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Sanskrit prosody

Sanskrit prosody or Chandas refers to one of the six Vedangas, or limbs of Vedic studies.[1] It is the study of poetic metres and verse in Sanskrit.[1] This field of study was central to the composition of the Vedas, the scriptural canons of Hinduism, so central that some later Hindu and Buddhist texts refer to the Vedas as Chandas.[1][2]

The Chandas, as developed by the Vedic schools, were organized around seven major metres, and each had its own rhythm, movements and aesthetics. Sanskrit metres include those based on a fixed number of syllables per verse, and those based on fixed number of morae per verse.[3]

Extant ancient manuals on Chandas include Pingala's Chandah Sutra, while an example of a medieval Sanskrit prosody manual is Kedara Bhatta's Vrittaratnakara.[4][note 1] The most exhaustive compilations of Sanskrit prosody describe over 600 metres.[7] This is a substantially larger repertoire than in any other metrical tradition.[8]

Etymology

The term Chandas (Sanskrit: छन्दः/छन्दस् chandaḥ/chandas (singular), छन्दांसि chandāṃsi (plural)) means "pleasing, alluring, lovely, delightful or charming", and is based on the root chad which means "esteemed to please, to seem good, feel pleasant and/or something that nourishes, gratifies or is celebrated".[9] The term also refers to "any metrical part of the Vedas or other composition".[9]

History

The hymns of Rigveda include the names of metres, which implies that the discipline of Chandas (Sanskrit prosody) emerged in the 2nd-millennium BCE.[3][note 2] The Brahmanas layer of Vedic literature, composed between 900 BCE and 700 BCE, contains a complete expression of the Chandas.[12] Panini's treatise on Sanskrit grammar distinguishes Chandas as the verses that compose the Vedas, from Bhāṣā (Sanskrit: भाषा), the language spoken by people for everyday communication.[13]

The Vedic Sanskrit texts employ fifteen metres, of which seven are common, and the most frequent are three (8-, 11- and 12-syllable lines).[14] The post-Vedic texts, such as the epics as well as other classical literature of Hinduism, deploy both linear and non-linear metres, many of which are based on syllables and others based on diligently crafted verses based on repeating numbers of morae (matra per foot).[14] About 150 treatises on Sanskrit prosody from the classical era are known, in which some 850 metres were defined and studied by the ancient and medieval Hindu scholars.[14]

The ancient Chandahsutra of Pingala, also called Pingala Sutras, is the oldest Sanskrit prosody text that has survived into the modern age, and it is dated to between 600 and 200 BCE.[15][16] Like all Sutras, the Pingala text is distilled information in the form of aphorisms, and these were widely commented on through the bhashya tradition of Hinduism. Of the various commentaries, those widely studied are the three 6th century texts - Jayadevacchandas, Janashrayi-Chhandovichiti and Ratnamanjusha,[17] the 10th century commentary by Karnataka prosody scholar Halayudha, who also authored the grammatical Shastrakavya and Kavirahasya (literally, The Poet's Secret).[15] Other important historical commentaries include those by the 11th-century Yadavaprakasha and 12th-century Bhaskaracharya, as well as Jayakriti's Chandonushasana, and Chandomanjari by Gangadasa.[15][17]

There is no word without meter,
nor is there any meter without words.

Natya Shastra[18]

Major encyclopedic and arts-related Hindu texts from the 1st and 2nd millennium CE contain sections on Chandas. For example, the chapters 328 to 335 of the Agni Purana,[19][20] chapter 15 of the Natya Shastra, chapter 104 of the Brihat Samhita, the Pramodajanaka section of the Manasollasa contain embedded treatises on Chandas.[21][22][23]

Elements

Nomenclature

A syllable (akshara, अक्षर), in Sanskrit prosody, is a vowel following one or more consonants, or a vowel without any.[24] A short syllable is one ending with one of the short (hrasva) vowels, which are a (अ), i (इ), u (उ), ṛ (ऋ) and ḷ (ऌ). The long syllable is defined as one with one of the long (dirgha) vowels, which are ā (आ), ī (ई), ū (ऊ), ṝ (ॠ), e (ए), ai (ऐ), o (ओ) and au (औ), or one with a short vowel followed by two consonants.[24]

A stanza (śloka) is defined in Sanskrit prosody as a group of four quarters (pādas).[24] Indian prosody studies recognise two types of stanzas. Vritta stanzas are those that have a precise number of syllables, while jati stanzas are those that are based on syllabic time-lengths (morae, matra) and can contain varying numbers of syllables.[24]

The vritta[note 3] stanzas have three forms: Samavritta, where the four quarters are similar in pattern, Ardhasamavritta, where alternate verses have a similar syllabic structure, and Vishamavritta where all four quarters are different.[24] A regular Vritta is defined as that where the total number of syllables in each line is less than or equal to 26 syllables, while irregulars contain more.[24] When the metre is based on morae (matra), a short syllable is counted as one mora, and a long syllable is counted as two morae.[24]

Classification

The metres found in classical Sanskrit poetry are sometimes alternatively classified into three kinds.[26]

  1. Syllabic verse (akṣaravṛtta or aksharavritta): metres depend on the number of syllables in a verse, with relative freedom in the distribution of light and heavy syllables. This style is derived from older Vedic forms, and found in the great epics, the Mahabharata and the Ramayana.
  2. Syllabo-quantitative verse (varṇavṛtta or varnavritta): metres depend on syllable count, but the light-heavy patterns are fixed.
  3. Quantitative verse (mātrāvṛtta or matravritta): metres depend on duration, where each verse-line has a fixed number of morae, usually grouped in sets of four.

Light and heavy syllables

Most of Sanskrit poetry is composed in verses of four lines each. Each quarter-verse is called a pāda (literally, "foot"). Meters of the same length are distinguished by the pattern of laghu ("light") and guru ("heavy") syllables in the pāda. The rules distinguishing laghu and guru syllables are the same as those for non-metric prose, and these are specified in Vedic Shiksha texts that study the principles and structure of sound, such as the Pratishakhyas. Some of the significant rules are:[27][28]

Metre is a veritable ship,
for those who want to go,
across the vast ocean of poetry.

Dandin, 7th century[29]

  1. A syllable is laghu only if its vowel is hrasva ("short") and followed by at most one consonant before another vowel is encountered.
  2. A syllable with an anusvara ('ṃ') or a visarga ('ḥ') is always guru.
  3. All other syllables are guru, either because the vowel is dīrgha ("long"), or because the hrasva vowel is followed by a consonant cluster.
  4. The hrasva vowels are the short monophthongs: 'a', 'i', 'u', 'ṛ' and 'ḷ'
  5. All other vowels are dirgha: 'ā', 'ī', 'ū', 'ṝ', 'e', 'ai', 'o' and 'au'. (Note that, morphologically, the last four vowels are actually the diphthongs 'ai', 'āi', 'au' and 'āu', as the rules of sandhi in Sanskrit make clear.)[30]
  6. Gangadasa Pandita states that the last syllable in each pāda may be considered guru, but a guru at the end of a pāda is never counted as laghu.[note 4][better source needed]

For measurement by mātrā (morae), laghu syllables count as one unit, and guru syllables as two units.[31]

Exceptions

The Indian prosody treatises crafted exceptions to these rules based on their study of sound, which apply in Sanskrit and Prakrit prosody. For example, the last vowel of a verse, regardless of its natural length, may be considered short or long according to the requirement of the metre.[24] Exceptions also apply to special sounds, of the type प्र, ह्र, ब्र and क्र.[24]

Gaṇa

Gaṇa (Sanskrit, "group") is the technical term for the pattern of light and heavy syllables in a sequence of three. It is used in treatises on Sanskrit prosody to describe metres, according to a method first propounded in Pingala's chandahsutra. Pingala organizes the metres using two units:[32]

  • l: a "light" syllable (L), called laghu
  • g: a "heavy" syllable (H), called guru
Metrical feet and accents
Disyllables
◡ ◡pyrrhic, dibrach
◡ –iamb
– ◡trochee, choree
– –spondee
Trisyllables
◡ ◡ ◡tribrach
– ◡ ◡dactyl
◡ – ◡amphibrach
◡ ◡ –anapaest, antidactylus
◡ – –bacchius
– – ◡antibacchius
– ◡ –cretic, amphimacer
– – –molossus
See main article for tetrasyllables.

Pingala's method described any metre as a sequence of gaṇas, or triplets of syllables (trisyllabic feet), plus the excess, if any, as single units. There being eight possible patterns of light and heavy syllables in a sequence of three, Pingala associated a letter, allowing the metre to be described compactly as an acronym.[33] Each of these has its Greek prosody equivalent as listed below.

The Ganas (गण, class)[34][35]
Sanskrit
prosody
Weight Symbol Style Greek
equivalent
Na-gaṇa L-L-L u u u
da da da
Tribrach
Ma-gaṇa H-H-H — — —
DUM DUM DUM
Molossus
Ja-gaṇa L-H-L u — u
da DUM da
Amphibrach
Ra-gaṇa H-L-H — u —
DUM da DUM
Cretic
Bha-gaṇa H-L-L — u u
DUM da da
Dactyl
Sa-gaṇa L-L-H u u —
da da DUM
Anapaest
Ya-gaṇa L-H-H u — —
da DUM DUM
Bacchius
Ta-gaṇa H-H-L — — u
DUM DUM da
Antibacchius

Pingala's order of the gaṇas, viz. m-y-r-s-t-j-bh-n, corresponds to a standard enumeration in binary, when the three syllables in each gaṇa are read right-to-left with H=0 and L=1.

A mnemonic

The word yamātārājabhānasalagāḥ (or yamātārājabhānasalagaṃ) is a mnemonic for Pingala's gaṇas, developed by ancient commentators, using the vowels "a" and "ā" for light and heavy syllables respectively with the letters of his scheme. In the form without a grammatical ending, yamātārājabhānasalagā is self-descriptive, where the structure of each gaṇa is shown by its own syllable and the two following it:[36]

  • ya-gaṇa: ya-mā-tā = L-H-H
  • ma-gaṇa: mā-tā-rā = H-H-H
  • ta-gaṇa: tā-rā-ja = H-H-L
  • ra-gaṇa: rā-ja-bhā = H-L-H
  • ja-gaṇa: ja-bhā-na = L-H-L
  • bha-gaṇa: bhā-na-sa = H-L-L
  • na-gaṇa: na-sa-la = L-L-L
  • sa-gaṇa: sa-la-gā = L-L-H

The mnemonic also encodes the light "la" and heavy "gā" unit syllables of the full scheme.

The truncated version obtained by dropping the last two syllables, viz. yamātārājabhānasa, can be read cyclically (i.e., wrapping around to the front). It is an example of a De Bruijn sequence.[37]

Comparison with Greek and Latin prosody

Sanskrit prosody shares similarities with Greek and Latin prosody. For example, in all three, rhythm is determined from the amount of time needed to pronounce a syllable, and not on stress (quantitative metre).[38][39] Each eight-syllable line, for instance in the Rigveda, is approximately equivalent to the Greek iambic dimeter.[25] The sacred Gayatri metre of the Hindus consists of three of such iambic dimeter lines, and this embedded metre alone is at the heart of about 25% of the entire Rigveda.[25]

The gaṇas are, however, not the same as the foot in Greek prosody. The metrical unit in Sanskrit prosody is the verse (line, pada), while in Greek prosody it is the foot.[40] Sanskrit prosody allows elasticity similar to Latin Saturnian verse, uncustomary in Greek prosody.[40] The principles of both Sanskrit and Greek prosody probably go back to Proto-Indo-European times, because similar principles are found in ancient Persian, Italian, Celtic, and Slavonic branches of Indo-European.[41]

The seven birds: major Sanskrit metres

The Vedic Sanskrit prosody included both linear and non-linear systems.[42] The field of Chandas was organized around seven major metres, state Annette Wilke and Oliver Moebus, called the "seven birds" or "seven mouths of Brihaspati",[note 5] and each had its own rhythm, movements and aesthetics. The system mapped a non-linear structure (aperiodicity) into a four verse polymorphic linear sequence.[42]

The seven major ancient Sanskrit metres are the three 8-syllable Gāyatrī, the four 8-syllable Anustubh, the four 11-syllable Tristubh, the four 12-syllable Jagati, and the mixed pāda metres named Ushnih, Brihati and Pankti.

गायत्रेण प्रति मिमीते अर्कमर्केण साम त्रैष्टुभेन वाकम् ।
वाकेन वाकं द्विपदा चतुष्पदाक्षरेण मिमते सप्त वाणीः ॥२४॥

gāyatréṇa práti mimīte arkám
arkéṇa sā́ma traíṣṭubhena vākám
vākéna vākáṃ dvipádā cátuṣpadā
akṣáreṇa mimate saptá vā́ṇīḥ

With the Gayatri, he measures a song; with the song – a chant; with the Tristubh – a recited stanza;
With the stanza of two feet and four feet – a hymn; with the syllable they measure the seven voices. ॥24॥

— Rigveda 1.164.24, Translated by Tatyana J. Elizarenkova[44]
The major ancient metres in Sanskrit prosody[45][46]
Meter Structure Mapped
Sequence[45]
Varieties[47] Usage[48]
Gayatri 24 syllables;
3 verses of 8 syllables
6x4 11 Common in Vedic texts
Example: Rigveda 7.1.1-30, 8.2.14[49]
Ushnih 28 syllables;
2 verses of 8;
1 of 12 syllables
7x4 8 Vedas, not common
Example: Rigveda 1.8.23-26[50]
Anushtubh 32 syllables;
4 verses of 8 syllables
8x4 12 Most frequent in post-Vedic Sanskrit metrical literature; embedded in the Bhagavad Gita, the Mahabharata, the Ramayana, the Puranas, Smritis and scientific treatises
Example: Rigveda 8.69.7-16, 10.136.7[51]
Brihati 36 syllables;
2 verses of 8;
1 verse of 12;
1 verse of 8 syllables
9x4 12 Vedas, rare
Example: Rigveda 5.1.36, 3.9.1-8[52]
Pankti 40 syllables;
5 verses of 8 syllables
10x4 14 Uncommon, found with Tristubh
Example: Rigveda 1.191.10-12[53]
Tristubh 44 syllables;
4 verses of 11 syllables
11x4 22 Second in frequency in post-Vedic Sanskrit metric literature, dramas, plays, parts of the Mahabharata, major 1st-millennium Kavyas
Example: Rigveda 4.50.4, 7.3.1-12[54]
Jagati 48 syllables;
4 verses of 12 syllables
12x4 30 Third most common, typically alternates with Tristubh in the same text, also found in separate cantos.
Example: Rigveda 1.51.13, 9.110.4-12[55]

Other syllable-based metres

Beyond these seven metres, ancient and medieval era Sanskrit scholars developed numerous other syllable-based metres (Akshara-chandas). Examples include Atijagati (13x4, in 16 varieties), Shakvari (14x4, in 20 varieties), Atishakvari (15x4, in 18 varieties), Ashti (16x4, in 12 varieties), Atyashti (17x4, in 17 varieties), Dhriti (18x4, in 17 varieties), Atidhriti (19x4, in 13 varieties), Kriti (20x4, in 4 varieties) and so on.[56][57]

Morae-based metres

In addition to the syllable-based metres, Hindu scholars in their prosody studies, developed Gana-chandas or Gana-vritta, that is metres based on mātrās (morae, instants).[58][57][59] The metric foot in these are designed from laghu (short) morae or their equivalents. Sixteen classes of these instants-based metres are enumerated in Sanskrit prosody, each class has sixteen sub-species. Examples include Arya, Udgiti, Upagiti, Giti and Aryagiti.[60] This style of composition is less common than syllable-based metric texts, but found in important texts of Hindu philosophy, drama, lyrical works and Prakrit poetry.[14][61] The entire Samkhyakarika text of the Samkhya school of Hindu philosophy is composed in Arya metre, as are many chapters in the mathematical treatises of Aryabhata, and some texts of Kalidasa.[60][62]

Hybrid metres

Indian scholars also developed a hybrid class of Sanskrit metres, which combined features of the syllable-based metres and morae-based metres.[63][57] These were called Matra-chandas. Examples of this group of metres include Vaitaliya, Matrasamaka and Gityarya.[64] The Hindu texts Kirātārjunīya and Naishadha Charita, for instance, feature complete cantos that are entirely crafted in the Vaitaliya metre.[63][65]

Metres as tools for literary architecture

The Vedic texts, and later Sanskrit literature, were composed in a manner where a change in metres was an embedded code to inform the reciter and audience that it marks the end of a section or chapter.[46] Each section or chapter of these texts uses identical metres, rhythmically presenting their ideas and making it easier to remember, recall and check for accuracy.[46]

Similarly, the authors of Sanskrit hymns used metres as tools of literary architecture, wherein they coded a hymn's end by frequently using a verse of a metre different from that used in the hymn's body.[46] However, they never used Gayatri metre to end a hymn or composition, possibly because it enjoyed a special level of reverence in Hindu texts.[46] In general, all metres were sacred and the Vedic chants and hymns attribute the perfection and beauty of the metres to divine origins, referring to them as mythological characters or equivalent to gods.[46]

Use of metre to identify corrupt texts

The verse perfection in the Vedic texts, verse Upanishads[note 6] and Smriti texts has led some Indologists from the 19th century onwards to identify suspected portions of texts where a line or sections are off the expected metre.[66][67]

Some editors have controversially used this metri causa principle to emend Sanskrit verses, assuming that their creative conjectural rewriting with similar-sounding words will restore the metre.[66] This practice has been criticized, states Patrick Olivelle, because such modern corrections may be changing the meaning, adding to corruption, and imposing the modern pronunciation of words on ancient times when the same syllable or morae may have been pronounced differently.[66][67]

Large and significant changes in metre, wherein the metre of succeeding sections return to earlier sections, are sometimes thought to be an indication of later interpolations and insertion of text into a Sanskrit manuscript, or that the text is a compilation of works of different authors and time periods.[68][69][70] However, some metres are easy to preserve and a consistent metre does not mean an authentic manuscript. This practice has also been questioned when applied to certain texts such as ancient and medieval era Buddhist manuscripts, in view of the fact that this may reflect versatility of the author or changing styles over author's lifetime.[71]

Texts

Chandah Sutra

When halved, (record) two.
When unity (is subtracted, record) sunya.
When sunya, (multiply by) two.
When halved, multiply (by) itself (squared).

Chandah Sutra 8.28-31
6th-2nd century BCE[72][73]

The Chandah Sutra is also known as Chandah sastra, or Pingala Sutras after its author Pingala. It is the oldest Hindu treatise on prosody to have survived into the modern era.[15][16] This text is structured in 8 books, with a cumulative total of 310 sutras.[74] It is a collection of aphorisms predominantly focussed on the art of poetic metres, and presents some mathematics in the service of music.[72][75]

Bhashyas

There have been numerous Bhashyas (commentaries) of the Chanda sastra over centuries. These are:

Chandoratnakara: The 11th-century bhashya on Pingala's Chandah Sutra by Ratnakarashanti, called Chandoratnakara, added new ideas to Prakrit poetry, and this was influential to prosody in Nepal, and to the Buddhist prosody culture in Tibet where the field was also known as chandas or sdeb sbyor.[43]

Chandahsutrabhasyaraja: The 18th century commentary of the Chandra Sastra by Bhaskararaya.

Usage

Post-vedic poetry, epics

The Hindu epics and the post-Vedic classical Sanskrit poetry is typically structured as quatrains of four pādas (lines), with the metrical structure of each pāda completely specified. In some cases, pairs of pādas may be scanned together as the hemistichs of a couplet.[76] This is typical for the shloka used in epic. It is then normal for the pādas comprising a pair to have different structures, to complement each other aesthetically. In other metres, the four pādas of a stanza have the same structure.

The Anushtubh Vedic metre became the most popular in classical and post-classical Sanskrit works.[48] It is octosyllabic, like the Gayatri metre that is sacred to the Hindus. The Anushtubh is present in Vedic texts, but its presence is minor, and Trishtubh and Gayatri metres dominate in the Rigveda for example.[77] A dominating presence of the Anushtubh metre in a text is a marker that the text is likely post-Vedic.[78]

The Mahabharata, for example, features many verse metres in its chapters, but an overwhelming proportion of the stanzas, 95% are shlokas of the anustubh type, and most of the rest are tristubhs.[79]

Chandas and mathematics

The attempt to identify the most pleasing sounds and perfect compositions led ancient Indian scholars to study permutations and combinatorial methods of enumerating musical metres.[72] The Pingala Sutras includes a discussion of binary system rules to calculate permutations of Vedic metres.[75][80][81] Pingala, and more particularly the classical Sanskrit prosody period scholars, developed the art of Matrameru, which is the field of counting sequences such as 0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8 and so on (Fibonacci numbers), in their prosody studies.[75][80][82]

 
The first five rows of the Pascal's triangle, also called the Halayudha's triangle.[83] Halayudha discusses this and more in his Sanskrit prosody bhashya on Pingala.

The 10th-century Halāyudha's commentary on Pingala Sutras, developed meruprastāra, which mirrors the Pascal's triangle in the west, and now also called as the Halayudha's triangle in books on mathematics.[75][83] The 11th-century Ratnakarashanti's Chandoratnakara describes algorithms to enumerate binomial combinations of metres through pratyaya. For a given class (length), the six pratyaya were:[84]

  • prastāra, the "table of arrangement": a procedure for enumerating (arranging in a table) all metres of the given length,
  • naṣṭa: a procedure for finding a metre given its position in the table (without constructing the whole table),
  • uddiṣṭa: a procedure for finding the position in the table of a given metre (without constructing the whole table),
  • laghukriyā or lagakriyā: calculation of the number of metres in the table containing a given number of laghu (or guru) syllables,
  • saṃkhyā: calculation of the total number of metres in the table,
  • adhvan: calculation of the space needed to write down the prastāra table of a given class (length).

Some authors also considered, for a given metre, (A) the number of guru syllables, (B) the number of laghu syllables, (C) the total number of syllables, and (D) the total number of mātras, giving expressions for each of these in terms of any two of the other three. (The basic relations being that C=A+B and D=2A+B.)[85]

Influence

In India

Song and language

Children understand song,
beasts do too, and even snakes.
But the sweetness of literature,
does the Great God himself truly understand.

Rajatarangini[86]

The Chandas are considered one of the five categories of literary knowledge in Hindu traditions. The other four, according to Sheldon Pollock, are Gunas or expression forms, Riti, Marga or the ways or styles of writing, Alankara or tropology, and Rasa, Bhava or aesthetic moods and feelings.[86]

The Chandas are revered in Hindu texts for their perfection and resonance, with the Gayatri metre treated as the most refined and sacred, and one that continues to be part of modern Hindu culture as part of Yoga and hymns of meditation at sunrise.[87]

Outside India

The Sanskrit Chanda has influenced southeast Asian prosody and poetry, such as Thai Chan (Thai: ฉันท์).[88] Its influence, as evidenced in the 14th-century Thai texts such as the Mahachat kham luang, is thought to have come either through Cambodia or Sri Lanka.[88] Evidence of the influence of Sanskrit prosody in 6th-century Chinese literature is found in the works of Shen Yueh and his followers, probably introduced through Buddhist monks who visited India.[89]

See also

Notes

  1. ^ For a review of other Sanskrit prosody texts, see Moriz Winternitz's History of Indian Literature,[5] and HD Velankar's Jayadaman.[6]
  2. ^ See, for example, Rigveda hymns 1.164, 2.4, 4.58, 5.29, 8.38, 9.102 and 9.103;[10] and 10.130[11]
  3. ^ Vritta, literally "turn", is rooted in vrit, Latin vert-ere, thereby etymologically to versus of Latin and "verse" of Indo-European languages.[25]
  4. ^ सानुस्वारश्च दीर्घश्च विसर्गी च गुरुर्भवेत् । वर्णः संयोगपूर्वश्च तथा पादान्तगोऽपि वा ॥
  5. ^ These seven metres are also the names of the seven horses of Hindu Sun god (Aditya or Surya), mythically symbolic for removing darkness and bringing the light of knowledge.[43] These are mentioned in Surya verses of the Ashvini Shastra portion of Aitareya Brahmana.
  6. ^ Kena, Katha, Isha, Shvetashvatara and Mundaka Upanishads are examples of verse-style ancient Upanishads.

References

  1. ^ a b c James Lochtefeld (2002), "Chandas" in The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Vol. 1: A-M, Rosen Publishing, ISBN 0-8239-2287-1, page 140
  2. ^ Moriz Winternitz (1988). A History of Indian Literature: Buddhist literature and Jaina literature. Motilal Banarsidass. p. 577. ISBN 978-81-208-0265-0.
  3. ^ a b Peter Scharf (2013). Keith Allan (ed.). The Oxford Handbook of the History of Linguistics. Oxford University Press. pp. 228–234. ISBN 978-0-19-164344-6.
  4. ^ Deo 2007, pp. 6-7 section 2.2.
  5. ^ Maurice Winternitz 1963, pp. 1–301, particularly 5-35.
  6. ^ HD Velankar (1949), Jayadāman (a collection of ancient texts on Sanskrit prosody and a classified list of Sanskrit metres with an alphabetical index), OCLC 174178314, Haritosha;
    HD Velankar (1949), Prosodial practice of Sanskrit poets, Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, Volume 24-25, pages 49-92.
  7. ^ Deo 2007, pp. 3, 6 section 2.2.
  8. ^ Deo 2007, pp. 3-4 section 1.3.
  9. ^ a b Monier Monier-Williams (1923). A Sanskrit-English Dictionary. Oxford University Press. p. 332.
  10. ^ Origin and Development of Sanskrit Metrics, Arati Mitra (1989), The Asiatic Society, pages 4-6 with footnotes
  11. ^ William K. Mahony (1998). The Artful Universe: An Introduction to the Vedic Religious Imagination. State University of New York Press. pp. 110–111. ISBN 978-0-7914-3579-3.
  12. ^ Guy L. Beck 1995, pp. 40–41.
  13. ^ Sheldon Pollock 2006, pp. 46, 268–269.
  14. ^ a b c d Alex Preminger; Frank J. Warnke; O. B. Hardison Jr. (2015). Princeton Encyclopedia of Poetry and Poetics. Princeton University Press. pp. 394–395. ISBN 978-1-4008-7293-0.
  15. ^ a b c d Sheldon Pollock 2006, p. 370.
  16. ^ a b B.A. Pingle 1898, pp. 238–241.
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  21. ^ Sheldon Pollock 2006, pp. 184–188.
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  26. ^ Deo 2007, p. 5.
  27. ^ Coulson, p.21
  28. ^ Muller & Macdonell, Appendix II
  29. ^ Maurice Winternitz 1963, p. 13.
  30. ^ Coulson, p.6
  31. ^ Muller and Macdonell, loc.cit.
  32. ^ Pingala CS 1.9-10, in order
  33. ^ Pingala, chandaḥśāstra, 1.1-10
  34. ^ Horace Hayman Wilson 1841, pp. 415–416.
  35. ^ Pingala CS, 1.1-8, in order
  36. ^ Coulson, p.253ff
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  41. ^ Stephen Dobyns (2011). Next Word, Better Word: The Craft of Writing Poetry. Macmillan. pp. 248–249. ISBN 978-0-230-62180-0.
  42. ^ a b Annette Wilke & Oliver Moebus 2011, pp. 391-392 with footnotes.
  43. ^ a b Jamgon Kongtrul Lodro Taye; Koṅ-sprul Blo-gros-mthaʼ-yas; Gyurme Dorje (2012). The Treasury of Knowledge: Indo-Tibetan classical learning and Buddhist phenomenology. Book six, parts one and two. Shambhala Publications. pp. 26–28. ISBN 978-1-55939-389-8.
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Bibliography

  • Arnold, Edward Vernon (1905). Vedic Metre in its historical development. Cambridge University Press (Reprint 2009). ISBN 978-1113224446.
  • Guy L. Beck (1995). Sonic Theology: Hinduism and Sacred Sound. Motilal Banarsidass. ISBN 978-81-208-1261-1.
  • Brown, Charles Philip (1869). Sanskrit prosody and numerical symbols explained. London: Trübner & Co.
  • Deo, Ashwini. S (2007). "The metrical organization of Classical Sanskrit verse (Note: the url and the journal number the pages differently; the version in the journal starts at page 63)" (PDF). Journal of Linguistics. Cambridge University Press. 43 (1). doi:10.1017/s0022226706004452.
  • Colebrooke, H.T. (1873). "On Sanskrit and Prakrit Poetry". Miscellaneous Essays. Vol. 2. London: Trübner and Co. pp. 57–146.
  • Coulson, Michael (1976). Teach Yourself Sanskrit. Teach Yourself Books. Hodder and Stoughton.
  • Hahn, Michael (1982). Ratnākaraśānti's Chandoratnākara. Kathmandu: Nepal Research Centre.
  • Hopkins, E.W. (1901). "Epic versification". The Great Epic of India. New York: C. Scribner's Sons. LCCN
  • Friedrich Max Müller; Arthur Anthony Macdonell (1886). A Sanskrit grammar for beginners (2 ed.). Longmans, Green. p. 178.
  • Patwardhan, M. (1937). Chandoracana. Bombay: Karnataka Publishing House.
  • B.A. Pingle (1898). Indian Music. Education Society's Press.
  • Sheldon Pollock (2006). The Language of the Gods in the World of Men: Sanskrit, Culture, and Power in Premodern India. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-93202-9.
  • Rocher, Ludo (1986), The Puranas, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, ISBN 978-3447025225
  • Velankar, H.D. (1949). Jayadaman: a collection of ancient texts on Sanskrit prosody and a classical list of Sanskrit metres with an alphabetical index. Bombay: Haritoṣamala.
  • Weber, Albrecht (1863). Indische Studien. Vol. 8. Leipzig.
  • Annette Wilke; Oliver Moebus (2011). Sound and Communication: An Aesthetic Cultural History of Sanskrit Hinduism. Walter de Gruyter. ISBN 978-3-11-018159-3.
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  • Maurice Winternitz (1963). History of Indian Literature. Motilal Banarsidass. ISBN 978-81-208-0056-4.

External links

  • Prosody (chandaḥśāstra), Chapter XV of the Nāṭyaśāstra
  • Manuscripts of Pingala Sutra, Vritta Ratnakara and Shrutabodha, University of Kentucky (2004), Includes poetic metre marked sections of Buddha Charita
  • Vrittaratnakara by Kedara Bhatta, and Chandomanjari by Pandit Gangadasa, Manuscripts on Sanskrit Prosody, Compiled with commentary by Vidyasagara (1887), Harvard University Archives / Hathi Trust, University of Wisconsin Archive (Sanskrit), Vrittaratnakara only (Hindi), Vrittaratnakara only (Tamil)
  • Sanskrit Prosody and Numerical Symbols Explained, Charles P Brown, Trubner & Co.
  • A list of 1,300+ metres in post classical Sanskrit prosody, Universität Heidelberg, Germany
  • Sanskrit metre recognizer (This is an incomplete test version.)
  • Recordings of recitation: H. V. Nagaraja Rao (ORI, Mysore), Ashwini Deo, Ram Karan Sharma, Arvind Kolhatkar
  • A series of examples of the recitation of different Sanskrit metres by Dr R Ganesh
  • Intensive Course on Sanskrit Prosody held at CEAS, Bucharest, by Shreenand L. Bapat [1]
  • Introduction to Sanskrit prosody LearnSanskrit.Org
  • Michael Hahn: "A brief introduction into the Indian metrical system for the use of students" (pdf)

sanskrit, prosody, chanda, redirects, here, other, uses, chanda, disambiguation, chandas, redirects, here, vedic, poetry, vedic, metre, kannada, telugu, poetry, chandas, poetry, quatrain, poetic, form, north, india, pakistan, chhand, typeface, chandas, typefac. Chanda redirects here For other uses see Chanda disambiguation Chandas redirects here For Vedic poetry see Vedic metre For the Kannada and Telugu poetry see Chandas poetry For the quatrain poetic form of North India and Pakistan see Chhand For the typeface see Chandas typeface Sanskrit prosody or Chandas refers to one of the six Vedangas or limbs of Vedic studies 1 It is the study of poetic metres and verse in Sanskrit 1 This field of study was central to the composition of the Vedas the scriptural canons of Hinduism so central that some later Hindu and Buddhist texts refer to the Vedas as Chandas 1 2 The Chandas as developed by the Vedic schools were organized around seven major metres and each had its own rhythm movements and aesthetics Sanskrit metres include those based on a fixed number of syllables per verse and those based on fixed number of morae per verse 3 Extant ancient manuals on Chandas include Pingala s Chandah Sutra while an example of a medieval Sanskrit prosody manual is Kedara Bhatta s Vrittaratnakara 4 note 1 The most exhaustive compilations of Sanskrit prosody describe over 600 metres 7 This is a substantially larger repertoire than in any other metrical tradition 8 Contents 1 Etymology 2 History 3 Elements 3 1 Nomenclature 3 2 Classification 3 3 Light and heavy syllables 3 3 1 Exceptions 3 4 Gaṇa 3 4 1 A mnemonic 3 4 2 Comparison with Greek and Latin prosody 4 The seven birds major Sanskrit metres 4 1 Other syllable based metres 4 2 Morae based metres 4 3 Hybrid metres 5 Metres as tools for literary architecture 5 1 Use of metre to identify corrupt texts 6 Texts 6 1 Chandah Sutra 6 2 Bhashyas 7 Usage 7 1 Post vedic poetry epics 7 2 Chandas and mathematics 8 Influence 8 1 In India 8 2 Outside India 9 See also 10 Notes 11 References 11 1 Bibliography 12 External linksEtymology EditThe term Chandas Sanskrit छन द छन दस chandaḥ chandas singular छन द स chandaṃsi plural means pleasing alluring lovely delightful or charming and is based on the root chad which means esteemed to please to seem good feel pleasant and or something that nourishes gratifies or is celebrated 9 The term also refers to any metrical part of the Vedas or other composition 9 History EditThe hymns of Rigveda include the names of metres which implies that the discipline of Chandas Sanskrit prosody emerged in the 2nd millennium BCE 3 note 2 The Brahmanas layer of Vedic literature composed between 900 BCE and 700 BCE contains a complete expression of the Chandas 12 Panini s treatise on Sanskrit grammar distinguishes Chandas as the verses that compose the Vedas from Bhaṣa Sanskrit भ ष the language spoken by people for everyday communication 13 The Vedic Sanskrit texts employ fifteen metres of which seven are common and the most frequent are three 8 11 and 12 syllable lines 14 The post Vedic texts such as the epics as well as other classical literature of Hinduism deploy both linear and non linear metres many of which are based on syllables and others based on diligently crafted verses based on repeating numbers of morae matra per foot 14 About 150 treatises on Sanskrit prosody from the classical era are known in which some 850 metres were defined and studied by the ancient and medieval Hindu scholars 14 The ancient Chandahsutra of Pingala also called Pingala Sutras is the oldest Sanskrit prosody text that has survived into the modern age and it is dated to between 600 and 200 BCE 15 16 Like all Sutras the Pingala text is distilled information in the form of aphorisms and these were widely commented on through the bhashya tradition of Hinduism Of the various commentaries those widely studied are the three 6th century texts Jayadevacchandas Janashrayi Chhandovichiti and Ratnamanjusha 17 the 10th century commentary by Karnataka prosody scholar Halayudha who also authored the grammatical Shastrakavya and Kavirahasya literally The Poet s Secret 15 Other important historical commentaries include those by the 11th century Yadavaprakasha and 12th century Bhaskaracharya as well as Jayakriti s Chandonushasana and Chandomanjari by Gangadasa 15 17 There is no word without meter nor is there any meter without words Natya Shastra 18 Major encyclopedic and arts related Hindu texts from the 1st and 2nd millennium CE contain sections on Chandas For example the chapters 328 to 335 of the Agni Purana 19 20 chapter 15 of the Natya Shastra chapter 104 of the Brihat Samhita the Pramodajanaka section of the Manasollasa contain embedded treatises on Chandas 21 22 23 Elements EditNomenclature Edit A syllable akshara अक षर in Sanskrit prosody is a vowel following one or more consonants or a vowel without any 24 A short syllable is one ending with one of the short hrasva vowels which are a अ i इ u उ ṛ ऋ and ḷ ऌ The long syllable is defined as one with one of the long dirgha vowels which are a आ i ई u ऊ ṝ ॠ e ए ai ऐ o ओ and au औ or one with a short vowel followed by two consonants 24 A stanza sloka is defined in Sanskrit prosody as a group of four quarters padas 24 Indian prosody studies recognise two types of stanzas Vritta stanzas are those that have a precise number of syllables while jati stanzas are those that are based on syllabic time lengths morae matra and can contain varying numbers of syllables 24 The vritta note 3 stanzas have three forms Samavritta where the four quarters are similar in pattern Ardhasamavritta where alternate verses have a similar syllabic structure and Vishamavritta where all four quarters are different 24 A regular Vritta is defined as that where the total number of syllables in each line is less than or equal to 26 syllables while irregulars contain more 24 When the metre is based on morae matra a short syllable is counted as one mora and a long syllable is counted as two morae 24 Classification Edit The metres found in classical Sanskrit poetry are sometimes alternatively classified into three kinds 26 Syllabic verse akṣaravṛtta or aksharavritta metres depend on the number of syllables in a verse with relative freedom in the distribution of light and heavy syllables This style is derived from older Vedic forms and found in the great epics the Mahabharata and the Ramayana Syllabo quantitative verse varṇavṛtta or varnavritta metres depend on syllable count but the light heavy patterns are fixed Quantitative verse matravṛtta or matravritta metres depend on duration where each verse line has a fixed number of morae usually grouped in sets of four Light and heavy syllables Edit Most of Sanskrit poetry is composed in verses of four lines each Each quarter verse is called a pada literally foot Meters of the same length are distinguished by the pattern of laghu light and guru heavy syllables in the pada The rules distinguishing laghu and guru syllables are the same as those for non metric prose and these are specified in Vedic Shiksha texts that study the principles and structure of sound such as the Pratishakhyas Some of the significant rules are 27 28 Metre is a veritable ship for those who want to go across the vast ocean of poetry Dandin 7th century 29 A syllable is laghu only if its vowel is hrasva short and followed by at most one consonant before another vowel is encountered A syllable with an anusvara ṃ or a visarga ḥ is always guru All other syllables are guru either because the vowel is dirgha long or because the hrasva vowel is followed by a consonant cluster The hrasva vowels are the short monophthongs a i u ṛ and ḷ All other vowels are dirgha a i u ṝ e ai o and au Note that morphologically the last four vowels are actually the diphthongs ai ai au and au as the rules of sandhi in Sanskrit make clear 30 Gangadasa Pandita states that the last syllable in each pada may be considered guru but a guru at the end of a pada is never counted as laghu note 4 better source needed For measurement by matra morae laghu syllables count as one unit and guru syllables as two units 31 Exceptions Edit The Indian prosody treatises crafted exceptions to these rules based on their study of sound which apply in Sanskrit and Prakrit prosody For example the last vowel of a verse regardless of its natural length may be considered short or long according to the requirement of the metre 24 Exceptions also apply to special sounds of the type प र ह र ब र and क र 24 Gaṇa Edit Gaṇa Sanskrit group is the technical term for the pattern of light and heavy syllables in a sequence of three It is used in treatises on Sanskrit prosody to describe metres according to a method first propounded in Pingala s chandahsutra Pingala organizes the metres using two units 32 l a light syllable L called laghu g a heavy syllable H called guruMetrical feet and accentsDisyllables pyrrhic dibrach iamb trochee choree spondeeTrisyllables tribrach dactyl amphibrach anapaest antidactylus bacchius antibacchius cretic amphimacer molossusSee main article for tetrasyllables vtePingala s method described any metre as a sequence of gaṇas or triplets of syllables trisyllabic feet plus the excess if any as single units There being eight possible patterns of light and heavy syllables in a sequence of three Pingala associated a letter allowing the metre to be described compactly as an acronym 33 Each of these has its Greek prosody equivalent as listed below The Ganas गण class 34 35 Sanskritprosody Weight Symbol Style GreekequivalentNa gaṇa L L L u u u da da da TribrachMa gaṇa H H H DUM DUM DUM MolossusJa gaṇa L H L u u da DUM da AmphibrachRa gaṇa H L H u DUM da DUM CreticBha gaṇa H L L u u DUM da da DactylSa gaṇa L L H u u da da DUM AnapaestYa gaṇa L H H u da DUM DUM BacchiusTa gaṇa H H L u DUM DUM da AntibacchiusPingala s order of the gaṇas viz m y r s t j bh n corresponds to a standard enumeration in binary when the three syllables in each gaṇa are read right to left with H 0 and L 1 A mnemonic Edit The word yamatarajabhanasalagaḥ or yamatarajabhanasalagaṃ is a mnemonic for Pingala s gaṇas developed by ancient commentators using the vowels a and a for light and heavy syllables respectively with the letters of his scheme In the form without a grammatical ending yamatarajabhanasalaga is self descriptive where the structure of each gaṇa is shown by its own syllable and the two following it 36 ya gaṇa ya ma ta L H H ma gaṇa ma ta ra H H H ta gaṇa ta ra ja H H L ra gaṇa ra ja bha H L H ja gaṇa ja bha na L H L bha gaṇa bha na sa H L L na gaṇa na sa la L L L sa gaṇa sa la ga L L HThe mnemonic also encodes the light la and heavy ga unit syllables of the full scheme The truncated version obtained by dropping the last two syllables viz yamatarajabhanasa can be read cyclically i e wrapping around to the front It is an example of a De Bruijn sequence 37 Comparison with Greek and Latin prosody Edit Sanskrit prosody shares similarities with Greek and Latin prosody For example in all three rhythm is determined from the amount of time needed to pronounce a syllable and not on stress quantitative metre 38 39 Each eight syllable line for instance in the Rigveda is approximately equivalent to the Greek iambic dimeter 25 The sacred Gayatri metre of the Hindus consists of three of such iambic dimeter lines and this embedded metre alone is at the heart of about 25 of the entire Rigveda 25 The gaṇas are however not the same as the foot in Greek prosody The metrical unit in Sanskrit prosody is the verse line pada while in Greek prosody it is the foot 40 Sanskrit prosody allows elasticity similar to Latin Saturnian verse uncustomary in Greek prosody 40 The principles of both Sanskrit and Greek prosody probably go back to Proto Indo European times because similar principles are found in ancient Persian Italian Celtic and Slavonic branches of Indo European 41 The seven birds major Sanskrit metres EditThe Vedic Sanskrit prosody included both linear and non linear systems 42 The field of Chandas was organized around seven major metres state Annette Wilke and Oliver Moebus called the seven birds or seven mouths of Brihaspati note 5 and each had its own rhythm movements and aesthetics The system mapped a non linear structure aperiodicity into a four verse polymorphic linear sequence 42 The seven major ancient Sanskrit metres are the three 8 syllable Gayatri the four 8 syllable Anustubh the four 11 syllable Tristubh the four 12 syllable Jagati and the mixed pada metres named Ushnih Brihati and Pankti ग यत र ण प रत म म त अर कमर क ण स म त र ष ट भ न व कम व क न व क द व पद चत ष पद क षर ण म मत सप त व ण २४ gayatreṇa prati mimite arkam arkeṇa sa ma traiṣṭubhena vakam vakena vakaṃ dvipada catuṣpada akṣareṇa mimate sapta va ṇiḥ With the Gayatri he measures a song with the song a chant with the Tristubh a recited stanza With the stanza of two feet and four feet a hymn with the syllable they measure the seven voices 24 Rigveda 1 164 24 Translated by Tatyana J Elizarenkova 44 The major ancient metres in Sanskrit prosody 45 46 Meter Structure MappedSequence 45 Varieties 47 Usage 48 Gayatri 24 syllables 3 verses of 8 syllables 6x4 11 Common in Vedic textsExample Rigveda 7 1 1 30 8 2 14 49 Ushnih 28 syllables 2 verses of 8 1 of 12 syllables 7x4 8 Vedas not commonExample Rigveda 1 8 23 26 50 Anushtubh 32 syllables 4 verses of 8 syllables 8x4 12 Most frequent in post Vedic Sanskrit metrical literature embedded in the Bhagavad Gita the Mahabharata the Ramayana the Puranas Smritis and scientific treatisesExample Rigveda 8 69 7 16 10 136 7 51 Brihati 36 syllables 2 verses of 8 1 verse of 12 1 verse of 8 syllables 9x4 12 Vedas rareExample Rigveda 5 1 36 3 9 1 8 52 Pankti 40 syllables 5 verses of 8 syllables 10x4 14 Uncommon found with TristubhExample Rigveda 1 191 10 12 53 Tristubh 44 syllables 4 verses of 11 syllables 11x4 22 Second in frequency in post Vedic Sanskrit metric literature dramas plays parts of the Mahabharata major 1st millennium KavyasExample Rigveda 4 50 4 7 3 1 12 54 Jagati 48 syllables 4 verses of 12 syllables 12x4 30 Third most common typically alternates with Tristubh in the same text also found in separate cantos Example Rigveda 1 51 13 9 110 4 12 55 Other syllable based metres Edit Beyond these seven metres ancient and medieval era Sanskrit scholars developed numerous other syllable based metres Akshara chandas Examples include Atijagati 13x4 in 16 varieties Shakvari 14x4 in 20 varieties Atishakvari 15x4 in 18 varieties Ashti 16x4 in 12 varieties Atyashti 17x4 in 17 varieties Dhriti 18x4 in 17 varieties Atidhriti 19x4 in 13 varieties Kriti 20x4 in 4 varieties and so on 56 57 Morae based metres Edit See also Arya metre and Matrika metre In addition to the syllable based metres Hindu scholars in their prosody studies developed Gana chandas or Gana vritta that is metres based on matras morae instants 58 57 59 The metric foot in these are designed from laghu short morae or their equivalents Sixteen classes of these instants based metres are enumerated in Sanskrit prosody each class has sixteen sub species Examples include Arya Udgiti Upagiti Giti and Aryagiti 60 This style of composition is less common than syllable based metric texts but found in important texts of Hindu philosophy drama lyrical works and Prakrit poetry 14 61 The entire Samkhyakarika text of the Samkhya school of Hindu philosophy is composed in Arya metre as are many chapters in the mathematical treatises of Aryabhata and some texts of Kalidasa 60 62 Hybrid metres Edit Indian scholars also developed a hybrid class of Sanskrit metres which combined features of the syllable based metres and morae based metres 63 57 These were called Matra chandas Examples of this group of metres include Vaitaliya Matrasamaka and Gityarya 64 The Hindu texts Kiratarjuniya and Naishadha Charita for instance feature complete cantos that are entirely crafted in the Vaitaliya metre 63 65 Metres as tools for literary architecture EditThe Vedic texts and later Sanskrit literature were composed in a manner where a change in metres was an embedded code to inform the reciter and audience that it marks the end of a section or chapter 46 Each section or chapter of these texts uses identical metres rhythmically presenting their ideas and making it easier to remember recall and check for accuracy 46 Similarly the authors of Sanskrit hymns used metres as tools of literary architecture wherein they coded a hymn s end by frequently using a verse of a metre different from that used in the hymn s body 46 However they never used Gayatri metre to end a hymn or composition possibly because it enjoyed a special level of reverence in Hindu texts 46 In general all metres were sacred and the Vedic chants and hymns attribute the perfection and beauty of the metres to divine origins referring to them as mythological characters or equivalent to gods 46 Use of metre to identify corrupt texts Edit The verse perfection in the Vedic texts verse Upanishads note 6 and Smriti texts has led some Indologists from the 19th century onwards to identify suspected portions of texts where a line or sections are off the expected metre 66 67 Some editors have controversially used this metri causa principle to emend Sanskrit verses assuming that their creative conjectural rewriting with similar sounding words will restore the metre 66 This practice has been criticized states Patrick Olivelle because such modern corrections may be changing the meaning adding to corruption and imposing the modern pronunciation of words on ancient times when the same syllable or morae may have been pronounced differently 66 67 Large and significant changes in metre wherein the metre of succeeding sections return to earlier sections are sometimes thought to be an indication of later interpolations and insertion of text into a Sanskrit manuscript or that the text is a compilation of works of different authors and time periods 68 69 70 However some metres are easy to preserve and a consistent metre does not mean an authentic manuscript This practice has also been questioned when applied to certain texts such as ancient and medieval era Buddhist manuscripts in view of the fact that this may reflect versatility of the author or changing styles over author s lifetime 71 Texts EditChandah Sutra Edit This section needs expansion You can help by adding to it March 2016 When halved record two When unity is subtracted record sunya When sunya multiply by two When halved multiply by itself squared Chandah Sutra 8 28 316th 2nd century BCE 72 73 The Chandah Sutra is also known as Chandah sastra or Pingala Sutras after its author Pingala It is the oldest Hindu treatise on prosody to have survived into the modern era 15 16 This text is structured in 8 books with a cumulative total of 310 sutras 74 It is a collection of aphorisms predominantly focussed on the art of poetic metres and presents some mathematics in the service of music 72 75 Bhashyas Edit This section needs expansion You can help by adding to it March 2016 There have been numerous Bhashyas commentaries of the Chanda sastra over centuries These are Chandoratnakara The 11th century bhashya on Pingala s Chandah Sutra by Ratnakarashanti called Chandoratnakara added new ideas to Prakrit poetry and this was influential to prosody in Nepal and to the Buddhist prosody culture in Tibet where the field was also known as chandas or sdeb sbyor 43 Chandahsutrabhasyaraja The 18th century commentary of the Chandra Sastra by Bhaskararaya Usage EditPost vedic poetry epics Edit This section needs expansion You can help by adding to it March 2016 The Hindu epics and the post Vedic classical Sanskrit poetry is typically structured as quatrains of four padas lines with the metrical structure of each pada completely specified In some cases pairs of padas may be scanned together as the hemistichs of a couplet 76 This is typical for the shloka used in epic It is then normal for the padas comprising a pair to have different structures to complement each other aesthetically In other metres the four padas of a stanza have the same structure The Anushtubh Vedic metre became the most popular in classical and post classical Sanskrit works 48 It is octosyllabic like the Gayatri metre that is sacred to the Hindus The Anushtubh is present in Vedic texts but its presence is minor and Trishtubh and Gayatri metres dominate in the Rigveda for example 77 A dominating presence of the Anushtubh metre in a text is a marker that the text is likely post Vedic 78 The Mahabharata for example features many verse metres in its chapters but an overwhelming proportion of the stanzas 95 are shlokas of the anustubh type and most of the rest are tristubhs 79 Chandas and mathematics Edit This section needs expansion You can help by adding to it March 2016 The attempt to identify the most pleasing sounds and perfect compositions led ancient Indian scholars to study permutations and combinatorial methods of enumerating musical metres 72 The Pingala Sutras includes a discussion of binary system rules to calculate permutations of Vedic metres 75 80 81 Pingala and more particularly the classical Sanskrit prosody period scholars developed the art of Matrameru which is the field of counting sequences such as 0 1 1 2 3 5 8 and so on Fibonacci numbers in their prosody studies 75 80 82 The first five rows of the Pascal s triangle also called the Halayudha s triangle 83 Halayudha discusses this and more in his Sanskrit prosody bhashya on Pingala The 10th century Halayudha s commentary on Pingala Sutras developed meruprastara which mirrors the Pascal s triangle in the west and now also called as the Halayudha s triangle in books on mathematics 75 83 The 11th century Ratnakarashanti s Chandoratnakara describes algorithms to enumerate binomial combinations of metres through pratyaya For a given class length the six pratyaya were 84 prastara the table of arrangement a procedure for enumerating arranging in a table all metres of the given length naṣṭa a procedure for finding a metre given its position in the table without constructing the whole table uddiṣṭa a procedure for finding the position in the table of a given metre without constructing the whole table laghukriya or lagakriya calculation of the number of metres in the table containing a given number of laghu or guru syllables saṃkhya calculation of the total number of metres in the table adhvan calculation of the space needed to write down the prastara table of a given class length Some authors also considered for a given metre A the number of guru syllables B the number of laghu syllables C the total number of syllables and D the total number of matras giving expressions for each of these in terms of any two of the other three The basic relations being that C A B and D 2A B 85 Influence EditThis section needs expansion You can help by adding to it March 2016 In India Edit Song and language Children understand song beasts do too and even snakes But the sweetness of literature does the Great God himself truly understand Rajatarangini 86 The Chandas are considered one of the five categories of literary knowledge in Hindu traditions The other four according to Sheldon Pollock are Gunas or expression forms Riti Marga or the ways or styles of writing Alankara or tropology and Rasa Bhava or aesthetic moods and feelings 86 The Chandas are revered in Hindu texts for their perfection and resonance with the Gayatri metre treated as the most refined and sacred and one that continues to be part of modern Hindu culture as part of Yoga and hymns of meditation at sunrise 87 Outside India Edit The Sanskrit Chanda has influenced southeast Asian prosody and poetry such as Thai Chan Thai chnth 88 Its influence as evidenced in the 14th century Thai texts such as the Mahachat kham luang is thought to have come either through Cambodia or Sri Lanka 88 Evidence of the influence of Sanskrit prosody in 6th century Chinese literature is found in the works of Shen Yueh and his followers probably introduced through Buddhist monks who visited India 89 See also EditShloka ShikshaNotes Edit For a review of other Sanskrit prosody texts see Moriz Winternitz s History of Indian Literature 5 and HD Velankar s Jayadaman 6 See for example Rigveda hymns 1 164 2 4 4 58 5 29 8 38 9 102 and 9 103 10 and 10 130 11 Vritta literally turn is rooted in vrit Latin vert ere thereby etymologically to versus of Latin and verse of Indo European languages 25 स न स व रश च द र घश च व सर ग च ग र र भव त वर ण स य गप र वश च तथ प द न तग ऽप व These seven metres are also the names of the seven horses of Hindu Sun god Aditya or Surya mythically symbolic for removing darkness and bringing the light of knowledge 43 These are mentioned in Surya verses of the Ashvini Shastra portion of Aitareya Brahmana Kena Katha Isha Shvetashvatara and Mundaka Upanishads are examples of verse style ancient Upanishads References Edit a b c James Lochtefeld 2002 Chandas in The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism Vol 1 A M Rosen Publishing ISBN 0 8239 2287 1 page 140 Moriz Winternitz 1988 A History of Indian Literature Buddhist literature and Jaina literature Motilal Banarsidass p 577 ISBN 978 81 208 0265 0 a b Peter Scharf 2013 Keith Allan ed The Oxford Handbook of the History of Linguistics Oxford University Press pp 228 234 ISBN 978 0 19 164344 6 Deo 2007 pp 6 7 section 2 2 Maurice Winternitz 1963 pp 1 301 particularly 5 35 HD Velankar 1949 Jayadaman a collection of ancient texts on Sanskrit prosody and a classified list of Sanskrit metres with an alphabetical index OCLC 174178314 Haritosha HD Velankar 1949 Prosodial practice of Sanskrit poets Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society Volume 24 25 pages 49 92 Deo 2007 pp 3 6 section 2 2 Deo 2007 pp 3 4 section 1 3 a b Monier Monier Williams 1923 A Sanskrit English Dictionary Oxford University Press p 332 Origin and Development of Sanskrit Metrics Arati Mitra 1989 The Asiatic Society pages 4 6 with footnotes William K Mahony 1998 The Artful Universe An Introduction to the Vedic Religious Imagination State University of New York Press pp 110 111 ISBN 978 0 7914 3579 3 Guy L Beck 1995 pp 40 41 Sheldon Pollock 2006 pp 46 268 269 a b c d Alex Preminger Frank J Warnke O B Hardison Jr 2015 Princeton Encyclopedia of Poetry and Poetics Princeton University Press pp 394 395 ISBN 978 1 4008 7293 0 a b c d Sheldon Pollock 2006 p 370 a b B A Pingle 1898 pp 238 241 a b Andrew Ollett 2013 Nina Mirnig Peter Daniel Szanto Michael Williams eds Puspika Tracing Ancient India Through Texts and Traditions Oxbow Books pp 331 334 ISBN 978 1 84217 385 5 Har Dutt Sharma 1951 Suvrttatilaka Poona Orientalist A Quarterly Journal Devoted to Oriental Studies XVII 84 Rocher 1986 p 135 MN Dutt Agni Purana Vol 2 pages 1219 1233 Note Dutt s manuscript has 365 chapters and is numbered differently Sheldon Pollock 2006 pp 184 188 T Nanjundaiya Sreekantaiya 2001 Indian Poetics Sahitya Akademi pp 10 12 ISBN 978 81 260 0807 0 Maurice Winternitz 1963 pp 8 9 31 34 a b c d e f g h i Lakshman R Vaidya Sanskrit Prosody Appendix I in Sanskrit English Dictionary Sagoon Press Harvard University Archives pages 843 856 Archive 2 a b c A history of Sanskrit Literature Arthur MacDonell Oxford University Press Appleton amp Co page 56 Deo 2007 p 5 Coulson p 21 Muller amp Macdonell Appendix II Maurice Winternitz 1963 p 13 Coulson p 6 Muller and Macdonell loc cit Pingala CS 1 9 10 in order Pingala chandaḥsastra 1 1 10 Horace Hayman Wilson 1841 pp 415 416 Pingala CS 1 1 8 in order Coulson p 253ff Stein Sherman K 1963 Yamatarajabhanasalagam The Man made Universe An Introduction to the Spirit of Mathematics pp 110 118 Reprinted in Wardhaugh Benjamin ed 2012 A Wealth of Numbers An Anthology of 500 Years of Popular Mathematics Writing Princeton Univ Press pp 139 144 Barbara Stoler Miller 2013 Phantasies of a Love Thief The Caurapancasika Attributed to Bilhana Columbia University Press pp 2 footnote 2 ISBN 978 0 231 51544 3 Alex Preminger Frank J Warnke O B Hardison Jr 2015 Princeton Encyclopedia of Poetry and Poetics Princeton University Press p 498 ISBN 978 1 4008 7293 0 a b A history of Sanskrit Literature Arthur MacDonell Oxford University Press Appleton amp Co page 55 Stephen Dobyns 2011 Next Word Better Word The Craft of Writing Poetry Macmillan pp 248 249 ISBN 978 0 230 62180 0 a b Annette Wilke amp Oliver Moebus 2011 pp 391 392 with footnotes a b Jamgon Kongtrul Lodro Taye Koṅ sprul Blo gros mthaʼ yas Gyurme Dorje 2012 The Treasury of Knowledge Indo Tibetan classical learning and Buddhist phenomenology Book six parts one and two Shambhala Publications pp 26 28 ISBN 978 1 55939 389 8 Tatyana J Elizarenkova 1995 Language and Style of the Vedic Rsis State University of New York Press pp 113 114 ISBN 978 0 7914 1668 6 a b Annette Wilke amp Oliver Moebus 2011 p 392 a b c d e f Tatyana J Elizarenkova 1995 Language and Style of the Vedic Rsis State University of New York Press pp 111 121 ISBN 978 0 7914 1668 6 Horace Hayman Wilson 1841 pp 418 421 a b Horace Hayman Wilson 1841 pp 418 422 Arnold 1905 pp 10 48 Arnold 1905 p 48 Arnold 1905 p 11 50 with note ii a Arnold 1905 p 48 66 with note 110 i Arnold 1905 p 55 with note iv 172 with note viii Arnold 1905 pp 48 with table 91 13 with note 48 279 with Mandala VII table Arnold 1905 pp 12 with note 46 13 with note 48 241 242 with note 251 Horace Hayman Wilson 1841 pp 422 426 a b c Hopkins 1901 p 193 Horace Hayman Wilson 1841 p 427 Andrew Ollett 2013 Nina Mirnig Peter Daniel Szanto Michael Williams eds Puspika Tracing Ancient India Through Texts and Traditions Oxbow Books pp 331 358 ISBN 978 1 84217 385 5 a b Horace Hayman Wilson 1841 pp 427 428 Maurice Winternitz 1963 pp 106 108 135 Annette Wilke amp Oliver Moebus 2011 pp 230 232 with footnotes 472 473 a b Horace Hayman Wilson 1841 pp 429 430 Horace Hayman Wilson 1841 pp 429 432 Kalidasa Hank Heifetz 1990 The Origin of the Young God Kalidasa s Kumarasaṃbhava Motilal Banarsidass pp 153 154 ISBN 978 81 208 0754 9 a b c Patrick Olivelle 1998 The Early Upanisads Annotated Text and Translation Oxford University Press pp xvi xviii xxxvii ISBN 978 0 19 535242 9 a b Patrick Olivelle 2008 Collected Essays Language Texts and Society Firenze University Press pp 293 295 ISBN 978 88 8453 729 4 Maurice Winternitz 1963 pp 3 4 with footnotes Patrick Olivelle 2008 Collected Essays Language Texts and Society Firenze University Press pp 264 265 ISBN 978 88 8453 729 4 Alf Hiltebeitel 2000 Review John Brockington The Sanskrit Epics Indo Iranian Journal Volume 43 Issue 2 pages 161 169 John Brough 1954 The Language of the Buddhist Sanskrit Texts Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies Volume 16 Number 2 pages 351 375 a b c Kim Plofker 2009 Mathematics in India Princeton University Press pp 53 57 ISBN 978 0 691 12067 6 Bettina Baumer Kapila Vatsyayan January 1992 Kalatattvakosa A Lexicon of Fundamental Concepts of the Indian Arts Motilal Banarsidass p 401 ISBN 978 81 208 1044 0 Nooten B Van 1993 Binary numbers in Indian antiquity J Indian Philos Springer Science mathplus Business Media 21 1 31 32 doi 10 1007 bf01092744 a b c d Nooten B Van 1993 Binary numbers in Indian antiquity J Indian Philos Springer Science mathplus Business Media 21 1 31 50 doi 10 1007 bf01092744 Hopkins p 194 Kireet Joshi 1991 The Veda and Indian Culture An Introductory Essay Motilal Banarsidass pp 101 102 ISBN 978 81 208 0889 8 Friedrich Max Muller 1860 A History of Ancient Sanskrit Literature Williams and Norgate pp 67 70 Hopkins p 192 a b Susantha Goonatilake 1998 Toward a Global Science Indiana University Press p 126 ISBN 978 0 253 33388 9 Alekseĭ Petrovich Stakhov 2009 The Mathematics of Harmony From Euclid to Contemporary Mathematics and Computer Science World Scientific pp 426 427 ISBN 978 981 277 583 2 Keith Devlin 2012 The Man of Numbers Fibonacci s Arithmetic Revolution Bloomsbury Academic p 145 ISBN 978 1 4088 2248 7 a b Alexander Zawaira Gavin Hitchcock 2008 A Primer for Mathematics Competitions Oxford University Press p 237 ISBN 978 0 19 156170 2 Hahn p 4 Hahn pp 15 18 a b Sheldon Pollock 2006 p 188 Annette Wilke amp Oliver Moebus 2011 pp 393 394 a b B J Terwiel 1996 Jan E M Houben ed Ideology and Status of Sanskrit Contributions to the History of the Sanskrit Language BRILL pp 307 323 ISBN 90 04 10613 8 B J Terwiel 1996 Jan E M Houben ed Ideology and Status of Sanskrit Contributions to the History of the Sanskrit Language BRILL pp 319 320 with footnotes ISBN 90 04 10613 8 Bibliography Edit Arnold Edward Vernon 1905 Vedic Metre in its historical development Cambridge University Press Reprint 2009 ISBN 978 1113224446 Guy L Beck 1995 Sonic Theology Hinduism and Sacred Sound Motilal Banarsidass ISBN 978 81 208 1261 1 Brown Charles Philip 1869 Sanskrit prosody and numerical symbols explained London Trubner amp Co Deo Ashwini S 2007 The metrical organization of Classical Sanskrit verse Note the url and the journal number the pages differently the version in the journal starts at page 63 PDF Journal of Linguistics Cambridge University Press 43 1 doi 10 1017 s0022226706004452 Colebrooke H T 1873 On Sanskrit and Prakrit Poetry Miscellaneous Essays Vol 2 London Trubner and Co pp 57 146 Coulson Michael 1976 Teach Yourself Sanskrit Teach Yourself Books Hodder and Stoughton Hahn Michael 1982 Ratnakarasanti s Chandoratnakara Kathmandu Nepal Research Centre Hopkins E W 1901 Epic versification The Great Epic of India New York C Scribner s Sons LCCN Friedrich Max Muller Arthur Anthony Macdonell 1886 A Sanskrit grammar for beginners 2 ed Longmans Green p 178 PDF Patwardhan M 1937 Chandoracana Bombay Karnataka Publishing House B A Pingle 1898 Indian Music Education Society s Press Sheldon Pollock 2006 The Language of the Gods in the World of Men Sanskrit Culture and Power in Premodern India University of California Press ISBN 978 0 520 93202 9 Rocher Ludo 1986 The Puranas Otto Harrassowitz Verlag ISBN 978 3447025225 Velankar H D 1949 Jayadaman a collection of ancient texts on Sanskrit prosody and a classical list of Sanskrit metres with an alphabetical index Bombay Haritoṣamala Weber Albrecht 1863 Indische Studien Vol 8 Leipzig Annette Wilke Oliver Moebus 2011 Sound and Communication An Aesthetic Cultural History of Sanskrit Hinduism Walter de Gruyter ISBN 978 3 11 018159 3 Horace Hayman Wilson 1841 An introduction to the grammar of the Sanskrit language Madden Maurice Winternitz 1963 History of Indian Literature Motilal Banarsidass ISBN 978 81 208 0056 4 External links EditProsody chandaḥsastra Chapter XV of the Naṭyasastra Manuscripts of Pingala Sutra Vritta Ratnakara and Shrutabodha University of Kentucky 2004 Includes poetic metre marked sections of Buddha Charita Vrittaratnakara by Kedara Bhatta and Chandomanjari by Pandit Gangadasa Manuscripts on Sanskrit Prosody Compiled with commentary by Vidyasagara 1887 Harvard University Archives Hathi Trust University of Wisconsin Archive Sanskrit Vrittaratnakara only Hindi Vrittaratnakara only Tamil Sanskrit Prosody and Numerical Symbols Explained Charles P Brown Trubner amp Co A list of 1 300 metres in post classical Sanskrit prosody Universitat Heidelberg Germany Sanskrit metre recognizer This is an incomplete test version Recordings of recitation H V Nagaraja Rao ORI Mysore Ashwini Deo Ram Karan Sharma Arvind Kolhatkar A series of examples of the recitation of different Sanskrit metres by Dr R Ganesh Intensive Course on Sanskrit Prosody held at CEAS Bucharest by Shreenand L Bapat 1 Introduction to Sanskrit prosody LearnSanskrit Org Michael Hahn A brief introduction into the Indian metrical system for the use of students pdf Retrieved from https en wikipedia org w index php title Sanskrit prosody amp oldid 1123908851, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

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