Yugoslavia), ruled by the Serbian Karađorđević dynasty. Historian John Paul Newman explained that the influence of the Frankists, as well as the legacy of the World War I had an impact on the Ustaše ideology and their future genocidal means.[24][26] Many war veterans had fought at various ranks and on various fronts on both the ‘victorious’ and ‘defeated’ sides of the war.[24] Serbia suffered the biggest casualty rate in the world, while Croats fought in the Austro-Hungarian army and two of them served as military governors of Bosnia and occupied Serbia.[27][26] They both endorsed Austria–Hungary's denationalizing plans in Serb-populated lands and supported the idea of incorporating a tamed Serbia into the Empire.[26] Newman stated that Austro-Hungarian officers' “unfaltering opposition to Yugoslavia provided a blueprint for the Croatian radical right, the Ustaše”.[26] The Frankists blamed Serbian nationalists for the defeat of Austria-Hungary and opposed the creation of Yugoslavia, which was identified by them as a cover for Greater Serbia.[24] Мass Croatian national consciousness appeared after the establishment of a common state of South Slavs and it was directed against the new Kingdom, more precisely against Serbian predominance within it.[28]

Early 20th century Croatian intellectuals Ivo Pilar, Ćiro Truhelka and Milan Šufflay influenced the Ustaše concept of nation and racial identity, as well as the theory of Serbs as an inferior race.[29][30][31] Pilar, historian, politician and lawyer, placed great emphasis on racial determinism arguing that Croats had been defined by the “Nordic-Aryan” racial and cultural heritage, while Serbs had "interbred" with the "Balkan-Romanic Vlachs”.[32] Truhelka, archeologist and historian, claimed that Bosnian Muslims were ethnic Croats, who, according to him, belonged to the racially superior Nordic race. On the other hand, Serbs belonged to the “degenerate race” of the Vlachs.[33][30] The Ustaše promoted the theories of historian and politician Šufflay, who is believed to have claimed that Croatia had been "one of the strongest ramparts of Western civilization for many centuries", which he claimed had been lost through its union with Serbia when the nation of Yugoslavia was formed in 1918.[34]

The outburst of Croatian nationalism after 1918 was one of the main threats for Yugoslavia's stability.[28] During the 1920s, Ante Pavelić, lawyer, politician and one of the Frankists, emerged as a leading spokesman for Croatian independence.[19] In 1927, he secretly contacted Benito Mussolini, dictator of Italy and founder of fascism, and presented his separatist ideas to him.[35] Pavelić proposed an independent Greater Croatia that should cover the entire historical and ethnic area of the Croats.[35] In that period, Mussolini was interested in Balkans with the aim of isolating Yugoslavia, by strengthening Italian influence on the east coast of the Adriatic Sea.[36] British historian Rory Yeomans claims that there are indication that Pavelić had been considering the formation of some kind of nationalist insurgency group as early as 1928.[37]

 
Ante Pavelić, one of the Frankists and the leading spokesman for Croatian independence in interwar Yugoslavia, founded the Ustaše movement

In June 1928, Stjepan Radić, the leader of the largest and most popular Croatian party Croatian Peasant Party (Hrvatska seljačka stranka, HSS) was mortally wounded in the parliamentary chamber by Puniša Račić, a Montenegrin Serb leader, former Chetnik member and deputy of the ruling Serb People's Radical Party. Račić also shot two other HSS deputies dead and wounded two more.[38][24][39][40] The killings provoked violent student protests in Zagreb.[38] Trying to suppress the conflict between Croatian and Serbian political parties, King Alexander I proclaimed a dictatorship with the aim of establishing the “integral Yugoslavism” and a single Yugoslav nation.[41][25][42][43] The introduction of the royal dictatorship brought separatist forces to the fore, especially among the Croats and Macedonians.[44][28] The Ustaša – Croatian Revolutionary Movement (Croatian: Ustaša – Hrvatski revolucionarni pokret) emerged as the most extreme movement of these.[45] The Ustaše was created in late 1929 or early 1930 among radical and militant student and youth groups, which existed from the late 1920s.[38] Precisely, the movement was founded by journalist Gustav Perčec and Ante Pavelić.[38] They were driven by a deep hatred of Serbs and Serbdom and claimed that, "Croats and Serbs were separated by an unbridgeable cultural gulf" which prevented them from ever living alongside each other.[34] Pavelić accused the Belgrade government of propagating “a barbarian culture and Gypsy civilization”, claiming they were spreading “atheism and bestial mentality in divine Croatia”.[46] Supporters of the Ustaše planned genocide years before World War II, for example one of Pavelić's main ideologues, Mijo Babić, wrote in 1932 that the Ustaše "will cleanse and cut whatever is rotten from the healthy body of the Croatian people".[47] In 1933, the Ustaše presented "The Seventeen Principles" that formed the official ideology of the movement. The Principles stated the uniqueness of the Croatian nation, promoted collective rights over individual rights and declared that people who were not Croat by "blood" would be excluded from political life.[48][49]

In order to explain what they saw as a "terror machine", and regularly referred to as “some excesses” by individuals, the Ustaše cited, among other things, policies of the inter-war Yugoslav government which they described as Serbian hegemony “that cost the lives of thousand Croats”.[50] Historian Jozo Tomasevich explains that that argument is not true, claiming that between December 1918 and April 1941 about 280 Croats were killed for political reasons, and that no specific motive for the killings could be identified, as they may also be linked to clashes during the agrarian reform.[51] Moreover, he stated that Serbs too were denied civil and political rights during the royal dictatorship.[40] However, Tomasevich explains that the anti-Croatian policies of the Serbian-dominated Yugoslav government in the 1920s and 1930s, as well as, the shooting of the HSS deputies by Radić were largely responsible for the creation, growth and nature of Croatian nationalist forces.[40] This culminated in the Ustaše movement and ultimately its anti-Serbian policies in the World War II, which was totally out of proportions to earlier anti-Croatian measures, in nature and extent.[40] Yeomans explains that Ustaše officials constantly emphasized crimes against Croats by the Yugoslav government and security forces, although many of them were imagined, though some of them real, as justification for their envisioned eradication of the Serbs.[52] Political scientist Tamara Pavasović Trošt, commenting on historiography and textbooks, listed the claims that terror against Serbs arose as a result of “their previous hegemony” as an example of the relativisation of Ustaše crimes.[53] Historian Aristotle Kallis explained that anti-Serb prejudices were a "chimera" which emerged through living together in Yugoslavia with continuity with previous stereotypes.[25]

The Ustaše functioned as a terrorist organization as well.[54] The first Ustaše center was established in Vienna, where brisk anti-Yugoslav propaganda soon developed and agents were prepared for terrorist actions.[55] They organized the so-called Velebit uprising in 1932, assaulting a police station in the village of Brušani in Lika.[56] In 1934, the Ustaše cooperated with Bulgarian, Hungarian and Italian right-wing extremists to assassinate King Alexander while he visited the French city of Marseille.[45] Pavelić's fascist tendencies were apparent.[19] The Ustaše movement was financially and ideologically supported by Benito Mussolini.[57] During the intensification of ties with Nazi Germany in the 1930s, Pavelić's concept of the Croatian nation became increasingly race-oriented.[46][58][59]

Independent State of Croatia

 
Kingdom of Yugoslavia's ethnic map 1940
  Serbs (incdluding Montenegrin Serbs)
  Croats
  Bosnian Muslims
  Germans (Danube Swabians)
 
Occupation and partition of Yugoslavia after the Axis invasion

In April 1941, the Kingdom of Yugoslavia was invaded by the Axis powers. After Nazi forces entered Zagreb on 10 April 1941, Pavelić's closest associate Slavko Kvaternik, proclaimed the formation of the Independent State of Croatia (NDH) on a Radio Zagreb broadcast. Meanwhile, Pavelić and several hundred Ustaše volunteers left their camps in Italy and travelled to Zagreb, where Pavelić declared a new government on 16 April 1941.[60] He accorded himself the title of "Poglavnik" (German: Führer, English: Chief leader). The NDH combined most of modern Croatia, all of modern Bosnia and Herzegovina and parts of modern Serbia into an "Italian-German quasi-protectorate".[61] Serbs made up about 30% of the NDH population.[62] The NDH was never fully sovereign, but it was a puppet state that enjoyed the greatest autonomy than any other regime in German-occupied Europe.[59] The Independent State of Croatia was declared to be on Croatian "ethnic and historical territory".[63]

This country can only be a Croatian country, and there is no method we would hesitate to use in order to make it truly Croatian and cleanse it of Serbs, who have for centuries endangered us and who will endanger us again if they are given the opportunity.

— Milovan Žanić, the minister of the NDH government, on 2 May 1941.[64]

The Ustaše became obsessed with creating an ethnically pure state.[65] As outlined by Ustaše ministers Mile Budak, Mirko Puk and Milovan Žanić, the strategy to achieve an ethnically pure Croatia was that:[66][67]

  1. One-third of the Serbs were to be killed
  2. One-third of the Serbs were to be expelled
  3. One-third of the Serbs were to be forcibly converted to Catholicism

According to historian Ivo Goldstein, this formula was never published but it is undeniable that the Ustaše applied it towards Serbs.[68]

The Ustaše movement received limited support from ordinary Croats.[69][70] In May 1941, the Ustaše had about 100,000 members who took the oath.[71][72][73] Since Vladko Maček reluctantly called on the supporters of the Croatian Peasant Party to respect and co-operate with the new regime of Ante Pavelić, he was able to use the apparatus of the party and most of the officials from the former Croatian Banovina.[74][75] Initially, Croatian soldiers who had previously served in the Austro-Hungarian army held the highest positions in the NDH armed forces.[76]

Historian Irina Ognyanova stated that the similarities between the NDH and the Third Reich included the assumption that terror and genocide were necessary for the preservation of the state.[77] Viktor Gutić made several speeches in early summer 1941, calling Serbs "former enemies" and "unwanted elements" to be cleansed and destroyed, and also threatened Croats who did not support their cause.[78] Much of the ideology of the Ustaše was based on Nazi racial theory. Like the Nazis, the Ustaše deemed Jews, Romani, and Slavs to be sub-humans (Untermensch). They endorsed the claims from German racial theorists that Croats were not Slavs but a Germanic race. Their genocides against Serbs, Jews, and Romani were thus expressions of Nazi racial ideology.[79] Adolf Hitler supported Pavelić in order to punish the Serbs.[80] Historian Michael Phayer explained that the Nazis’ decision to kill all of Europe's Jews is estimated by some to have begun in the latter half of 1941 in late June which, if correct, would mean that the genocide in Croatia began before the Nazi killing of Jews.[81] Jonathan Steinberg stated that the crimes against Serbs in the NDH were the “earliest total genocide to be attempted during the World War II”.[81]

Andrija Artuković, the Minister of Interior of the Independent State of Croatia, signed into law a number of racial laws.[82] On 30 April 1941, the government adopted “the legal order of races” and “the legal order of the protection of Atyan blood and the honor of Croatian people”.[82] Croats and about 750,000 Bosnian Muslims, whose support was needed against the Serbs, were proclaimed Aryans.[20] Donald Bloxham and Robert Gerwarth concluded that Serbs were primary target of racial laws and murders.[83] The Ustaše introduced the laws to strip Serbs of their citizenship, livelihoods, and possessions.[48] Similar to Jews in the Third Reich, Serbs were forced to wear armbands bearing the letter “P”, for Pravoslavac (Orthodox).[48][19] (Likewise, Jews were forced to wear the armband with the letter "Ž", fort Židov (Jew).[84] Ustaše writers adopted dehumanizing rhetoric.[85][86] In 1941, the usage of the Cyrillic script was banned,[87] and in June 1941 began the elimination of "Eastern" (Serbian) words from Croatian, as well as the shutting down of Serbian schools.[88] Ante Pavelić ordered, through the "Croatian state office for language", the creation of new words from old roots, and purged many Serbian words.[89]

Whereas the Ustaše persecution of Jews and Roma was systematic and represented an implementation of Nazi policies, their persecution of Serbs was rooted in a stronger "home grown" form of hatred, implemented with more variance due to the larger Serb population found across rural areas. This was done despite the fact it would degrade support for the regime, fueled Serb rebellion and jeopardized the stability of the NDH.[90] The level of violence enacted against Serb communities often depended more on the intercommunal relations and inclinations of the respective local Ustaše warlords than a well-structured policy.[90]

Concentration and extermination camps

See also: Jasenovac concentration camp and Concentration camps in the Independent State of Croatia
 
The Srbosjek ("Serb cutter"), an agricultural knife worn over the hand that was used by the Ustaše for the quick slaughter of inmates.

The Ustaše set up temporary concentration camps in the spring of 1941 and laid the groundwork for a network of permanent camps in autumn.[6] The creation of concentration camps and extermination campaign of Serbs had been planned by the Ustaše leadership long before 1941.[52] In Ustaše state exhibits in Zagreb, the camps were portrayed as productive and "peaceful work camps", with photographs of smiling inmates.[91]

Serbs, Jews and Romani were arrested and sent to concentration camps such as Jasenovac, Stara Gradiška, Gospić and Jadovno. There were 22–26 camps in NDH in total.[92] Historian Jozo Tomasevich described that the Jadovno concentration camp itself acted as a "way station" en route to pits located on Mount Velebit, where inmates were executed and dumped.[93]

Approximately 90,000 of the Serb victims of genocide perished in concentration camps; the rest were killed in "direct terror", i.e. Punitive expeditions and razing of villages, pogroms, massacres and sporadic executions which mainly occurred between 1941 and 1942.[90]

The largest and most notorious camp was the Jasenovac-Stara Gradiška complex,[6] the largest extermination camp in the Balkans.[94] An estimated 100,000 inmates perished there, most Serbs.[95] Vjekoslav "Maks" Luburić, the commander-in-chief of all the Croatian camps, announced the great "efficiency" of the Jasenovac camp at a ceremony on 9 October 1942, and also boasted: "We have slaughtered here at Jasenovac more people than the Ottoman Empire was able to do during its occupation of Europe."[96]

 
Bodies of the Jasenovac camp prisoners in the Sava River

Bounded by rivers and two barbed-wire fences making escape unlikely, the Jasenovac camp was divided into five camps, the first two closed in December 1941, while the rest were active until the end of the war. Stara Gradiška (Jasenovac V) held women and children. The Ciglana (brickyards, Jasenovac III) camp, the main killing ground and essentially a death camp, had 88% mortality rate, higher than Auschwitz's 84.6%.[97] A former brickyard, a furnace was engineered into a crematorium, with witness testimony of some, including children, being burnt alive and stench of human flesh spreading in the camp.[98] Luburić had a gas chamber built at Jasenovac V, where a considerable number of inmates were killed during a three-month experiment with sulfur dioxide and Zyklon B, but this method was abandoned due to poor construction.[99] Still, that method was unnecessary, as most inmates perished from starvation, disease (especially typhus), assaults with mallets, maces, axes, poison and knives.[99] The srbosjek ("Serb-cutter") was a glove with an attached curved blade designed to cut throats.[99] Large groups of people were regularly executed upon arrival outside camps and thrown into the river.[99] Unlike German-run camps, Jasenovac specialized in brutal one-on-one violence, such as guards attacking barracks with weapons and throwing the bodies in the trenches.[99] Some historians use a sentence from German sources: “Even German officers and SS men lost their cool when they saw (Ustaše) ways and methods.”[100]

The infamous camp commander Filipović, dubbed fra Sotona ("brother Satan") and the "personification of evil", on one occasion drowned Serb women and children by flooding a cellar.[99] Filipović and other camp commanders (such as Dinko Šakić and his wife Nada Šakić, the sister of Maks Luburić), used ingenious torture.[99] There were throat-cutting contests of Serbs, in which prison guards made bets among themselves as to who could slaughter the most inmates. It was reported that guard and former Franciscan priest Petar Brzica won a contest on 29 August 1942 after cutting the throats of 1,360 inmates.[101] Inmates were tied and hit over the head with mallets and half-alive hung in groups by the Granik ramp crane, their intestines and necks slashed, then dropped into the river.[102] When the Partisans and Allies closed in at the end of the war, the Ustaše began mass liquidations at Jasenovac, marching women and children to death, and shooting most of the remaining male inmates, then torched buildings and documents before fleeing.[103] Many prisoners were victims of rape, sexual mutilation and disembowelment, while induced cannibalism amongst the inmates also took place.[104][105][106][107][108] Some survivors testified about drinking blood from the slashed throats of the victims and soap making from human corpses.[109][106][108][110]

 
Monument at the Mirogoj Cemetery in Zagreb dedicated to the children from Kozara who died in Ustaše concentration camps

Children's concentration camps

See also: Children in the Holocaust

The Independent State of Croatia was the only Axis satellite to have erected camps specifically for children.[6] Special camps for children were those at Sisak, Đakovo and Jastrebarsko,[111] while Stara Gradiška held thousands of children and women.[97] Historian Tomislav Dulić explained that the systematic murder of infants and children, who could not pose a threat to the state, serves as one of the important illustration of the genocidal character of Ustaša mass killing.[112]

The Holocaust and genocide survivors, including Božo Švarc, testified that Ustaše tore off the children's hands, as well as, “apply a liquid to children’s mouths with brushes”, which caused the children to scream and later die.[48] The Sisak camp commander, aphysician Antun Najžer, was dubbed the "Croatian Mengele" by survivors.[113]

Diana Budisavljević, a humanitarian of Austrian descent, carried out rescue operations and saved more than 15,000 children from Ustaše camps.[114][115]

List of concentration and death camps

  • Jasenovac (I–IV) — around 100,000 inmates perished there, at least 52,000 Serbs
  • Stara Gradiška (Jasenovac V) — more than 12,000 inmates lost their lives, mostly Serbs
  • Gospić — between 24,000 and 42,000 inmates died, predominantly Serbs
  • Jadovno — between 15,000 and 48,000 Serbs and Jews perished there
  • Slana and Metajna — between 4,000 and 12,000 Serbs, Jews and communists died
  • Sisak — 6,693 children passed through the camp, mostly Serbs, between 1,152 and 1,630 died
  • Danica — around 5,000, mostly Serbs, were transported to the camp, some of them were executed
  • Jastrebarsko — 3,336 Serb children passing through the camp, between 449 and 1,500 died
  • Kruščica — around 5,000 Jews and Serbs were interred at the camp, while 3,000 lost their lives
  • Đakovo — 3,800 Jewish and Serb women and children were interred at the camp, at least 569 died
  • Lobor — more than 2,000 Jewish and Serb women and children were interred, at least 200 died
  • Kerestinec — 111 Serbs, Jews and communists were captured, 85 were killed
  • Sajmište — the camp at the NDH territory operated by the Einsatzgruppen and since May 1944 by Ustaše; between 20,000 and 23,000 Serbs, Jews, Roma and anti-fascists died here
  • Hrvatska Mitrovica — the concentration camp in Sremska Mitrovica

Massacres

See also: List of mass executions and massacres in Yugoslavia during World War II

A large number of massacres were committed by the NDH armed forces, Croatian Home Guard (Domobrani) and Ustaše Militia.

The Ustaše Militia was organised in 1941 into five (later 15) 700-man battalions, two railway security battalions and the elite Black Legion and Poglavnik Bodyguard Battalion (later Brigade). They were predominantly recruited among the uneducated population and working class.

Violence against Serbs began in April 1941 and was initially limited in scope, primarily targeting Serb intelligentsia. By July however, the violence became "indiscriminate, widespread and systematic". Massacres of Serbs were focused in mixed areas with large Serb populations for necessity and efficiency.[116]

In the summer of 1941, Ustaše militias and death squads burnt villages and killed thousands of civilian Serbs in the country-side in sadistic ways with various weapons and tools. Men, women, children were hacked to death, thrown alive into pits and down ravines, or set on fire in churches.[78] Hardly ever were firearms used, more commonly, knived axes and such were utilized. Serb victims were dismembered, their ears and tongues cut off and eyes gouged out.[117] Some Serb villages near Srebrenica and Ozren were wholly massacred while children were found impaled by stakes in villages between Vlasenica and Kladanj.[118] The Ustaše cruelty and sadism shocked even Nazi commanders.[119] A Gestapo report to Reichsführer SS Heinrich Himmler, dated 17 February 1942, stated:

Increased activity of the bands [of rebels] is chiefly due to atrocities carried out by Ustaše units in Croatia against the Orthodox population. The Ustaše committed their deeds in a bestial manner not only against males of conscript age, but especially against helpless old people, women and children. The number of the Orthodox that the Croats have massacred and sadistically tortured to death is about three hundred thousand.[120]

The Ustaše's preference for cold weapons in carrying out their deeds was partly a result of the shortage of ammunition and firearms in the early course of the war, but also demonstrated the importance the regime placed on the cult of violence and personal slaughter, in particular through the usage of the knife.[121]

Charles King emphasized that concentration camps are losing their central place in Holocaust and genocide research because a large proportion of victims perished in mass executions, ravines and pits.[122] He explained that the actions of the German allies, including the Croatian one, and the town- and village-level elimination of minorities also played a significant role.[122]

Central Croatia

 
Bodies of victims of the Gudovac massacre

On 28 April 1941, approximately 184–196 Serbs from Bjelovar were summarily executed, after arrest orders by Kvaternik. It was the first act of mass murder committed by the Ustaše upon coming to power, and presaged the wider campaign of genocide against Serbs in the NDH that lasted until the end of the war. A few days following the massacre of Bjelovar Serbs, the Ustaše rounded up 331 Serbs in the village of Otočac. The victims were forced to dig their own graves before being hacked to death with axes. Among the victims was the local Orthodox priest and his son. The former was made to recite prayers for the dying as his son was killed. The priest was then tortured, his hair and beard was pulled out, eyes gouged out before he was skinned alive.[123]

On 24–25 July 1941, the Ustaše militia captured the village of Banski Grabovac in the Banija region and murdered the entire Serb population of 1,100 peasants. On 24 July, over 800 Serb civilians were killed in the village of Vlahović.[116]

Between 29 June and 7 July 1941, 280 Serbs were killed and thrown into pits near Kostajnica.[124] Large scale massacres took place in Staro Selo Topusko,[125] Vojišnica[126] and Vrginmost[127] About 60% of Sadilovac residents lost their lives during the war.[128] More than 400 Serbs were killed in their homes, including 185 children.[128] On 31 July 1942, in the Sadilovac church the Ustaše under Milan Mesić's command massacred more than 580 inhabitants of the surrounding villages, including about 270 children.[129]

Glina

Main article: Glina massacres

On 11 or 12 May 1941, 260–300 Serbs were herded into an Orthodox church and shot, after which it was set on fire. The idea for this massacre reportedly came from Mirko Puk, who was the Minister of Justice for the NDH.[130] On 10 May, Ivica Šarić, a specialist for such operations traveled to the town of Glina to meet with local Ustaše leadership where they drew up a list of names of all the Serbs between sixteen and sixty years of age to be arrested.[131] After much discussion, they decided that all of the arrested should be killed.[132] Many of the town's Serbs heard rumors that something bad was in store for them but the vast majority did not flee. On the night of 11 May, mass arrests of male Serbs over the age of sixteen began.[132] The Ustaše then herded the group into an Orthodox Church and demanded that they be given documents proving the Serbs had all converted to Catholicism. Serbs who did not possess conversion certificates were locked inside and massacred.[123] The church was then set on fire, leaving the bodies to burn as Ustaše stood outside to shoot any survivors attempting to escape the flames.[133]

A similar massacre of Serbs occurred on 30 July 1941. 700 Serbs were gathered into a church under the premise that they would be converted. Victims were killed by having their throats cut or by having their heads smashed in with rifle butts. Between 500 and 2000 other Serbs were later massacred in neighbouring villages by Vjekoslav "Maks" Luburić's forces, continuing until 3 August. In these massacres specifically males 16 years and older were killed.[134] Only one of the victims, Ljubo Jednak, survived by playing dead.

Lika

 
Sava Šumanović's house in Šid, Syrmia, who was tortured and killed together with 150 fellow citizens

The district of Gospić experienced the first large-scale massacres which occurred in the Lika region, as some 3,000 Serb civilians were killed between late July and early August 1941.[116] Ustaše officials reported an emerging Serb rebellion due to massacres. In late July 1941, a detachment of the Croatian military in Gospić noted that the local insurgents were Serb peasants who had fled to the woods "purely as a reaction to the cleansing [operations] against them by our Ustaša formations". Following a sabotage of railway tracks in the district of Vojnić that was attributed to local communists on 27 July 1941, the Ustaše began a "cleansing" operation of indiscriminate pillage and killing of civilians, including the elderly and children.[116]

On 6 August 1941, the Ustaše killed and burned more than 280 villagers in Mlakva, including 191 children.[135] Between June and August 1941, about 890 Serbs from Ličko Petrovo Selo and Melinovac were killed and thrown in the so-called Delić pit.[136]

During the war, the Ustaše massacred more than 900 Serbs in Divoselo, more than 500 in Smiljan, as well as more than 400 in Široka Kula near Gospić.[137] On 2 August 1941, the Ustaše trapped about 120 children and women and 50 men who tried to escape from Divoselo. After a few days of imprisonment, where women were raped, they were stabbed in groups and thrown into the pits.[138]

Slavonia

On 21 December 1941, approximately 880 Serbs from Dugo Selo Lasinjsko and Prkos Lasinjski were killed in the Brezje forest.[139] On the Serbian New Year, 14 January 1942, the biggest slaughter of the civilians from Slavonia started. Villages were burned, and about 350 people were deported to Voćin and executed.[140]

Syrmia

In August 1942, following the joint military anti-partisan operation in the Syrmia by the Ustaše and German Wehrmacht, it turned into a massacre by the Ustaše militia that left up to 7,000 Serbs dead.[141] Among those killed was the prominent painter Sava Šumanović, who was arrested along with 150 residents of Šid, and then tortured by having his arms cut off.[142]

Bosnian Krajina

 
Monument to the Revolution, dedicated to the 2,500 fighters and 68,500 predominantly Serb civilians killed or deported to the concentration camps during the Kozara Offensive

In August 1941 on the Eastern Orthodox Elijah's holy day, who is the patron saint of Bosnia and Herzegovina, between 2,800 and 5,500 Serbs from Sanski Most and the surrounding area were killed and thrown into pits which have been dug by victims themselves.[143]

During the war, the NDH armed forces killed over 7,000 Serbs in the municipality of Kozarska Dubica, while the municipality lost more than half of its pre-war population.[144] The biggest massacre was committed by the Croatian Home Guard in January 1942, when the village Draksenić was burned and more than 200 were people killed.[145]

In February 1942, the Ustaše under Miroslav Filipović's command massacred 2,300 adults and 550 children in Serb-populated villages Drakulić, Motike and Šargovac.[146] The children were chosen as the first victims and their body parts were cut off.[146]

Garavice

Main article: Garavice

From July to September 1941, thousands of Serbs were massacred along with some Jews and Roma victims at Garavice, an extermination location near Bihać. On the night of 17 June 1941, Ustaše began the mass killing of previously captured Serbs, who were brought by trucks from the surrounding towns to Garavice.[147] The bodies of the victims were thrown into mass graves. A large amount of blood contaminated the local water supply.[148]

Herzegovina

On 9 May 1941, approximately 400 Serbs were rounded up from several villages and executed in a pit behind a school in the village of Blagaj.[149] On 31 May, between 120 and 270 Serbs were rounded up near Trebinje and executed.[150]

On 2 June 1941, Ustaše authorities led by Herman Tongl in the municipality of Gacko issued an order to the Serb inhabitants of the villages of Korita and Zagradci demanding that all males above the age of fifteen report to a building in the village of Stepen. Once there, they were imprisoned for two days and on 4 June, the prisoners who numbered about 170 were tied together in groups of two or three, loaded onto a lorry and driven to the Golubnjača limestone pit near Kobilja Glava where they were shot, beaten with poles, cudgels, axes and picks and thrown into the pit.[151] On June 22, under the ruse that Serbs were planning to launch an offensive prior to the Vidovdan holiday, Tongl enlisted locals to massacre Serb farmers in four districts. The victims included women who were raped as well as children; some were thrown into pits while others were taken near the Neretva river and executed there.[152] On June 23, 80 people from three villages near Gacko were killed.[153]

 
Pandurica pit near Ljubinje

On 2 June 1941, the Ustaše killed 140 peasants near the town of Ljubinje and on 23 June killed an additional 160. In the municipality of Stolac, nearly 260 were killed during the course of two days.[153]

In the Livno Field area, the Ustaše killed over 1,200 Serbs including 370 children.[154] In the Koprivnica Forest near Livno, around 300 citizen were tortured and killed.[154] About 300 children, women and the elderly were killed and thrown into the Ravni Dolac pit in Donji Rujani.[155]

From 4–6 August 1941, 650 women and children killed by being thrown into the Golubinka pit near Šurmanci.[48][156] Also, hand grenades were thrown at dead bodies.[156] Some 4000 Serbs later massacred in neighbouring places during that summer.[48]

Drina Valley

Some 70-200 Serbs massacred by Muslim Ustaše forces in Rašića Gaj, Vlasenica in Bosnia and Herzegovina between 22 June and 20 July 1941, after raping women and girls.[157] Many Serbs were executed by Ustaše along the Drina Valley for a months, especially near Višegrad.[48] Jure Francetić's Black Legion killed thousands of defenceless Bosnian Serb civilians and threw their bodies into the Drina river.[158] In 1942, about 6,000 Serbs were killed in Stari Brod near Rogatica and Miloševići.[159][160]

Sarajevo

During the summer of 1941, Ustaše militia periodically interned and executed groups of Sarajevo Serbs.[161] In August 1941, they arrested about one hundred Serbs suspected of ties to the resistance armies, mostly church officials and members of the intelligentsia, and executed them or deported them to concentration camps.[161] The Ustaše killed at least 323 people in the Villa Luburić, a slaughter house and place for torturing and imprisoning Serbs, Jews and political dissidents.[162]

Expulsion and ethnic cleansing

Expulsions was one of the pillar of the Ustaše plan to create a pure Croat state.[48] The first to be forced to leave were war veterans from the World War I Macedonian front who lived in Slavonia and Syrmia.[48][163] By mid-1941, 5,000 Serbs had been expelled to German-occupied Serbia.[48] The general plan was to have prominent people deported first, so their property could be nationalized and the remaining Serbs could then be more easily manipulated. By the end of September 1941, about half of the Serbian Orthodox clergy, 335 priests, had been expelled.[164]

The Drina is the border between the East and West. God’s Providence placed us to defend our border, which our allies are well aware and value, because for centuries we have proven that we are good frontiersmen.[48]

— Mile Budak, the minister of the NDH government, August 1941.

Advocates of expulsion presented it as a necessary measure for the creation of a socially functional nation state, and also rationalized these plans by comparing it with the 1923 population exchange between Greece and Turkey.[165] The Ustaše set up holding camps, with the aim of gathering a large number of people and deporting them.[48] The NDH government also formed the Office of Colonization to resettle Croats on reclaimed land.[48] During the summer of 1941, the expulsions were carried out with the significant participation of the local population.[166] Many representatives of local elites, including Bosnian Muslims in Bosnia and Herzegovina and Germans in Slavonia and Syrmia, played an active role in the expulsion.[167]

An estimated 120,000 Serbs were deported from the NDH to German-occupied Serbia, and 300,000 fled by 1943.[2] By the end of July 1941 according to the German authorities in Serbia, 180,000 Serbs defected from the NDH to Serbia and by the end of September that number exceeded 200,000. In that same period 14,733 persons were legally relocated from the NDH to Serbia.[163] In turn, the NDH had to accept more than 200,000 Slovenian refugees who were forcefully evicted from their homes as part of the German plan of annexing parts of the Slovenian territories. In October 1941, organized migration was stopped because the German authorities in Serbia forbid further immigration of Serbs. According to documentation of the Commissariat for Refugees and Immigrants in Belgrade, in 1942 and 1943 illegal departures of individuals from NDH to Serbia still existed, numbering an estimated 200,000 though these figures are incomplete.[163]

Religious persecution

See also: Catholic clergy involvement with the Ustaše and Persecution of Eastern Orthodox Christians
 
Group of Serb civilians forcibly converted at a church in Glina

The Ustaše viewed religion and nationality as being closely linked; while Roman Catholicism and Islam (Bosnian Muslims were viewed as Croats) were recognized as Croatian national religions, Eastern Orthodoxy was deemed inherently incompatible with the Croatian state project.[34] They saw Orthodoxy as hostile because it was identified as Serb[168] (prior to 1920, the Orthodox dioceses in most of Croatian lands belonged to an independent Patriarchate of Karlovci). To a certain extent, the campaign of terror could be seen as similar Crusades of medieval ages; a religious crusade.[84] On 3 May 1941, a law was passed on religious conversions, pressuring Serbs to convert to Catholicism and thereby adopt Croat identity.[34] This was made on the eve of Pavelić's meeting with Pope Pius XII in Rome.[169] The Catholic Church in Croatia, headed by archbishop Aloysius Stepinac, greeted it and adopted it into the Church's internal law.[169] The term "Serbian Orthodox" was banned in mid-May as being incompatible with state order, and the term "Greek-Eastern faith" was used in its place.[170] By the end of September 1941, about half of the Serbian Orthodox clergy, 335 priests, had been expelled.[164]

To erase all history of Serbs and the Orthodox religion, churches (some of which dated to 1200s and 1300s) were razed to the ground or denigrated by using them as stables or barns etc.[117]

The Ustaša movement is based on religion. Therefore, our acts stem from our devotion to religion and the Roman Catholic church.

— the chief Ustaše ideologist Mile Budak, 13 July 1941.[171]

Ustaše propaganda legitimized the persecution as being partially based on the historic Catholic–Orthodox struggle for domination in Europe and Catholic intolerance towards the "schismatics".[168] Following the start of Serb insurgency (July 1941), the State Directorate for Regeneration in the autumn of 1941 launched a program aimed at the mass forced conversion of the Serbs.[168] Already in the summer, the Ustaše had closed or destroyed most of the Serbian Orthodox churches and monasteries and deported, imprisoned or murdered Orthodox priests and bishops.[168] Over 150 Serbian Orthodox priests were also killed between May and December 1941.[172] The conversions were meant to Croatianize and permanently destroy the Serbian Orthodox Church.[168] Roman Catholic priest Krunoslav Draganović argued that many Catholics were converted to Orthodoxy during the 16th and 17th centuries, which was later used as the basis for the Ustaše conversion program.[173][174]

The conversion policy had a particular aspect: only uneducated Serbs were eligible for conversion, since illiterate peasants were presumed to have less of a Serb/Orthodox identity. People with secondary education etc. (and especially Orthodox clergy) were not eligible. Educated people were singled out for expulsion or extermination, states Robert B. McCormick.[175]

The Vatican was not opposed to the forced conversions. On 6 February 1942, Pope Pius XII privately received 206 Ustaše members in uniforms and blessed them, symbolically supporting their actions.[176] On 8 February 1942, the envoy to the Holy See, Nikola Rusinović, said that 'the Holy See rejoiced' at forced conversions.[177] In a 21 February 1942 letter to Cardinal Luigi Maglione, the Holy See's secretary encouraged the Croatian bishops to speed up the conversions, and he also stated that the term "Orthodox" should be replaced with the terms "apostates or schismatics".[178] Many fanatical Catholic priests joined the Ustaše, blessed and supported their work, and participated in killings and conversions.[179]

In 1941–1942,[180] some 200,000[181] or 240,000[182]–250,000[183] Serbs were converted to Roman Catholicism, although most of them only practiced it temporarily.[181] Converts would sometimes be killed anyway, often in the same churches where they were re-baptized.[181] 85% of the Serbian Orthodox clergy was killed or expelled.[184] In Lika, Kordun and Banija alone, 172 Serbian Orthodox churches were closed, destroyed, or plundered.[170]

The Encyclopedia of the Holocaust described that the bishops' conference that met in Zagreb in November 1941 was not prepared to denounce the forced conversion of Serbs that had taken place in the summer of 1941, let alone condemn the persecution and murder of Serbs and Jews.[185] Many Catholic priests in Croatia approved of and supported the Ustaše's large scale attacks on the Serbian Orthodox Church,[186] and the Catholic hierarchy did not issue any condemnation of the crimes, either publicly or privately.[187] The Croatian Catholic Church and the Vatican viewed the Ustaše's policies against the Serbs as being advantageous to Roman Catholicism.[188]

The puppet "Croatian Orthodox Church"

After the matter of forced conversion had become extremely controversial,[34] the NDH government on 3 April 1942 adopted a law that established the Croatian Eastern Orthodox Church.[189] This was done in order to replace the institutions of the Serbian Orthodox Church.[190] According to the "Statute concerning the Croatian Eastern Orthodox Church" that was approved on 5 June, the Church was "indivisible in its unity and autocephalous".[189] In June, White Russian émigré Germogen Maximov, an archbishop of the Russian Orthodox Church Outside Russia, was enthroned as its primate.[191] The establishment of the Church was done in order to try and pacify the state as well as to Croatisize the remaining Serb population once the Ustaše realized that the complete eradication of Serbs in the NDH was unattainable. Persecution of Serbs continued however, but was less intense.[192]

Persecution of Serbian Orthodox clergy

 
Platon Jovanović's relics in the Church of the Holy Trinity, Banja Luka

Bishops of the Serbian Orthodox Church dioceses in the Independent State of Croatia were targeted during religious persecutions.[193] On 5 May 1941, the Ustaše tortured and killed Platon Jovanović of Banja Luka. On 12 May, Bishop Petar Zimonjić, Metropolitan of the Eparchy of Dabar-Bosna, was killed and in mid-August Bishop Sava Trlajić was killed.[172] Dositej Vasić, the Metropolitan of the Metropolitanate of Zagreb and Ljubljana died in 1945 as result of wounds from torture by Ustaše. Nikola Jovanović, the Bishop of the Eparchy of Zahumlje and Herzegovina died in 1944, after he was beaten by the Ustaše and expelled to Serbia. Irinej Đorđević, the Bishop of the Eparchy of Dalmatia was interned to Italian captivity.[193] There were 577 Serbian Orthodox priests, monks and other religious dignitaries in the NDH in April 1941. By December, there were none left. Between 214 and 217 were killed, 334 were exiled, eighteen fled and five died of natural causes.[193] In Bosnia and Herzegovina, 71 Orthodox priests were killed by the Ustaše during WWII, 10 by the Partisans, 5 by the Germans, and 45 died in the first decade after the end of WWII.[194]

According to Serb Orthodox Church data, out of approximately 700 clergymen and monks of the NDH territory, 577 were subjected to persecution, out of these 217 were killed, 334 were deported to Serbia, 3 were arrested, 18 managed to escape and 5 died (later) from consequences of torture.[195]

The role of Aloysius Stepinac

A cardinal Aloysius Stepinac served as Archbishop of Zagreb during World War II and pledged his loyalty to the NDH. Scholars still debate the degree of Stepinac's contact with the Ustaše regime.[48] Mark Biondich stated that he was not an “ardent supporter” of the Ustahsa regime legitimising their every policy, nor an “avowed opponent” publicly denounced its crimes in a systematic manner.[196] While some clergy committed war crimes in the name of the Catholic Church, Stepinac practiced a wary ambivalence.[197][48] He was an early supporter of the goal of creating a Catholic Croatia, but soon began to question the regime's mandate of forced conversion.[48]

Historian Tomasevich praised his statements that were made against the Ustaše regime by Stepinac, as well as his actions against the regime. However, he also noted that these same statements and actions had shortcomings in respect to Ustaše's genocidal actions against the Serbs and the Serbian Orthodox Church. As Stepinac failed to publicly condemn the genocide waged against the Serbs by the Ustaše earlier during the war as he would later on. Tomasevich stated that Stepinac's courage against the Ustaše state earned him great admiration among anti-Ustaše Croats in his flock along with many others. However this came with the price of enmity of the Ustaše and Pavelić personally. In the early part of the war, he strongly supported a Yugoslavian state organized with federal lines. It was generally known that Stepinac and Pavlović thoroughly hated each other. [198] The Germans considered him Pro-Western and “friend of the Jews” leading to hostility from German and Italian forces. [199]

On 14 May 1941, Stepinac received word of an Ustaše massacre of Serb villagers at Glina. On the same day, he wrote to Pavelić saying:[200]

I consider it my bishop's responsibility to raise my voice and to say that this is not permitted according to Catholic teaching, which is why I ask that you undertake the most urgent measures on the entire territory of the Independent State of Croatia, so that not a single Serb is killed unless it is shown that he committed a crime warranting death. Otherwise, we will not be able to count on the blessing of heaven, without which we must perish.

These were still private protest letters. Later in 1942 and 1943, Stepinac started to speak out more openly against the Ustaše genocides, this was after most of the genocides were already committed, and it became increasingly clear the Nazis and Ustaše will be defeated.[201] In May 1942, Stepinac spoke out against genocide, mentioning Jews and Roma, but not Serbs.[48]

Tomasevich wrote that while Stepinac is to be commended for his actions against the regime, the failure of the Croatian Catholic hierarchy and Vatican to publicly condemn the genocide "cannot be defended from the standpoint of humanity, justice and common decency".[202] In his diary, Stepinac said that "Serbs and Croats are of two different worlds, north and south pole, which will never unite as long as one of them is alive", along with other similar views.[203] Historian Ivo Goldstein described that Stepinac was being sympathetic to the Ustaše authorities and ambivalent towards the new racial laws, as well as that he was “a man with many dilemmas in a disturbing time”.[204] Stepinac resented the interwar conversion of some 200,000 most Croatian Catholics to Orthodoxy, which he felt was forced on them by prevailing political conditions. [202] In 2016 Croatia's rehabilitation of Stepinac was negatively received in Serbia and Republika Srpska, an entity of Bosnia and Herzegovina.[205]

Toll of victims and genocide classification

The United States Holocaust Memorial Museum website states that "Determining the number of victims for Yugoslavia, for Croatia, and for Jasenovac is highly problematic, due to the destruction of many relevant documents, the long-term inaccessibility to independent scholars of those documents that survived, and the ideological agendas of postwar partisan scholarship and journalism".[206]

 
Memorial plaque in Drakulić to the victims of massacres around Banja Luka

In the 1980s, calculations of World War II victims in Yugoslavia were made by the Serb statistician Bogoljub Kočović and the Croat demographer Vladimir Žerjavić. Tomasevich described their studies as being objective and reliable.[207] Kočović estimated that 370,000 Serbs, both combatants and civilians, died in the NDH during the war. With a possible error of around 10%, he noted that Serb losses cannot be higher than 410,000.[208] He did not estimate the number of Serbs who were killed by the Ustaše, saying that in most cases, the task of categorizing the victims would be impossible.[209] Žerjavić estimated that the total number of Serb deaths in the NDH was 322,000, of which 125,000 died as combatants, while 197,000 were civilians. Žerjavić estimated that a total of 78,000 civilians were killed in Ustaše prisons, pits and camps, including Jasenovac, 45,000 civilians were killed by the Germans, 15,000 civilians were killed by the Italians, 34,000 civilians were killed in battles between the warring parties, and 25,000 civilians died of typhoid.[210] The number of victims who perished in the Jasenovac concentration camp remains a matter of debate, but current estimates put the total number at around 100,000, about half of whom were Serbs.[95]

During the war as well as during Tito's Yugoslavia, various numbers were given for Yugoslavia's overall war casualties.[a] Estimates by Holocaust memorial centers also vary.[b] The historian Jozo Tomasevich said that the exact number of victims in Yugoslavia is impossible to determine.[211] The academic Barbara Jelavich however cites Tomasevich's estimate in writing that as many as 350,000 Serbs were killed during the period of Ustaše rule.[212] The historian Rory Yeomans said that the most conservative estimates state that 200,000 Serbs were killed by Ustaše death squads but the actual number of Serbs who were executed by the Ustaše or perished in Ustaše concentration camps may be as high as 500,000.[6] In a 1992 work, Sabrina P. Ramet cites the figure of 350,000 Serbs who were "liquidated" by "Pavelić and his Ustaše henchmen".[213] In a 2006 work, Ramet estimated that at least 300,000 Serbs were "massacred by the Ustaše".[2] In her 2007 book "The Independent State of Croatia 1941-45", Ramet cites Žerjavić's overall figures for Serb losses in the NDH.[214] Marko Attila Hoare writes that "perhaps nearly 300,000 Serbs" died as a result of the Ustaše genocide and the Nazi policies.[215]

 
Raphael Lemkin, the initiator of the Genocide Convention described the Ustaše crimes against Serbs as genocide

Tomislav Dulić stated that Serbs in NDH suffered among the highest casualty rates in Europe during the World War II.[112] American historian Stanley G. Payne stated that direct and indirect executions by NDH regime were an “extraordinary mass crime”, which in proportionate terms exceeded any other European regime beside Hitler's Third Reich.[216] He added the crimes in the NDH were proportionately surpassed only by the Khmer Rouge in Cambodia and several of the extremely genocidal African regimes.[216] Raphael Israeli wrote that “a large scale genocidal operations, in proportions to its small population, remain almost unique in the annals of wartime Europe.”[70]

In Serbia as well as in the eyes of Serbs, the Ustaše atrocities constituted a genocide.[217] Many historians and authors describe the Ustaše regime's mass killings of Serbs as meeting the definition of genocide, including Raphael Lemkin who is known for coining the word genocide and initiating the Genocide Convention.[218][219][220][221] Croatian historian Mirjana Kasapović explained that in the most important scientific works on genocide, crimes against Serbs, Jews and Roma in the NDH are unequivocally classified as genocide.[222]

Yad Vashem, Israel's official memorial to the victims of the Holocaust, stated that “Ustasha carried out a Serb genocide, exterminating over 500,000, expelling 250,000, and forcing another 250,000 to convert to Catholicism”.[223][224] The Simon Wiesenthal Center, also, mentioned that leaders of the Independent State of Croatia committed genocide against Serbs, Jews, and Roma.[225] Presidents of Croatia, Stjepan Mesić and Ivo Josipović, as well as Bakir Izetbegović and Željko Komšić, Bosniak and Croat member of the Presidency of Bosnia and Herzegovina, also described the persecution of Serbs in the Independent State of Croatia as a genocide.[226][227][228][229]

In the post-war era, the Serbian Orthodox Church considered the Serbian victims of this genocide to be martys. As a result, the Serbian Orthodox Church commemorates the Saint Martyrs of Jasenovac on 13 September.[230]

Aftermath

The Yugoslav communist authorities did not use the Jasenovac camp as was done with other European concentration camps, most likely due to Serb-Croat relations. They recognized that ethnic tensions stemming from the war could had the capacity to destabilize the new communist regime, tried to conceal wartime atrocities and to mask specific ethnic losses.[19] The Tito's government attempted to let the wounds heal and forge "brotherhood and unity" in the peoples.[231] Tito himself was invited to, and passed Jasenovac several times, but never visited the site.[232] The genocide was not properly examined in the aftermath of the war, because the Yugoslav communist government did not encourage independent scholars.[206][233][234][235] Historians Marko Attila Hoare and Mark Biondich stated that Western world historians don't pay enough attention to the genocide committed by Ustaše, while several scholars described it as lesser-known genocide.[48][236][222]

World War II and especially its ethnic conflicts have been deemed instrumental in the later Yugoslav Wars (1991–95).[237]

Trials

Mile Budak and a number of other members of the NDH government, such as Nikola Mandić and Julije Makanec, were tried and convicted of high treason and war crimes by the communist authorities of the SFR Yugoslavia. Many of them were executed.[238][239] Miroslav Filipović, the commandant of the Jasenovac and Stara Gradiška camps, was found guilty for war crimes, sentenced to death and hanged.[240]

Many others escaped, including the supreme leader Ante Pavelić, most to Latin America. Some emigrations were prevented by the Operation Gvardijan, in which Ljubo Miloš, the commandant of the Jasenovac camp was captured and executed.[241] Aloysius Stepinac, who served as Archbishop of Zagreb was found guilty of high treason and forced conversion of Orthodox Serbs to Catholicism.[242] However, some claim the trial was "carried out with proper legal procedure".[242]

In its judgment in the Hostages Trial, the Nuremberg Military Tribunal concluded that the Independent State of Croatia was not a sovereign entity capable of acting independently of the German military, despite recognition as an independent state by the Axis powers.[243] According to the Tribunal, "Croatia was at all times here involved an occupied country".[243] The Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide were not in force at the time. It was unanimously adopted by the United Nations General Assembly on 9 December 1948 and entered into force on 12 January 1951.[244][245]

Andrija Artuković, Minister of Internal Affairs and Minister of Justice of the NDH who signed a number of racial laws, escaped to the United States after the war and he was extradited to Yugoslavia in 1986, where he was tried in the Zagreb District Court and was found guilty of a number of mass killings in the NDH.[246] Artuković was sentenced to death, but the sentence was not carried out due to his age and health.[247] Efraim Zuroff, a Nazi hunter, played a significant role in capturing Dinko Šakić, another the Jasenovac camp commander, during 1990s.[248] After pressure from the international community on the right-wing president Franjo Tuđman, he sought Šakić's extradition and he stood trial in Croatia, aged 78; he was found guilty of war crimes and crimes against humanity and given the maximum sentence of 20 years imprisonment. According to the human rights researchers Eric Stover, Victor Peskin and Alexa Koenig it was "the most important post-Cold War domestic effort to hold criminally accountable a Nazi war crimes suspect in a former Eastern European communist country".[248]

Ratlines, terrorism and assassinations

See also: Ratlines (World War II aftermath) and Terrorism in Yugoslavia

With the Partisan liberation of Yugoslavia, many Ustaše leaders fled and took refuge at the college of San Girolamo degli Illirici near the Vatican.[103] Catholic priest and Ustaše Krunoslav Draganović directed the fugitives from San Girolamo.[103] The US State Department and Counter-Intelligence Corps helped war criminals to escape, and assisted Draganović (who later worked for the American intelligence) in sending Ustaše abroad.[103] Many of those responsible for mass killings in NDH took refuge in South America, Portugal, Spain and the United States.[103] Luburić was assassinated in Spain in 1969 by an UDBA agent; Artuković lived in Ireland and California until extradited in 1986 and died of natural causes in prison; Dinko Šakić and his wife Nada lived in Argentina until extradited in 1998, Dinko dying in prison and his wife released.[103] Draganović also arranged Gestapo functionary Klaus Barbie's flight.[103]

Among some of the Croat diaspora, the Ustaše became heroes.[103] Ustaše émigré terrorist groups in the diaspora (such as Croatian Revolutionary Brotherhood and Croatian National Resistance) carried out assassinations and bombings, and also plane hijackings, throughout the Yugoslav period.[249]

Controversy and denial

Main article: Denial of genocide of Serbs in the Independent State of Croatia

Historical revisionism

Further information: Genocide denial and Far-right in Croatia

Some Croats, including politicians, have attempted to minimise the magnitude of the genocide perpetrated against Serbs in the Independent State of Croatia.[250] Historian Mirjana Kasapović concluded that there are three main strategies of historical revisionism in the part of Croatian historiography: the NDH was a normal counter-insurgency state at the time; no mass crimes were committed in the NDH, especially genocide; the Jasenovac camp was just a labor camp, not an extermination camp.[222]

By 1989, the future President of Croatia, Franjo Tuđman had embraced Croatian nationalism and published Horrors of War: Historical Reality and Philosophy, in which he questioned the official number of victims killed by the Ustaše during the Second World War. In his book,Tuđman claimed that between 30,000 and 40,000 died at Jasenovac.[251] Some scholars and observers accused Tuđman of racist statements, “flirting with ideas associated with the Ustaše movement”, appointment of former Ustaše officials to political and military positions, as well as downplaying the number of victims in the Independent State of Croatia.[252][253][254][255][256]

Since 2016, anti-fascist groups, leaders of Croatia's Serb, Roma and Jewish communities and former top Croat officials have boycotted the official state commemoration for the victims of the Jasenovac concentration camp because, as they said, Croatian authorities refused to denounce the Ustaše legacy explicitly and they downplayed and revitalized crimes committed by Ustaše.[257][258][259][260]

Destruction of memorials

After Croatia gained independence, about 3,000 monuments dedicated to the anti-fascist resistance and the victims of fascism were destroyed.[261][262][263] According to Croatian World War II veterans' association, these destructions were not spontaneous, but a planned activity carried out by the ruling party, the state and the church.[261] The status of the Jasenovac Memorial Site was downgraded to the nature park, and parliament cut its funding.[264] In September 1991, Croatian forces entered the memorial site and vandalized the museum building, while exhibitions and documentation were destroyed, damaged and looted.[262] In 1992, FR Yugoslavia sent a formal protest to the United Nations and UNESCO, warning of the devastation of the memorial complex.[262] The European Community Monitor Mission visited the memorial center and confirmed the damage.[262]

Commemoration

 
Josip Broz Tito visits the memorial park in Sremska Mitrovica, dedicated to the victims in Syrmia
 
An exhibition dedicated to the Jasenovac victims, Banja Luka

Israeli President Moshe Katsav visited Jasenovac in 2003. His successor, Shimon Peres, paid homage to the camp's victims when he visited Jasenovac on 25 July 2010 and laid a wreath at the memorial. Peres dubbed the Ustaše's crimes a "demonstration of sheer sadism".[265][266]

The Jasenovac Memorial Museum reopened in November 2006 with a new exhibition designed by a Croatian architect, Helena Paver Njirić, and an Educational Center, designed by the firm Produkcija. The Memorial Museum features an interior of rubber-clad steel modules, video and projection screens, and glass cases displaying artifacts from the camp. Above the exhibition space, which is quite dark, is a field of glass panels inscribed with the names of the victims.

The New York City Parks Department, the Holocaust Park Committee and the Jasenovac Research Institute, with the help of then-Congressman Anthony Weiner (D-NY), established a public monument to the victims of Jasenovac in April 2005 (the sixtieth anniversary of the liberation of the camps.) The dedication ceremony was attended by ten Yugoslavian Holocaust survivors, as well as diplomats from Serbia, Bosnia and Israel. It remains the only public monument to Jasenovac victims outside the Balkans.

 
Memorial museum for victims of massacre in Stari Brod, Rogatica

Nowadays, оn 22 April, the anniversary of the prisoner breakout from the Jasenovac camp, Serbia marks the National Holocaust, World War II Genocide and other Fascist Crimes Victims Remembrance Day, while Croatia holds an official commemoration at the Jasenovac Memorial Site.[267] Serbia and Bosnian entity of Republika Srpska hold a joint central commemoration at the Donja Gradina Memorial Zone.[268]

In 2018, an exhibition named “Jasenovac – The Right to Remembrance” was held in the Headquarters of the United Nations in New York City within the marking of International Holocaust Remembrance Day, with the main goal of to foster a culture of remembrance of Serb, Jewish, Roma and anti-fascist victims of the Holocaust and genocide in the Jasenovac camp.[269][270] On 22 April 2020, the president of Serbia Aleksandar Vučić had an official visit to the memorial park in Sremska Mitrovica, dedicated to the victims of genocide on the territory of Syrmia.[271]

Commemoration ceremonies honoring the victims of the Jadovno concentration camp have been organized by the Serb National Council (SNV), the Jewish community in Croatia, and local anti-fascists since 2009, while 24 June has been designated as a "Day of Remembrance of the Jadovno Camp" in Croatia.[268] On 26 August 2010, the 68th anniversary of the partial liberation of the Jastrebarsko children's camp, victims were commemorated in a ceremony at a monument in the Jastrebarsko cemetery. It was attended by only 40 people, mainly members of the Union of Anti-Fascist Fighters and Anti-Fascists of the Republic of Croatia.[272] The Republic of Srpska Government holds a commemoration at the memorial site of the victims of the Ustaše massacres in the Drina Valley.[160]

In culture

Literature

Art

 
The illustration of Zlatko Prica and Edo Murtić with the verses of Ivan Goran Kovačić's poem Jama
  • Zlatko Prica and Edo Murtić illustrated scenes from the Ivan Goran Kovačić's poem Jama

Theater

  • Golubnjača, a play by Jovan Radulović about ethnic relations in neighboring villages in the years after the Ustaše crimes[273]

Films

  • 1955 – Šolaja, a film about Serb rebellion against the genocide, directed by Vojislav Nanović
  • 1960 – The Ninth Circle, a film directed by France Štiglic, includes scenes from the Jasenovac camp
  • 1966 – Eagles Fly Early, film based on the eponymous novel directed by Soja Jovanović
  • 1967 – Black Birds, a film about a group of prisoners of Stara Gradiška concentration camp, directed by Eduard Galić
  • 1984 – The End of the War, a film about Serbian man takes his son to find and kill members of the Ustaše militia who tortured and killed his wife and mother, directed by Dragan Kresoja
  • 1988 – Braća po materi, a film about Ustaše atrocities told through the story of two half-brothers, a Croat and a Serb, directed by Zdravko Šotra
  • 2016 – Prva trećina – oproštaj kao kazna, a short feature film about the Žile Friganović's massacres, directed by Svetlana Petrov
  • 2019 – The Diary of Diana B., a biographical film about aid operation of Diana Budisavljević for the rescue of more than 10,000 children from concentration camps, directed by Dana Budisavljević
  • 2020 – Dara of Jasenovac, a film about a girl who survived the Jasenovac camp, directed by Predrag Antonijević

TV Series

  • 1981 – Nepokoreni grad, a TV series about Ustaše terror campaign, including the Kerestinec camp, directed by Vanča Kljaković and Eduard Galić

Music

  • Some survivors claim that the lyrics of the famous song "Đurđevdan" was written on a train that took prisoners from Sarajevo to the Jasenovac camp.[274]
  • Thompson, a Croatian rock band, has garnered controversy for their purported glorification of Ustashe regime in their songs and concerts, and the most famous such song is "Jasenovac i Gradiška Stara".[275][276]

See also

Annotations

  1. ^
    During the war, German military commanders gave different figures for the number of Serbs, Jews, and others killed by the Ustaše inside the NDH. Alexander Löhr claimed 400,000 Serbs killed, Massenbach around 700,000. Hermann Neubacher stated that Ustashe claims of a million Serbs slaughtered was a "boastful exaggeration", and believed that the number of 'defenseless victims slaughtered to be three-quarters of a million'. The Vatican cited 350,000 Serbs slaughtered by the end of 1942 (Eugène Tisserant).[277] Yugoslavia presented 1,700,000 as its war casualties, produced by mathematician Vladeta Vučković, at the Paris Peace Treaties (1947).[278] A secret 1964 government list counted 597,323 victims (out of which 346,740 were Serbs).[279] In the 1980s Croat economist Vladimir Žerjavić concluded that the number of victims was around one million.[280] Furthermore, he claimed that the number of Serb victims in the Independent State of Croatia was between 300,000 and 350,000, with 80,000 victims of all ethnicity in Jasenovac.[281] Since the breakup of Yugoslavia, the Croatian side began suggesting substantially smaller numbers, while the Serbian side maintains the exaggerated numbers promoted within Yugoslavia until the 1990s.
  2. ^
    The United States Holocaust Memorial Museum lists (as of 2012) a total of 320,000–340,000 ethnic Serbs killed in Croatia and Bosnia, and 45–52,000 killed at Jasenovac.[206] The Yad Vashem center claims that more than 500,000 Serbs were murdered in Croatia, 250,000 were expelled, and another 200,000 were forced to convert to Catholicism.[282]
  3. ^
    According to K. Ungváry the actual number of Serbs deported was 25,000.[283] Ramet cites the German statement.[284] Serbian Orthodox bishop in America Dionisije Milivojević claimed 50,000 Serb colonists and settlers deported and 60,000 killed in the Hungarian occupation.[285]
  4. ^
    The only official Yugoslav data of war-victims in Kosovo and Metohija is from 1964, and counted 7,927 people, out of which 4,029 were Serbs, 1,460 Montenegrins, and 2,127 Albanians.[286]

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  • Bartulin, Nevenko (2008). "The Ideology of Nation and Race: The Croatian Ustasha Regime and its Policies toward the Serbs in the Independent State of Croatia 1941–1945". Croatian Studies Review. 5: 75–102.
  • Biondich, Mark (2005). "Religion and Nation in Wartime Croatia: Reflections on the Ustaša Policy of Forced Religious Conversions, 1941–1942". The Slavonic and East European Review. 83 (1): 71–116. JSTOR 4214049.
  • Biondich, Mark (2006). "Controversies Surrounding the Catholic Church in Wartime Croatia, 1941–45". Totalitarian Movements and Political Religions. 7 (4): 429–457. doi:10.1080/14690760600963222. S2CID 143351253.
  • Biondich, Mark (2007b). "Radical Catholicism and Fascism in Croatia, 1918–1945". Totalitarian Movements and Political Religions. 8 (2): 383–399. doi:10.1080/14690760701321346. S2CID 145148083.
  • Boban, Ljubo (1993). "Kada je i kako nastala Država Slovenaca, Hrvata i Srba" [When and how did the State of Slovenes, Croats, and Serbs come into existence (Summary)]. Journal of the Institute of Croatian History. 26 (1): 187–198.
  • Byford, Jovan (2007). "When I say "The Holocaust," I mean "Jasenovac": Remembrance of the Holocaust in contemporary Serbia". East European Jewish Affairs. 37 (1): 51–74. doi:10.1080/13501670701197946. S2CID 161763723.
  • Cvetković, Dragan (2011). "Holokaust u Nezavisnoj Državi Hrvatskoj – numeričko određenje" [Holocaust in Independent State of Croatia]. Istorija 20. Veka: Časopis Instituta za Savremenu Istoriju. 29 (1): 163–182. doi:10.29362/ist20veka.2011.1.cve.163-182.
  • Hehn, Paul N. (1971). "Serbia, Croatia and Germany 1941–1945: Civil War and Revolution in the Balkans". Canadian Slavonic Papers. 13 (4): 344–373. doi:10.1080/00085006.1971.11091249.
  • Kataria, Shyamal (2015). "Serbian Ustashe Memory and Its Role in the Yugoslav Wars, 1991–1995". Mediterranean Quarterly. 26 (2): 115–127. doi:10.1215/10474552-2914550. S2CID 154634001.
  • Krestić, Vasilije (1986). "O genezi genocida nad Srbima u NDH". Književne Novine. 15.
  • Levy, Michele Frucht (2009). ""The Last Bullet for the Last Serb": The Ustaša Genocide against Serbs: 1941–1945". Nationalities Papers. 37 (6): 807–837. doi:10.1080/00905990903239174. S2CID 162231741.
  • Lisac, A. L. (1956). "Deportacije Srba iz Hrvatske 1941". Historijski Zbornik. 9: 125–145.
  • McCormick, Rob (2008). "The United States' Response to Genocide in the Independent State of Croatia, 1941–1945". Genocide Studies and Prevention. 3 (1): 75–98. doi:10.1353/gsp.2011.0060. S2CID 145309437.
  • Newman, John Paul (2017). "War Veterans, Fascism, and Para-Fascist Departures in the Kingdom of Yugoslavia, 1918–1941". Fascism. 6: 42–74. doi:10.1163/22116257-00601003.
  • Newman, John Paul (2014). "Serbian and Habsburg Military institutional legacies in Yugoslavia after 1918" (PDF). First World War Studies. 5 (3): 319–335. doi:10.1080/19475020.2014.1001519. S2CID 73611212.
  • Pavasović Trošt, Tamara (2018). "Ruptures and continuities in nationhood narratives: reconstructing the nation through history textbooks in Serbia and Croatia". Nations and Nationalism. 24 (3): 716–740. doi:10.1111/nana.12433. S2CID 242057219.
  • Dulić, Tomislav (2006). "Mass killing in the Independent State of Croatia, 1941–1945: a case for comparative research". Journal of Genocide Research. 8: 255–281. doi:10.1111/nana.12433. S2CID 242057219.
  • Mirković, D. (2000). "The historical link between the Ustasha genocide and the Croato-Serb civil war: 1991‐1995". Journal of Genocide Research. 2 (3): 363–373. doi:10.1080/713677614. S2CID 72467680.
  • Škiljan, F. (2007). "Stradanje Srba u Jasenovcu u Drugom svjetskom ratu". Pro Tempore: Ččasopis Studenata Povijesti. 4: 40–46.
  • Škiljan, F. (2004). "Hate speech in Independent State of Croatia during WWII". Ljetopis Srpskog Kulturnog Društva Prosvjeta. 9: 243–.
  • Škiljan, Filip (2012). "Organizirano masovno prisilno iseljavanje srba iz Hrvatske 1941. Godine" [Organized Massive Forced Migration of Serbs from Croatia in 1941] (PDF). Stanovništvo = Population = Naselenie. 50 (2): 1–34. doi:10.2298/STNV1202001S. ISSN 0038-982X.
  • Škiljan, Filip (2010). "Stradanje Srba, Židova i Roma u virovitičkom i slatinskom kraju tijekom 1941. i početkom 1942. godine". Scrinia Slavonica. Hrvatski institut za povijest - Podružnica za povijest Slavonije, Srijema i Baranje. 10: 360–362.
  • Stojanović, Aleksandar (2017). "A Beleaguered Church: The Serbian Orthodox Church in the Independent State of Croatia (NDH) 1941–1945". Balcanica (48): 269–287. doi:10.2298/BALC1748269S.
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  • Byford, Jovan (2014). "Remembering Jasenovac: Survivor Testimonies and the Cultural Dimension of Bearing Witness" (PDF). Holocaust and Genocide Studies. 28 (1): 58–84. doi:10.1093/hgs/dcu011. S2CID 145546608.
  • Odak, Stipe; Benčić, Andriana (2016). "Jasenovac — A Past That Does Not Pass: The Presence of Jasenovac in Croatian and Serbian Collective Memory of Conflict". East European Politics and Societies and Cultures. 30 (4): 805–829. doi:10.1177/0888325416653657. S2CID 148091289.
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  • Radonic, Ljiljana Radonic (2013). "Croatia's Politics of the Past during the Tuđman Era (1990–1999)—Old Wine in New Bottles?". Totalitarian Movements and Political Religions. 44: 234–254. doi:10.1017/S0067237813000143. S2CID 145718988.

Other

  • SANU (1995). Genocid nad Srbima u II svetskom ratu. Muzej žrtava genocida i Srpska književna zadruga.
  • Gutman, Israel, ed. (1990). "Ustase". Encyclopedia of the Holocaust. Vol. 4. Macmillan.
  • Latinović, Goran (2006). "On Croatian history textbooks". Association of Descendants and Supporters of Victims of Complex of Death Camps NDH, Gospić-Jadovno-Pag 1941.
  • Bergholz, Max (2012). "None of us Dared Say Anything: Mass Killing in a Bosnian Community during World War Two and the Postwar Culture of Silence" (PDF). University of Toronto.
  • Deutschland Military Tribunal (1950). Trials of war criminals before the Nuernberg Military Tribunals under Control Council Law no. 10 : Nuernberg Oct. 1946 – April 1949 Vol. 11 The High Command case. The Hostage case. Case 12. US v. von Leeb. Case 7. US v. List. Washington, D.C.: United States Government Printing Office. OCLC 247746272.

External links

  • "Genocide in Croatia 1941–1945" (PDF). Serbian National Defense Council of Canada; Serbian National Defense Council of America. 1976. OCLC 26383552.

December 28, 2022
genocide, serbs, independent, state, croatia, serbo, croatian, genocid, srbima, nezavisnoj, državi, hrvatskoj, Геноцид, над, Србима, Независној, Држави, Хрватској, systematic, persecution, serbs, which, committed, during, world, fascist, ustaše, regime, nazi, . The Genocide of Serbs in the Independent State of Croatia Serbo Croatian Genocid nad Srbima u Nezavisnoj Drzavi Hrvatskoj Genocid nad Srbima u Nezavisnoј Drzhavi Hrvatskoј was the systematic persecution of Serbs which was committed during World War II by the fascist Ustase regime in the Nazi German puppet state known as the Independent State of Croatia Serbo Croatian Nezavisna Drzava Hrvatska NDH between 1941 and 1945 It was carried out through executions in death camps as well as through mass murder ethnic cleansing deportations forced conversions and war rape This genocide was simultaneously carried out with the Holocaust in the NDH as well as the genocide of Roma by combining Nazi racial policies with the ultimate goal of creating an ethnically pure Greater Croatia Genocide of Serbs in the Independent State of CroatiaPart of World War II in Yugoslavia clockwise from top Expelled Serbs marching out of town Stone Flower a monument in the Jasenovac death camp Adolf Hitler meets Ante Pavelic An Ustase guard among the bodies of murdered prisoners Ustasha with civilian prisoners after the Kozara Offensive Memorial Center in Gradina DonjaLocationIndependent State of Croatia Axis occupied Yugoslavia Date1941 1945TargetSerbs largely Serbs of Croatia and Bosnia and Herzegovina Attack typeGenocide ethnic cleansing massacres deportation forced conversionDeathsseveral estimates217 000 1 300 000 350 000 2 3 4 5 200 000 500 000 6 PerpetratorsUstaseMotiveAnti Serb sentiment 7 Croatian irredentism 8 anti Yugoslavism 9 Croatisation 10 The ideological foundation of the Ustase movement reaches back to the 19th century Several Croatian nationalists and intellectuals established theories about Serbs as an inferior race The World War I legacy as well as the opposition of a group of nationalists to the unification into a common state of South Slavs influenced ethnic tensions in the newly formed Kingdom of Serbs Croats and Slovenes since 1929 Kingdom of Yugoslavia The 6 January Dictatorship and the later anti Croat policies of the Serb dominated Yugoslav government in the 1920s and 1930s fueled the rise of nationalist and far right movements This culminated in the rise of the Ustase an ultranationalist terrorist organization founded by Ante Pavelic The movement was financially and ideologically supported by Benito Mussolini and it was also involved in the assassination of King Alexander I Following the Axis invasion of Yugoslavia in April 1941 a German puppet state known as the Independent State of Croatia NDH was established comprising most of modern day Croatia and Bosnia and Herzegovina as well as parts of modern day Serbia and Slovenia ruled by the Ustase The Ustase s goal was to create an ethnically homogeneous Greater Croatia by eliminating all non Croats with the Serbs being the primary target but Jews Roma and political dissidents were also targeted for elimination Large scale massacres were committed and concentration camps were built the largest one was the Jasenovac which was notorious for its high mortality rate and the barbaric practices which occurred in it Furthermore the NDH was the only Axis puppet state to establish concentration camps specifically for children The regime systematically murdered approximately 200 000 to 500 000 Serbs 300 000 Serbs were further expelled and at least 200 000 more Serbs were forcibly converted most of whom de converted following the war Proportional to the population the NDH was one of the most lethal European regimes Mile Budak and other NDH high officials were tried and convicted of war crimes by the communist authorities Concentration camp commandants such as Ljubo Milos and Miroslav Filipovic were captured and executed while Aloysius Stepinac was found guilty of forced conversion Many others escaped including the supreme leader Ante Pavelic most to Latin America The genocide was not properly examined in the aftermath of the war because the post war Yugoslav government did not encourage independent scholars out of concern that ethnic tensions would destabilize the new communist regime Nowadays on 22 April Serbia marks the public holiday dedicated to the victims of genocide and fascism while Croatia holds an official commemoration at the Jasenovac Memorial Site Contents 1 Historical background 2 Independent State of Croatia 3 Concentration and extermination camps 3 1 Children s concentration camps 3 2 List of concentration and death camps 4 Massacres 4 1 Central Croatia 4 1 1 Glina 4 1 2 Lika 4 2 Slavonia 4 3 Syrmia 4 4 Bosnian Krajina 4 4 1 Garavice 4 5 Herzegovina 4 6 Drina Valley 4 7 Sarajevo 5 Expulsion and ethnic cleansing 6 Religious persecution 6 1 The puppet Croatian Orthodox Church 6 2 Persecution of Serbian Orthodox clergy 6 3 The role of Aloysius Stepinac 7 Toll of victims and genocide classification 8 Aftermath 8 1 Trials 8 2 Ratlines terrorism and assassinations 9 Controversy and denial 9 1 Historical revisionism 9 2 Destruction of memorials 10 Commemoration 11 In culture 11 1 Literature 11 2 Art 11 3 Theater 11 4 Films 11 5 TV Series 11 6 Music 12 See also 13 Annotations 14 Footnotes 15 Sources 15 1 Books 15 2 Journals 15 3 Other 16 External linksHistorical backgroundSome scholars claim that the ideological foundation of the Ustase movement reaches back to the 19th century when Ante Starcevic established the Party of Rights 11 as well as when Josip Frank seceded his extreme fraction from it and formed his own Pure Party of Rights 12 Starcevic was a major ideological influence on the Croatian nationalism of the Ustase 13 14 He was an advocate of Croatian unity and independence and was both anti Habsburg as Starcevic saw the main Croatian enemy in the Habsburg Monarchy and anti Serb 13 He envisioned the creation of a Greater Croatia that would include territories inhabited by Bosniaks Serbs and Slovenes considering Bosniaks and Serbs to be Croats who had been converted to Islam and Eastern Orthodox Christianity 13 In his demonization of the Serbs he claimed how the Serbs today are dangerous for their ideas and their racial composition how a bent for conspiracies revolutions and coups is in their blood 15 Starcevic called the Serbs an unclean race a nomadic people and a race of slaves the most loathsome beasts while the co founder of his party Eugen Kvaternik denied the existence of Serbs in Croatia seeing their political consciousness as a threat 16 17 18 19 The writer Milovan Đilas cites Starcevic as the father of racism and ideological father of the Ustase while some Ustase ideologues have linked Starcevic s racial ideas to Adolf Hitler s racial ideology 20 21 Frank s party embraced Starcevic s position that Serbs are an obstacle to Croatian political and territorial ambitions and the aggressive anti Serb attitudes became one of the main characteristics of the party 22 23 19 24 The followers of the ultranationalist Pure Party of Right were known as the Frankists Frankovci and they would become the main pool of members of the subsequent Ustase movement 25 17 19 24 Following the defeat of the Central Powers in World War I and the collapse of Austria Hungarian Empire the provisional state was formed on the southern territories of the Empire which joined the Allies associate Kingdom of Serbia to form the Kingdom of Serbs Croats and Slovenes later known as Yugoslavia ruled by the Serbian Karađorđevic dynasty Historian John Paul Newman explained that the influence of the Frankists as well as the legacy of the World War I had an impact on the Ustase ideology and their future genocidal means 24 26 Many war veterans had fought at various ranks and on various fronts on both the victorious and defeated sides of the war 24 Serbia suffered the biggest casualty rate in the world while Croats fought in the Austro Hungarian army and two of them served as military governors of Bosnia and occupied Serbia 27 26 They both endorsed Austria Hungary s denationalizing plans in Serb populated lands and supported the idea of incorporating a tamed Serbia into the Empire 26 Newman stated that Austro Hungarian officers unfaltering opposition to Yugoslavia provided a blueprint for the Croatian radical right the Ustase 26 The Frankists blamed Serbian nationalists for the defeat of Austria Hungary and opposed the creation of Yugoslavia which was identified by them as a cover for Greater Serbia 24 Mass Croatian national consciousness appeared after the establishment of a common state of South Slavs and it was directed against the new Kingdom more precisely against Serbian predominance within it 28 Early 20th century Croatian intellectuals Ivo Pilar Ciro Truhelka and Milan Sufflay influenced the Ustase concept of nation and racial identity as well as the theory of Serbs as an inferior race 29 30 31 Pilar historian politician and lawyer placed great emphasis on racial determinism arguing that Croats had been defined by the Nordic Aryan racial and cultural heritage while Serbs had interbred with the Balkan Romanic Vlachs 32 Truhelka archeologist and historian claimed that Bosnian Muslims were ethnic Croats who according to him belonged to the racially superior Nordic race On the other hand Serbs belonged to the degenerate race of the Vlachs 33 30 The Ustase promoted the theories of historian and politician Sufflay who is believed to have claimed that Croatia had been one of the strongest ramparts of Western civilization for many centuries which he claimed had been lost through its union with Serbia when the nation of Yugoslavia was formed in 1918 34 The outburst of Croatian nationalism after 1918 was one of the main threats for Yugoslavia s stability 28 During the 1920s Ante Pavelic lawyer politician and one of the Frankists emerged as a leading spokesman for Croatian independence 19 In 1927 he secretly contacted Benito Mussolini dictator of Italy and founder of fascism and presented his separatist ideas to him 35 Pavelic proposed an independent Greater Croatia that should cover the entire historical and ethnic area of the Croats 35 In that period Mussolini was interested in Balkans with the aim of isolating Yugoslavia by strengthening Italian influence on the east coast of the Adriatic Sea 36 British historian Rory Yeomans claims that there are indication that Pavelic had been considering the formation of some kind of nationalist insurgency group as early as 1928 37 Ante Pavelic one of the Frankists and the leading spokesman for Croatian independence in interwar Yugoslavia founded the Ustase movement In June 1928 Stjepan Radic the leader of the largest and most popular Croatian party Croatian Peasant Party Hrvatska seljacka stranka HSS was mortally wounded in the parliamentary chamber by Punisa Racic a Montenegrin Serb leader former Chetnik member and deputy of the ruling Serb People s Radical Party Racic also shot two other HSS deputies dead and wounded two more 38 24 39 40 The killings provoked violent student protests in Zagreb 38 Trying to suppress the conflict between Croatian and Serbian political parties King Alexander I proclaimed a dictatorship with the aim of establishing the integral Yugoslavism and a single Yugoslav nation 41 25 42 43 The introduction of the royal dictatorship brought separatist forces to the fore especially among the Croats and Macedonians 44 28 The Ustasa Croatian Revolutionary Movement Croatian Ustasa Hrvatski revolucionarni pokret emerged as the most extreme movement of these 45 The Ustase was created in late 1929 or early 1930 among radical and militant student and youth groups which existed from the late 1920s 38 Precisely the movement was founded by journalist Gustav Percec and Ante Pavelic 38 They were driven by a deep hatred of Serbs and Serbdom and claimed that Croats and Serbs were separated by an unbridgeable cultural gulf which prevented them from ever living alongside each other 34 Pavelic accused the Belgrade government of propagating a barbarian culture and Gypsy civilization claiming they were spreading atheism and bestial mentality in divine Croatia 46 Supporters of the Ustase planned genocide years before World War II for example one of Pavelic s main ideologues Mijo Babic wrote in 1932 that the Ustase will cleanse and cut whatever is rotten from the healthy body of the Croatian people 47 In 1933 the Ustase presented The Seventeen Principles that formed the official ideology of the movement The Principles stated the uniqueness of the Croatian nation promoted collective rights over individual rights and declared that people who were not Croat by blood would be excluded from political life 48 49 In order to explain what they saw as a terror machine and regularly referred to as some excesses by individuals the Ustase cited among other things policies of the inter war Yugoslav government which they described as Serbian hegemony that cost the lives of thousand Croats 50 Historian Jozo Tomasevich explains that that argument is not true claiming that between December 1918 and April 1941 about 280 Croats were killed for political reasons and that no specific motive for the killings could be identified as they may also be linked to clashes during the agrarian reform 51 Moreover he stated that Serbs too were denied civil and political rights during the royal dictatorship 40 However Tomasevich explains that the anti Croatian policies of the Serbian dominated Yugoslav government in the 1920s and 1930s as well as the shooting of the HSS deputies by Radic were largely responsible for the creation growth and nature of Croatian nationalist forces 40 This culminated in the Ustase movement and ultimately its anti Serbian policies in the World War II which was totally out of proportions to earlier anti Croatian measures in nature and extent 40 Yeomans explains that Ustase officials constantly emphasized crimes against Croats by the Yugoslav government and security forces although many of them were imagined though some of them real as justification for their envisioned eradication of the Serbs 52 Political scientist Tamara Pavasovic Trost commenting on historiography and textbooks listed the claims that terror against Serbs arose as a result of their previous hegemony as an example of the relativisation of Ustase crimes 53 Historian Aristotle Kallis explained that anti Serb prejudices were a chimera which emerged through living together in Yugoslavia with continuity with previous stereotypes 25 The Ustase functioned as a terrorist organization as well 54 The first Ustase center was established in Vienna where brisk anti Yugoslav propaganda soon developed and agents were prepared for terrorist actions 55 They organized the so called Velebit uprising in 1932 assaulting a police station in the village of Brusani in Lika 56 In 1934 the Ustase cooperated with Bulgarian Hungarian and Italian right wing extremists to assassinate King Alexander while he visited the French city of Marseille 45 Pavelic s fascist tendencies were apparent 19 The Ustase movement was financially and ideologically supported by Benito Mussolini 57 During the intensification of ties with Nazi Germany in the 1930s Pavelic s concept of the Croatian nation became increasingly race oriented 46 58 59 Independent State of Croatia Kingdom of Yugoslavia s ethnic map 1940 Serbs incdluding Montenegrin Serbs Croats Bosnian Muslims Germans Danube Swabians Occupation and partition of Yugoslavia after the Axis invasion In April 1941 the Kingdom of Yugoslavia was invaded by the Axis powers After Nazi forces entered Zagreb on 10 April 1941 Pavelic s closest associate Slavko Kvaternik proclaimed the formation of the Independent State of Croatia NDH on a Radio Zagreb broadcast Meanwhile Pavelic and several hundred Ustase volunteers left their camps in Italy and travelled to Zagreb where Pavelic declared a new government on 16 April 1941 60 He accorded himself the title of Poglavnik German Fuhrer English Chief leader The NDH combined most of modern Croatia all of modern Bosnia and Herzegovina and parts of modern Serbia into an Italian German quasi protectorate 61 Serbs made up about 30 of the NDH population 62 The NDH was never fully sovereign but it was a puppet state that enjoyed the greatest autonomy than any other regime in German occupied Europe 59 The Independent State of Croatia was declared to be on Croatian ethnic and historical territory 63 This country can only be a Croatian country and there is no method we would hesitate to use in order to make it truly Croatian and cleanse it of Serbs who have for centuries endangered us and who will endanger us again if they are given the opportunity Milovan Zanic the minister of the NDH government on 2 May 1941 64 The Ustase became obsessed with creating an ethnically pure state 65 As outlined by Ustase ministers Mile Budak Mirko Puk and Milovan Zanic the strategy to achieve an ethnically pure Croatia was that 66 67 One third of the Serbs were to be killed One third of the Serbs were to be expelled One third of the Serbs were to be forcibly converted to CatholicismAccording to historian Ivo Goldstein this formula was never published but it is undeniable that the Ustase applied it towards Serbs 68 The Ustase movement received limited support from ordinary Croats 69 70 In May 1941 the Ustase had about 100 000 members who took the oath 71 72 73 Since Vladko Macek reluctantly called on the supporters of the Croatian Peasant Party to respect and co operate with the new regime of Ante Pavelic he was able to use the apparatus of the party and most of the officials from the former Croatian Banovina 74 75 Initially Croatian soldiers who had previously served in the Austro Hungarian army held the highest positions in the NDH armed forces 76 Historian Irina Ognyanova stated that the similarities between the NDH and the Third Reich included the assumption that terror and genocide were necessary for the preservation of the state 77 Viktor Gutic made several speeches in early summer 1941 calling Serbs former enemies and unwanted elements to be cleansed and destroyed and also threatened Croats who did not support their cause 78 Much of the ideology of the Ustase was based on Nazi racial theory Like the Nazis the Ustase deemed Jews Romani and Slavs to be sub humans Untermensch They endorsed the claims from German racial theorists that Croats were not Slavs but a Germanic race Their genocides against Serbs Jews and Romani were thus expressions of Nazi racial ideology 79 Adolf Hitler supported Pavelic in order to punish the Serbs 80 Historian Michael Phayer explained that the Nazis decision to kill all of Europe s Jews is estimated by some to have begun in the latter half of 1941 in late June which if correct would mean that the genocide in Croatia began before the Nazi killing of Jews 81 Jonathan Steinberg stated that the crimes against Serbs in the NDH were the earliest total genocide to be attempted during the World War II 81 Andrija Artukovic the Minister of Interior of the Independent State of Croatia signed into law a number of racial laws 82 On 30 April 1941 the government adopted the legal order of races and the legal order of the protection of Atyan blood and the honor of Croatian people 82 Croats and about 750 000 Bosnian Muslims whose support was needed against the Serbs were proclaimed Aryans 20 Donald Bloxham and Robert Gerwarth concluded that Serbs were primary target of racial laws and murders 83 The Ustase introduced the laws to strip Serbs of their citizenship livelihoods and possessions 48 Similar to Jews in the Third Reich Serbs were forced to wear armbands bearing the letter P for Pravoslavac Orthodox 48 19 Likewise Jews were forced to wear the armband with the letter Z fort Zidov Jew 84 Ustase writers adopted dehumanizing rhetoric 85 86 In 1941 the usage of the Cyrillic script was banned 87 and in June 1941 began the elimination of Eastern Serbian words from Croatian as well as the shutting down of Serbian schools 88 Ante Pavelic ordered through the Croatian state office for language the creation of new words from old roots and purged many Serbian words 89 Whereas the Ustase persecution of Jews and Roma was systematic and represented an implementation of Nazi policies their persecution of Serbs was rooted in a stronger home grown form of hatred implemented with more variance due to the larger Serb population found across rural areas This was done despite the fact it would degrade support for the regime fueled Serb rebellion and jeopardized the stability of the NDH 90 The level of violence enacted against Serb communities often depended more on the intercommunal relations and inclinations of the respective local Ustase warlords than a well structured policy 90 Concentration and extermination campsSee also Jasenovac concentration camp and Concentration camps in the Independent State of Croatia The Srbosjek Serb cutter an agricultural knife worn over the hand that was used by the Ustase for the quick slaughter of inmates The Ustase set up temporary concentration camps in the spring of 1941 and laid the groundwork for a network of permanent camps in autumn 6 The creation of concentration camps and extermination campaign of Serbs had been planned by the Ustase leadership long before 1941 52 In Ustase state exhibits in Zagreb the camps were portrayed as productive and peaceful work camps with photographs of smiling inmates 91 Serbs Jews and Romani were arrested and sent to concentration camps such as Jasenovac Stara Gradiska Gospic and Jadovno There were 22 26 camps in NDH in total 92 Historian Jozo Tomasevich described that the Jadovno concentration camp itself acted as a way station en route to pits located on Mount Velebit where inmates were executed and dumped 93 Approximately 90 000 of the Serb victims of genocide perished in concentration camps the rest were killed in direct terror i e Punitive expeditions and razing of villages pogroms massacres and sporadic executions which mainly occurred between 1941 and 1942 90 The largest and most notorious camp was the Jasenovac Stara Gradiska complex 6 the largest extermination camp in the Balkans 94 An estimated 100 000 inmates perished there most Serbs 95 Vjekoslav Maks Luburic the commander in chief of all the Croatian camps announced the great efficiency of the Jasenovac camp at a ceremony on 9 October 1942 and also boasted We have slaughtered here at Jasenovac more people than the Ottoman Empire was able to do during its occupation of Europe 96 Bodies of the Jasenovac camp prisoners in the Sava River Bounded by rivers and two barbed wire fences making escape unlikely the Jasenovac camp was divided into five camps the first two closed in December 1941 while the rest were active until the end of the war Stara Gradiska Jasenovac V held women and children The Ciglana brickyards Jasenovac III camp the main killing ground and essentially a death camp had 88 mortality rate higher than Auschwitz s 84 6 97 A former brickyard a furnace was engineered into a crematorium with witness testimony of some including children being burnt alive and stench of human flesh spreading in the camp 98 Luburic had a gas chamber built at Jasenovac V where a considerable number of inmates were killed during a three month experiment with sulfur dioxide and Zyklon B but this method was abandoned due to poor construction 99 Still that method was unnecessary as most inmates perished from starvation disease especially typhus assaults with mallets maces axes poison and knives 99 The srbosjek Serb cutter was a glove with an attached curved blade designed to cut throats 99 Large groups of people were regularly executed upon arrival outside camps and thrown into the river 99 Unlike German run camps Jasenovac specialized in brutal one on one violence such as guards attacking barracks with weapons and throwing the bodies in the trenches 99 Some historians use a sentence from German sources Even German officers and SS men lost their cool when they saw Ustase ways and methods 100 The infamous camp commander Filipovic dubbed fra Sotona brother Satan and the personification of evil on one occasion drowned Serb women and children by flooding a cellar 99 Filipovic and other camp commanders such as Dinko Sakic and his wife Nada Sakic the sister of Maks Luburic used ingenious torture 99 There were throat cutting contests of Serbs in which prison guards made bets among themselves as to who could slaughter the most inmates It was reported that guard and former Franciscan priest Petar Brzica won a contest on 29 August 1942 after cutting the throats of 1 360 inmates 101 Inmates were tied and hit over the head with mallets and half alive hung in groups by the Granik ramp crane their intestines and necks slashed then dropped into the river 102 When the Partisans and Allies closed in at the end of the war the Ustase began mass liquidations at Jasenovac marching women and children to death and shooting most of the remaining male inmates then torched buildings and documents before fleeing 103 Many prisoners were victims of rape sexual mutilation and disembowelment while induced cannibalism amongst the inmates also took place 104 105 106 107 108 Some survivors testified about drinking blood from the slashed throats of the victims and soap making from human corpses 109 106 108 110 Monument at the Mirogoj Cemetery in Zagreb dedicated to the children from Kozara who died in Ustase concentration camps Children s concentration camps See also Children in the Holocaust The Independent State of Croatia was the only Axis satellite to have erected camps specifically for children 6 Special camps for children were those at Sisak Đakovo and Jastrebarsko 111 while Stara Gradiska held thousands of children and women 97 Historian Tomislav Dulic explained that the systematic murder of infants and children who could not pose a threat to the state serves as one of the important illustration of the genocidal character of Ustasa mass killing 112 The Holocaust and genocide survivors including Bozo Svarc testified that Ustase tore off the children s hands as well as apply a liquid to children s mouths with brushes which caused the children to scream and later die 48 The Sisak camp commander aphysician Antun Najzer was dubbed the Croatian Mengele by survivors 113 Diana Budisavljevic a humanitarian of Austrian descent carried out rescue operations and saved more than 15 000 children from Ustase camps 114 115 List of concentration and death camps Jasenovac I IV around 100 000 inmates perished there at least 52 000 Serbs Stara Gradiska Jasenovac V more than 12 000 inmates lost their lives mostly Serbs Gospic between 24 000 and 42 000 inmates died predominantly Serbs Stara Gradiska concentration camp Jadovno between 15 000 and 48 000 Serbs and Jews perished there Slana and Metajna between 4 000 and 12 000 Serbs Jews and communists died Sisak 6 693 children passed through the camp mostly Serbs between 1 152 and 1 630 died Danica around 5 000 mostly Serbs were transported to the camp some of them were executed Jastrebarsko 3 336 Serb children passing through the camp between 449 and 1 500 died Kruscica around 5 000 Jews and Serbs were interred at the camp while 3 000 lost their lives Đakovo 3 800 Jewish and Serb women and children were interred at the camp at least 569 died Lobor more than 2 000 Jewish and Serb women and children were interred at least 200 died Kerestinec 111 Serbs Jews and communists were captured 85 were killed Sajmiste the camp at the NDH territory operated by the Einsatzgruppen and since May 1944 by Ustase between 20 000 and 23 000 Serbs Jews Roma and anti fascists died here Hrvatska Mitrovica the concentration camp in Sremska MitrovicaMassacresSee also List of mass executions and massacres in Yugoslavia during World War II A large number of massacres were committed by the NDH armed forces Croatian Home Guard Domobrani and Ustase Militia The Ustase Militia was organised in 1941 into five later 15 700 man battalions two railway security battalions and the elite Black Legion and Poglavnik Bodyguard Battalion later Brigade They were predominantly recruited among the uneducated population and working class Violence against Serbs began in April 1941 and was initially limited in scope primarily targeting Serb intelligentsia By July however the violence became indiscriminate widespread and systematic Massacres of Serbs were focused in mixed areas with large Serb populations for necessity and efficiency 116 In the summer of 1941 Ustase militias and death squads burnt villages and killed thousands of civilian Serbs in the country side in sadistic ways with various weapons and tools Men women children were hacked to death thrown alive into pits and down ravines or set on fire in churches 78 Hardly ever were firearms used more commonly knived axes and such were utilized Serb victims were dismembered their ears and tongues cut off and eyes gouged out 117 Some Serb villages near Srebrenica and Ozren were wholly massacred while children were found impaled by stakes in villages between Vlasenica and Kladanj 118 The Ustase cruelty and sadism shocked even Nazi commanders 119 A Gestapo report to Reichsfuhrer SS Heinrich Himmler dated 17 February 1942 stated Increased activity of the bands of rebels is chiefly due to atrocities carried out by Ustase units in Croatia against the Orthodox population The Ustase committed their deeds in a bestial manner not only against males of conscript age but especially against helpless old people women and children The number of the Orthodox that the Croats have massacred and sadistically tortured to death is about three hundred thousand 120 The Ustase s preference for cold weapons in carrying out their deeds was partly a result of the shortage of ammunition and firearms in the early course of the war but also demonstrated the importance the regime placed on the cult of violence and personal slaughter in particular through the usage of the knife 121 Charles King emphasized that concentration camps are losing their central place in Holocaust and genocide research because a large proportion of victims perished in mass executions ravines and pits 122 He explained that the actions of the German allies including the Croatian one and the town and village level elimination of minorities also played a significant role 122 Central Croatia Bodies of victims of the Gudovac massacre On 28 April 1941 approximately 184 196 Serbs from Bjelovar were summarily executed after arrest orders by Kvaternik It was the first act of mass murder committed by the Ustase upon coming to power and presaged the wider campaign of genocide against Serbs in the NDH that lasted until the end of the war A few days following the massacre of Bjelovar Serbs the Ustase rounded up 331 Serbs in the village of Otocac The victims were forced to dig their own graves before being hacked to death with axes Among the victims was the local Orthodox priest and his son The former was made to recite prayers for the dying as his son was killed The priest was then tortured his hair and beard was pulled out eyes gouged out before he was skinned alive 123 On 24 25 July 1941 the Ustase militia captured the village of Banski Grabovac in the Banija region and murdered the entire Serb population of 1 100 peasants On 24 July over 800 Serb civilians were killed in the village of Vlahovic 116 Between 29 June and 7 July 1941 280 Serbs were killed and thrown into pits near Kostajnica 124 Large scale massacres took place in Staro Selo Topusko 125 Vojisnica 126 and Vrginmost 127 About 60 of Sadilovac residents lost their lives during the war 128 More than 400 Serbs were killed in their homes including 185 children 128 On 31 July 1942 in the Sadilovac church the Ustase under Milan Mesic s command massacred more than 580 inhabitants of the surrounding villages including about 270 children 129 Glina Main article Glina massacres On 11 or 12 May 1941 260 300 Serbs were herded into an Orthodox church and shot after which it was set on fire The idea for this massacre reportedly came from Mirko Puk who was the Minister of Justice for the NDH 130 On 10 May Ivica Saric a specialist for such operations traveled to the town of Glina to meet with local Ustase leadership where they drew up a list of names of all the Serbs between sixteen and sixty years of age to be arrested 131 After much discussion they decided that all of the arrested should be killed 132 Many of the town s Serbs heard rumors that something bad was in store for them but the vast majority did not flee On the night of 11 May mass arrests of male Serbs over the age of sixteen began 132 The Ustase then herded the group into an Orthodox Church and demanded that they be given documents proving the Serbs had all converted to Catholicism Serbs who did not possess conversion certificates were locked inside and massacred 123 The church was then set on fire leaving the bodies to burn as Ustase stood outside to shoot any survivors attempting to escape the flames 133 A similar massacre of Serbs occurred on 30 July 1941 700 Serbs were gathered into a church under the premise that they would be converted Victims were killed by having their throats cut or by having their heads smashed in with rifle butts Between 500 and 2000 other Serbs were later massacred in neighbouring villages by Vjekoslav Maks Luburic s forces continuing until 3 August In these massacres specifically males 16 years and older were killed 134 Only one of the victims Ljubo Jednak survived by playing dead Lika Sava Sumanovic s house in Sid Syrmia who was tortured and killed together with 150 fellow citizens The district of Gospic experienced the first large scale massacres which occurred in the Lika region as some 3 000 Serb civilians were killed between late July and early August 1941 116 Ustase officials reported an emerging Serb rebellion due to massacres In late July 1941 a detachment of the Croatian military in Gospic noted that the local insurgents were Serb peasants who had fled to the woods purely as a reaction to the cleansing operations against them by our Ustasa formations Following a sabotage of railway tracks in the district of Vojnic that was attributed to local communists on 27 July 1941 the Ustase began a cleansing operation of indiscriminate pillage and killing of civilians including the elderly and children 116 On 6 August 1941 the Ustase killed and burned more than 280 villagers in Mlakva including 191 children 135 Between June and August 1941 about 890 Serbs from Licko Petrovo Selo and Melinovac were killed and thrown in the so called Delic pit 136 During the war the Ustase massacred more than 900 Serbs in Divoselo more than 500 in Smiljan as well as more than 400 in Siroka Kula near Gospic 137 On 2 August 1941 the Ustase trapped about 120 children and women and 50 men who tried to escape from Divoselo After a few days of imprisonment where women were raped they were stabbed in groups and thrown into the pits 138 Slavonia On 21 December 1941 approximately 880 Serbs from Dugo Selo Lasinjsko and Prkos Lasinjski were killed in the Brezje forest 139 On the Serbian New Year 14 January 1942 the biggest slaughter of the civilians from Slavonia started Villages were burned and about 350 people were deported to Vocin and executed 140 Syrmia In August 1942 following the joint military anti partisan operation in the Syrmia by the Ustase and German Wehrmacht it turned into a massacre by the Ustase militia that left up to 7 000 Serbs dead 141 Among those killed was the prominent painter Sava Sumanovic who was arrested along with 150 residents of Sid and then tortured by having his arms cut off 142 Bosnian Krajina Monument to the Revolution dedicated to the 2 500 fighters and 68 500 predominantly Serb civilians killed or deported to the concentration camps during the Kozara Offensive In August 1941 on the Eastern Orthodox Elijah s holy day who is the patron saint of Bosnia and Herzegovina between 2 800 and 5 500 Serbs from Sanski Most and the surrounding area were killed and thrown into pits which have been dug by victims themselves 143 During the war the NDH armed forces killed over 7 000 Serbs in the municipality of Kozarska Dubica while the municipality lost more than half of its pre war population 144 The biggest massacre was committed by the Croatian Home Guard in January 1942 when the village Draksenic was burned and more than 200 were people killed 145 In February 1942 the Ustase under Miroslav Filipovic s command massacred 2 300 adults and 550 children in Serb populated villages Drakulic Motike and Sargovac 146 The children were chosen as the first victims and their body parts were cut off 146 Garavice Main article Garavice From July to September 1941 thousands of Serbs were massacred along with some Jews and Roma victims at Garavice an extermination location near Bihac On the night of 17 June 1941 Ustase began the mass killing of previously captured Serbs who were brought by trucks from the surrounding towns to Garavice 147 The bodies of the victims were thrown into mass graves A large amount of blood contaminated the local water supply 148 Herzegovina On 9 May 1941 approximately 400 Serbs were rounded up from several villages and executed in a pit behind a school in the village of Blagaj 149 On 31 May between 120 and 270 Serbs were rounded up near Trebinje and executed 150 On 2 June 1941 Ustase authorities led by Herman Tongl in the municipality of Gacko issued an order to the Serb inhabitants of the villages of Korita and Zagradci demanding that all males above the age of fifteen report to a building in the village of Stepen Once there they were imprisoned for two days and on 4 June the prisoners who numbered about 170 were tied together in groups of two or three loaded onto a lorry and driven to the Golubnjaca limestone pit near Kobilja Glava where they were shot beaten with poles cudgels axes and picks and thrown into the pit 151 On June 22 under the ruse that Serbs were planning to launch an offensive prior to the Vidovdan holiday Tongl enlisted locals to massacre Serb farmers in four districts The victims included women who were raped as well as children some were thrown into pits while others were taken near the Neretva river and executed there 152 On June 23 80 people from three villages near Gacko were killed 153 Pandurica pit near Ljubinje On 2 June 1941 the Ustase killed 140 peasants near the town of Ljubinje and on 23 June killed an additional 160 In the municipality of Stolac nearly 260 were killed during the course of two days 153 In the Livno Field area the Ustase killed over 1 200 Serbs including 370 children 154 In the Koprivnica Forest near Livno around 300 citizen were tortured and killed 154 About 300 children women and the elderly were killed and thrown into the Ravni Dolac pit in Donji Rujani 155 From 4 6 August 1941 650 women and children killed by being thrown into the Golubinka pit near Surmanci 48 156 Also hand grenades were thrown at dead bodies 156 Some 4000 Serbs later massacred in neighbouring places during that summer 48 Drina Valley Some 70 200 Serbs massacred by Muslim Ustase forces in Rasica Gaj Vlasenica in Bosnia and Herzegovina between 22 June and 20 July 1941 after raping women and girls 157 Many Serbs were executed by Ustase along the Drina Valley for a months especially near Visegrad 48 Jure Francetic s Black Legion killed thousands of defenceless Bosnian Serb civilians and threw their bodies into the Drina river 158 In 1942 about 6 000 Serbs were killed in Stari Brod near Rogatica and Milosevici 159 160 Sarajevo During the summer of 1941 Ustase militia periodically interned and executed groups of Sarajevo Serbs 161 In August 1941 they arrested about one hundred Serbs suspected of ties to the resistance armies mostly church officials and members of the intelligentsia and executed them or deported them to concentration camps 161 The Ustase killed at least 323 people in the Villa Luburic a slaughter house and place for torturing and imprisoning Serbs Jews and political dissidents 162 Expulsion and ethnic cleansingExpulsions was one of the pillar of the Ustase plan to create a pure Croat state 48 The first to be forced to leave were war veterans from the World War I Macedonian front who lived in Slavonia and Syrmia 48 163 By mid 1941 5 000 Serbs had been expelled to German occupied Serbia 48 The general plan was to have prominent people deported first so their property could be nationalized and the remaining Serbs could then be more easily manipulated By the end of September 1941 about half of the Serbian Orthodox clergy 335 priests had been expelled 164 The Drina is the border between the East and West God s Providence placed us to defend our border which our allies are well aware and value because for centuries we have proven that we are good frontiersmen 48 Mile Budak the minister of the NDH government August 1941 Advocates of expulsion presented it as a necessary measure for the creation of a socially functional nation state and also rationalized these plans by comparing it with the 1923 population exchange between Greece and Turkey 165 The Ustase set up holding camps with the aim of gathering a large number of people and deporting them 48 The NDH government also formed the Office of Colonization to resettle Croats on reclaimed land 48 During the summer of 1941 the expulsions were carried out with the significant participation of the local population 166 Many representatives of local elites including Bosnian Muslims in Bosnia and Herzegovina and Germans in Slavonia and Syrmia played an active role in the expulsion 167 An estimated 120 000 Serbs were deported from the NDH to German occupied Serbia and 300 000 fled by 1943 2 By the end of July 1941 according to the German authorities in Serbia 180 000 Serbs defected from the NDH to Serbia and by the end of September that number exceeded 200 000 In that same period 14 733 persons were legally relocated from the NDH to Serbia 163 In turn the NDH had to accept more than 200 000 Slovenian refugees who were forcefully evicted from their homes as part of the German plan of annexing parts of the Slovenian territories In October 1941 organized migration was stopped because the German authorities in Serbia forbid further immigration of Serbs According to documentation of the Commissariat for Refugees and Immigrants in Belgrade in 1942 and 1943 illegal departures of individuals from NDH to Serbia still existed numbering an estimated 200 000 though these figures are incomplete 163 Religious persecutionSee also Catholic clergy involvement with the Ustase and Persecution of Eastern Orthodox Christians Group of Serb civilians forcibly converted at a church in Glina The Ustase viewed religion and nationality as being closely linked while Roman Catholicism and Islam Bosnian Muslims were viewed as Croats were recognized as Croatian national religions Eastern Orthodoxy was deemed inherently incompatible with the Croatian state project 34 They saw Orthodoxy as hostile because it was identified as Serb 168 prior to 1920 the Orthodox dioceses in most of Croatian lands belonged to an independent Patriarchate of Karlovci To a certain extent the campaign of terror could be seen as similar Crusades of medieval ages a religious crusade 84 On 3 May 1941 a law was passed on religious conversions pressuring Serbs to convert to Catholicism and thereby adopt Croat identity 34 This was made on the eve of Pavelic s meeting with Pope Pius XII in Rome 169 The Catholic Church in Croatia headed by archbishop Aloysius Stepinac greeted it and adopted it into the Church s internal law 169 The term Serbian Orthodox was banned in mid May as being incompatible with state order and the term Greek Eastern faith was used in its place 170 By the end of September 1941 about half of the Serbian Orthodox clergy 335 priests had been expelled 164 To erase all history of Serbs and the Orthodox religion churches some of which dated to 1200s and 1300s were razed to the ground or denigrated by using them as stables or barns etc 117 The Ustasa movement is based on religion Therefore our acts stem from our devotion to religion and the Roman Catholic church the chief Ustase ideologist Mile Budak 13 July 1941 171 Ustase propaganda legitimized the persecution as being partially based on the historic Catholic Orthodox struggle for domination in Europe and Catholic intolerance towards the schismatics 168 Following the start of Serb insurgency July 1941 the State Directorate for Regeneration in the autumn of 1941 launched a program aimed at the mass forced conversion of the Serbs 168 Already in the summer the Ustase had closed or destroyed most of the Serbian Orthodox churches and monasteries and deported imprisoned or murdered Orthodox priests and bishops 168 Over 150 Serbian Orthodox priests were also killed between May and December 1941 172 The conversions were meant to Croatianize and permanently destroy the Serbian Orthodox Church 168 Roman Catholic priest Krunoslav Draganovic argued that many Catholics were converted to Orthodoxy during the 16th and 17th centuries which was later used as the basis for the Ustase conversion program 173 174 The conversion policy had a particular aspect only uneducated Serbs were eligible for conversion since illiterate peasants were presumed to have less of a Serb Orthodox identity People with secondary education etc and especially Orthodox clergy were not eligible Educated people were singled out for expulsion or extermination states Robert B McCormick 175 The Vatican was not opposed to the forced conversions On 6 February 1942 Pope Pius XII privately received 206 Ustase members in uniforms and blessed them symbolically supporting their actions 176 On 8 February 1942 the envoy to the Holy See Nikola Rusinovic said that the Holy See rejoiced at forced conversions 177 In a 21 February 1942 letter to Cardinal Luigi Maglione the Holy See s secretary encouraged the Croatian bishops to speed up the conversions and he also stated that the term Orthodox should be replaced with the terms apostates or schismatics 178 Many fanatical Catholic priests joined the Ustase blessed and supported their work and participated in killings and conversions 179 In 1941 1942 180 some 200 000 181 or 240 000 182 250 000 183 Serbs were converted to Roman Catholicism although most of them only practiced it temporarily 181 Converts would sometimes be killed anyway often in the same churches where they were re baptized 181 85 of the Serbian Orthodox clergy was killed or expelled 184 In Lika Kordun and Banija alone 172 Serbian Orthodox churches were closed destroyed or plundered 170 The Encyclopedia of the Holocaust described that the bishops conference that met in Zagreb in November 1941 was not prepared to denounce the forced conversion of Serbs that had taken place in the summer of 1941 let alone condemn the persecution and murder of Serbs and Jews 185 Many Catholic priests in Croatia approved of and supported the Ustase s large scale attacks on the Serbian Orthodox Church 186 and the Catholic hierarchy did not issue any condemnation of the crimes either publicly or privately 187 The Croatian Catholic Church and the Vatican viewed the Ustase s policies against the Serbs as being advantageous to Roman Catholicism 188 The puppet Croatian Orthodox Church After the matter of forced conversion had become extremely controversial 34 the NDH government on 3 April 1942 adopted a law that established the Croatian Eastern Orthodox Church 189 This was done in order to replace the institutions of the Serbian Orthodox Church 190 According to the Statute concerning the Croatian Eastern Orthodox Church that was approved on 5 June the Church was indivisible in its unity and autocephalous 189 In June White Russian emigre Germogen Maximov an archbishop of the Russian Orthodox Church Outside Russia was enthroned as its primate 191 The establishment of the Church was done in order to try and pacify the state as well as to Croatisize the remaining Serb population once the Ustase realized that the complete eradication of Serbs in the NDH was unattainable Persecution of Serbs continued however but was less intense 192 Persecution of Serbian Orthodox clergy Platon Jovanovic s relics in the Church of the Holy Trinity Banja Luka Bishops of the Serbian Orthodox Church dioceses in the Independent State of Croatia were targeted during religious persecutions 193 On 5 May 1941 the Ustase tortured and killed Platon Jovanovic of Banja Luka On 12 May Bishop Petar Zimonjic Metropolitan of the Eparchy of Dabar Bosna was killed and in mid August Bishop Sava Trlajic was killed 172 Dositej Vasic the Metropolitan of the Metropolitanate of Zagreb and Ljubljana died in 1945 as result of wounds from torture by Ustase Nikola Jovanovic the Bishop of the Eparchy of Zahumlje and Herzegovina died in 1944 after he was beaten by the Ustase and expelled to Serbia Irinej Đorđevic the Bishop of the Eparchy of Dalmatia was interned to Italian captivity 193 There were 577 Serbian Orthodox priests monks and other religious dignitaries in the NDH in April 1941 By December there were none left Between 214 and 217 were killed 334 were exiled eighteen fled and five died of natural causes 193 In Bosnia and Herzegovina 71 Orthodox priests were killed by the Ustase during WWII 10 by the Partisans 5 by the Germans and 45 died in the first decade after the end of WWII 194 According to Serb Orthodox Church data out of approximately 700 clergymen and monks of the NDH territory 577 were subjected to persecution out of these 217 were killed 334 were deported to Serbia 3 were arrested 18 managed to escape and 5 died later from consequences of torture 195 The role of Aloysius Stepinac A cardinal Aloysius Stepinac served as Archbishop of Zagreb during World War II and pledged his loyalty to the NDH Scholars still debate the degree of Stepinac s contact with the Ustase regime 48 Mark Biondich stated that he was not an ardent supporter of the Ustahsa regime legitimising their every policy nor an avowed opponent publicly denounced its crimes in a systematic manner 196 While some clergy committed war crimes in the name of the Catholic Church Stepinac practiced a wary ambivalence 197 48 He was an early supporter of the goal of creating a Catholic Croatia but soon began to question the regime s mandate of forced conversion 48 Historian Tomasevich praised his statements that were made against the Ustase regime by Stepinac as well as his actions against the regime However he also noted that these same statements and actions had shortcomings in respect to Ustase s genocidal actions against the Serbs and the Serbian Orthodox Church As Stepinac failed to publicly condemn the genocide waged against the Serbs by the Ustase earlier during the war as he would later on Tomasevich stated that Stepinac s courage against the Ustase state earned him great admiration among anti Ustase Croats in his flock along with many others However this came with the price of enmity of the Ustase and Pavelic personally In the early part of the war he strongly supported a Yugoslavian state organized with federal lines It was generally known that Stepinac and Pavlovic thoroughly hated each other 198 The Germans considered him Pro Western and friend of the Jews leading to hostility from German and Italian forces 199 On 14 May 1941 Stepinac received word of an Ustase massacre of Serb villagers at Glina On the same day he wrote to Pavelic saying 200 I consider it my bishop s responsibility to raise my voice and to say that this is not permitted according to Catholic teaching which is why I ask that you undertake the most urgent measures on the entire territory of the Independent State of Croatia so that not a single Serb is killed unless it is shown that he committed a crime warranting death Otherwise we will not be able to count on the blessing of heaven without which we must perish These were still private protest letters Later in 1942 and 1943 Stepinac started to speak out more openly against the Ustase genocides this was after most of the genocides were already committed and it became increasingly clear the Nazis and Ustase will be defeated 201 In May 1942 Stepinac spoke out against genocide mentioning Jews and Roma but not Serbs 48 Tomasevich wrote that while Stepinac is to be commended for his actions against the regime the failure of the Croatian Catholic hierarchy and Vatican to publicly condemn the genocide cannot be defended from the standpoint of humanity justice and common decency 202 In his diary Stepinac said that Serbs and Croats are of two different worlds north and south pole which will never unite as long as one of them is alive along with other similar views 203 Historian Ivo Goldstein described that Stepinac was being sympathetic to the Ustase authorities and ambivalent towards the new racial laws as well as that he was a man with many dilemmas in a disturbing time 204 Stepinac resented the interwar conversion of some 200 000 most Croatian Catholics to Orthodoxy which he felt was forced on them by prevailing political conditions 202 In 2016 Croatia s rehabilitation of Stepinac was negatively received in Serbia and Republika Srpska an entity of Bosnia and Herzegovina 205 Toll of victims and genocide classificationThe United States Holocaust Memorial Museum website states that Determining the number of victims for Yugoslavia for Croatia and for Jasenovac is highly problematic due to the destruction of many relevant documents the long term inaccessibility to independent scholars of those documents that survived and the ideological agendas of postwar partisan scholarship and journalism 206 Memorial plaque in Drakulic to the victims of massacres around Banja Luka In the 1980s calculations of World War II victims in Yugoslavia were made by the Serb statistician Bogoljub Kocovic and the Croat demographer Vladimir Zerjavic Tomasevich described their studies as being objective and reliable 207 Kocovic estimated that 370 000 Serbs both combatants and civilians died in the NDH during the war With a possible error of around 10 he noted that Serb losses cannot be higher than 410 000 208 He did not estimate the number of Serbs who were killed by the Ustase saying that in most cases the task of categorizing the victims would be impossible 209 Zerjavic estimated that the total number of Serb deaths in the NDH was 322 000 of which 125 000 died as combatants while 197 000 were civilians Zerjavic estimated that a total of 78 000 civilians were killed in Ustase prisons pits and camps including Jasenovac 45 000 civilians were killed by the Germans 15 000 civilians were killed by the Italians 34 000 civilians were killed in battles between the warring parties and 25 000 civilians died of typhoid 210 The number of victims who perished in the Jasenovac concentration camp remains a matter of debate but current estimates put the total number at around 100 000 about half of whom were Serbs 95 During the war as well as during Tito s Yugoslavia various numbers were given for Yugoslavia s overall war casualties a Estimates by Holocaust memorial centers also vary b The historian Jozo Tomasevich said that the exact number of victims in Yugoslavia is impossible to determine 211 The academic Barbara Jelavich however cites Tomasevich s estimate in writing that as many as 350 000 Serbs were killed during the period of Ustase rule 212 The historian Rory Yeomans said that the most conservative estimates state that 200 000 Serbs were killed by Ustase death squads but the actual number of Serbs who were executed by the Ustase or perished in Ustase concentration camps may be as high as 500 000 6 In a 1992 work Sabrina P Ramet cites the figure of 350 000 Serbs who were liquidated by Pavelic and his Ustase henchmen 213 In a 2006 work Ramet estimated that at least 300 000 Serbs were massacred by the Ustase 2 In her 2007 book The Independent State of Croatia 1941 45 Ramet cites Zerjavic s overall figures for Serb losses in the NDH 214 Marko Attila Hoare writes that perhaps nearly 300 000 Serbs died as a result of the Ustase genocide and the Nazi policies 215 Raphael Lemkin the initiator of the Genocide Convention described the Ustase crimes against Serbs as genocide Tomislav Dulic stated that Serbs in NDH suffered among the highest casualty rates in Europe during the World War II 112 American historian Stanley G Payne stated that direct and indirect executions by NDH regime were an extraordinary mass crime which in proportionate terms exceeded any other European regime beside Hitler s Third Reich 216 He added the crimes in the NDH were proportionately surpassed only by the Khmer Rouge in Cambodia and several of the extremely genocidal African regimes 216 Raphael Israeli wrote that a large scale genocidal operations in proportions to its small population remain almost unique in the annals of wartime Europe 70 In Serbia as well as in the eyes of Serbs the Ustase atrocities constituted a genocide 217 Many historians and authors describe the Ustase regime s mass killings of Serbs as meeting the definition of genocide including Raphael Lemkin who is known for coining the word genocide and initiating the Genocide Convention 218 219 220 221 Croatian historian Mirjana Kasapovic explained that in the most important scientific works on genocide crimes against Serbs Jews and Roma in the NDH are unequivocally classified as genocide 222 Yad Vashem Israel s official memorial to the victims of the Holocaust stated that Ustasha carried out a Serb genocide exterminating over 500 000 expelling 250 000 and forcing another 250 000 to convert to Catholicism 223 224 The Simon Wiesenthal Center also mentioned that leaders of the Independent State of Croatia committed genocide against Serbs Jews and Roma 225 Presidents of Croatia Stjepan Mesic and Ivo Josipovic as well as Bakir Izetbegovic and Zeljko Komsic Bosniak and Croat member of the Presidency of Bosnia and Herzegovina also described the persecution of Serbs in the Independent State of Croatia as a genocide 226 227 228 229 In the post war era the Serbian Orthodox Church considered the Serbian victims of this genocide to be martys As a result the Serbian Orthodox Church commemorates the Saint Martyrs of Jasenovac on 13 September 230 AftermathThe Yugoslav communist authorities did not use the Jasenovac camp as was done with other European concentration camps most likely due to Serb Croat relations They recognized that ethnic tensions stemming from the war could had the capacity to destabilize the new communist regime tried to conceal wartime atrocities and to mask specific ethnic losses 19 The Tito s government attempted to let the wounds heal and forge brotherhood and unity in the peoples 231 Tito himself was invited to and passed Jasenovac several times but never visited the site 232 The genocide was not properly examined in the aftermath of the war because the Yugoslav communist government did not encourage independent scholars 206 233 234 235 Historians Marko Attila Hoare and Mark Biondich stated that Western world historians don t pay enough attention to the genocide committed by Ustase while several scholars described it as lesser known genocide 48 236 222 World War II and especially its ethnic conflicts have been deemed instrumental in the later Yugoslav Wars 1991 95 237 Trials Mile Budak and a number of other members of the NDH government such as Nikola Mandic and Julije Makanec were tried and convicted of high treason and war crimes by the communist authorities of the SFR Yugoslavia Many of them were executed 238 239 Miroslav Filipovic the commandant of the Jasenovac and Stara Gradiska camps was found guilty for war crimes sentenced to death and hanged 240 Many others escaped including the supreme leader Ante Pavelic most to Latin America Some emigrations were prevented by the Operation Gvardijan in which Ljubo Milos the commandant of the Jasenovac camp was captured and executed 241 Aloysius Stepinac who served as Archbishop of Zagreb was found guilty of high treason and forced conversion of Orthodox Serbs to Catholicism 242 However some claim the trial was carried out with proper legal procedure 242 In its judgment in the Hostages Trial the Nuremberg Military Tribunal concluded that the Independent State of Croatia was not a sovereign entity capable of acting independently of the German military despite recognition as an independent state by the Axis powers 243 According to the Tribunal Croatia was at all times here involved an occupied country 243 The Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide were not in force at the time It was unanimously adopted by the United Nations General Assembly on 9 December 1948 and entered into force on 12 January 1951 244 245 Andrija Artukovic Minister of Internal Affairs and Minister of Justice of the NDH who signed a number of racial laws escaped to the United States after the war and he was extradited to Yugoslavia in 1986 where he was tried in the Zagreb District Court and was found guilty of a number of mass killings in the NDH 246 Artukovic was sentenced to death but the sentence was not carried out due to his age and health 247 Efraim Zuroff a Nazi hunter played a significant role in capturing Dinko Sakic another the Jasenovac camp commander during 1990s 248 After pressure from the international community on the right wing president Franjo Tuđman he sought Sakic s extradition and he stood trial in Croatia aged 78 he was found guilty of war crimes and crimes against humanity and given the maximum sentence of 20 years imprisonment According to the human rights researchers Eric Stover Victor Peskin and Alexa Koenig it was the most important post Cold War domestic effort to hold criminally accountable a Nazi war crimes suspect in a former Eastern European communist country 248 Ratlines terrorism and assassinations See also Ratlines World War II aftermath and Terrorism in Yugoslavia With the Partisan liberation of Yugoslavia many Ustase leaders fled and took refuge at the college of San Girolamo degli Illirici near the Vatican 103 Catholic priest and Ustase Krunoslav Draganovic directed the fugitives from San Girolamo 103 The US State Department and Counter Intelligence Corps helped war criminals to escape and assisted Draganovic who later worked for the American intelligence in sending Ustase abroad 103 Many of those responsible for mass killings in NDH took refuge in South America Portugal Spain and the United States 103 Luburic was assassinated in Spain in 1969 by an UDBA agent Artukovic lived in Ireland and California until extradited in 1986 and died of natural causes in prison Dinko Sakic and his wife Nada lived in Argentina until extradited in 1998 Dinko dying in prison and his wife released 103 Draganovic also arranged Gestapo functionary Klaus Barbie s flight 103 Among some of the Croat diaspora the Ustase became heroes 103 Ustase emigre terrorist groups in the diaspora such as Croatian Revolutionary Brotherhood and Croatian National Resistance carried out assassinations and bombings and also plane hijackings throughout the Yugoslav period 249 Controversy and denialMain article Denial of genocide of Serbs in the Independent State of Croatia Historical revisionism Further information Genocide denial and Far right in Croatia Some Croats including politicians have attempted to minimise the magnitude of the genocide perpetrated against Serbs in the Independent State of Croatia 250 Historian Mirjana Kasapovic concluded that there are three main strategies of historical revisionism in the part of Croatian historiography the NDH was a normal counter insurgency state at the time no mass crimes were committed in the NDH especially genocide the Jasenovac camp was just a labor camp not an extermination camp 222 By 1989 the future President of Croatia Franjo Tuđman had embraced Croatian nationalism and published Horrors of War Historical Reality and Philosophy in which he questioned the official number of victims killed by the Ustase during the Second World War In his book Tuđman claimed that between 30 000 and 40 000 died at Jasenovac 251 Some scholars and observers accused Tuđman of racist statements flirting with ideas associated with the Ustase movement appointment of former Ustase officials to political and military positions as well as downplaying the number of victims in the Independent State of Croatia 252 253 254 255 256 Since 2016 anti fascist groups leaders of Croatia s Serb Roma and Jewish communities and former top Croat officials have boycotted the official state commemoration for the victims of the Jasenovac concentration camp because as they said Croatian authorities refused to denounce the Ustase legacy explicitly and they downplayed and revitalized crimes committed by Ustase 257 258 259 260 Destruction of memorials After Croatia gained independence about 3 000 monuments dedicated to the anti fascist resistance and the victims of fascism were destroyed 261 262 263 According to Croatian World War II veterans association these destructions were not spontaneous but a planned activity carried out by the ruling party the state and the church 261 The status of the Jasenovac Memorial Site was downgraded to the nature park and parliament cut its funding 264 In September 1991 Croatian forces entered the memorial site and vandalized the museum building while exhibitions and documentation were destroyed damaged and looted 262 In 1992 FR Yugoslavia sent a formal protest to the United Nations and UNESCO warning of the devastation of the memorial complex 262 The European Community Monitor Mission visited the memorial center and confirmed the damage 262 Commemoration Josip Broz Tito visits the memorial park in Sremska Mitrovica dedicated to the victims in Syrmia An exhibition dedicated to the Jasenovac victims Banja Luka Israeli President Moshe Katsav visited Jasenovac in 2003 His successor Shimon Peres paid homage to the camp s victims when he visited Jasenovac on 25 July 2010 and laid a wreath at the memorial Peres dubbed the Ustase s crimes a demonstration of sheer sadism 265 266 The Jasenovac Memorial Museum reopened in November 2006 with a new exhibition designed by a Croatian architect Helena Paver Njiric and an Educational Center designed by the firm Produkcija The Memorial Museum features an interior of rubber clad steel modules video and projection screens and glass cases displaying artifacts from the camp Above the exhibition space which is quite dark is a field of glass panels inscribed with the names of the victims The New York City Parks Department the Holocaust Park Committee and the Jasenovac Research Institute with the help of then Congressman Anthony Weiner D NY established a public monument to the victims of Jasenovac in April 2005 the sixtieth anniversary of the liberation of the camps The dedication ceremony was attended by ten Yugoslavian Holocaust survivors as well as diplomats from Serbia Bosnia and Israel It remains the only public monument to Jasenovac victims outside the Balkans Memorial museum for victims of massacre in Stari Brod Rogatica Nowadays on 22 April the anniversary of the prisoner breakout from the Jasenovac camp Serbia marks the National Holocaust World War II Genocide and other Fascist Crimes Victims Remembrance Day while Croatia holds an official commemoration at the Jasenovac Memorial Site 267 Serbia and Bosnian entity of Republika Srpska hold a joint central commemoration at the Donja Gradina Memorial Zone 268 In 2018 an exhibition named Jasenovac The Right to Remembrance was held in the Headquarters of the United Nations in New York City within the marking of International Holocaust Remembrance Day with the main goal of to foster a culture of remembrance of Serb Jewish Roma and anti fascist victims of the Holocaust and genocide in the Jasenovac camp 269 270 On 22 April 2020 the president of Serbia Aleksandar Vucic had an official visit to the memorial park in Sremska Mitrovica dedicated to the victims of genocide on the territory of Syrmia 271 Commemoration ceremonies honoring the victims of the Jadovno concentration camp have been organized by the Serb National Council SNV the Jewish community in Croatia and local anti fascists since 2009 while 24 June has been designated as a Day of Remembrance of the Jadovno Camp in Croatia 268 On 26 August 2010 the 68th anniversary of the partial liberation of the Jastrebarsko children s camp victims were commemorated in a ceremony at a monument in the Jastrebarsko cemetery It was attended by only 40 people mainly members of the Union of Anti Fascist Fighters and Anti Fascists of the Republic of Croatia 272 The Republic of Srpska Government holds a commemoration at the memorial site of the victims of the Ustase massacres in the Drina Valley 160 In cultureLiterature Jama a poem condemning the crimes of the Ustase written by Ivan Goran Kovacic Eagles Fly Early a novel about children role in assisting the Partisans in the resistance against the Ustase written by Branko CopicArt The illustration of Zlatko Prica and Edo Murtic with the verses of Ivan Goran Kovacic s poem Jama Zlatko Prica and Edo Murtic illustrated scenes from the Ivan Goran Kovacic s poem JamaTheater Golubnjaca a play by Jovan Radulovic about ethnic relations in neighboring villages in the years after the Ustase crimes 273 Films 1955 Solaja a film about Serb rebellion against the genocide directed by Vojislav Nanovic 1960 The Ninth Circle a film directed by France Stiglic includes scenes from the Jasenovac camp 1966 Eagles Fly Early film based on the eponymous novel directed by Soja Jovanovic 1967 Black Birds a film about a group of prisoners of Stara Gradiska concentration camp directed by Eduard Galic 1984 The End of the War a film about Serbian man takes his son to find and kill members of the Ustase militia who tortured and killed his wife and mother directed by Dragan Kresoja 1988 Braca po materi a film about Ustase atrocities told through the story of two half brothers a Croat and a Serb directed by Zdravko Sotra 2016 Prva trecina oprostaj kao kazna a short feature film about the Zile Friganovic s massacres directed by Svetlana Petrov 2019 The Diary of Diana B a biographical film about aid operation of Diana Budisavljevic for the rescue of more than 10 000 children from concentration camps directed by Dana Budisavljevic 2020 Dara of Jasenovac a film about a girl who survived the Jasenovac camp directed by Predrag AntonijevicTV Series 1981 Nepokoreni grad a TV series about Ustase terror campaign including the Kerestinec camp directed by Vanca Kljakovic and Eduard GalicMusic Some survivors claim that the lyrics of the famous song Đurđevdan was written on a train that took prisoners from Sarajevo to the Jasenovac camp 274 Thompson a Croatian rock band has garnered controversy for their purported glorification of Ustashe regime in their songs and concerts and the most famous such song is Jasenovac i Gradiska Stara 275 276 See alsoAnti Eastern Orthodox sentiment Catholic clergy involvement with the UstasePortals Croatia Serbia Genocide World War IIAnnotations During the war German military commanders gave different figures for the number of Serbs Jews and others killed by the Ustase inside the NDH Alexander Lohr claimed 400 000 Serbs killed Massenbach around 700 000 Hermann Neubacher stated that Ustashe claims of a million Serbs slaughtered was a boastful exaggeration and believed that the number of defenseless victims slaughtered to be three quarters of a million The Vatican cited 350 000 Serbs slaughtered by the end of 1942 Eugene Tisserant 277 Yugoslavia presented 1 700 000 as its war casualties produced by mathematician Vladeta Vuckovic at the Paris Peace Treaties 1947 278 A secret 1964 government list counted 597 323 victims out of which 346 740 were Serbs 279 In the 1980s Croat economist Vladimir Zerjavic concluded that the number of victims was around one million 280 Furthermore he claimed that the number of Serb victims in the Independent State of Croatia was between 300 000 and 350 000 with 80 000 victims of all ethnicity in Jasenovac 281 Since the breakup of Yugoslavia the Croatian side began suggesting substantially smaller numbers while the Serbian side maintains the exaggerated numbers promoted within Yugoslavia until the 1990s The United States Holocaust Memorial Museum lists as of 2012 a total of 320 000 340 000 ethnic Serbs killed in Croatia and Bosnia and 45 52 000 killed at Jasenovac 206 The Yad Vashem center claims that more than 500 000 Serbs were murdered in Croatia 250 000 were expelled and another 200 000 were forced to convert to Catholicism 282 According to K Ungvary the actual number of Serbs deported was 25 000 283 Ramet cites the German statement 284 Serbian Orthodox bishop in America Dionisije Milivojevic claimed 50 000 Serb colonists and settlers deported and 60 000 killed in the Hungarian occupation 285 The only official Yugoslav data of war victims in Kosovo and Metohija is from 1964 and counted 7 927 people out of which 4 029 were Serbs 1 460 Montenegrins and 2 127 Albanians 286 Footnotes Goldstein 1999 p 158 a b c Ramet 2006 p 114 Baker 2015 p 18 Bellamy 2013 p 96 Pavlowitch 2008 p 34 a b c d e Yeomans 2012 p 18 Christia 2012 p 206 Korb 2010a p 512 Bartulin 2013 p 5 Touval 2001 p 105 Jonassohn amp Bjornson 1998 p 281 Carmichael amp Maguire 2015 p 151 Tomasevich 2001 p 347 Mojzes 2011 p 54 Kallis 2008 pp 130 132 Suppan 2014 p 1005 Fischer 2007 pp 207 208 Bideleux amp Jeffries 2007 p 187 McCormick 2008 Tomasevich 2001 pp 347 404 Yeomans 2015 pp 265 266 Kallis 2008 pp 130 132 Fischer 2007 pp 207 208 Bideleux amp Jeffries 2007 p 187 McCormick 2008 Newman 2017 a b c Fischer 2007 p 207 Jonassohn amp Bjornson 1998 p 281 JUZNOSLAVENSKO PITANJE Prikaz cjelokupnog pitanja Die sudslawische Frage und der Weltkrieg Ubersichtliche Darstellung des Gesamt problems Prevod Fedor Pucek Matica hrvatska Varazdin 1990 Carmichael 2012 p 97 a b Yeomans 2015 p 265 Bartulin 2013 p 37 a b c d e f g McCormick 2008 a b Kenrick 2006 p 92 Bartulin 2013 p 123 Yeomans 2015 p 167 Kallis 2008 pp 130 132 a b c d e f Newman 2017 a b c Kallis 2008 p 130 a b c d Newman 2014 Suppan 2014 p 310 314 a b c Ognyanova 2000 p 3 Yeomans 2012 p 7 a b Kallis 2008 pp 130 131 Bartulin 2013 p 124 Bartulin 2013 pp 56 60 Bartulin 2013 pp 52 53 a b c d e Ramet 2006 p 118 a b Suppan 2014 p 39 592 Suppan 2014 p 591 Yeomans 2012 p 6 a b c d Yeomans 2015 p 300 Suppan 2014 p 586 a b c d Tomasevich 2001 p 404 Yeomans 2015 p 150 300 Suppan 2014 p 573 588 590 Ustasa Encyclopaedia Britannica Retrieved 7 May 2020 Suppan 2014 p 590 a b Rogel 2004 p 8 a b Yeomans 2015 p 150 Mojzes 2011 pp 52 53 a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r Levy 2009 Fischer 2007 p 208 Tomasevich 2001 pp 402 404 Tomasevich 2001 p 403 a b Yeomans 2012 p 16 Pavasovic Trost 2018 Tomasevich 2001 p 32 Suppan 2014 p 592 Yeomans 2015 p 301 Kallis 2008 pp 130 Yeomans 2015 p 263 Suppan 2014 p 591 Levy 2009 Domenico amp Hanley 2006 p 435 Adeli 2009 p 9 Kallis 2008 p 134 a b Payne 2006 Fischer 2007 p Tomasevich 2001 p 272 Kallis 2008 p 239 Tomasevich 2001 p 466 Deciphering the Balkan Enigma Using History to Inform Policy PDF Retrieved 3 June 2011 Mojzes 2011 p 54 Jones Adam amp Nicholas A Robins 2009 Genocides by The Oppressed Subaltern Genocide In Theory and Practice p 106 Indiana University Press ISBN 978 0 253 22077 6 Jacobs 2009 p 158 159 Adriano amp Cingolani 2018 p 190 Shepherd 2012 p 78 a b Israeli 2013 p 45 Goldstein 1999 p 134 Weiss Wendt 2010 p 148 Weiss Wendt 2010 pp 148 149 157 Suppan 2014 pp 32 1065 Goldstein 1999 p 133 Tomasevich 2001 p 425 Ognyanova 2000 p 22 a b Yeomans 2012 p 17 Fischer 2007 pp 207 208 210 226 Fischer 2007 p 212 a b Phayer 2000 p 31 a b Barbier 2017 p 169 Bloxham amp Gerwarth 2011 p 111 a b McCormick 2014 p 72 Yeomans 2015 p 132 Israeli 2013 p 51 Ramet 2006 p 312 Levy 2011 p 61 Fischer 2007 p 228 a b c Byford 2020 p 10 Yeomans 2012 p 2 Levy 2011 p 69 Tomasevich 2001 p 726 Yeomans 2015 p 21 Pavlowitch 2008 p 34 a b Yeomans 2015 p 3 Pavlowitch 2008 p 34 Paris 1961 p 132 a b Levy 2011 p 70 Levy 2011 pp 70 71 a b c d e f g Levy 2011 p 71 Weiss Wendt 2010 p 147 Lituchy 2006 p 117 Bulajic 2002 p 231 a b c d e f g h Levy 2011 p 72 Schindley amp Makara 2005 p 149 Jacobs 2009 p 160 a b Byford 2014 Lituchy 2006 p 220 a b The Extradition of Nazi Criminals Ryan Artukovic and Demjanjuk Simon Wiesenthal Center Retrieved 10 May 2020 Schindley amp Makara 2005 p 42 393 Survivor Testimonies PDF Kingsborough Community College Retrieved 10 May 2020 Bulajic 2002 p 7 a b Dulic 2006 Milekic Sven 6 October 2014 WWII Children s Concentration Camp Remembered in Croatia Balkan Insight Balkan Investigative Reporting Network BIRN Retrieved 10 May 2020 Kolanovic Josip ed 2003 Dnevnik Diane Budisavljevic 1941 1945 Zagreb Croatian State Archives and Public Institution Jasenovac Memorial Area pp 284 85 ISBN 978 9 536 00562 8 Lomovic Bosko 2014 Die Heldin aus Innsbruck Diana Obexer Budisavljevic Belgrade Svet knjige p 28 ISBN 978 86 7396 487 4 Archived from the original on 1 April 2016 Retrieved 28 July 2019 a b c d Biondich Mark 2011 The Balkans Revolution War and Political Violence Since 1878 Oxford University Press pp 136 137 ISBN 978 0 19929 905 8 a b McCormick 2014 p 80 Paris 1961 p 104 Yeomans 2012 p vii Goni Uki The real Odessa Smuggling the Nazis to Peron s Argentina Granta 2002 p 202 ISBN 9781862075818 Byford 2020 p 10 11 a b King 2012 a b Cornwell John 2000 Hitler s Pope The Secret History of Pius XII Penguin pp 251 252 ISBN 978 0 14029 627 3 Zatezalo 2005 pp 228 Zatezalo 2005 pp 132 136 Zatezalo 2005 p 79 Bulajic 1988 1989 p 254 a b Zatezalo 2005 p 186 Zatezalo 2005 pp 186 187 Goldstein 2013 p 127 Goldstein 2013 p 128 a b Goldstein 2013 p 129 Singleton Fred 1985 A Short History of the Yugoslav Peoples Cambridge University Press p 177 ISBN 978 0 52127 485 2 Locke Hubert G Littell Marcia Sachs 1996 Holocaust and Church Struggle Religion Power and the Politics of Resistance University Press of America p 23 ISBN 978 0 76180 375 1 Zatezalo 2005 p 286 Zatezalo 2005 p 304 Zatezalo 1989 p 180 Perrone 2017 Zatezalo 2005 p 126 Skiljan 2010 Korb 2010b Greif 2018 p 437 Mojzes 2011 p 75 76 Cvetkovic 2009 pp 124 128 Baric 2019 a b Schindley amp Makara 2005 p 362 Bergholz 2012 pp 76 77 Bergholz 2012 p 76 Goldstein 2013 p 120 Levy 2011 p 65 Dulic Tomislav 22 November 2011 Gacko massacre June 1941 SciencesPo Levy 2011 p 66 a b Bergholz Max 2016 Violence as a Generative Force Identity Nationalism and Memory in a Balkan Community Cornell University Press p 100 ISBN 978 1 501 70643 1 a b Bulajic 1992b p 56 Bulajic 1988 1989 p 683 a b Greer amp Moberg 2001 p 142 Hoare 2006 pp 202 203 Yeomans 2011 p 194 Sokol 2014 a b Prime Minister Viskovic attends the commemorating ceremony in memory of the Serbs killed in Stari Brod and Milosevici in 1942 Republic of Srpska Government Retrieved 12 May 2020 a b Balic 2009 Yeomans 2015 p 24 a b c Skiljan 2012 a b Tomasevich 2001 p 394 Weiss Wendt 2010 p 149 Weiss Wendt 2010 p 157 Weiss Wendt 2010 p 150 a b c d e Yeomans 2015 p 178 a b Vukovic 2004 p 431 a b Ramet 2006 p 119 Paris 1961 p 100 a b Tomasevich 2001 p 398 Ramet 2006 p 126 Yeomans 2015 pp 178 179 McCormick 2014 p 81 Vukovic 2004 p 430 Vukovic 2004 p 430 Rivelli 1999 p 171 Vukovic 2004 p 431 Dakina 1994 p 209 Simic 1958 p 139 Mojzes 2011 p 64 Djilas 1991 p 211 a b c Mojzes 2011 p 63 Vukovic 2004 p 431 Đuric 1991 p 127 Djilas 1991 p 211 Paris 1988 p 197 Tomasevich 2001 p 542 Tomasevich 2001 p 529 Encyclopedia of the Holocaust vol 1 p 328 Tomasevich 2001 p 531 Tomasevich 2001 p 537 Tomasevich 2001 p 565 a b Lemkin 2008 p 617 Tomasevich 2001 p 546 Burgess Michael 2005 The Eastern Orthodox Churches Concise Histories with Chronological Checklists of Their Primates McFarland p 229 ISBN 978 0 78642 145 9 Tomasevich 2001 p 547 a b c Velikonja 2003 p 170 Becirovic Denis 2010 Komunisticka vlast i Srpska Pravoslavna Crkva u Bosni i Hercegovini 1945 1955 Pritisci napadi hapsenja i suđenja Tokovi Istorije 3 78 M V Shkarovskij K istorii Pravoslavnoj Cerkvi v Horvatii kommentarij v svete very permanent dead link Accessed 9 October 2021 Biondich 2006 Goldstein 2001 pp 559 Tomasevich 2001 pp 566 Tomasevich 2001 pp 563 564 Biondich 2007a pp 42 43 Tomasevich 2001 p 555 a b Tomasevich 2001 p 564 Vukovic 2004 p 432 Goldstein 2001 pp 559 578 Ostre reakcije Srbije Rehabilitacija ustaske NDH Al Jazeera Balkans Retrieved 11 May 2020 a b c Jasenovac United States Holocaust Memorial Museum Retrieved 3 June 2020 Tomasevich 2001 pp 736 737 Kocovic 2005 p XVII Kocovic 2005 p 113 Zerjavic 1993 p 10 Tomasevich 2001 p 719 Jelavich Barbara 1983 History of the Balkans Volume 2 Cambridge University Press p 265 ISBN 978 0 52127 459 3 Ramet Sabrina P 1992 Nationalism and Federalism in Yugoslavia 1962 1991 Second ed Indiana University Press p 8 ISBN 978 0 25334 794 7 Pavelic and his Ustase henchmen alone were responsible for the liquidation of some 350 000 Serbs Ramet 2007 p 4 Hoare Marko Attila 2014 The Bosnian Muslims in the Second World War Oxford University Press p 47 ISBN 978 0 19936 531 9 the Ustasha embarked on a policy of genocide which in conjunction with the Nazi Holocaust with which it overlapped claimed the lives of at least 30 000 Jews a similar number of Gypsies and perhaps nearly 300 000 Serbs a b Payne 2006 pp 18 23 Rapaic 1999 Krestic 1998 SANU 1995 Kurdulija 1993 Bulajic 1992 Kljakic 1991 McCormick 2014 McCormick 2008 Yeomans 2012 p 5 Levy 2011 Lemkin 2008 pp 259 264 Mojzes 2008 p 154 Rivelli 1999 Paris 1961 Samuel Totten William S Parsons 2004 Century of Genocide Critical Essays and Eyewitness Accounts Routledge p 422 ISBN 978 1 135 94558 9 The Independent State of Croatia willingly cooperated with the Nazi Final Solution against Jews and Gypsies but went beyond it launching a campaign of genocide against Serbs in greater Croatia The Ustasha like the Nazis whom they emulated established concentration camps and death camps Michael Lees 1992 The Serbian Genocide 1941 1945 Serbian Orthodox Diocese of Western America John Pollard 30 October 2014 The Papacy in the Age of Totalitarianism 1914 1958 OUP Oxford pp 407 ISBN 978 0 19 102658 4 a b c Kasapovic 2018 Ustasa PDF Yad Vashem Retrieved 25 June 2018 Croatian President Mesic Apologizes for Croatian Crimes Against the Jews during the Holocaust Yad Vashem Wiesenthal Center Condemns Whitewash of Ustasha Crimes by MEP Ruza Tomasic Simon Wiesenthal Center Mesic Jasenovac je bio popriste genocida holokausta i ratnih zlocina Index hr Hrvatska odala postu zrtvama Jasenovca balkaninsight com Bio sam razocaran sto Vucic ne prihvata sudske presude N1 Hrvatska nijece genocid pocinjen u vreme NDH Zeljko Komsic pred duznosnikom UN a Hrvatsku usporedio s Republikom Srpskom jutarnji hr 28 September 2019 For the glory and honour of the New Martyrs of Jasenovac Serbian Orthodox Church Retrieved 23 July 2018 Mojzes 2011 p 47 Bulajic 2002 p 67 Odak amp Bencic 2016 p 67 Burgschwentner Egger amp Barth Scalmani 2014 p 455 Trbovich 2008 p 139 Biondich 2005 Kataria 2015 Mirkovic 2000 Krestic 1998 Dedijer 1992 MARTINA GRAHEK RAVANCIC Izrucenja i sudbine zarobljenika smjestenih u saveznickim logorima u svibnju 1945 Hrvatski institut za povijest Zagreb Republika Hrvatska Nada Kisic Kolanovic Politicki procesi u Hrvatskoj neposredno nakon Drugoga svjetskoga rata 1945 Razdjelnica hrvatske povijesti Zbornik radova sa znanstvenog skupa u Hrvatskom institutu za povijest u Zagrebu 1 6 svibnja 2006 pp 75 97 see pg 85 ISBN 978 1 59017 673 3 Ramet 2007 p 96 Adriano amp Cingolani 2018 pp 342 348 a b Fine John 2007 Part 2 Strongmen can be Beneficial the Exceptional Case of Josip Broz Tito In Fischer Bernd Jurgen ed Balkan Strongmen Dictators and Authoritarian Rulers of South Eastern Europe Purdue University Press pp 284 285 ISBN 978 1 55753 455 2 a b Deutschland Military Tribunal 1950 pp 1302 03 Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide PDF United Nations Audiovisual Library of International Law Retrieved 27 April 2020 Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide United Nations Treaty Series Archived from the original on 20 October 2012 Retrieved 27 April 2020 Abtahi amp Boas 2005 p 267 Ravlic 1997 p 12 a b Stover Peskin amp Koenig 2016 p 135 Paul Hockenos 2003 Homeland Calling Exile Patriotism amp the Balkan Wars Cornell University Press ISBN 978 0 8014 4158 5 Drago Hedl 10 November 2005 Croatia s Willingness To Tolerate Fascist Legacy Worries Many BCR Issue 73 IWPR Retrieved 30 November 2010 Sindbaek 2012 p 178 179 Sadkovich 2010 Ciment amp Hill 2012 p 492 Horvitz amp Catherwood 2014 pp 432 433 Parenti 2002 pp 44 45 Franjo Tudjman The Guardian 13 December 1999 Retrieved 31 May 2020 Dokle ce se u Jasenovac u tri kolone N1 23 April 2017 Archived from the original on 31 July 2020 Retrieved 28 July 2019 Jasenovac Camp Victims Commemorated Separately Again balkaninsight com 12 April 2019 Retrieved 28 July 2019 Jewish and Serbian minorities boycott official Croatian Auschwitz commemoration neweurope eu 28 March 2017 Retrieved 28 July 2019 Former top Croat officials join boycott of Jasenovac event B92 12 April 2016 Retrieved 28 July 2019 a b Ramet 2007b p 273 a b c d Walasek 2016 p 84 Radonic 2013 Walasek 2016 p 83 84 Israel s Shimon Peres visits Croatian Auschwitz EJ Press 25 July 2010 Archived from the original on 8 March 2012 Retrieved 12 October 2012 Israel s Peres visits Croatian Auschwitsz France24 Retrieved 12 October 2012 Obelezen Dan secanja na zrtve Holokausta genocida i drugih zrtava fasizma u Drugom svetskom ratu Ministry of Labour Employment Veteran and Social Policy Serbia Retrieved 27 April 2020 a b Minister honors Croatian WW2 death camp victims B92 Retrieved 11 May 2020 United Nations Department of Public Information 2018 Holocaust Remembrance Calendar of Events United Nations Retrieved 11 May 2020 Exhibition about Croat WW2 death camp to open at UN B92 Retrieved 11 May 2020 Vucic u Sremskoj Mitrovici Ne zaboravljamo genocid ali promovisemo mir N1 Archived from the original on 17 May 2020 Retrieved 18 May 2020 Prvi put obiljezeno stradanje djece nezavisne com Nezavisne novine 26 August 2010 Retrieved 12 May 2020 Kraska jama usred Novog Sada Vreme 10 October 2012 Retrieved 18 May 2020 Kvadratura kruga Kako je nastala pesma Đurđevdan Radio Television of Serbia Retrieved 18 May 2020 Wiesenthal Center Expresses Outrage At Massive Outburst of Nostalgia for Croatian Fascism at Zagreb Rock Concert Urges President Mesic to Take Immediate Action Simon Wiesenthal Center Retrieved 18 May 2020 Wiesenthal Center Slams 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Institute of Contemporary History Dedijer Vladimir 1992 The Yugoslav Auschwitz and the Vatican The Croatian Massacre of the Serbs During World War II Amherst Prometheus Books ISBN 9780879757526 Dedijer Vladimir 1987 Vatikan i Jasenovac dokumenti Rad Djilas Aleksa 1991 The Contested Country Yugoslav Unity and Communist Revolution 1919 1953 Harvard University Press ISBN 9780674166981 Dulic Tomislav 2005 Utopias of Nation Local Mass Killing in Bosnia and Herzegovina 1941 42 Uppsala Sweden Uppsala University Library ISBN 978 9 1554 6302 1 Đuric Veljko 1991 Prekrshtavaњe Srba u Nezavisnoј Drzhavi Hrvatskoј Prilozi za istoriјu verskog genocida Beograd Alfa Fischer Bernd J 2007 Balkan Strongmen Dictators and Authoritarian Rulers of South Eastern Europe Purdue University Press ISBN 978 1 55753 455 2 Glisic Venceslav 1970 Teror i zlocini nacisticke Nemacke u Srbiji 1941 1944 Belgrade Rad Goldstein Ivo 1999 Croatia A History C Hurst amp Co Publishers ISBN 9781850655251 Goldstein Ivo 2001 Holokaust u Zagrebu Novi liber ISBN 9781850655251 Goldstein Slavko 2013 1941 The Year That Keeps Returning New York Review of Books ISBN 9781590177006 Hoptner Jacob B 1962 Yugoslavia in Crisis 1934 1941 Hory Ladislaus Broszat Martin 1964 Der kroatische Ustascha Staat 1941 1945 Stuttgart Deutsche Verlags Anstalt Janjetovic Zoran 2008 Die Vertreibungen auf dem Territorium des ehemaligen Jogoslawien The Expulsions from the Territory of the Former Yugoslavia In Bingen Dieter Borodziej Wlodzimierz Troebst Stefan eds Vertreibungen europaisch erinnern Do You Remember the European Expulsions in German Wiesbaden Germany Otto Harrassowitz Verlag pp 153 157 ISBN 9780231700504 Jevtic Atanasije 1990 Velikomucenicki Jasenovac ustaska tvornica smrti dokumenti i svedocenja Glas crkve Kljakic Slobodan 1991 A Conspiracy of Silence Genocide in the Independent State of Croatia and Concentration Camp Jasenovac Ministry of Information of the Republic of Serbia Kocovic Bogoljub 2005 Sahrana jednog mita zrtve Drugog svetskog rata u Jugoslaviji Burial of a Myth World War II Victims in Yugoslavia Beograd Otkrovenje ISBN 9788683353392 Korb Alexander 2010a A Multipronged Attack Ustasa Persecution of Serbs Jews and Roma in Wartime Croatia Eradicating Differences The Treatment of Minorities in Nazi Dominated Europe Newcastle upon Tyne Cambridge Scholars Publishing pp 145 163 Korb Alexander 2010b Integrated Warfare The Germans and the Ustasa Massacres Syrmia 1942 In Shepherd Ben ed War in a Twilight World Partisan and Anti Partisan Warfare in Eastern Europe 1939 1945 Palgrave Macmillan ISBN 978 0 230 29048 8 Greif Gideon 2018 Jasenovac Auschwitz of the Balkans Knjiga komerc ISBN 9789655727272 Krestic Vasilije 1998 Through genocide to a greater Croatia BIGZ Krestic Vasilije 2009 Dosije o genezi genocida nad Srbima u NDH Prometej Kurdulija Strahinja 1993 Atlas of the Ustasha genocide of the Serbs 1941 1945 Foundation for truth of Serbs ISBN 9788679410023 Lemkin Raphael 2008 Axis Rule in Occupied Europe Clark New Jersey The Lawbook Exchange ISBN 9781584779018 Levy Michele Frucht 2011 The Last Bullet for the Last Serb The Ustasa Genocide against Serbs 1941 1945 In Crowe David ed Crimes of State Past and Present Government Sponsored Atrocities and International Legal Responses Routledge pp 54 84 Lituchy Barry M ed 2006 Jasenovac and the Holocaust in Yugoslavia Analyses and Survivor Testimonies New York Jasenovac Research Institute McCormick Robert B 2014 Croatia Under Ante Pavelic America the Ustase and Croatian Genocide London New York I B Tauris Mirkovic Jovan 2014 Zlochini nad Srbima u Nezavisnoј Drzhavi Hrvatskoј fotomonografiјa Crimes against Serbs in the Independent State of Croatia Belgrade Svet knjige ISBN 9788673964652 Archived from the original on 8 April 2016 Retrieved 8 June 2015 Mitrovic Jeremija D 1991 Naјveћi zlochini sadashњice Patњe i stradaњe srpskog naroda u Nezavisnoј drzhavi Hrvatskoј od 1941 1945 Dechјe novine ISBN 9788636704868 Mojzes Paul 2008 The Genocidal Twentieth Century in the Balkans In Jacobs Steven L ed Confronting Genocide Judaism Christianity Islam Lanham Lexington Books pp 151 182 Mojzes Paul 2011 Balkan Genocides Holocaust and Ethnic Cleansing in the 20th Century Lanham Rowman amp Littlefield ISBN 9781442206632 Novak Viktor 2011a Magnum Crimen Half a Century of Clericalism in Croatia Vol 1 Jagodina Gambit ISBN 9788676240494 Novak Viktor 2011b Magnum Crimen Half a Century of Clericalism in Croatia Vol 2 Jagodina Gambit ISBN 9788676240494 Paris Edmond 1961 Genocide in Satellite Croatia 1941 1945 A Record of Racial and Religious Persecutions and Massacres Chicago American Institute for Balkan Affairs Paris Edmond 1988 Convert or die Catholic persecution in Yugoslavia during World War II Chick Publications Pavlowitch Stevan K 2008 Hitler s New Disorder The Second World War in Yugoslavia New York Columbia University Press ISBN 9780231700504 Ramet Sabrina P 2006 The Three Yugoslavias State Building and Legitimation 1918 2005 New York Indiana University Press ISBN 9780253346568 Ramet Sabrina P Listhaug Ola eds 2011 Serbia and the Serbs in World War Two Palgrave Macmillan UK ISBN 9780230347816 Ramet Sabrina 2007 The Independent State of Croatia 1941 45 New York Routledge ISBN 9780415440554 Ramet Sabrina 2007b Democratic Transition in Croatia Value Transformation Education and Media Texas A amp M University Press ISBN 9781603444521 Kolsto Pal 2011 The Serbian Croatian Controversy over Jasenovac Serbia and the Serbs in World War Two pp 225 246 Phayer Michael 2000 The Catholic Church and the Holocaust 1930 1965 Bloomington and Indianapolis Indiana University Press ISBN 9780253337252 Ungvary Krisztian 2011 Vojvodina under Hungarian rule Rapaic Mirko 1999 Licka tragedija hrvatski zlocini genocida nad srpskim narodom 1941 do 1945 Srpska rec ISBN 9788649100343 Rivelli Marco Aurelio 1998 Le genocide occulte Etat Independant de Croatie 1941 1945 Hidden Genocide The Independent State of Croatia 1941 1945 in 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from the original PDF on 13 March 2018 Retrieved 13 March 2018 Skoko Savo 1991 Pokolji hercegovackih Srba 41 Belgrade Strucna knjiga Stanisic Mihailo 1999 Slom genocid odmazda Sluzbeni list SRJ Tomasevich Jozo 1975 War and Revolution in Yugoslavia 1941 1945 The Chetniks Stanford Stanford University Press ISBN 978 0 8047 0857 9 Tomasevich Jozo 2001 War and Revolution in Yugoslavia 1941 1945 Occupation and Collaboration Stanford Stanford University Press ISBN 978 0 8047 7924 1 Jonassohn Kurt Bjornson Karin 1998 Genocide and Gross Human Rights Violations In Comparative Perspective Transaction Publishers ISBN 978 1 4128 2445 3 Carmichael Cathie Maguire Richard C 2015 The Routledge History of Genocide The Routledge ISBN 9781317514848 Kallis Aristotle 2008 Genocide and Fascism The Eliminationist Drive in Fascist Europe Routledge ISBN 9781134300341 Suppan Arnold 2014 Hitler Benes Tito Konflikt Krieg und Volkermord in Ostmittel und Sudosteuropa Austrian Academy of Sciences Ognyanova Irina 2000 Nationalism and National Policy in Independent State of Croatia 1941 1945 In Rogers Dorothy Joshua Wheeler Zavacka Marina Casebier Shawna eds Topics in Feminism History and Philosophy IWM Junior Visiting Fellows Conferences Vol 6 Vienna Austria Otto Harrassowitz Verlag Kenrick Donald 2006 The Final Chapter University of Hertfordshire Press ISBN 9781902806495 Barbier Mary Kathryn 2017 Spies Lies and Citizenship The Hunt for Nazi Criminals University of Nebraska Press ISBN 9781612349718 Bloxham Donald Gerwarth Robert 2011 Political Violence in Twentieth Century Europe Cambridge University Press ISBN 9781139501293 Israeli Raphael 2013 The Death Camps of Croatia Visions and Revisions 1941 1945 Europe Transaction Publishers ISBN 9781412849753 Domenico Roy Palmer Hanley Mark 2006 Encyclopedia of Modern Christian Politics L Z Greenwood Publishing Group ISBN 9780313338908 Adeli Lisa Marie 2009 Resistance to the Persecution of Ethnic Minorities in Croatia and Bosnia During World War II Greenwood Publishing Group Edwin Mellen Press ISBN 9780773447455 Shepherd Ben 2012 Terror in the Balkans Harvard University Press Weiss Wendt Anton 2010 Eradicating Differences The Treatment of Minorities in Nazi Dominated Europe Cambridge Scholars Publishing ISBN 9781443824491 Touval Saadia 2001 Mediation in the Yugoslav Wars The Critical Years 1990 95 Springer ISBN 9780230288669 Trencsenyi Balazs Kopecek Michal 2007 National Romanticism The Formation of National Movements Discourses of Collective Identity in Central and Southeast Europe 1770 1945 volume II Budapest Central European University Press ISBN 9786155211249 Yeomans Rory 2011 For us beloved commander you will never die Mourning Jure Francetic Ustasha Death Squad Leader In Haynes Rebecca Rady Martyn eds In the Shadow of Hitler Personalities of the Right in Central and Eastern Europe London I B Tauris ISBN 978 1 84511 697 2 Yeomans Rory 2012 Visions of Annihilation The Ustasha Regime and the Cultural Politics of Fascism 1941 1945 Pittsburgh University of Pittsburgh Press ISBN 9780822977933 Yeomans Rory 2015 The Utopia of Terror Life and Death in Wartime Croatia Boydell amp Brewer ISBN 9781580465458 Zerjavic Vladimir 1993 Yugoslavia Manipulations with the Number of Second World War Victims Zagreb Croatia Croatian Information Centre ISBN 0 919817 32 7 Vajagic Predrag M 2013 Istorijska analiza osnivanja i funkcionisanja Dunavske banovine u Kraljevini Jugoslaviji PDF Novi Sad Filozofski fakultet Univerziteta u Novom Sadu odsek za istoriju Retrieved 27 April 2020 Jonassohn Kurt 1998 Genocide and Gross Human Rights Violations In Comparative Perspective Transaction Publishers ISBN 978 1 4128 2445 3 Retrieved 28 April 2020 Bellamy Alex J 2003 The Formation of Croatian National Identity A Centuries old Dream Manchester University Press ISBN 9780719065026 Bideleux Robert Jeffries Ian 2007 The Balkans A Post Communist History Routledge ISBN 9781134583287 Carmichael Cathie 2012 Ethnic Cleansing in the Balkans Nationalism and the Destruction of Tradition Routledge ISBN 978 1 134 47953 5 Retrieved 28 April 2020 Weiss Wendt Anton 2010 Eradicating Differences The Treatment of Minorities in Nazi Dominated Europe Cambridge Scholars Publishing ISBN 9781443824491 Hoare Marko Attila 2006 Genocide and Resistance in Hitler s Bosnia The Partisans and the Chetniks 1941 1943 New York Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0 19 726380 8 Greer Joanne Marie Moberg David O 2001 Research in the Social Scientific Study of Religion v 10 Brill ISBN 9780762304837 Schindley Wanda Makara Petar 2005 Jasenovac proceedings of the First International Conference and Exhibit on the Jasenovac Concentration Camps October 29 31 1997 Kingsborough Community College of the City University of New York Dallas Pub ISBN 9780912011646 Jacobs Steven L 2009 Confronting Genocide Judaism Christianity Islam Lexington Books ISBN 9780739135891 Stover Eric Peskin Victor Koenig Alexa 2016 Hiding in Plain Sight The Pursuit of War Criminals from Nuremberg to the War on Terror University of California Press ISBN 9780520278059 Burgschwentner Joachim Egger Matthias Barth Scalmani Gunda 2014 Other Fronts Other Wars First World War Studies on the Eve of the Centennial Brill ISBN 978 90 04 24365 1 Trbovich Ana S 2008 A Legal Geography of Yugoslavia s Disintegration Oxford University Press ISBN 9780199715473 Cvetkovic Dragan 2009 Bosna i Hercegovina numericko određenje ljudskih gubitaka u Drugom svetskom ratu Belgrade ISBN 9788686831019 Baric Nikola 2019 Historiae patriaeque cultor Slavonski Brod ISBN 978 953 8102 23 3 Velikonja Mitja 2003 Religious Separation and Political Intolerance in Bosnia Herzegovina Texas A amp M University Press ISBN 9781585442263 Zatezalo Đuro 2005 Radio sam svoj seljacki i kovacki posao svjedocanstva genocida Zagreb SKD Prosvijeta ISBN 953 6627 79 5 Zatezalo Đuro 1989 Kotar Gospic i Kotar Perusic u narodnooslobodilackom ratu 1941 1945 Karlovac Historijski arhiv u Karlovcu ISBN 978 8680783048 Abtahi Hirad Boas Gideon 2005 The Dynamics of International Criminal Justice Essays in Honour of Sir Richard May Leiden The Netherlands BRILL ISBN 978 90 474 1780 4 Ravlic Slaven 1997 Andrija Artukovic In Dizdar Zdenko Grcic Marko Ravlic Slaven Stuparic Darko eds Tko je tko u NDH Zabreg Croatia Minerva pp 11 12 ISBN 978 953 6377 03 9 Ciment James Hill Kenneth 2012 Political Violence in Twentieth Century Europe Routledge ISBN 9781136596216 Sindbaek Tia 2012 Usable History Representations of Yugoslavia s Difficult Past from 1945 to 2002 ISD LLC ISBN 978 8 77124 107 5 Horvitz Leslie Alan Catherwood Christopher 2014 Encyclopedia of War Crimes and Genocide Infobase Publishing ISBN 9781438110295 Parenti Michael 2002 To Kill a Nation The Attack on Yugoslavia Verso Books ISBN 9781859843666 Walasek Helen 2016 Bosnia and the Destruction of Cultural Heritage Routledge ISBN 9781317172994 Journals Antonijevic Nenad 2003 Stradanje srpskog i crnogorskog civilnog stanovnistva na Kosovu i Metohiji 1941 godine Dijalog Povjesnicara istoricara 8 355 369 Antonijevic Nenad M 2016 Ratni zlochini na Kosovu i Metohiјi 1941 1945 godine Univerzitet u Beogradu Filozofski fakultet Bartulin Nevenko October 2007 Ideologija nacije i rase ustaski rezim i politika prema Srbima u Nezavisnoj Drzavi Hrvatskoj 1941 1945 PDF Radovi in Croatian 39 1 209 241 Retrieved 9 January 2015 Bartulin Nevenko 2008 The Ideology of Nation and Race The Croatian Ustasha Regime and its Policies toward the Serbs in the Independent State of Croatia 1941 1945 Croatian Studies Review 5 75 102 Biondich Mark 2005 Religion and Nation in Wartime Croatia Reflections on the Ustasa Policy of Forced Religious Conversions 1941 1942 The Slavonic and East European Review 83 1 71 116 JSTOR 4214049 Biondich Mark 2006 Controversies Surrounding the Catholic Church in Wartime Croatia 1941 45 Totalitarian Movements and Political Religions 7 4 429 457 doi 10 1080 14690760600963222 S2CID 143351253 Biondich Mark 2007b Radical Catholicism and Fascism in Croatia 1918 1945 Totalitarian Movements and Political Religions 8 2 383 399 doi 10 1080 14690760701321346 S2CID 145148083 Boban Ljubo 1993 Kada je i kako nastala Drzava Slovenaca Hrvata i Srba When and how did the State of Slovenes Croats and Serbs come into existence Summary Journal of the Institute of Croatian History 26 1 187 198 Byford Jovan 2007 When I say The Holocaust I mean Jasenovac Remembrance of the Holocaust in contemporary Serbia East European Jewish Affairs 37 1 51 74 doi 10 1080 13501670701197946 S2CID 161763723 Cvetkovic Dragan 2011 Holokaust u Nezavisnoj Drzavi Hrvatskoj numericko određenje Holocaust in Independent State of Croatia Istorija 20 Veka Casopis Instituta za Savremenu Istoriju 29 1 163 182 doi 10 29362 ist20veka 2011 1 cve 163 182 Hehn Paul N 1971 Serbia Croatia and Germany 1941 1945 Civil War and Revolution in the Balkans Canadian Slavonic Papers 13 4 344 373 doi 10 1080 00085006 1971 11091249 Kataria Shyamal 2015 Serbian Ustashe Memory and Its Role in the Yugoslav Wars 1991 1995 Mediterranean Quarterly 26 2 115 127 doi 10 1215 10474552 2914550 S2CID 154634001 Krestic Vasilije 1986 O genezi genocida nad Srbima u NDH Knjizevne Novine 15 Levy Michele Frucht 2009 The Last Bullet for the Last Serb The Ustasa Genocide against Serbs 1941 1945 Nationalities Papers 37 6 807 837 doi 10 1080 00905990903239174 S2CID 162231741 Lisac A L 1956 Deportacije Srba iz Hrvatske 1941 Historijski Zbornik 9 125 145 McCormick Rob 2008 The United States Response to Genocide in the Independent State of Croatia 1941 1945 Genocide Studies and Prevention 3 1 75 98 doi 10 1353 gsp 2011 0060 S2CID 145309437 Newman John Paul 2017 War Veterans Fascism and Para Fascist Departures in the Kingdom of Yugoslavia 1918 1941 Fascism 6 42 74 doi 10 1163 22116257 00601003 Newman John Paul 2014 Serbian and Habsburg Military institutional legacies in Yugoslavia after 1918 PDF First World War Studies 5 3 319 335 doi 10 1080 19475020 2014 1001519 S2CID 73611212 Pavasovic Trost Tamara 2018 Ruptures and continuities in nationhood narratives reconstructing the nation through history textbooks in Serbia and Croatia Nations and Nationalism 24 3 716 740 doi 10 1111 nana 12433 S2CID 242057219 Dulic Tomislav 2006 Mass killing in the Independent State of Croatia 1941 1945 a case for comparative research Journal of Genocide Research 8 255 281 doi 10 1111 nana 12433 S2CID 242057219 Mirkovic D 2000 The historical link between the Ustasha genocide and the Croato Serb civil war 1991 1995 Journal of Genocide Research 2 3 363 373 doi 10 1080 713677614 S2CID 72467680 Skiljan F 2007 Stradanje Srba u Jasenovcu u Drugom svjetskom ratu Pro Tempore Ccasopis Studenata Povijesti 4 40 46 Skiljan F 2004 Hate speech in Independent State of Croatia during WWII Ljetopis Srpskog Kulturnog Drustva Prosvjeta 9 243 Skiljan Filip 2012 Organizirano masovno prisilno iseljavanje srba iz Hrvatske 1941 Godine Organized Massive Forced Migration of Serbs from Croatia in 1941 PDF Stanovnistvo Population Naselenie 50 2 1 34 doi 10 2298 STNV1202001S ISSN 0038 982X Skiljan Filip 2010 Stradanje Srba Zidova i Roma u virovitickom i slatinskom kraju tijekom 1941 i pocetkom 1942 godine Scrinia Slavonica Hrvatski institut za povijest Podruznica za povijest Slavonije Srijema i Baranje 10 360 362 Stojanovic Aleksandar 2017 A Beleaguered Church The Serbian Orthodox Church in the Independent State of Croatia NDH 1941 1945 Balcanica 48 269 287 doi 10 2298 BALC1748269S Vukcevic Slavko 1995 Ratni zlocini i genocid u Jugoslaviji od 1941 do 1945 godine War crimes and genocide in Yugoslavia from 1941 till 1945 Vojno Delo 47 3 192 200 Vukovic Slobodan V 2004 Uloga Vatikana u razbijanju Jugoslavije Socioloski Pregled 38 3 423 443 doi 10 5937 socpreg0403423V Yeomans Rory 2005 Cults of Death and Fantasies of Annihilation The Croatian Ustasha Movement in Power 1941 45 Central Europe 3 2 121 142 doi 10 1179 147909605x69383 S2CID 143062602 Pavlovic Marko 2012 Caslav Ocic ed Jugoslovenska kraljevina prva evropska regionalna drzava PDF Zbornik Matice srpske za drustvene nauke Novi Sad Matica srpska 141 503 521 ISSN 0352 5732 Retrieved 27 April 2020 Byford Jovan 2014 Remembering Jasenovac Survivor Testimonies and the Cultural Dimension of Bearing Witness PDF Holocaust and Genocide Studies 28 1 58 84 doi 10 1093 hgs dcu011 S2CID 145546608 Odak Stipe Bencic Andriana 2016 Jasenovac A Past That Does Not Pass The Presence of Jasenovac in Croatian and Serbian Collective Memory of Conflict East European Politics and Societies and Cultures 30 4 805 829 doi 10 1177 0888325416653657 S2CID 148091289 Sokol Anida 2014 War Monuments Instruments of Nation building in Bosnia and Herzegovina Croatian Political Science Review 51 5 105 126 Balic Emily Greble 2009 When Croatia Needes Serbs Nationalism and Genocide in Sarajevo 1941 1942 Slavic Review 68 1 116 138 doi 10 2307 20453271 JSTOR 20453271 Perrone Fiorella 2017 The Horror in the Balkans Civilian Victims in the Second World War in the Former Yugoslavia L Osservatorio Kasapovic Mirjana 2018 Genocid u NDH Umanjivanje banaliziranje i poricanje zlocina Politicka Misao Casopis za Politologiju 55 1 7 33 doi 10 20901 pm 55 1 01 King Charles 2012 Can There Be a Political Science of the Holocaust Perspectives on Politics 10 2 323 341 doi 10 1017 S1537592712000692 S2CID 145464503 Payne Stanley G 2006 The NDH State in Comparative Perspective Totalitarian Movements and Political Religions 7 4 409 415 doi 10 1080 14690760600963198 S2CID 144782263 Sadkovich James 2010 Forging Consensus How Franjo Tuđman Became an Authoritarian Nationalist Review of Croatian History 6 1 7 35 Radonic Ljiljana Radonic 2013 Croatia s Politics of the Past during the Tuđman Era 1990 1999 Old Wine in New Bottles Totalitarian Movements and Political Religions 44 234 254 doi 10 1017 S0067237813000143 S2CID 145718988 Other SANU 1995 Genocid nad Srbima u II svetskom ratu Muzej zrtava genocida i Srpska knjizevna zadruga Gutman Israel ed 1990 Ustase Encyclopedia of the Holocaust Vol 4 Macmillan Latinovic Goran 2006 On Croatian history textbooks Association of Descendants and Supporters of Victims of Complex of Death Camps NDH Gospic Jadovno Pag 1941 Bergholz Max 2012 None of us Dared Say Anything Mass Killing in a Bosnian Community during World War Two and the Postwar Culture of Silence PDF University of Toronto Deutschland Military Tribunal 1950 Trials of war criminals before the Nuernberg Military Tribunals under Control Council Law no 10 Nuernberg Oct 1946 April 1949 Vol 11 The High Command case The Hostage case Case 12 US v von Leeb Case 7 US v List Washington D C United States Government Printing Office OCLC 247746272 External links Genocide in Croatia 1941 1945 PDF Serbian National Defense Council of Canada Serbian National Defense Council of America 1976 OCLC 26383552 Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Genocide of Serbs in the Independent State of Croatia amp oldid 1126068206, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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