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Sri Vaishnavism

January 13, 2023

Sri Vaishnavism, or the Sri Vaishnava Sampradaya, is a denomination within the Vaishnavism tradition of Hinduism.[3] The name refers to goddess Lakshmi (also known as Sri), as well as a prefix that means "sacred, revered", and the god Vishnu, who are together revered in this tradition.[4][5]

Sri Vaishnavism
Srirangam Temple
Regions with significant populations
India, Nepal
Religions
Vaishnavism (Hinduism)
Scriptures
Vedas, Upanishads, Bhagavat Gita, Brahma Sutra, Pancharatra, Prabhandham[1][2]
Languages
Tamil, Sanskrit

The tradition traces its roots to the ancient Vedas and Pancharatra texts, popularised by the Alvars and their canon, the Naalayira Divya Prabandham.[6][7][8] The founding of Sri Vaishnavism is traditionally attributed to Nathamuni of the 10th century CE;[9] its central philosopher has been Ramanuja of the 11th century, who developed the Vishishtadvaita ("qualified non-dualism") Vedanta sub-school of Hindu philosophy.[10][11] The tradition split into two denominations around the 16th century. The Vadakalai sect vested the Vedas with the greatest authority and follow the doctrine of Sri Vedanta Desika, whereas the Tenkalai sect vested the Naalayira Divya Prabandham with the greatest authority and follow the principles of Sri Manavala Mamunigal.[12][13] The Telugu Brahmins of the Sri Vaishnava tradition form a single distinct sect called the Andhra Vaishnavas, and are not divided into the Vadakalai and Tenkalai denominations, unlike the Tamil Iyengars.[14]

The most striking difference between Sri Vaishnavas and other Vaishnava groups lies in their interpretation of the Vedas. While other Vaishnava groups interpret Vedic deities like Indra, Savitar, Bhaga, Rudra, etc., to be the same as their Puranic counterparts, Sri Vaishnavas consider these to be different names/roles/forms of Narayana, thus claiming that the entirety of the Vedas is dedicated to Vishnu reverence alone. Sri Vaishnavas have remodelled the Pancharatra homas (rituals) to include Vedic suktas (hymns) in them, thus integrating them with a Vedic perspective.[citation needed]

Etymology

The name Sri Vaishnavism (IAST: Śrīvaiṣṇavism) is derived from two words, Sri and Vaishnavism. In Sanskrit, the word Sri refers to goddess Lakshmi as well as a prefix that means "sacred, revered", and god Vishnu who are together revered in this tradition.[3][5] The word Vaishnavism refers to a tradition that reveres god Vishnu as the supreme god.[15] The followers of Sri Vaishnavism are known as the Sri Vaishnava(s). (IAST: Śrīvaiṣṇava, श्रीवैष्णव).[16]

History

Theological origins

The tradition traces its roots to the primordial start of the world through Vishnu, and to the texts of Vedic era with both Sri and Vishnu found in ancient texts of the 1st millennium BCE particularly to the Puranas, Upanishads, and the Bhagavad Gita.[7][13]

Historical origins

 
Śrī Haṃsa Bhagavān, the originator of the Sri Sampradaya

The historical basis of Sri Vaishnavism is in the syncretism of two developments. The first is Sanskrit traditions found in ancient texts such as the Vedas and the Agama (Pancaratra), and the second is the Tamil traditions found in early medieval texts (Tamil Prabandham)[17] and practices such as the emotional songs and music of Alvars that expressed spiritual ideas, ethics and loving devotion to god Vishnu.[18][7][8] The Sanskrit traditions likely represent the ideas shared in ancient times, from Ganga river plains of the northern Indian subcontinent, while the Tamil traditions likely have roots in the Kaveri river plains of southern India, particularly what in modern times are the coastal Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu region.[19]

The tradition was founded by Nathamuni (10th century), who combined the two traditions, by drawing on Sanskrit philosophical tradition and combining it with the aesthetic and emotional appeal of the Bhakti movement pioneers called the Alvars.[9] Sri Vaishnavism developed in Tamil Nadu in the 10th century, after Nathamuni returned from a pilgrimage to Vrindavan in north India (modern Uttar Pradesh).[18]

Nathamuni's ideas were continued by Yamunacharya, who maintained that the Vedas and Pancaratras are equal, devotional rituals and bhakti are important practices.[9] The legacy of Yamunacharya was continued by Ramanuja (1017-1137),[20] but they never met.[21] Ramanuja, a scholar who studied in an Advaita Vedanta monastery and disagreed with some of the ideas of Advaita, became the most influential leader of Sri Vaishnavism.[22][23] He developed the Visistadvaita ("qualified non-dualism") philosophy.[9]

Around 14th century, Ramanandi Sampradaya split from it.[24][25] Around the 18th century, the Sri Vaishnava tradition split into the Vadakalai ("northern culture", Vedic) and Tenkalai ("southern culture", Bhakti).[12][13] The Vadakalai placed more emphasis on the Sanskrit traditions, while the Tenkalai relied more on the Tamil traditions.[26] This theological dispute between the Vedic and Bhakti traditions traces it roots to the debate between Srirangam and Kanchipuram monasteries between the 13th and 15th century.[12] The debate then was on the nature of salvation and the role of grace. The Bhakti-favouring Tenkalai tradition asserted, states Patricia Mumme, that Vishnu saves the soul like "a mother cat carries her kitten", where the kitten just accepts the mother while she picks her up and carries.[12] In contrast the Vedic-favouring Vadakalai tradition asserted that Vishnu saves the soul like "a mother monkey carries her baby", where the baby has to make an effort and hold on while the mother carries.[12] This metaphorical description of the disagreement between the two sub-traditions, first appears in the 18th-century Tamil texts, but historically refers to the foundational ideas behind the karma-marga versus bhakti-marga traditions of Hinduism.[27]

Reverence for Vishnu and Lakshmi

Along with Vishnu, and like Shaivism, the ultimate reality and truth is considered in Sri Vaishnavism to be the divine sharing of the feminine and the masculine, the goddess and the god.[28] Sri (Lakshmi) is regarded as the preceptor of the Sri Vaishnava sampradaya. Goddess Sri has been considered inseparable from god Vishnu, and essential to each other, and to the act of mutual loving devotion. Sri and Vishnu act and cooperate in the creation of everything that exists, and redemption.[28] According to some medieval scholars of Sri Vaishnava theology, states John Carman, Sri and Vishnu do so using "divine knowledge that is unsurpassed" and through "love that is an erotic union".[28] But Sri Vaishnavism differs from Shaivism, in that Vishnu is ultimately the sole creator, preserver and destroyer of the universe while Sri Lakshmi is the medium for salvation, the kind mother who recommends to Vishnu and thereby helps living beings in their desire for redemption and salvation.[28] In contrast, in Shaivism, the goddess (Shakti) is the energy and power of Shiva and she is the equal with different roles, supreme in the role of creator and destroyer.[29]

The prefix Sri is used for this sect because they give special importance to the worship of the Goddess Lakshmi, the consort of Vishnu, who they believe to act as a mediator between God Vishnu and man.[28][30]

Philosophy

Vishishtadvaita

Main article: Vishishtadvaita

Sri Vaishnavism's philosophical foundation was established by Ramanuja, who started his Vedic studies with Yadava Prakaasa in an Advaita Vedanta monastery.[22] He brought Upanishadic ideas to this tradition, and wrote texts on qualified monism, called Vishishtadvaita in the Hindu tradition.[31][32] His ideas are one of three subschools in Vedanta, the other two are known as Adi Shankara's Advaita (absolute monism) and Madhvacharya's Dvaita (dualism).[31]

Ramanuja's Vishishtadvaita asserts that Atman (souls) and Brahman[note 1] are different, a difference that is never transcended.[33][34] God Vishnu alone is independent, all other gods and beings are dependent on Him.[35] However, in contrast to Dvaita Vedanta philosophy of Madhvacharya, Ramanuja asserts "qualified non-dualism",[36] that souls share the same essential nature of Brahman,[36] and that there is a universal sameness in the quality and degree of bliss possible for human souls, and every soul can reach the bliss state of God Himself.[33][37] While the 13th- to 14th-century Madhvacharya asserted both "qualitative and quantitative pluralism of souls", Ramanuja asserted "qualitative monism and quantitative pluralism of souls", states Sharma.[38] The other philosophical difference between Madhvacharya's Vaishnavism Sampradaya and Ramanuja's Vaishnavism Sampradaya,[note 2] has been on the idea of eternal damnation; Madhvacharya believed that some souls are eternally doomed and damned, while Ramanuja disagreed and accepted the Advaita Vedanta view that everyone can, with effort, achieve inner liberation and spiritual freedom (moksha).[40][41]

Theology

Śrīvaiṣṇava theologians state that the poems of
the Alvars contain the essential meaning of
the Sanskrit Vedas.

— John Carman and Vasudha Narayanan[42]

According to Sri Vaishnavism theology, moksha can be reached by devotion and service to the Lord and detachment from the world. When moksha is reached, the cycle of reincarnation is broken and the soul is united with Vishnu, though maintaining their distinctions, in Vaikuntha, Vishnu's heaven.[43] Moksha can also be reached by total surrender (saranagati), an act of grace by the Lord.[44]

God, according to Ramanuja's Sri Vaishnavism philosophy, has both soul and body; all of life and the world of matter is the glory of God's body.[23] The path to Brahman (Vishnu), asserted Ramanuja, is devotion to godliness and constant remembrance of the beauty and love of personal god (saguna Brahman, Vishnu).[23][32][45] Ramanuja's theory posits both Brahman and the world of matter are two different absolutes, both metaphysically real, neither one false or illusive, and saguna Brahman with attributes is also real.[32]

Comparisons with Advaita Vedanta

Ramanuja accepted that the Vedas are a reliable source of knowledge, then critiqued other schools of Hindu philosophy, including Advaita Vedanta, as having failed in interpreting all of the Vedic texts.[46] He asserted, in his Sri Bhasya, that purvapaksin (previous schools) selectively interpret those Upanishadic passages that support their monistic interpretation, and ignore those passages that support the pluralism interpretation.[46] There is no reason, stated Ramanuja, to prefer one part of a scripture and not other, the whole of the scripture must be considered on par.[46][47] One cannot, according to Ramanuja, attempt to give interpretations of isolated portions of any scripture. Rather, the scripture must be considered one integrated corpus, expressing a consistent doctrine.[46] The Vedic literature, asserted Ramanuja, mention both plurality and oneness, therefore the truth must incorporate pluralism and monism, or qualified monism.[46]

This method of scripture interpretation distinguishes Ramanuja from Adi Shankara.[47] Shankara's exegetical approach Samanvayat Tatparya Linga with Anvaya-Vyatireka,[48] states that for proper understanding all texts must be examined in their entirety and then their intent established by six characteristics, which includes studying what is stated by the author to be his goal, what he repeats in his explanation, then what he states as conclusion and whether it can be epistemically verified.[49][50] Not everything in any text, states Shankara, has equal weight and some ideas are the essence of any expert's textual testimony.[47] This philosophical difference in scriptural studies, helped Shankara conclude that the Principal Upanishads primarily teach monism with teachings such as Tat tvam asi, while helping Ramanuja conclude that qualified monism is at the foundation of Hindu spirituality.[46][51][52]

Comparisons with Protestant Christianity and Buddhism

John Carman, a professor at the Harvard Divinity School, states that some of the similarities in salvation ideas in Sri Vaishnavism and Protestant Christian doctrines of divine grace are striking.[53] Both accept God as a personal concept, accept devotee's ability to relate to this God without human intermediaries, and accept the idea of sola gratia – salvation through faith by the grace of God alone, such as those found in Martin Luther's teachings.[53] While both Sri Vaishnavism and Protestant Christianity accept a supreme God and shares ideas on the nature of salvation, they differ in their specifics about incarnation such as Jesus Christ being the only incarnation in Christianity, while Sri Vaishnavism accepts many incarnations (avatar) of Vishnu.[54] Christian missionaries in 19th century colonial British India, noted the many similarities and attempted to express the theology of Christianity as a bhakti marga to Hindus, along the lines of Sri Vaishnavism, in their mission to convert them from Hinduism to Christianity.[55]

Similar teachings on the nature of salvation through grace and compassion, adds Carman, are found in the Japanese scholar Shinran's text on Jodo Shinshu sect of Buddhism, even though non-theistic Buddhism and theistic Sri Vaishnavism do differ in their views on God.[53]

Texts and scholarship

Main article: Vishishtadvaita

Sri Vaishnavism philosophy is primarily based on interpreting Vedanta, particularly the Upanishads, the Bhagavad Gita, the Brahma Sutras and the Narayaniya section of the Mahabharata.[7][56] The Vaishnava Agama texts, also called the Pancaratra, has been an important part of Sri Vaishnava tradition.[9][57] Another theological textual foundation of the tradition are the Tamil bhakti songs of the Alvars (7th to 10th century).[11] The syncretic fusion of the two textual traditions is sometimes referred to as the Ubhaya Vedanta, or dual Vedanta.[11] The relative emphasis between the two has been a historic debate within the Sri Vaishnavism tradition,[1] which ultimately led to the schism into the Vatakalai and Tenkalai sub-traditions around the 18th century.[12][13]

Nathamuni

Main article: Nathamuni

Nathamuni collected the poems of Nammalvar, in the form of Divya Prabandham, likely in the 9th century CE,[58] or the 10th century.[9] One of his lasting contributions was to apply the Vedic theory of music on all the Alvar songs using Sanskrit prosody, calling the resulting choreography as divine music, and teaching his nephews the art of resonant bhakti singing of the Alvar songs.[58] This precedence set the guru-sisya-parampara (teacher-student-tradition) in Sri Vaishnavism.[59] This style of education from one generation to the next, is a tradition called Araiyars, states Guy Beck, which preserved "the art of singing and dancing the verses of the Divya Prabandham" set in the sacred melodies and rhythms described in the Vedic texts.[59]

Nathamuni's efforts to syncretically combine the Vedic knowledge and Alvar compositions, also set the precedence of reverence for both the Vedas and the Alvar bhakti ideas. Nathamuni's scholarship that set Alvar songs in Vedic meter set a historic momentum, and the liturgical and meditational songs continue to be sung in the modern era temples of Sri Vaishnavism, which is part of the service called cevai (Sanskrit: Seva).[58][60]

Nathamuni is also attributed with three texts, all in Sanskrit.[58] These are Nyaya Tattva, Purusha Nirnaya and Yogarahasya.[61] The Yogarahasya text, states Govindacharya, is a meditational text, includes the eight limb yoga similar to that of Patanjali, but emphasizes yoga as "the art of communion with God".[61] The Nyaya Tattva text survives only in quotes and references cited in other texts, and these suggest that it presented epistemic foundations (Nyaya) including the philosophical basis for the Hindu belief on the existence of "soul" (Atman), in contrast to Indian philosophies such as Buddhism that denied the existence of soul.[62][63] Nathamuni, for example asserts,

If "I" did not refer to the true self, there would be no interiority belonging to the soul. The interior is distinguished from the exterior by the concept "I". The aspiration, "May I, having abandoned all suffering, participate freely in infinite bliss", actuates a person whose goal is liberation to study scriptures etc. Were it thought that liberation involved the destruction of the individual, he would run away as soon as the subject of liberation was suggested... The "I", the knowing subject, is the inner self.
— Nyayatattva, Nathamuni, ~9th-10th century, Translator: Christopher Bartley[63]

Yamunacharya

Main article: Yamunacharya

Yamunacharya was the grandson of Nathamuni, also known in Sri Vaishnava tradition as Alavandar, whose scholarship is remembered for correlating Alvar bhakti theology and Pancaratra Agama texts to Vedic ideas.[64] He was the Acharya (chief teacher) of Sri Vaishnavism monastery at Srirangam, and was followed by Ramanuja, even though they never met.[21] Yamunacharya composed a number of works important in Sri Vaishnavism, particularly Siddhitrayam (about the nature of Atman, God, universe), Gitarthasangraha (analysis of the Bhagavad Gita), Agamapramanya (epistemological basis of Agamas, mapping them to the Vedas), Maha Purushanirnayam (extension of Nathamuni's treatise), Stotraratnam and Chathusloki (bhakti strota texts).[64]

Yamunacharya is also credited with Nitya Grantha and Mayavada Khandana. The Nitya Grantha is a ritual text and suggests methods of daily worship of Narayana (Vishnu).[65] The 10th century Mayavada Khandana text, together with Siddhitrayam of Yamunacharya predominantly critiques the philosophy of the traditionally dominant school of Advaita Vedanta in Hindu philosophy, but also critiques non-Vedic traditions.[66]

Ramanuja

Main article: Ramanuja
 
Ramanujacharya embracing an icon of Lord Varadaraja (Vishnu)

The Sri Vaishnava tradition attributes nine Sanskrit texts to Ramanuja[67] – Vedarthasangraha (literally, "Summary of the Vedas meaning"[note 3]) Sri Bhasya (a review and commentary on the Brahma Sutras), Bhagavad Gita Bhashya (a review and commentary on the Bhagavad Gita), and the minor works titled Vedantadeepa, Vedantasara, Gadya Traya (which is a compilation of three texts called the Saranagati Gadyam, Sriranga Gadyam and the Vaikunta Gadyam), and Nitya Grantham.

Some modern scholars have questioned the authenticity of all but the three of the largest works credited to Ramanuja; the following texts are considered as authentically traceable to Ramanuja – Shri Bhashya, Vedarthasangraha and the Bhagavad Gita Bhashya.[67][69]

Ramanuja's scholarship is predominantly founded on Vedanta, Upanishads in particular.[68][70] He never claims that his ideas were original, but his method of synthesis that combined the Vedic ideas with popular spirituality, states Anne Overzee, is original.[70] Ramanuja, wrote his biographer Ramakrishnananda, was "the culmination of the movement started from the Vedas, nourished by the Alvars, Nathamuni and Yamuncharya".[70]

Ramunaja himself credits the theories he presents, in Vedarthasangraha, to the ideas of ancient Hindu scholars such as "Bodhyana, Tanka (Brahmanandin), Dramida (Dravidacarya), Guhadeva, Kapardin and Bharuci".[70][71][note 4] The 11th-century scholarship of Ramanuja emphasized the concept of Sarira-Saririn, that is the world of matter and the empirical reality of living beings is the "body of Brahman",[note 5] everything observed is God, one lives in this body of God, and the purpose of this body and all of creation is to empower soul in its journey to liberating salvation.[73][74]

Post Ramanuja period authors

Main articles: Pillai Lokacharya, Manavala Mamunigal, and Vedanta Desika

After Ramanuja several authors composed important theological and exegetical works on Sri Vaishnavism. Such authors include Parsara Bhattar, Nadadoor Ammal, Sudarshan Suri, Pillai Lokacharya, Vedanta Desika, Manavala Mamunigal, Periyavachan Pillai and Rangaramanuja Muni.[75][76][77][78]

Organisation

The Sri Vaishnavism tradition has nurtured an institutional organization of mathas (monasteries) since its earliest days, particularly from the time of Ramanuja. After the death of Yamunacharya, Ramanuja was nominated as the leader of the Srirangam matha, though Yamunacharya and Ramanuja never met.[21] Amongst other things, Ramanuja is remembered in the Sri Vaishnavism tradition for his organizational skills and the lasting institutional reforms he introduced at Srirangam, a system paralleling those at Advaita monasteries of his time and where he studied before joining Srirangam matha. Ramanuja travelled and founded many Sri Vaishnavism mathas across India, such as the one in Melukote.[79][80] The Sri Vaishnavism tradition believes that Ramanuja started 700 mathas, but historical evidence suggests several of these were started later.[81]

 
 
Left: The Parakala monastery of Sri Vaishnavism
Right: A Srirangam temple tower constructed by Ahobila Mutt monastery.[82]

The matha, or a monastery, hosted numerous students, many teachers and an institutionalized structure to help sustain and maintain its daily operations. A matha in Vaishnvaism and other Hindu traditions, like a college, designates teaching, administrative and community interaction functions, with prefix or suffix to names, with titles such as Guru, Acharya, Swami, and Jiyar.[83]

A Guru is someone who is a "teacher, guide or master" of certain knowledge.[84] Traditionally a reverential figure to the student in Hinduism, the guru serves as a "counselor, who helps mold values, shares experiential knowledge as much as literal knowledge, an exemplar in life, an inspirational source and who helps in the spiritual evolution of a student."[85]

An Acharya refers to either a Guru of high rank, or more often to the leader of a regional monastery.[86][87] This position typically involves a ceremonial initiation called diksha by the monastery, where the earlier leader anoints the successor as Acharya.[86][88] A Swami is usually those who interact with community on the behalf of the matha. The chief and most revered of all Vaishnava monasteries, are titled as Jeer, Jiyar, Jeeyar, or Ciyar.[81]

The Sri Vaishnavism mathas, over time, divided into two, those with Tenkalai (southern) tradition and Vadakalai (northern) tradition of Sri Vaishnavism.[89] The Tenkalai-associated mathas are headquartered at Srirangam, while Vadakalai mathas are associated with Kanchipuram. Both these traditions have from 10th-century onwards considered the function of mathas to include feeding the poor and devotees who visit, hosting marriages and community festivals, farming temple lands and flower gardens as a source for food and worship ingredients, being open to pilgrims as rest houses, and this philanthropic role of these Hindu monasteries continues.[90] In the 15th-century, these monasteries expanded by establishing Ramanuja-kuta in major South Indian Sri Vaishnavism locations.[90] The organizationally important Sri Vaishnavism matha are:

Vadakalai and Tenkalai denominations

The Sri Vaishnava tradition is classified into two major denominations called the Vadakalai ("northern art") and Tenkalai ("southern art").[26][92] The northern and southern denominations of Sri Vaishnavism refer respectively to Kanchipuram (the northern part of Tamil country) and Srirangam (the southern part of Tamil country and Kaveri river delta area where Ramanuja wrote his Vedanta treatises from).[12][13][93] These denominations arose as a result of philosophical and traditional divergences in the post-Ramanuja period. The Vadakalai placed emphasis on Sanskrit scriptures such as the Vedas and Pancharatra texts, while the Tenkalai highlighted Tamil texts such as the Naalayira Divya Prabandham of the Alvars.[26][94] The philosophies of Pillai Lokacharya and Vedanta Desika, which evolved consequently, were stabilized by Manavala Mamunigal and Brahmatantra Svatantra Jiyar respectively. When the schism weakened, Vadakalai tradition split into Munitreyam, Ahobila Matha, and Parakala matha. Similarly, Tenkalai tradition split into Kandadais, Telugu Sri Vaishnavas, Soliyar, and Sikkiliyar.[91]

From the ancient period, the Sri Vaishnavism movement flourished in Tamilakam owing to its social inclusiveness, where devotion to the supreme deity (Vishnu) was open without limitation to gender or caste, a tradition led by Alvars in the 7th and the 8th centuries.[95][96] Ramanuja philosophy negated caste, states Ramaswamy.[97] Ramanuja, who led from the Srirangam temple, welcomed outcastes into temples and gave them important roles in temple duties. Medieval temple records and inscriptions suggest that the payments and offerings collected by the temple were shared regardless of caste distinctions.[98]

Scholars offer differing views on the relative approach of the two denominations on caste and gender. Raman states that Tenkalai did not recognise caste barriers and were more liberal in assimilating people from all castes, possibly because this had been the tradition at Srirangam from the earliest days of Sri Vaishnavism.[98] In contrast, Sadarangani states that it was Vadakalai who were more liberal and who did not recognise caste barriers, possibly because they were competing with the egalitarian Virashaiva Hindus (Lingayatism) of Karnataka.[99] Both sects believe in initiation through Pancha Samskara.[100] This ceremony or rite of passage is necessary for one to become a Sri Vaishnava . It is performed by both Brahmins and non-Brahmins in order to become Vaishnavas.[101] Some non-Brahmin Sri Vaishnavas include Telugu Naidu, Tamil Vanniyar and Namadhari.[102]

The Tenkalai tradition brought into their fold artisanal castes (Shudras) into community-based devotional movements. Raman states, "it can almost be said that the Tenkalai represented the anti-caste tendencies while the Vadakalai school championed the cause of purity of the Vedic tenets."[98] The Tenkalai held, adds Raman, that anyone can be a spiritual teacher regardless of caste.[98]

The Vadakalai tradition states Sadarangani in contrast to Raman's views, were the liberal cousin of Tenkalai and therefore more successful in gaining devotees, while in southern Tamil lands Shaivism prospered possibly because of "Tenkalai school of Vaishnavism being narrow and orthodox in approach".[99] The Vadakalai school not only succeeded in northern Tamil lands, she adds, but spread widely as it inspired the egalitarian Bhakti movement in north, west and east India, bringing in Bhakti poet saints from "entire cross-section of class, caste and society".[99]

Tenkalai ("southern art") - Manavala Mamunigal

The Ranganathaswamy Temple, Srirangam belongs to the Tenkalai/Thennacharya tradition and is considered as one of the important sites of Sri Vaishnava tradition. All the functionaries and priests are the descendants of the 74 disciples appointed by Ramanuja and belong to the Tenkalai line without any exceptions.[103]

 
Tenkalai Sri Vaishnava urdhva pundram

Characteristics

The Tenkalai place higher importance to Tamil slokas than Sanskrit, and lay more emphasis on the worship of Vishnu. The Tenkalai accept prapatti as the only means to attain salvation.[104] They consider Prapatti as an unconditional surrender.[105] The Thenkalais follow the Tamil Prabandham,[106] and assert primacy to rituals in Tamil language.[107] They regard kaivalya (detachment, isolation) as an eternal position within the realm of Vaikuntha (Vishnu's 'eternal abode' or heaven), though it only exists at the outer most regions of Vaikuntha. They further say that God's seemingly contradictory nature as both minuscule and immense are examples of God's special powers that enable Him to accomplish the impossible.

According to the Tenkalai, exalted persons need not perform duties such as Sandhyavandanam; they do so only to set a good example. They don't allow the ringing of bells during worship. The Tenkalai forbid widows to shave (tonsure) their head, quoting the Parashara Smriti.[108] while Vadakalais support the tonsure quoting the Manusmriti,[109]

Demographics

 
Sri Kanchi Prativadibhayankar Jagadguru Anantacharya Gaddi Swamiji, the spiritual preceptor of Tridandi Swami Vishwaksenacharyaji

The Tenkalai trace their lineage to Mudaliyandan, nephew of Ramanuja[110] The Tenkalai are followers of the philosophy of Pillai Lokacharya and Manavala Mamuni,[111][112] who is considered to be the reincarnation of Ramanuja by the Tenkalai.[note 6]

Many of the main preceptors of Sri Vaishnavism and their descendants, before and after Ramanuja, belong to the Tenkalai denomination.

Notable Tenkalai people

Vadakalai ("northern art") - Vedanta Desika

 
Vadagalai Sri Vaishnava Urdhva Pundram
 
Parakala Mutt painting of Vedanta Desikan with Brahmatantra Swatantra Jeeyar

Characteristics

The Vadakalai are followers of Ramanuja and Vedanta Desika,[124][125][126] who founded the Vadakalai sampradaya[127] based on the Sanskritic tradition.[128] They lay more emphasis on the role of Lakshmi i.e. Sri, and uphold Sanskrit Vedas as the ultimate "Pramanam" or authority, although Ubhaya Vedanta[note 8] is used to infer from and establish the doctrine of Vishishtadvaita. The Vadakalai infer that all of the Alvars compositions are derived from the Vedas, and believe that the latter is the ultimate source to reference and defend the doctrine. The Vadakalai lay emphasis on Vedic norms[note 9] as established by Brahmanical tradition.

The Vadakalai ardently follow the Sanskrit Vedas,[106] and the set of rules prescribed by the Manusmriti and Dharma Shastras.[129][130] The sect is based on the Sankritic tradition,[131] and the set of rules prescribed by the Manusmriti and other Dharma Shastras.[129][130] In Sanskrit the Vadakalai are referred to as Uttara Kalārya.[132]

Traditionally, the Vadakalai believe in practising Karma yoga, Jnana yoga and Bhakti yoga, along with Prapatti, as means to attain salvation.[133][134] Also, they consider Prapatti as an act of winning grace.[105]

The tilak (Urdhva Pundra) mark of the Vadakalai men is a symbolic representation of Vishnu's right foot. Since Vishnu's right foot is believed to be the origin of the river Ganga, the Vadakalai contend that his right foot should be held in special veneration, and its sign impressed on the forehead. They also apply a central mark (sricharanam) to symbolise the goddess Lakshmi (Vishnu's wife), along with the thiruman (urdhva pundra).[135] The Urdhva Pundra that is vertical and faces upwards denotes that it helps one in reaching Vaikuntha (the spiritual abode of Vishnu), and is also considered to be a warder of evil. Vadakalai women apply a red central mark along with namam only, symbolising Lakshmi seated on a lotus on their foreheads.

Guru Parampara

 
Sri Balmukundacharyaji Maharaj of Jhalariya Mutt, Didwana, Rajasthan

The Vadakalai sect traces its lineage back to Thirukurahi Piran Pillan, Kidambi Acchan and other direct disciples of Ramanuja, and considers Vedanta Desika to be the greatest Acharya of the post Ramanuja era.[124][136][137]

The Vadakalai community consists of the following groups, based on the sampradaya followed:

  • Pancharatra – Followers of Srimad Azhagiya Singar (Srinivasacharya) of Ahobila Mutt.[138][139][140][141] The majority of Vadakalais belongs to this group.[142] His disciples established Mutts at different places in North India, including Varanasi, Chitrakoot and Pushkar.
  • Munitraya – Followers of Srimad Andavan of Andavan Ashramams,[143][144] and Swayamacharyas.[145] The Srirangam Srimad Andavan Ashramam, Poundarikapuram Andavan Ashramam, and most of the present-day Vadagalai 'svayam-acharya purusha' families are directly connected to this acharya parampara, and follow the worship and ritual patterns outlined by Sri Gopalarya Mahadesikan.
  • Periya Andavan Sri Srinivasa Mahadesikan;
  • Parakala – They are mostly followers Brahmatantra Swatantra Jeeyar of Parakala Mutt, Mysore. Founded in 1399 by Brahmatantra Parakala Jeeyar, the peetadhipathis of this mutt are the preceptors of the royal family of Mysore Kingdom, Wadiyars. This has stayed as a royal mutt of the kings since then, and is a mutt for all Iyengars under this category.[146][better source needed]

Demographics

Traditionally, places of high importance with significant Vadakalai populations included Kanchipuram, Kumbakonam, Tiruvallur, Mysore and Kurnool district.[132][147][148][149][150][151] However, today much of the people have moved to the big cities.

In Vrindavan, the Jankivallabh Mandir of Keshighat is a prominent Vadakalai Sri Vaishnava monastic institution and is associated with the spiritual lineage of the Ahobila Mutt. The present Azhagiya Singar has visited this well known institution in the past as well as recently. It is presently headed by Swami Sri Aniruddhacharyaji Maharaj.

In Rajasthan the Jhalariya Mutt is one of the most prominent Mutts and its branches have spread over to the neighbouring regions of Gujarat and Maharashtra. Sri Swami Balmukundacharyaji was a distinguished scholar and renowned Acharya of this Mutt.

Notable Vadakalai people

Temples following Srivaishnava Sampradaya

See also

Notes

  1. ^ Brahman is the metaphysical ultimate unchanging reality in Vedic and post-Vedic Hinduism, and is Vishnu in Sri Vaishnavism.
  2. ^ These two Vaishnavism traditions are respectively called the Sri Vaishnava sampradaya and the Brahma sampradaya.[39]
  3. ^ This work is predominantly about the Hindu scriptures called the Upanishads which Ramanuja held as the essence of the Vedas.[68]
  4. ^ The texts of most of these scholars is lost to history.
  5. ^ Brahman is the Vedic concept of metaphysical unchanging reality.[72]
  6. ^ He is also known by many other names, such as Azhagiya Manavala Mamunigal, Sundhara Jamatara Muni, Ramya Jamatara Muni, Ramya Jamatara Yogi, Varavaramuni, Yathindhra pravanar, Kanthopayantha, Ramanujan ponnadi, Soumya jamathru yogindhrar, Koil Selva manavala mamunigal etc. He also has the titles Periya Jeeyar, Vellai Jeeyar, Visthavak sikhamani, Poi IllAtha Manavala Mamuni.
  7. ^ Ramanujan's father belongs to Thenkalai sect while his mother belongs to Vadakalai sect
  8. ^ The Sanskrit Vedas and the Dravida Veda, the composition of Alwars, which are held in equal esteem
  9. ^ Also known as anushtaanams

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  • Lester, Robert C (1966). "Rāmānuja and Śrī-vaiṣṇavism: The Concept of Prapatti or Śaraṇāgati". History of Religions. 5 (2): 266–282. doi:10.1086/462526. JSTOR 1062115. S2CID 162224010.
  • Matchett, Freda (2000), Krsna, Lord or Avatara? The relationship between Krsna and Visnu: in the context of the Avatara myth as presented by the Harivamsa, the Visnupurana and the Bhagavatapurana, Surrey: Routledge, ISBN 978-0-7007-1281-6
  • Mayeda, Sengaku (2006). A thousand teachings : the Upadeśasāhasrī of Śaṅkara. Motilal Banarsidass. ISBN 978-81-208-2771-4.
  • Morgan, Keneth W. (1953), The religion of the Hindus, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-81-208-0387-9
  • Mumme, Patricia Y. (1987). "Grace and Karma in Nammāḻvār's Salvation". Journal of the American Oriental Society. 107 (2): 257–266. doi:10.2307/602834. JSTOR 602834.
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  • Thurston, Edgar; K. Rangachari (1909). "Brahmin". Castes and Tribes of Southern India Volume I – A and B. Madras: Government Press.

Further reading

  • Dictionary of Hindu Lore and Legend (ISBN 0-500-51088-1) by Anna Dallapiccola
  • The Vernacular Veda: Revelation, Recitation, and Ritual (Univ of South Carolina Press, Columbia, South Carolina, U.S.A. 1 January 1994), by Vasudha Narayanan
  • Understanding Hinduism, (ISBN 1844832015), by Vasudha Narayanan

January 13, 2023
vaishnavism, vaishnava, sampradaya, denomination, within, vaishnavism, tradition, hinduism, name, refers, goddess, lakshmi, also, known, well, prefix, that, means, sacred, revered, vishnu, together, revered, this, tradition, srirangam, templeregions, with, sig. Sri Vaishnavism or the Sri Vaishnava Sampradaya is a denomination within the Vaishnavism tradition of Hinduism 3 The name refers to goddess Lakshmi also known as Sri as well as a prefix that means sacred revered and the god Vishnu who are together revered in this tradition 4 5 Sri VaishnavismSrirangam TempleRegions with significant populationsIndia NepalReligionsVaishnavism Hinduism ScripturesVedas Upanishads Bhagavat Gita Brahma Sutra Pancharatra Prabhandham 1 2 LanguagesTamil SanskritThe tradition traces its roots to the ancient Vedas and Pancharatra texts popularised by the Alvars and their canon the Naalayira Divya Prabandham 6 7 8 The founding of Sri Vaishnavism is traditionally attributed to Nathamuni of the 10th century CE 9 its central philosopher has been Ramanuja of the 11th century who developed the Vishishtadvaita qualified non dualism Vedanta sub school of Hindu philosophy 10 11 The tradition split into two denominations around the 16th century The Vadakalai sect vested the Vedas with the greatest authority and follow the doctrine of Sri Vedanta Desika whereas the Tenkalai sect vested the Naalayira Divya Prabandham with the greatest authority and follow the principles of Sri Manavala Mamunigal 12 13 The Telugu Brahmins of the Sri Vaishnava tradition form a single distinct sect called the Andhra Vaishnavas and are not divided into the Vadakalai and Tenkalai denominations unlike the Tamil Iyengars 14 The most striking difference between Sri Vaishnavas and other Vaishnava groups lies in their interpretation of the Vedas While other Vaishnava groups interpret Vedic deities like Indra Savitar Bhaga Rudra etc to be the same as their Puranic counterparts Sri Vaishnavas consider these to be different names roles forms of Narayana thus claiming that the entirety of the Vedas is dedicated to Vishnu reverence alone Sri Vaishnavas have remodelled the Pancharatra homas rituals to include Vedic suktas hymns in them thus integrating them with a Vedic perspective citation needed Contents 1 Etymology 2 History 2 1 Theological origins 2 2 Historical origins 2 3 Reverence for Vishnu and Lakshmi 3 Philosophy 3 1 Vishishtadvaita 3 2 Comparisons with Advaita Vedanta 3 3 Comparisons with Protestant Christianity and Buddhism 4 Texts and scholarship 4 1 Nathamuni 4 2 Yamunacharya 4 3 Ramanuja 4 4 Post Ramanuja period authors 5 Organisation 6 Vadakalai and Tenkalai denominations 6 1 Tenkalai southern art Manavala Mamunigal 6 1 1 Characteristics 6 1 2 Demographics 6 1 3 Notable Tenkalai people 6 2 Vadakalai northern art Vedanta Desika 6 2 1 Characteristics 6 2 2 Guru Parampara 6 2 3 Demographics 6 2 4 Notable Vadakalai people 7 Temples following Srivaishnava Sampradaya 8 See also 9 Notes 10 References 10 1 Bibliography 11 Further readingEtymology EditThe name Sri Vaishnavism IAST Srivaiṣṇavism is derived from two words Sri and Vaishnavism In Sanskrit the word Sri refers to goddess Lakshmi as well as a prefix that means sacred revered and god Vishnu who are together revered in this tradition 3 5 The word Vaishnavism refers to a tradition that reveres god Vishnu as the supreme god 15 The followers of Sri Vaishnavism are known as the Sri Vaishnava s IAST Srivaiṣṇava श र व ष णव 16 History EditTheological origins Edit The tradition traces its roots to the primordial start of the world through Vishnu and to the texts of Vedic era with both Sri and Vishnu found in ancient texts of the 1st millennium BCE particularly to the Puranas Upanishads and the Bhagavad Gita 7 13 Historical origins Edit Sri Haṃsa Bhagavan the originator of the Sri Sampradaya The historical basis of Sri Vaishnavism is in the syncretism of two developments The first is Sanskrit traditions found in ancient texts such as the Vedas and the Agama Pancaratra and the second is the Tamil traditions found in early medieval texts Tamil Prabandham 17 and practices such as the emotional songs and music of Alvars that expressed spiritual ideas ethics and loving devotion to god Vishnu 18 7 8 The Sanskrit traditions likely represent the ideas shared in ancient times from Ganga river plains of the northern Indian subcontinent while the Tamil traditions likely have roots in the Kaveri river plains of southern India particularly what in modern times are the coastal Andhra Pradesh Karnataka and Tamil Nadu region 19 The tradition was founded by Nathamuni 10th century who combined the two traditions by drawing on Sanskrit philosophical tradition and combining it with the aesthetic and emotional appeal of the Bhakti movement pioneers called the Alvars 9 Sri Vaishnavism developed in Tamil Nadu in the 10th century after Nathamuni returned from a pilgrimage to Vrindavan in north India modern Uttar Pradesh 18 Nathamuni s ideas were continued by Yamunacharya who maintained that the Vedas and Pancaratras are equal devotional rituals and bhakti are important practices 9 The legacy of Yamunacharya was continued by Ramanuja 1017 1137 20 but they never met 21 Ramanuja a scholar who studied in an Advaita Vedanta monastery and disagreed with some of the ideas of Advaita became the most influential leader of Sri Vaishnavism 22 23 He developed the Visistadvaita qualified non dualism philosophy 9 Around 14th century Ramanandi Sampradaya split from it 24 25 Around the 18th century the Sri Vaishnava tradition split into the Vadakalai northern culture Vedic and Tenkalai southern culture Bhakti 12 13 The Vadakalai placed more emphasis on the Sanskrit traditions while the Tenkalai relied more on the Tamil traditions 26 This theological dispute between the Vedic and Bhakti traditions traces it roots to the debate between Srirangam and Kanchipuram monasteries between the 13th and 15th century 12 The debate then was on the nature of salvation and the role of grace The Bhakti favouring Tenkalai tradition asserted states Patricia Mumme that Vishnu saves the soul like a mother cat carries her kitten where the kitten just accepts the mother while she picks her up and carries 12 In contrast the Vedic favouring Vadakalai tradition asserted that Vishnu saves the soul like a mother monkey carries her baby where the baby has to make an effort and hold on while the mother carries 12 This metaphorical description of the disagreement between the two sub traditions first appears in the 18th century Tamil texts but historically refers to the foundational ideas behind the karma marga versus bhakti marga traditions of Hinduism 27 Reverence for Vishnu and Lakshmi Edit Along with Vishnu and like Shaivism the ultimate reality and truth is considered in Sri Vaishnavism to be the divine sharing of the feminine and the masculine the goddess and the god 28 Sri Lakshmi is regarded as the preceptor of the Sri Vaishnava sampradaya Goddess Sri has been considered inseparable from god Vishnu and essential to each other and to the act of mutual loving devotion Sri and Vishnu act and cooperate in the creation of everything that exists and redemption 28 According to some medieval scholars of Sri Vaishnava theology states John Carman Sri and Vishnu do so using divine knowledge that is unsurpassed and through love that is an erotic union 28 But Sri Vaishnavism differs from Shaivism in that Vishnu is ultimately the sole creator preserver and destroyer of the universe while Sri Lakshmi is the medium for salvation the kind mother who recommends to Vishnu and thereby helps living beings in their desire for redemption and salvation 28 In contrast in Shaivism the goddess Shakti is the energy and power of Shiva and she is the equal with different roles supreme in the role of creator and destroyer 29 The prefix Sri is used for this sect because they give special importance to the worship of the Goddess Lakshmi the consort of Vishnu who they believe to act as a mediator between God Vishnu and man 28 30 Philosophy EditVishishtadvaita Edit Main article Vishishtadvaita Sri Vaishnavism s philosophical foundation was established by Ramanuja who started his Vedic studies with Yadava Prakaasa in an Advaita Vedanta monastery 22 He brought Upanishadic ideas to this tradition and wrote texts on qualified monism called Vishishtadvaita in the Hindu tradition 31 32 His ideas are one of three subschools in Vedanta the other two are known as Adi Shankara s Advaita absolute monism and Madhvacharya s Dvaita dualism 31 Ramanuja s Vishishtadvaita asserts that Atman souls and Brahman note 1 are different a difference that is never transcended 33 34 God Vishnu alone is independent all other gods and beings are dependent on Him 35 However in contrast to Dvaita Vedanta philosophy of Madhvacharya Ramanuja asserts qualified non dualism 36 that souls share the same essential nature of Brahman 36 and that there is a universal sameness in the quality and degree of bliss possible for human souls and every soul can reach the bliss state of God Himself 33 37 While the 13th to 14th century Madhvacharya asserted both qualitative and quantitative pluralism of souls Ramanuja asserted qualitative monism and quantitative pluralism of souls states Sharma 38 The other philosophical difference between Madhvacharya s Vaishnavism Sampradaya and Ramanuja s Vaishnavism Sampradaya note 2 has been on the idea of eternal damnation Madhvacharya believed that some souls are eternally doomed and damned while Ramanuja disagreed and accepted the Advaita Vedanta view that everyone can with effort achieve inner liberation and spiritual freedom moksha 40 41 Theology Srivaiṣṇava theologians state that the poems of the Alvars contain the essential meaning of the Sanskrit Vedas John Carman and Vasudha Narayanan 42 According to Sri Vaishnavism theology moksha can be reached by devotion and service to the Lord and detachment from the world When moksha is reached the cycle of reincarnation is broken and the soul is united with Vishnu though maintaining their distinctions in Vaikuntha Vishnu s heaven 43 Moksha can also be reached by total surrender saranagati an act of grace by the Lord 44 God according to Ramanuja s Sri Vaishnavism philosophy has both soul and body all of life and the world of matter is the glory of God s body 23 The path to Brahman Vishnu asserted Ramanuja is devotion to godliness and constant remembrance of the beauty and love of personal god saguna Brahman Vishnu 23 32 45 Ramanuja s theory posits both Brahman and the world of matter are two different absolutes both metaphysically real neither one false or illusive and saguna Brahman with attributes is also real 32 Comparisons with Advaita Vedanta Edit Ramanuja accepted that the Vedas are a reliable source of knowledge then critiqued other schools of Hindu philosophy including Advaita Vedanta as having failed in interpreting all of the Vedic texts 46 He asserted in his Sri Bhasya that purvapaksin previous schools selectively interpret those Upanishadic passages that support their monistic interpretation and ignore those passages that support the pluralism interpretation 46 There is no reason stated Ramanuja to prefer one part of a scripture and not other the whole of the scripture must be considered on par 46 47 One cannot according to Ramanuja attempt to give interpretations of isolated portions of any scripture Rather the scripture must be considered one integrated corpus expressing a consistent doctrine 46 The Vedic literature asserted Ramanuja mention both plurality and oneness therefore the truth must incorporate pluralism and monism or qualified monism 46 This method of scripture interpretation distinguishes Ramanuja from Adi Shankara 47 Shankara s exegetical approach Samanvayat Tatparya Linga with Anvaya Vyatireka 48 states that for proper understanding all texts must be examined in their entirety and then their intent established by six characteristics which includes studying what is stated by the author to be his goal what he repeats in his explanation then what he states as conclusion and whether it can be epistemically verified 49 50 Not everything in any text states Shankara has equal weight and some ideas are the essence of any expert s textual testimony 47 This philosophical difference in scriptural studies helped Shankara conclude that the Principal Upanishads primarily teach monism with teachings such as Tat tvam asi while helping Ramanuja conclude that qualified monism is at the foundation of Hindu spirituality 46 51 52 Comparisons with Protestant Christianity and Buddhism Edit John Carman a professor at the Harvard Divinity School states that some of the similarities in salvation ideas in Sri Vaishnavism and Protestant Christian doctrines of divine grace are striking 53 Both accept God as a personal concept accept devotee s ability to relate to this God without human intermediaries and accept the idea of sola gratia salvation through faith by the grace of God alone such as those found in Martin Luther s teachings 53 While both Sri Vaishnavism and Protestant Christianity accept a supreme God and shares ideas on the nature of salvation they differ in their specifics about incarnation such as Jesus Christ being the only incarnation in Christianity while Sri Vaishnavism accepts many incarnations avatar of Vishnu 54 Christian missionaries in 19th century colonial British India noted the many similarities and attempted to express the theology of Christianity as a bhakti marga to Hindus along the lines of Sri Vaishnavism in their mission to convert them from Hinduism to Christianity 55 Similar teachings on the nature of salvation through grace and compassion adds Carman are found in the Japanese scholar Shinran s text on Jodo Shinshu sect of Buddhism even though non theistic Buddhism and theistic Sri Vaishnavism do differ in their views on God 53 Texts and scholarship EditMain article Vishishtadvaita Sri Vaishnavism philosophy is primarily based on interpreting Vedanta particularly the Upanishads the Bhagavad Gita the Brahma Sutras and the Narayaniya section of the Mahabharata 7 56 The Vaishnava Agama texts also called the Pancaratra has been an important part of Sri Vaishnava tradition 9 57 Another theological textual foundation of the tradition are the Tamil bhakti songs of the Alvars 7th to 10th century 11 The syncretic fusion of the two textual traditions is sometimes referred to as the Ubhaya Vedanta or dual Vedanta 11 The relative emphasis between the two has been a historic debate within the Sri Vaishnavism tradition 1 which ultimately led to the schism into the Vatakalai and Tenkalai sub traditions around the 18th century 12 13 Nathamuni Edit Main article Nathamuni Nathamuni collected the poems of Nammalvar in the form of Divya Prabandham likely in the 9th century CE 58 or the 10th century 9 One of his lasting contributions was to apply the Vedic theory of music on all the Alvar songs using Sanskrit prosody calling the resulting choreography as divine music and teaching his nephews the art of resonant bhakti singing of the Alvar songs 58 This precedence set the guru sisya parampara teacher student tradition in Sri Vaishnavism 59 This style of education from one generation to the next is a tradition called Araiyars states Guy Beck which preserved the art of singing and dancing the verses of the Divya Prabandham set in the sacred melodies and rhythms described in the Vedic texts 59 Nathamuni s efforts to syncretically combine the Vedic knowledge and Alvar compositions also set the precedence of reverence for both the Vedas and the Alvar bhakti ideas Nathamuni s scholarship that set Alvar songs in Vedic meter set a historic momentum and the liturgical and meditational songs continue to be sung in the modern era temples of Sri Vaishnavism which is part of the service called cevai Sanskrit Seva 58 60 Nathamuni is also attributed with three texts all in Sanskrit 58 These are Nyaya Tattva Purusha Nirnaya and Yogarahasya 61 The Yogarahasya text states Govindacharya is a meditational text includes the eight limb yoga similar to that of Patanjali but emphasizes yoga as the art of communion with God 61 The Nyaya Tattva text survives only in quotes and references cited in other texts and these suggest that it presented epistemic foundations Nyaya including the philosophical basis for the Hindu belief on the existence of soul Atman in contrast to Indian philosophies such as Buddhism that denied the existence of soul 62 63 Nathamuni for example asserts If I did not refer to the true self there would be no interiority belonging to the soul The interior is distinguished from the exterior by the concept I The aspiration May I having abandoned all suffering participate freely in infinite bliss actuates a person whose goal is liberation to study scriptures etc Were it thought that liberation involved the destruction of the individual he would run away as soon as the subject of liberation was suggested The I the knowing subject is the inner self Nyayatattva Nathamuni 9th 10th century Translator Christopher Bartley 63 Yamunacharya Edit Main article Yamunacharya Yamunacharya was the grandson of Nathamuni also known in Sri Vaishnava tradition as Alavandar whose scholarship is remembered for correlating Alvar bhakti theology and Pancaratra Agama texts to Vedic ideas 64 He was the Acharya chief teacher of Sri Vaishnavism monastery at Srirangam and was followed by Ramanuja even though they never met 21 Yamunacharya composed a number of works important in Sri Vaishnavism particularly Siddhitrayam about the nature of Atman God universe Gitarthasangraha analysis of the Bhagavad Gita Agamapramanya epistemological basis of Agamas mapping them to the Vedas Maha Purushanirnayam extension of Nathamuni s treatise Stotraratnam and Chathusloki bhakti strota texts 64 Yamunacharya is also credited with Nitya Grantha and Mayavada Khandana The Nitya Grantha is a ritual text and suggests methods of daily worship of Narayana Vishnu 65 The 10th century Mayavada Khandana text together with Siddhitrayam of Yamunacharya predominantly critiques the philosophy of the traditionally dominant school of Advaita Vedanta in Hindu philosophy but also critiques non Vedic traditions 66 Ramanuja Edit Main article Ramanuja Ramanujacharya embracing an icon of Lord Varadaraja Vishnu The Sri Vaishnava tradition attributes nine Sanskrit texts to Ramanuja 67 Vedarthasangraha literally Summary of the Vedas meaning note 3 Sri Bhasya a review and commentary on the Brahma Sutras Bhagavad Gita Bhashya a review and commentary on the Bhagavad Gita and the minor works titled Vedantadeepa Vedantasara Gadya Traya which is a compilation of three texts called the Saranagati Gadyam Sriranga Gadyam and the Vaikunta Gadyam and Nitya Grantham Some modern scholars have questioned the authenticity of all but the three of the largest works credited to Ramanuja the following texts are considered as authentically traceable to Ramanuja Shri Bhashya Vedarthasangraha and the Bhagavad Gita Bhashya 67 69 Ramanuja s scholarship is predominantly founded on Vedanta Upanishads in particular 68 70 He never claims that his ideas were original but his method of synthesis that combined the Vedic ideas with popular spirituality states Anne Overzee is original 70 Ramanuja wrote his biographer Ramakrishnananda was the culmination of the movement started from the Vedas nourished by the Alvars Nathamuni and Yamuncharya 70 Ramunaja himself credits the theories he presents in Vedarthasangraha to the ideas of ancient Hindu scholars such as Bodhyana Tanka Brahmanandin Dramida Dravidacarya Guhadeva Kapardin and Bharuci 70 71 note 4 The 11th century scholarship of Ramanuja emphasized the concept of Sarira Saririn that is the world of matter and the empirical reality of living beings is the body of Brahman note 5 everything observed is God one lives in this body of God and the purpose of this body and all of creation is to empower soul in its journey to liberating salvation 73 74 Post Ramanuja period authors Edit Main articles Pillai Lokacharya Manavala Mamunigal and Vedanta Desika After Ramanuja several authors composed important theological and exegetical works on Sri Vaishnavism Such authors include Parsara Bhattar Nadadoor Ammal Sudarshan Suri Pillai Lokacharya Vedanta Desika Manavala Mamunigal Periyavachan Pillai and Rangaramanuja Muni 75 76 77 78 Organisation EditThe Sri Vaishnavism tradition has nurtured an institutional organization of mathas monasteries since its earliest days particularly from the time of Ramanuja After the death of Yamunacharya Ramanuja was nominated as the leader of the Srirangam matha though Yamunacharya and Ramanuja never met 21 Amongst other things Ramanuja is remembered in the Sri Vaishnavism tradition for his organizational skills and the lasting institutional reforms he introduced at Srirangam a system paralleling those at Advaita monasteries of his time and where he studied before joining Srirangam matha Ramanuja travelled and founded many Sri Vaishnavism mathas across India such as the one in Melukote 79 80 The Sri Vaishnavism tradition believes that Ramanuja started 700 mathas but historical evidence suggests several of these were started later 81 Left The Parakala monastery of Sri VaishnavismRight A Srirangam temple tower constructed by Ahobila Mutt monastery 82 The matha or a monastery hosted numerous students many teachers and an institutionalized structure to help sustain and maintain its daily operations A matha in Vaishnvaism and other Hindu traditions like a college designates teaching administrative and community interaction functions with prefix or suffix to names with titles such as Guru Acharya Swami and Jiyar 83 A Guru is someone who is a teacher guide or master of certain knowledge 84 Traditionally a reverential figure to the student in Hinduism the guru serves as a counselor who helps mold values shares experiential knowledge as much as literal knowledge an exemplar in life an inspirational source and who helps in the spiritual evolution of a student 85 An Acharya refers to either a Guru of high rank or more often to the leader of a regional monastery 86 87 This position typically involves a ceremonial initiation called diksha by the monastery where the earlier leader anoints the successor as Acharya 86 88 A Swami is usually those who interact with community on the behalf of the matha The chief and most revered of all Vaishnava monasteries are titled as Jeer Jiyar Jeeyar or Ciyar 81 The Sri Vaishnavism mathas over time divided into two those with Tenkalai southern tradition and Vadakalai northern tradition of Sri Vaishnavism 89 The Tenkalai associated mathas are headquartered at Srirangam while Vadakalai mathas are associated with Kanchipuram Both these traditions have from 10th century onwards considered the function of mathas to include feeding the poor and devotees who visit hosting marriages and community festivals farming temple lands and flower gardens as a source for food and worship ingredients being open to pilgrims as rest houses and this philanthropic role of these Hindu monasteries continues 90 In the 15th century these monasteries expanded by establishing Ramanuja kuta in major South Indian Sri Vaishnavism locations 90 The organizationally important Sri Vaishnavism matha are Tenkalai tradition Sriranganarayana Jiyar Matha at Srirangam Tamil Nadu 89 91 Vanamamalai Jiyar Matha at Nanguneri Tamil Nadu 81 91 Perarulala Yatiraja Ramanuja Jiyar Matha at Thirukkurungudi Tamil Nadu 81 91 Yatiraja Matha at Sriperumbudur Tamil Nadu 91 Udaiyavar Koil Jiyar Matha at Alvar Tirunagari Tamil Nadu 91 Emperumanar Jiyar Matha at Tirukkovalur Tamil Nadu 91 Andal Jeeyar Mutt at Srivilliputtur Tamil Nadu Yadugiri Yathiraja Mutt at Melkote Karnataka 91 Periya and Cinna Jiyar Matha at Tirupati and Tirumala Andhra Pradesh 91 Vadakalai tradition Brahmatantra Parakala Matha at Mysore Karnataka 81 91 Ahobila Jiyar Matha at Ahobila Andhra Pradesh 81 91 Andavan Ashramam at Srirangam Tamil Nadu 91 Vadakalai and Tenkalai denominations EditThe Sri Vaishnava tradition is classified into two major denominations called the Vadakalai northern art and Tenkalai southern art 26 92 The northern and southern denominations of Sri Vaishnavism refer respectively to Kanchipuram the northern part of Tamil country and Srirangam the southern part of Tamil country and Kaveri river delta area where Ramanuja wrote his Vedanta treatises from 12 13 93 These denominations arose as a result of philosophical and traditional divergences in the post Ramanuja period The Vadakalai placed emphasis on Sanskrit scriptures such as the Vedas and Pancharatra texts while the Tenkalai highlighted Tamil texts such as the Naalayira Divya Prabandham of the Alvars 26 94 The philosophies of Pillai Lokacharya and Vedanta Desika which evolved consequently were stabilized by Manavala Mamunigal and Brahmatantra Svatantra Jiyar respectively When the schism weakened Vadakalai tradition split into Munitreyam Ahobila Matha and Parakala matha Similarly Tenkalai tradition split into Kandadais Telugu Sri Vaishnavas Soliyar and Sikkiliyar 91 From the ancient period the Sri Vaishnavism movement flourished in Tamilakam owing to its social inclusiveness where devotion to the supreme deity Vishnu was open without limitation to gender or caste a tradition led by Alvars in the 7th and the 8th centuries 95 96 Ramanuja philosophy negated caste states Ramaswamy 97 Ramanuja who led from the Srirangam temple welcomed outcastes into temples and gave them important roles in temple duties Medieval temple records and inscriptions suggest that the payments and offerings collected by the temple were shared regardless of caste distinctions 98 Scholars offer differing views on the relative approach of the two denominations on caste and gender Raman states that Tenkalai did not recognise caste barriers and were more liberal in assimilating people from all castes possibly because this had been the tradition at Srirangam from the earliest days of Sri Vaishnavism 98 In contrast Sadarangani states that it was Vadakalai who were more liberal and who did not recognise caste barriers possibly because they were competing with the egalitarian Virashaiva Hindus Lingayatism of Karnataka 99 Both sects believe in initiation through Pancha Samskara 100 This ceremony or rite of passage is necessary for one to become a Sri Vaishnava It is performed by both Brahmins and non Brahmins in order to become Vaishnavas 101 Some non Brahmin Sri Vaishnavas include Telugu Naidu Tamil Vanniyar and Namadhari 102 The Tenkalai tradition brought into their fold artisanal castes Shudras into community based devotional movements Raman states it can almost be said that the Tenkalai represented the anti caste tendencies while the Vadakalai school championed the cause of purity of the Vedic tenets 98 The Tenkalai held adds Raman that anyone can be a spiritual teacher regardless of caste 98 The Vadakalai tradition states Sadarangani in contrast to Raman s views were the liberal cousin of Tenkalai and therefore more successful in gaining devotees while in southern Tamil lands Shaivism prospered possibly because of Tenkalai school of Vaishnavism being narrow and orthodox in approach 99 The Vadakalai school not only succeeded in northern Tamil lands she adds but spread widely as it inspired the egalitarian Bhakti movement in north west and east India bringing in Bhakti poet saints from entire cross section of class caste and society 99 Tenkalai southern art Manavala Mamunigal EditThe Ranganathaswamy Temple Srirangam belongs to the Tenkalai Thennacharya tradition and is considered as one of the important sites of Sri Vaishnava tradition All the functionaries and priests are the descendants of the 74 disciples appointed by Ramanuja and belong to the Tenkalai line without any exceptions 103 Tenkalai Sri Vaishnava urdhva pundram Characteristics Edit The Tenkalai place higher importance to Tamil slokas than Sanskrit and lay more emphasis on the worship of Vishnu The Tenkalai accept prapatti as the only means to attain salvation 104 They consider Prapatti as an unconditional surrender 105 The Thenkalais follow the Tamil Prabandham 106 and assert primacy to rituals in Tamil language 107 They regard kaivalya detachment isolation as an eternal position within the realm of Vaikuntha Vishnu s eternal abode or heaven though it only exists at the outer most regions of Vaikuntha They further say that God s seemingly contradictory nature as both minuscule and immense are examples of God s special powers that enable Him to accomplish the impossible According to the Tenkalai exalted persons need not perform duties such as Sandhyavandanam they do so only to set a good example They don t allow the ringing of bells during worship The Tenkalai forbid widows to shave tonsure their head quoting the Parashara Smriti 108 while Vadakalais support the tonsure quoting the Manusmriti 109 Demographics Edit Sri Kanchi Prativadibhayankar Jagadguru Anantacharya Gaddi Swamiji the spiritual preceptor of Tridandi Swami Vishwaksenacharyaji The Tenkalai trace their lineage to Mudaliyandan nephew of Ramanuja 110 The Tenkalai are followers of the philosophy of Pillai Lokacharya and Manavala Mamuni 111 112 who is considered to be the reincarnation of Ramanuja by the Tenkalai note 6 Many of the main preceptors of Sri Vaishnavism and their descendants before and after Ramanuja belong to the Tenkalai denomination Notable Tenkalai people Edit Srinivasa Ramanujan 1887 1920 Indian mathematician 113 note 7 K S Krishnan 1898 1961 Indian physicist 114 B K S Iyengar 1918 2014 Founder of the Iyengar Yoga style of Yoga 115 Alasinga Perumal 1865 1909 Disciple of Swami Vivekananda and one of the founders of Brahmavadin which later became Vedanta Kesari 116 117 118 Sujatha 1935 2008 Writer editor and engineer key person behind development of the Electronic Voting Machine for which he was awarded the VASVIK Industrial Research Award 119 failed verification Ariyakudi Ramanuja Iyengar 1890 1967 Renowned musician and architect of modern Carnatic music 120 121 122 J Jayalalithaa 1948 2016 Renowned actress and six times chief minister of Tamil Nadu 123 Vadakalai northern art Vedanta Desika Edit Vadagalai Sri Vaishnava Urdhva Pundram Parakala Mutt painting of Vedanta Desikan with Brahmatantra Swatantra Jeeyar Characteristics Edit The Vadakalai are followers of Ramanuja and Vedanta Desika 124 125 126 who founded the Vadakalai sampradaya 127 based on the Sanskritic tradition 128 They lay more emphasis on the role of Lakshmi i e Sri and uphold Sanskrit Vedas as the ultimate Pramanam or authority although Ubhaya Vedanta note 8 is used to infer from and establish the doctrine of Vishishtadvaita The Vadakalai infer that all of the Alvars compositions are derived from the Vedas and believe that the latter is the ultimate source to reference and defend the doctrine The Vadakalai lay emphasis on Vedic norms note 9 as established by Brahmanical tradition The Vadakalai ardently follow the Sanskrit Vedas 106 and the set of rules prescribed by the Manusmriti and Dharma Shastras 129 130 The sect is based on the Sankritic tradition 131 and the set of rules prescribed by the Manusmriti and other Dharma Shastras 129 130 In Sanskrit the Vadakalai are referred to as Uttara Kalarya 132 Traditionally the Vadakalai believe in practising Karma yoga Jnana yoga and Bhakti yoga along with Prapatti as means to attain salvation 133 134 Also they consider Prapatti as an act of winning grace 105 The tilak Urdhva Pundra mark of the Vadakalai men is a symbolic representation of Vishnu s right foot Since Vishnu s right foot is believed to be the origin of the river Ganga the Vadakalai contend that his right foot should be held in special veneration and its sign impressed on the forehead They also apply a central mark sricharanam to symbolise the goddess Lakshmi Vishnu s wife along with the thiruman urdhva pundra 135 The Urdhva Pundra that is vertical and faces upwards denotes that it helps one in reaching Vaikuntha the spiritual abode of Vishnu and is also considered to be a warder of evil Vadakalai women apply a red central mark along with namam only symbolising Lakshmi seated on a lotus on their foreheads Guru Parampara Edit Sri Balmukundacharyaji Maharaj of Jhalariya Mutt Didwana Rajasthan The Vadakalai sect traces its lineage back to Thirukurahi Piran Pillan Kidambi Acchan and other direct disciples of Ramanuja and considers Vedanta Desika to be the greatest Acharya of the post Ramanuja era 124 136 137 The Vadakalai community consists of the following groups based on the sampradaya followed Pancharatra Followers of Srimad Azhagiya Singar Srinivasacharya of Ahobila Mutt 138 139 140 141 The majority of Vadakalais belongs to this group 142 His disciples established Mutts at different places in North India including Varanasi Chitrakoot and Pushkar Munitraya Followers of Srimad Andavan of Andavan Ashramams 143 144 and Swayamacharyas 145 The Srirangam Srimad Andavan Ashramam Poundarikapuram Andavan Ashramam and most of the present day Vadagalai svayam acharya purusha families are directly connected to this acharya parampara and follow the worship and ritual patterns outlined by Sri Gopalarya Mahadesikan Periya Andavan Sri Srinivasa Mahadesikan Parakala They are mostly followers Brahmatantra Swatantra Jeeyar of Parakala Mutt Mysore Founded in 1399 by Brahmatantra Parakala Jeeyar the peetadhipathis of this mutt are the preceptors of the royal family of Mysore Kingdom Wadiyars This has stayed as a royal mutt of the kings since then and is a mutt for all Iyengars under this category 146 better source needed Demographics Edit Traditionally places of high importance with significant Vadakalai populations included Kanchipuram Kumbakonam Tiruvallur Mysore and Kurnool district 132 147 148 149 150 151 However today much of the people have moved to the big cities In Vrindavan the Jankivallabh Mandir of Keshighat is a prominent Vadakalai Sri Vaishnava monastic institution and is associated with the spiritual lineage of the Ahobila Mutt The present Azhagiya Singar has visited this well known institution in the past as well as recently It is presently headed by Swami Sri Aniruddhacharyaji Maharaj In Rajasthan the Jhalariya Mutt is one of the most prominent Mutts and its branches have spread over to the neighbouring regions of Gujarat and Maharashtra Sri Swami Balmukundacharyaji was a distinguished scholar and renowned Acharya of this Mutt Notable Vadakalai people Edit Gopala Bhatta Goswami 1503 1578 born a Vadakalai Iyengar one of the Six Goswamis of Vrindavan in Chaitanya Vaishnavism and a highly revered Guru in ISKCON 152 Chakravarti Rajagopalachari 1878 1972 Indian politician and activist of the Indian independence movement Premier of Madras 1937 1939 Governor of Bengal 1946 1948 Governor General of India 1948 1950 Union Home Minister 1950 1952 and Chief Minister of Madras state 1952 1954 Founder of Swatantra party 153 C V Rungacharlu 1831 1883 Diwan of Mysore kingdom from 1881 to 1883 154 T S S Rajan 1880 1953 Indian politician and freedom fighter Member of the Imperial Legislative Council 1934 1936 Minister of Public Health and Religious Endowments Madras Presidency 1937 1939 Minister of Food and Public Health Madras Presidency 1946 1951 155 Tirumalai Krishnamacharya 1888 1989 an influential Yoga teacher healer and scholar Agnihotram Ramanuja Tatachariar 1907 2008 renowned vedic scholar and recipient of two national awards for his contribution to Vedic studies and Sanskrit literature 156 Krishnamachari Srikkanth b 1959 Indian Cricket Player R Madhavan b 1970 Indian film actor 157 Temples following Srivaishnava Sampradaya EditRanganathaswamy Temple Srirangam Venkateswara Temple Tirumala Andal Temple Srivilliputtur Srivilliputhur Andal temple Sita Ramachandraswamy temple Bhadrachalam Cheluvanarayana Swamy Temple Chakrapani Temple Kumbakonam Sarangapani temple Kumbakonam Ranganathaswamy Temple Srirangapatna Ulagalantha Perumal Temple Kanchipuram Parthasarathy Temple Triplicane Bhu Varaha Swamy temple Varadharaja Perumal Temple Kanchipuram Ashtabujakaram Adikesava Perumal Temple Kanyakumari Pandava Thoothar Perumal Temple Rajagopalaswamy Temple Mannargudi Ulagalantha Perumal Temple Tirukoyilur Mudikondan Kothandaramar Temple Thirupullabhoothangudi Temple Kola Valvill Ramar Temple Tiruvelliyangudi Vijayaraghava Perumal temple Ramaswamy Temple KumbakonamSee also EditRamanujacharya Visiṣṭadvaita Vaishnavism Alvars Iyengar Satani NamadhariNotes Edit Brahman is the metaphysical ultimate unchanging reality in Vedic and post Vedic Hinduism and is Vishnu in Sri Vaishnavism These two Vaishnavism traditions are respectively called the Sri Vaishnava sampradaya and the Brahma sampradaya 39 This work is predominantly about the Hindu scriptures called the Upanishads which Ramanuja held as the essence of the Vedas 68 The texts of most of these scholars is lost to history Brahman is the Vedic concept of metaphysical unchanging reality 72 He is also known by many other names such as Azhagiya Manavala Mamunigal Sundhara Jamatara Muni Ramya Jamatara Muni Ramya Jamatara Yogi Varavaramuni Yathindhra pravanar Kanthopayantha Ramanujan ponnadi Soumya jamathru yogindhrar Koil Selva manavala mamunigal etc He also has the titles Periya Jeeyar Vellai Jeeyar Visthavak sikhamani Poi IllAtha Manavala Mamuni Ramanujan s father belongs to Thenkalai sect while his mother belongs to Vadakalai sect The Sanskrit Vedas and the Dravida Veda the composition of Alwars which are held in equal esteem Also known as anushtaanamsReferences Edit a b Ranjeeta Dutta 2007 pp 22 43 John Carman amp Vasudha Narayanan 1989 pp 3 8 a b Matchett 2000 p 4 200 Matchett 2000 p 4 77 200 a b John Carman amp Vasudha Narayanan 1989 pp xvii 3 4 Lester 1966 pp 266 269 a b c d Francis Clooney amp Tony Stewart 2004 pp 167 168 a b John Carman amp Vasudha Narayanan 1989 pp 3 4 36 42 181 a b c d e f Flood 1996 p 136 Morgan 1953 a b c John Carman amp Vasudha Narayanan 1989 pp 3 4 a b c d e f g Mumme 1987 p 257 a b c d e Bryant 2007 pp 286 287 Bhattacharya Jogendra Nath 1896 Hindu Castes and Sects Thacker Spink p 98 ISBN 1298966337 The Sri Vaishnavas among the Telingana Brahmans form a distinct caste called Andhra Vaishnava They are not sub divided as Vadgala and Tengala like their co religionists of Dravida Stephan Schuhmacher 1994 The Encyclopedia of Eastern Philosophy and Religion Buddhism Hinduism Taoism Zen Shambhala p 397 ISBN 978 0 87773 980 7 श र व ष णव Sanskrit English Dictionary Koeln University Germany 2011 Klaus K Klostermaier 1984 Mythologies and Philosophies of Salvation in the Theistic Traditions of India Wilfrid Laurier University Press p 102 ISBN 978 0 88920 158 3 a b Flood 1996 p 135 136 John Carman amp Vasudha Narayanan 1989 pp 3 5 John Carman 1974 pp 45 80 a b c Jon Paul Sydnor 2012 Ramanuja and Schleiermacher Toward a Constructive Comparative Theology Casemate pp 20 22 with footnote 32 ISBN 978 0227680247 a b Patrick Olivelle 1992 The Samnyasa Upanisads Hindu Scriptures on Asceticism and Renunciation Oxford University Press pp 10 11 17 18 ISBN 978 0 19 536137 7 a b c J A B van Buitenen 2008 Ramanuja Hindu theologian and Philosopher Encyclopaedia Britannica Ramanandi Sampradaya Tattwananda Swami 1984 Vaisnava Sects Saiva Sects Mother Worship 1st revised ed Calcutta Firma KLM Private Ltd p 10 a b c Flood 1996 p 137 Mumme 1987 pp 257 266 a b c d e John Carman 1994 p 151 John Carman 1994 pp 151 152 Tapasyananda 2011 p 53 a b Bruce M Sullivan 2001 The A to Z of Hinduism Rowman amp Littlefield p 239 ISBN 978 0 8108 4070 6 a b c Joseph P Schultz 1981 Judaism and the Gentile Faiths Comparative Studies in Religion Fairleigh Dickinson University Press pp 81 84 ISBN 978 0 8386 1707 6 a b Stafford Betty 2010 Dvaita Advaita and Visiṣṭadvaita Contrasting Views of Mokṣa Asian Philosophy An International Journal of the Philosophical Traditions of the East Volume 20 Issue 2 pages 215 224 Edward Craig 2000 Concise Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy Routledge ISBN 978 0415223645 pages 517 518 Sharma 1994 p 373 a b Stoker 2011 Sharma 1994 pp 373 374 Sharma 1994 p 374 Klostermaier 2007 p 304 Sharma 1994 pp 374 375 Bryant 2007 pp 361 362 John Carman amp Vasudha Narayanan 1989 p 6 Flood 1996 p 136 137 Flood 1996 p 137 the tenkalai emphasized the Tamil scriptures and surrender to the Lord by his grace Jon Paul Sydnor 2012 Ramanuja and Schleiermacher Toward a Constructive Comparative Theology Casemate pp 10 11 ISBN 978 0227680247 a b c d e f Shyam Ranganathan 2011 Ramanuja c 1017 c 1137 IEP York University a b c John Carman 1994 p 86 Mayeda 2006 pp 46 53 Mayeda amp Tanizawa 1991 Studies on Indian Philosophy in Japan 1963 1987 Philosophy East and West Vol 41 No 4 pages 529 535 Michael Comans 1996 Sankara and the Prasankhyanavada Journal of Indian Philosophy Vol 24 No 1 pages 49 71 John Carman 1994 pp 86 88 Julius Lipner 1986 The Face of Truth A Study of Meaning and Metaphysics in the Vedantic Theology of Ramanuja State University of New York Press ISBN 978 0887060397 pages 120 123 a b c John Carman 1994 pp 117 118 148 153 John Carman 1994 pp 196 197 for context see 190 201 Klostermaier 2007 pp 387 389 Lester 1966 pp 266 282 Klostermaier 2007 p 487 a b c d Constance Jones James D Ryan 2006 Encyclopedia of Hinduism Infobase p 490 ISBN 978 0 8160 7564 5 a b Guy L Beck 2012 Sonic Liturgy Ritual and Music in Hindu Tradition University of South Carolina Press pp 119 120 ISBN 978 1 61117 108 2 Guy L Beck 2012 Sonic Liturgy Ritual and Music in Hindu Tradition University of South Carolina Press pp 118 127 ISBN 978 1 61117 108 2 a b Alkandavilli Govindacharya 1906 The Life of Ramanujacharya The Exponent of the Visistadvaita Philosophy S Murthy pp 9 10 with footnotes John Sheveland 2013 Piety and Responsibility Patterns of Unity in Karl Rahner Karl Barth and Vedanta Desika Ashgate Publishing pp 113 114 ISBN 978 1 4094 8144 7 a b Christopher Bartley 2011 An Introduction to Indian Philosophy Bloomsbury Academic pp 177 178 ISBN 978 1 84706 449 3 a b Dalal 2010 p 399 C R Sreenivasa Ayyangar 1908 The Life and Teachings of Sri Ramanujacharya R Venkateshwar pp 130 footnote 2 M C Alasingaperumal 1900 The Brahmavadin Volume 5 Madras Brahmavadin Press pp 466 467 a b Jon Paul Sydnor 2012 Ramanuja and Schleiermacher Toward a Constructive Comparative Theology Casemate pp 2 4 ISBN 978 0227680247 a b Jon Paul Sydnor 2012 Ramanuja and Schleiermacher Toward a Constructive Comparative Theology Casemate p 4 ISBN 978 0227680247 Robert Lester 1966 Ramanuja and Shri Vaishnavism the Concept of Prapatti or Sharanagati History of Religion Volume 5 Issue 2 pages 266 282 a b c d Anne Hunt Overzee 1992 The Body Divine The Symbol of the Body in the Works of Teilhard de Chardin and Ramanuja Cambridge University Press pp 30 31 ISBN 978 0 521 38516 9 R Balasubramanian 2000 Advaita Vedanta Munshiram Manoharlal p 9 ISBN 978 81 87586 04 3 Jeaneane D Fowler 2002 Perspectives of Reality An Introduction to the Philosophy of Hinduism Sussex Academic Press p 49 ISBN 978 1 898723 94 3 Anne Hunt Overzee 1992 The Body Divine The Symbol of the Body in the Works of Teilhard de Chardin and Ramanuja Cambridge University Press pp 63 85 ISBN 978 0 521 38516 9 Julius Lipner 1986 The Face of Truth A Study of Meaning and Metaphysics in the Vedantic Theology of Ramanuja State University of New York Press pp 37 48 ISBN 978 0 88706 038 0 Ayyangar C R Sreenivasa 1908 The Life and Teachings of Sri Ramanujacharya R Venkateshwar Seshadri K 1998 Srivaishnavism and Social Change K P Bagchi amp Company ISBN 978 81 7074 198 5 Paniker K Ayyappa 1997 Medieval Indian Literature Surveys and selections Sahitya Akademi ISBN 978 81 260 0365 5 Rajagopalachariar T 1982 The Vaishnavite Reformers of India Critical Sketches of Their Lives and Writings A D Publications Jerry L Walls 2010 The Oxford Handbook of Eschatology Oxford University Press pp 182 183 ISBN 978 0 19 974248 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Historical Studies Sage 1979 p 14 Retrieved 20 November 2011 Gazetteer of South India Volume 2 By W Francis Mittal Publications p 561 Retrieved 20 November 2011 Indian philosophy amp culture Volumes 3 4 Vrindavan India Institute of Oriental Philosophy Vaishnava Research Institute Vrindaban India 1 January 1984 p 33 Retrieved 20 November 2011 Ontological and morphological concepts of Lord Sri Chaitanya and his mission Volume 1 Bhakti Vilas Tirtha Goswami Maharaj Navadwipa Dham Pracharini Sabha Pub Sree Gaudiya Math 1994 2 October 2009 p 240 Retrieved 20 November 2011 Studies in social history modern India O P Bhatnagar India University Grants Commission University of Allahabad Dept of Modern Indian History St Paul s Press Training School 1964 1 January 2006 p 129 Retrieved 20 November 2011 The Life of Srila Gopala Bhatta Goswami His Vadakalai origin is mentioned in the article where Vadakalai is spelled as Badagalai Some in Northern India often substitute the alphabet V with B Prabhupadanugas eu 22 January 2011 Retrieved 20 November 2011 TimesContent Photo of Rajagopalachari He wears the Vadakalai Tilak on his forehead Retrieved 20 November 2011 Jogendra Nath Bhattacharya 1896 Hindu Castes and Sects An Exposition on the Origins of Hindu caste system Thacker Spink amp Co p 78 Jawaharlal Memorial Fund 1972 Selected Works of Jawaharlal Nehru Orient Longman p 440 A Vedic scholar enters his 100th year The Hindu India 30 March 2007 Archived from the original on 12 October 2007 Retrieved 20 November 2011 ReelshowInt MAG Mag reelshowint com 15 June 2010 Archived from the original on 28 March 2012 Retrieved 20 November 2011 Bibliography Edit Bryant Edwin Francis 2007 Krishna A Sourcebook Oxford University Press ISBN 978 0 19 803400 1 John Carman 1974 The Theology of Ramanuja An Essay in Interreligious Understanding Yale University Press ISBN 978 0 300 01521 8 John Carman Vasudha Narayanan 1989 The Tamil Veda Pillan s Interpretation of the Tiruvaymoli University of Chicago Press ISBN 978 0 226 09306 2 John Carman 1994 Majesty and Meekness A Comparative Study of Contrast and Harmony in the Concept of God Wm B Eerdmans ISBN 978 0 8028 0693 2 Francis Clooney Tony Stewart 2004 Sushil Mittal and Gene Thursby ed The Hindu World Routledge ISBN 978 1 134 60875 1 Coward Harold G 2008 The perfectibility of human nature in eastern and western thought ISBN 9780791473368 Dalal Roshen 2010 Hinduism An Alphabetical Guide Penguin Books ISBN 978 0 14 341421 6 Ranjeeta Dutta 2007 Texts Tradition and Community Identity The Srivaisnavas of South India Social Scientist 35 9 10 22 43 JSTOR 27644238 Flood Gavin D 1996 An Introduction to Hinduism Cambridge University Press Gough Kathleen 1965 Rural Society in Southeast India Cambridge University Press ISBN 978 0 521 04019 8 Srinivasan S Mukherjee D P 1976 Inbreeding among Some Brahman Populations of Tamil Nadu Human Heredity 26 2 131 136 doi 10 1159 000152794 PMID 950239 Klostermaier Klaus K 2007 A Survey of Hinduism 3 ed State University of New York Press ISBN 978 0 7914 7081 7 Lester Robert C 1966 Ramanuja and Sri vaiṣṇavism The Concept of Prapatti or Saraṇagati History of Religions 5 2 266 282 doi 10 1086 462526 JSTOR 1062115 S2CID 162224010 Matchett Freda 2000 Krsna Lord or Avatara The relationship between Krsna and Visnu in the context of the Avatara myth as presented by the Harivamsa the Visnupurana and the Bhagavatapurana Surrey Routledge ISBN 978 0 7007 1281 6 Mayeda Sengaku 2006 A thousand teachings the Upadesasahasri of Saṅkara Motilal Banarsidass ISBN 978 81 208 2771 4 Morgan Keneth W 1953 The religion of the Hindus Motilal Banarsidass ISBN 978 81 208 0387 9 Mumme Patricia Y 1987 Grace and Karma in Nammaḻvar s Salvation Journal of the American Oriental Society 107 2 257 266 doi 10 2307 602834 JSTOR 602834 Sharma Chandradhar 1994 A Critical Survey of Indian Philosophy Motilal Banarsidass ISBN 978 81 208 0365 7 Stoker Valerie 2011 Madhva 1238 1317 Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy Retrieved 17 April 2016 Tapasyananda 2011 Bhakti Schools of Vedanta Ramakrishna Mission Thurston Edgar K Rangachari 1909 Brahmin Castes and Tribes of Southern India Volume I A and B Madras Government Press Further reading EditDictionary of Hindu Lore and Legend ISBN 0 500 51088 1 by Anna Dallapiccola The Vernacular Veda Revelation Recitation and Ritual Univ of South Carolina Press Columbia South Carolina U S A 1 January 1994 by Vasudha Narayanan Understanding Hinduism ISBN 1844832015 by Vasudha Narayanan Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Sri Vaishnavism amp oldid 1129867879 Vadakalai and Tenkalai denominations, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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