fbpx
Wikipedia

Neoclassicism

January 01, 1970

For the musical movement, see Neoclassicism (music).

Neoclassicism, also spelled Neo-classicism, emerged as a Western cultural movement in the decorative and visual arts, literature, theatre, music, and architecture that drew inspiration from the art and culture of classical antiquity. Neoclassicism was born in Rome, largely due to the writings of Johann Joachim Winckelmann during the rediscovery of Pompeii and Herculaneum. Its popularity expanded throughout Europe as a generation of European art students finished their Grand Tour and returned from Italy to their home countries with newly rediscovered Greco-Roman ideals.[1][2][3][4] The main Neoclassical movement coincided with the 18th-century Age of Enlightenment, and continued into the early 19th century, eventually competing with Romanticism. In architecture, the style endured throughout the 19th, 20th, and into the 21st century.[5][6]

Psyche Revived by Cupid's Kiss; by Antonio Canova; 1787; marble; 155 cm × 168 cm; Louvre
Charles Towneley in his sculpture gallery; by Johann Zoffany; 1782; oil on canvas; height: 127 cm, width: 102 cm; Towneley Hall Art Gallery and Museum, Burnley, UK

European Neoclassicism in the visual arts began c. 1760 in opposition to the then-dominant Rococo style. Rococo architecture emphasizes grace, ornamentation and asymmetry; Neoclassical architecture is based on the principles of simplicity and symmetry, which were seen as virtues of the arts of Ancient Rome and Ancient Greece, and drawn directly from 16th-century Renaissance Classicism. Each "neo"-classicism movement selects some models among the range of possible classics that are available to it, and ignores others. Between 1765 and 1830, Neoclassical proponents—writers, speakers, patrons, collectors, artists and sculptors—paid homage to an idea of the artistic generation associated with Phidias, but sculpture examples they actually embraced were more likely to be Roman copies of Hellenistic sculptures. They ignored both Archaic Greek art and the works of late antiquity. The discovery of ancient Palmyra’s "Rococo" art through engravings in Wood's The Ruins of Palmyra came as a revelation. With Greece largely unexplored and considered a dangerous territory of the Ottoman Empire, Neoclassicists' appreciation of Greek architecture was predominantly mediated through drawings and engravings which were subtly smoothed and regularized, "corrected" and "restored" monuments of Greece, not always consciously.

The Empire style, a second phase of Neoclassicism in architecture and the decorative arts, had its cultural centre in Paris in the Napoleonic era. Especially in architecture, but also in other fields, Neoclassicism remained a force long after the early 19th century, with periodic waves of revivalism into the 20th and even the 21st centuries, especially in the United States and Russia.[citation needed]

History edit

Neoclassicism is a revival of the many styles and spirit of classic antiquity inspired directly from the classical period,[7] which coincided and reflected the developments in philosophy and other areas of the Age of Enlightenment, and was initially a reaction against the excesses of the preceding Rococo style.[8] While the movement is often described as the opposed counterpart of Romanticism, this is a great over-simplification that tends not to be sustainable when specific artists or works are considered. The case of the supposed main champion of late Neoclassicism, Ingres, demonstrates this especially well.[9] The revival can be traced to the establishment of formal archaeology.[10][11]

 
Johann Joachim Winckelmann, often called "the father of archaeology"[12]

The writings of Johann Joachim Winckelmann were important in shaping this movement in both architecture and the visual arts. His books Thoughts on the Imitation of Greek Works in Painting and Sculpture (1750) and Geschichte der Kunst des Alterthums ("History of Ancient Art", 1764) were the first to distinguish sharply between Ancient Greek and Roman art, and define periods within Greek art, tracing a trajectory from growth to maturity and then imitation or decadence that continues to have influence to the present day. Winckelmann believed that art should aim at "noble simplicity and calm grandeur",[13] and praised the idealism of Greek art, in which he said we find "not only nature at its most beautiful but also something beyond nature, namely certain ideal forms of its beauty, which, as an ancient interpreter of Plato teaches us, come from images created by the mind alone". The theory was very far from new in Western art, but his emphasis on close copying of Greek models was: "The only way for us to become great or if this be possible, inimitable, is to imitate the ancients".[14]

The Industrial Revolution saw global transition of human economy towards more efficient and stable manufacturing processes.[15] There was tremendous material advancement and increased prosperity.[16] With the advent of the Grand Tour, a fad of collecting antiquities began that laid the foundations of many great collections spreading a Neoclassical revival throughout Europe.[17] "Neoclassicism" in each art implies a particular canon of a "classical" model.

In English, the term "Neoclassicism" is used primarily of the visual arts; the similar movement in English literature, which began considerably earlier, is called Augustan literature. This, which had been dominant for several decades, was beginning to decline by the time Neoclassicism in the visual arts became fashionable. Though terms differ, the situation in French literature was similar. In music, the period saw the rise of classical music, and "Neoclassicism" is used of 20th-century developments. However, the operas of Christoph Willibald Gluck represented a specifically Neoclassical approach, spelt out in his preface to the published score of Alceste (1769), which aimed to reform opera by removing ornamentation, increasing the role of the chorus in line with Greek tragedy, and using simpler unadorned melodic lines.[18]

 
Anton Raphael Mengs; Judgement of Paris; circa 1757; oil on canvas; height: 226 cm, width: 295 cm, bought by Catherine the Great from the studio; Hermitage Museum, Saint Petersburg, Russia

The term "Neoclassical" was not invented until the mid-19th century, and at the time the style was described by such terms as "the true style", "reformed" and "revival"; what was regarded as being revived varying considerably. Ancient models were certainly very much involved, but the style could also be regarded as a revival of the Renaissance, and especially in France as a return to the more austere and noble Baroque of the age of Louis XIV, for which a considerable nostalgia had developed as France's dominant military and political position started a serious decline.[19] Ingres's coronation portrait of Napoleon even borrowed from Late Antique consular diptychs and their Carolingian revival, to the disapproval of critics.

Neoclassicism was strongest in architecture, sculpture and the decorative arts, where classical models in the same medium were relatively numerous and accessible; examples from ancient painting that demonstrated the qualities that Winckelmann's writing found in sculpture were and are lacking. Winckelmann was involved in the dissemination of knowledge of the first large Roman paintings to be discovered, at Pompeii and Herculaneum and, like most contemporaries except for Gavin Hamilton, was unimpressed by them, citing Pliny the Younger's comments on the decline of painting in his period.[20]

As for painting, Greek painting was utterly lost: Neoclassicist painters imaginatively revived it, partly through bas-relief friezes, mosaics and pottery painting, and partly through the examples of painting and decoration of the High Renaissance of Raphael's generation, frescos in Nero's Domus Aurea, Pompeii and Herculaneum, and through renewed admiration of Nicolas Poussin. Much "Neoclassical" painting is more classicizing in subject matter than in anything else. A fierce, but often very badly informed, dispute raged for decades over the relative merits of Greek and Roman art, with Winckelmann and his fellow Hellenists generally being on the winning side.[21]

Painting, drawing and printmaking edit

See also: Capriccio (art)

It is hard to recapture the radical and exciting nature of early Neoclassical painting for contemporary audiences; it now strikes even those writers favourably inclined to it as "insipid" and "almost entirely uninteresting to us"—some of Kenneth Clark's comments on Anton Raphael Mengs' ambitious Parnassus at the Villa Albani,[33] by the artist whom his friend Winckelmann described as "the greatest artist of his own, and perhaps of later times".[34] The drawings, subsequently turned into prints, of John Flaxman used very simple line drawing (thought to be the purest classical medium[35]) and figures mostly in profile to depict The Odyssey and other subjects, and once "fired the artistic youth of Europe" but are now "neglected",[36] while the history paintings of Angelica Kauffman, mainly a portraitist, are described as having "an unctuous softness and tediousness" by Fritz Novotny.[37] Rococo frivolity and Baroque movement had been stripped away but many artists struggled to put anything in their place, and in the absence of ancient examples for history painting, other than the Greek vases used by Flaxman, Raphael tended to be used as a substitute model, as Winckelmann recommended.

The work of other artists, who could not easily be described as insipid, combined aspects of Romanticism with a generally Neoclassical style, and form part of the history of both movements. The German-Danish painter Asmus Jacob Carstens finished very few of the large mythological works that he planned, leaving mostly drawings and colour studies which often succeed in approaching Winckelmann's prescription of "noble simplicity and calm grandeur".[38] Unlike Carstens' unrealized schemes, the etchings of Giovanni Battista Piranesi were numerous and profitable, and taken back by those making the Grand Tour to all parts of Europe. His main subject matter was the buildings and ruins of Rome, and he was more stimulated by the ancient than the modern. The somewhat disquieting atmosphere of many of his Vedute (views) becomes dominant in his series of 16 prints of Carceri d'Invenzione ("Imaginary Prisons") whose "oppressive cyclopean architecture" conveys "dreams of fear and frustration".[39] The Swiss-born Johann Heinrich Füssli spent most of his career in England, and while his fundamental style was based on Neoclassical principles, his subjects and treatment more often reflected the "Gothic" strain of Romanticism, and sought to evoke drama and excitement.

Neoclassicism in painting gained a new sense of direction with the sensational success of Jacques-Louis David's Oath of the Horatii at the Paris Salon of 1785. Despite its evocation of republican virtues, this was a commission by the royal government, which David insisted on painting in Rome. David managed to combine an idealist style with drama and forcefulness. The central perspective is perpendicular to the picture plane, made more emphatic by the dim arcade behind, against which the heroic figures are disposed as in a frieze, with a hint of the artificial lighting and staging of opera, and the classical colouring of Nicolas Poussin. David rapidly became the leader of French art, and after the French Revolution became a politician with control of much government patronage in art. He managed to retain his influence in the Napoleonic period, turning to frankly propagandistic works, but had to leave France for exile in Brussels at the Bourbon Restoration.[40]

David's many students included Jean-Auguste-Dominique Ingres, who saw himself as a classicist throughout his long career, despite a mature style that has an equivocal relationship with the main current of Neoclassicism, and many later diversions into Orientalism and the Troubadour style that are hard to distinguish from those of his unabashedly Romantic contemporaries, except by the primacy his works always give to drawing. He exhibited at the Salon for over 60 years, from 1802 into the beginnings of Impressionism, but his style, once formed, changed little.[41]

Sculpture edit

If Neoclassical painting suffered from a lack of ancient models, Neoclassical sculpture tended to suffer from an excess of them. Although examples of actual Greek sculpture of the "Classical Period" beginning in about 500 BC were then very few; the most highly regarded works were mostly Roman copies.[47] The leading Neoclassical sculptors enjoyed huge reputations in their own day, but are now less regarded, with the exception of Jean-Antoine Houdon, whose work was mainly portraits, very often as busts, which do not sacrifice a strong impression of the sitter's personality to idealism. His style became more classical as his long career continued, and represents a rather smooth progression from Rococo charm to classical dignity. Unlike some Neoclassical sculptors he did not insist on his sitters wearing Roman dress, or being unclothed. He portrayed most of the notable figures of the Enlightenment, and travelled to America to produce a statue of George Washington, as well as busts of Thomas Jefferson, Benjamin Franklin and other founders of the new republic.[48][49]

Antonio Canova and the Dane Bertel Thorvaldsen were both based in Rome, and as well as portraits produced many ambitious life-size figures and groups; both represented the strongly idealizing tendency in Neoclassical sculpture. Canova has a lightness and grace, where Thorvaldsen is more severe; the difference is exemplified in their respective groups of the Three Graces.[50] All these, and Flaxman, were still active in the 1820s, and Romanticism was slow to impact sculpture, where versions of Neoclassicism remained the dominant style for most of the 19th century.

An early Neoclassicist in sculpture was the Swede Johan Tobias Sergel.[51] John Flaxman was also, or mainly, a sculptor, mostly producing severely classical reliefs that are comparable in style to his prints; he also designed and modelled Neoclassical ceramics for Josiah Wedgwood for several years. Johann Gottfried Schadow and his son Rudolph, one of the few Neoclassical sculptors to die young, were the leading German artists,[52] with Franz Anton von Zauner in Austria. The late Baroque Austrian sculptor Franz Xaver Messerschmidt turned to Neoclassicism in mid-career, shortly before he appears to have suffered some kind of mental crisis, after which he retired to the country and devoted himself to the highly distinctive "character heads" of bald figures pulling extreme facial expressions.[53] Like Piranesi's Carceri, these enjoyed a great revival of interest during the age of psychoanalysis in the early 20th century. The Dutch Neoclassical sculptor Mathieu Kessels studied with Thorvaldsen and worked almost exclusively in Rome.

Since prior to the 1830s the United States did not have a sculpture tradition of its own, save in the areas of tombstones, weathervanes and ship figureheads,[54] the European Neoclassical manner was adopted there, and it was to hold sway for decades and is exemplified in the sculptures of Horatio Greenough, Harriet Hosmer, Hiram Powers, Randolph Rogers and William Henry Rinehart.

Architecture and the decorative arts edit

Main articles: Neoclassical architecture, Louis XVI style, Directoire style, Empire style, Adam style, and Biedermeier
 
Hôtel Gouthière, Rue Pierre-Bullet no. 6, Paris, possibly by J. Métivier, 1780[55]
 
"The Etruscan room", from Potsdam, Germany, c.1840, illustration by Friedrich Wilhelm Klose

Neoclassical art was traditional and new, historical and modern, conservative and progressive all at the same time.[56]

Neoclassicism first gained influence in England and France, through a generation of French art students trained in Rome and influenced by the writings of Winckelmann, and it was quickly adopted by progressive circles in other countries such as Sweden, Poland and Russia. At first, classicizing decor was grafted onto familiar European forms, as in the interiors for Catherine II's lover, Count Orlov, designed by an Italian architect with a team of Italian stuccadori: only the isolated oval medallions like cameos and the bas-relief overdoors hint of Neoclassicism; the furnishings are fully Italian Rococo.

A second Neoclassic wave, more severe, more studied (through the medium of engravings) and more consciously archaeological, is associated with the height of the Napoleonic Empire. In France, the first phase of Neoclassicism was expressed in the "Louis XVI style", and the second in the styles called "Directoire" or Empire. The Rococo style remained popular in Italy until the Napoleonic regimes brought the new archaeological classicism, which was embraced as a political statement by young, progressive, urban Italians with republican leanings.[according to whom?]

In the decorative arts, Neoclassicism is exemplified in Empire furniture made in Paris, London, New York, Berlin; in Biedermeier furniture made in Austria; in Karl Friedrich Schinkel's museums in Berlin, Sir John Soane's Bank of England in London and the newly built "capitol" in Washington, D.C.; and in Wedgwood's bas reliefs and "black basaltes" vases. The style was international; Scots architect Charles Cameron created palatial Italianate interiors for the German-born Catherine II the Great, in Russian St. Petersburg.

Indoors, Neoclassicism made a discovery of the genuine classic interior, inspired by the rediscoveries at Pompeii and Herculaneum. These had begun in the late 1740s, but only achieved a wide audience in the 1760s,[57] with the first luxurious volumes of tightly controlled distribution of Le Antichità di Ercolano (The Antiquities of Herculaneum). The antiquities of Herculaneum showed that even the most classicizing interiors of the Baroque, or the most "Roman" rooms of William Kent were based on basilica and temple exterior architecture turned outside in, hence their often bombastic appearance to modern eyes: pedimented window frames turned into gilded mirrors, fireplaces topped with temple fronts. The new interiors sought to recreate an authentically Roman and genuinely interior vocabulary.

Techniques employed in the style included flatter, lighter motifs, sculpted in low frieze-like relief or painted in monotones en camaïeu ("like cameos"), isolated medallions or vases or busts or bucrania or other motifs, suspended on swags of laurel or ribbon, with slender arabesques against backgrounds, perhaps, of "Pompeiian red" or pale tints, or stone colors. The style in France was initially a Parisian style, the Goût grec ("Greek style"), not a court style; when Louis XVI acceded to the throne in 1774, Marie Antoinette, his fashion-loving Queen, brought the "Louis XVI" style to court. However, there was no real attempt to employ the basic forms of Roman furniture until around the turn of the century, and furniture-makers were more likely to borrow from ancient architecture, just as silversmiths were more likely to take from ancient pottery and stone-carving than metalwork: "Designers and craftsmen ... seem to have taken an almost perverse pleasure in transferring motifs from one medium to another".[58]

 
Château de Malmaison, 1800, room for the Empress Joséphine, on the cusp between Directoire style and Empire style

From about 1800 a fresh influx of Greek architectural examples, seen through the medium of etchings and engravings, gave a new impetus to Neoclassicism, the Greek Revival. At the same time the Empire style was a more grandiose wave of Neoclassicism in architecture and the decorative arts. Mainly based on Imperial Roman styles, it originated in, and took its name from, the rule of Napoleon in the First French Empire, where it was intended to idealize Napoleon's leadership and the French state. The style corresponds to the more bourgeois Biedermeier style in the German-speaking lands, Federal style in the United States,[57] the Regency style in Britain, and the Napoleon style in Sweden. According to the art historian Hugh Honour "so far from being, as is sometimes supposed, the culmination of the Neoclassical movement, the Empire marks its rapid decline and transformation back once more into a mere antique revival, drained of all the high-minded ideas and force of conviction that had inspired its masterpieces".[59] An earlier phase of the style was called the Adam style in Great Britain and "Louis Seize", or Louis XVI, in France.

Neoclassicism continued to be a major force in academic art through the 19th century and beyond—a constant antithesis to Romanticism or Gothic revivals —, although from the late 19th century on it had often been considered anti-modern, or even reactionary, in influential critical circles.[who?] The centres of several European cities, notably St. Petersburg and Munich, came to look much like museums of Neoclassical architecture.

Gothic revival architecture (often linked with the Romantic cultural movement), a style originating in the 18th century which grew in popularity throughout the 19th century, contrasted Neoclassicism. Whilst Neoclassicism was characterized by Greek and Roman-influenced styles, geometric lines and order, Gothic revival architecture placed an emphasis on medieval-looking buildings, often made to have a rustic, "romantic" appearance.

France edit

Louis XVI style (1760–1789) edit

Main article: Louis XVI style

It marks the transition from Rococo to Classicism. Unlike the Classicism of Louis XIV, which transformed ornaments into symbols, Louis XVI style represents them as realistic and natural as possible, i.e. laurel branches really are laurel branches, roses the same, and so on. One of the main decorative principles is symmetry. In interiors, the colours used are very bright, including white, light grey, bright blue, pink, yellow, very light lilac, and gold. Excesses of ornamentation are avoided.[70] The return to antiquity is synonymous with above all with a return to the straight lines: strict verticals and horizontals were the order of the day. Serpentine ones were no longer tolerated, save for the occasional half circle or oval. Interior decor also honored this taste for rigor, with the result that flat surfaces and right angles returned to fashion. Ornament was used to mediate this severity, but it never interfered with basic lines and always was disposed symmetrically around a central axis. Even so, ébénistes often canted fore-angles to avoid excessive rigidity.[71]

The decorative motifs of Louis XVI style were inspired by antiquity, the Louis XIV style, and nature. Characteristic elements of the style: a torch crossed with a sheath with arrows, imbricated disks, guilloché, double bow-knots, smoking braziers, linear repetitions of small motifs (rosettes, beads, oves), trophy or floral medallions hanging from a knotted ribbon, acanthus leaves, gadrooning, interlace, meanders, cornucopias, mascarons, Ancient urns, tripods, perfume burners, dolphins, ram and lion heads, chimeras, and gryphons. Greco-Roman architectural motifs are also very used: flutings, pilasters (fluted and unfluted), fluted balusters (twisted and straight), columns (engaged and unengaged, sometimes replaced by caryathids), volute corbels, triglyphs with guttae (in relief and trompe-l'œil).[72]

Directoire style (1789–1804) edit

Main article: Directoire style

Empire style (1804–1815) edit

Main article: Empire style

It's representative for the new French society that has exited the revolution which set the tone in all life fields, including art. The Jacquard machine is invented during this period (which revolutionises the entire sewing system, manual until then). One of the dominant colours is red, decorated with gilt bronze. Bright colours are also used, including white, cream, violet, brown, bleu, dark red, with little ornaments of gilt bronze. Interior architecture includes wood panels decorated with gilt reliefs (on a white background or a coloured one). Motifs are placed geometrically. The walls are covered in stuccos, wallpaper pr fabrics. Fireplace mantels are made of white marble, having caryatids at their corners, or other elements: obelisks, sphinxes, winged lions, and so on. Bronze objects were placed on their tops, including mantel clocks. The doors consist of simple rectangular panels, decorated with a Pompeian-inspired central figure. Empire fabrics are damasks with a bleu or brown background, satins with a green, pink or purple background, velvets of the same colors, brooches broached with gold or silver, and cotton fabrics. All of these were used in interiors for curtains, for covering certain furniture, for cushions or upholstery (leather is also used for upholstery).[79]

All Empire ornament is governed by a rigorous spirit of symmetry reminiscent of the Louis XIV style. Generally, the motifs on a piece's right and left sides correspond to one another in every detail; when they do not, the individual motifs themselves are entirely symmetrical in composition: antique heads with identical tresses falling onto each shoulder, frontal figures of Victory with symmetrically arrayed tunics, identical rosettes or swans flanking a lock plate, etc. Like Louis XIV, Napoleon had a set of emblems unmistakably associated with his rule, most notably the eagle, the bee, stars, and the initials I (for Imperator) and N (for Napoleon), which were usually inscribed within an imperial laurel crown. Motifs used include: figures of Victory bearing palm branches, Greek dancers, nude and draped women, figures of antique chariots, winged putti, mascarons of Apollo, Hermes and the Gorgon, swans, lions, the heads of oxen, horses and wild beasts, butterflies, claws, winged chimeras, sphinxes, bucrania, sea horses, oak wreaths knotted by thin trailing ribbons, climbing grape vines, poppy rinceaux, rosettes, palm branches, and laurel. There's a lot of Greco-Roman ones: stiff and flat acanthus leaves, palmettes, cornucopias, beads, amphoras, tripods, imbricated disks, caduceuses of Mercury, vases, helmets, burning torches, winged trumpet players, and ancient musical instruments (tubas, rattles and especially lyres). Despite their antique derivation, the fluting and triglyphs so prevalent under Louis XVI are abandoned. Egyptian Revival motifs are especially common at the beginning of the period: scarabs, lotus capitals, winged disks, obelisks, pyramids, figures wearing nemeses, caryatids en gaine supported by bare feet and with women Egyptian headdresses.[80]

Germany edit

Main articles: Biedermeier and Gründerzeit

Neoclassical architecture became widespread as a symbol of wealth and power in Germany, mostly in what was then Prussia. Karl Friedrich Schinkel built many prominent buildings in this style, including the Altes Museum in Berlin. While the city remained dominated by Baroque city planning, his architecture and functional style provided the city with a distinctly neoclassical center.

His Bauakademie is considered one of the forerunners of modern architecture due to its hithertofore relatively streamlined façade of the building

Italy edit

From the second half of the 18th century through the 19th century, Italy went through a great deal of socio-economic changes, several foreign invasions and the turbulent Risorgimento, which resulted in the Italian unification in 1861. Thus, Italian art went through a series of minor and major changes in style.

The Italian Neoclassicism was the earliest manifestation of the general period known as Neoclassicism and lasted more than the other national variants of neoclassicism. It developed in opposition to the Baroque style around c. 1750 and lasted until c. 1850. Neoclassicism began around the period of the rediscovery of Pompeii and spread all over Europe as a generation of art students returned to their countries from the Grand Tour in Italy with rediscovered Greco-Roman ideals. It first centred in Rome where artists such as Antonio Canova and Jacques-Louis David were active in the second half of the 18th century, before moving to Paris. Painters of Vedute, like Canaletto and Giovanni Paolo Panini, also enjoyed a huge success during the Grand Tour. Neoclassical architecture was inspired by the Renaissance works of Palladio and saw in Luigi Vanvitelli and Filippo Juvarra the main interpreters of the style.

Classicist literature had a great impact on the Risorgimento movement: the main figures of the period include Vittorio Alfieri, Giuseppe Parini, Vincenzo Monti and Ugo Foscolo, Giacomo Leopardi and Alessandro Manzoni (nephew of Cesare Beccaria), who were also influenced by the French Enlightenment and German Romanticism. The virtuoso violinist Paganini and the operas of Rossini, Donnizetti, Bellini and, later, Verdi dominated the scene in Italian classical and romantic music.

The art of Francesco Hayez and especially that of the Macchiaioli represented a break with the classical school, which came to an end as Italy unified (see Italian modern and contemporary art). Neoclassicism was the last Italian-born style, after the Renaissance and Baroque, to spread to all Western Art.

Romania edit

  •  
    Round church of Saint Demetrius, Lețcani, unknown architect, 1795[81]
  •  
    Știrbei Palace (Calea Victoriei no. 107), Bucharest, by Michel Sanjouand, c.1835; with a new level with caryatids added in 1882 by Joseph Hartmann[82]
  •  
    The old building of the University of Bucharest, designed by Alexandru Orăscu and decorated with sculptures by Karl Storck, 1857–1864, bombarded in April or May 1944 during WW2 and partially destroyed, partially rebuilt during the late 1960s[83]
  •  
    Romanian Athenaeum on Calea Victoriei, Bucharest, by Albert Galleron, 1886–1895[84]
  •  
    Upper part of a tiled stove in the principals' house of the Central Girls' School, Bucharest, unknown designer, 1890
  •  
    Arabesque on a corner of Strada General H.M. Berthelot no. 52, Bucharest, unknown architect, 1890
  •  
    Interior of the Cesianu-Racoviță Palace (Strada C.A. Rosetti no. 5) Bucharest, by Jules Berthet, 1892-1902
  •  
    Calea Unirii no. 73, Craiova, unknown architect, c.1900

During the 19th century, the predominant style in Wallachia and Moldavia, later the Kingdom of Romania, was Classicism which lasted for a long time, until the 20th century, although it coexisted in some short periods with other styles. Foreign architects and engineers were invited here since the first decade of the 19th century. Most of the architects that built during the beginning of the century were foreigners because Romanians did not have yet the instruction needed for designing buildings that were very different compared to the Romanian tradition. Usually using Classicism, they start building together with Romanian artisans, usually prepared in foreign schools or academies. Romanian architects study in Western European schools as well. One example is Alexandru Orăscu, one of the representatives of Neoclassicism in Romania.

Classicism manifested both in religious and secular architecture. A good example of secular architecture is the Știrbei Palace on Calea Victoriei (Bucharest), built around the year 1835, after the plans of French architect Michel Sanjouand. It received a new level in 1882, designed by Austrian architect Joseph Hartmann[85][86]

Russia and the Soviet Union edit

In 1905–1914 Russian architecture passed through a brief but influential period of Neoclassical revival; the trend began with recreation of Empire style of alexandrine period and quickly expanded into a variety of neo-Renaissance, Palladian and modernized, yet recognizably classical schools. They were led by architects born in the 1870s, who reached creative peak before World War I, like Ivan Fomin, Vladimir Shchuko and Ivan Zholtovsky. When economy recovered in the 1920s, these architects and their followers continued working in primarily modernist environment; some (Zholtovsky) strictly followed the classical canon, others (Fomin, Schuko, Ilya Golosov) developed their own modernized styles.[87]

With the crackdown on architects independence and official denial of modernism (1932), demonstrated by the international contest for the Palace of Soviets, Neoclassicism was instantly promoted as one of the choices in Stalinist architecture, although not the only choice. It coexisted with moderately modernist architecture of Boris Iofan, bordering with contemporary Art Deco (Schuko); again, the purest examples of the style were produced by Zholtovsky school that remained an isolated phenomena. The political intervention was a disaster for constructivist leaders yet was sincerely welcomed by architects of the classical schools.

Neoclassicism was an easy choice for the USSR since it did not rely on modern construction technologies (steel frame or reinforced concrete) and could be reproduced in traditional masonry. Thus the designs of Zholtovsky, Fomin and other old masters were easily replicated in remote towns under strict material rationing. Improvement of construction technology after World War II permitted Stalinist architects to venture into skyscraper construction, although stylistically these skyscrapers (including "exported" architecture of Palace of Culture and Science, Warsaw and the Shanghai International Convention Centre) share little with the classical models. Neoclassicism and neo-Renaissance persisted in less demanding residential and office projects until 1955, when Nikita Khrushchev put an end to expensive Stalinist architecture.

The United Kingdom edit

Main articles: Adam style and Wedgwood

The Adam style was created by two brothers, Adam and James, who published in 1777 a volume of etchings with interior ornamentation. In the interior decoration made after Robert Adam's drawings, the walls, ceilings, doors, and any other surface, are divided into big panels: rectangular, round, square, with stuccos and Greco-Roman motifs at the edges. Ornaments used include festoons, pearls, egg-and-dart bands, medallions, and any other motifs used during the Classical antiquity (especially the Etruscan ones). Decorative fittings such as urn-shaped stone vases, gilded silverware, lamps, and stauettes all have the same source of inspiration, classical antiquity. The Adam style emphasizes refined rectangular mirrors, framed like paintings (in frames with stylised leafs), or with a pediment above them, supporting an urn or a medallion. Another design of Adam mirrors is shaped like a Venetian window, with a big central mirror between two other thinner and longer ones. Another type of mirrors are the oval ones, usually decorated with festoons. The furniture in this style has a similar structure to Louis XVI furniture.[94]

Besides the Adam style, when it comes to decorative arts, England is also known for the ceramic manufacturer Josiah Wedgwood (1730–1795), who established a pottery called Etruria. Wedgwood ware is made of a material called jasperware, a hard and fine-grained type of stoneware. Wedgwood vases are usually decorated with reliefs in two colours, in most cases the figures being white and the background blue.

The United States edit

Main article: Federal style

On the American continent, architecture and interior decoration have been highly influenced by the styles developed in Europe. The French taste has highly marked its presence in the southern states (after the French Revolution some emigrants have moved here, and in Canada a big part of the population has French origins). The practical spirit and the material situation of the Americans at that time gave the interiors a typic atmosphere. All the American furniture, carpets, tableware, ceramic, and silverware, with all the European influences, and sometimes Islamic, Turkish or Asian, were made in conformity with the American norms, taste, and functional requirements. There have existed in the US a period of the Queen Anne style, and an Chippendale one. A style of its own, the Federal style, has developed completely in the 18th and early 19th centuries, which has flourished being influenced by Britannic taste. Under the impulse of Neoclassicism, architecture, interiors, and furniture have been created. The style, although it has numerous characteristics which differ from state to state, is unitary. The structures of architecture, interiors, and furniture are Classicist, and incorporate Baroque and Rococo influences. The shapes used include rectangles, ovals, and crescents. Stucco or wooden panels on walls and ceilings reproduce Classicist motifs. Furniture tend to be decorated with floral marquetry and bronze or brass inlays (sometimes gilded).[98]

Gardens edit

In England, Augustan literature had a direct parallel with the Augustan style of landscape design. The links are clearly seen in the work of Alexander Pope. The best surviving examples of Neoclassical English gardens are Chiswick House, Stowe House and Stourhead.[99]

Fashion edit

In fashion, Neoclassicism influenced the much greater simplicity of women's dresses, and the long-lasting fashion for white, from well before the French Revolution, but it was not until after it that thorough-going attempts to imitate ancient styles became fashionable in France, at least for women. Classical costumes had long been worn by fashionable ladies posing as some figure from Greek or Roman myth in a portrait (in particular there was a rash of such portraits of the young model Emma, Lady Hamilton from the 1780s), but such costumes were only worn for the portrait sitting and masquerade balls until the Revolutionary period, and perhaps, like other exotic styles, as undress at home. But the styles worn in portraits by Juliette Récamier, Joséphine de Beauharnais, Thérésa Tallien and other Parisian trend-setters were for going-out in public as well. Seeing Mme Tallien at the opera, Talleyrand quipped that: "Il n'est pas possible de s'exposer plus somptueusement!" ("One could not be more sumptuously undressed"). In 1788, just before the Revolution, the court portraitist Louise Élisabeth Vigée Le Brun had held a Greek supper where the ladies wore plain white Grecian tunics.[100] Shorter classical hairstyles, where possible with curls, were less controversial and very widely adopted, and hair was now uncovered even outdoors; except for evening dress, bonnets or other coverings had typically been worn even indoors before. Thin Greek-style ribbons or fillets were used to tie or decorate the hair instead.

Very light and loose dresses, usually white and often with shockingly bare arms, rose sheer from the ankle to just below the bodice, where there was a strongly emphasized thin hem or tie round the body, often in a different colour. The shape is now often known as the Empire silhouette although it predates the First French Empire of Napoleon, but his first Empress Joséphine de Beauharnais was influential in spreading it around Europe. A long rectangular shawl or wrap, very often plain red but with a decorated border in portraits, helped in colder weather, and was apparently laid around the midriff when seated—for which sprawling semi-recumbent postures were favoured.[101] By the start of the 19th century, such styles had spread widely across Europe.

Neoclassical fashion for men was far more problematic, and never really took off other than for hair, where it played an important role in the shorter styles that finally despatched the use of wigs, and then white hair-powder, for younger men. The trouser had been the symbol of the barbarian to the Greeks and Romans, but outside the painter's or, especially, the sculptor's studio, few men were prepared to abandon it. Indeed, the period saw the triumph of the pure trouser, or pantaloon, over the culotte or knee-breeches of the Ancien Régime. Even when David designed a new French "national costume" at the request of the government during the height of the Revolutionary enthusiasm for changing everything in 1792, it included fairly tight leggings under a coat that stopped above the knee. A high proportion of well-to-do young men spent much of the key period in military service because of the French Revolutionary Wars, and military uniform, which began to emphasize jackets that were short at the front, giving a full view of tight-fitting trousers, was often worn when not on duty, and influenced civilian male styles.

The trouser-problem had been recognised by artists as a barrier to creating contemporary history paintings; like other elements of contemporary dress they were seen as irredeemably ugly and unheroic by many artists and critics. Various stratagems were used to avoid depicting them in modern scenes. In James Dawkins and Robert Wood Discovering the Ruins of Palmyra (1758) by Gavin Hamilton, the two gentleman antiquaries are shown in toga-like Arab robes. In Watson and the Shark (1778) by John Singleton Copley, the main figure could plausibly be shown nude, and the composition is such that of the eight other men shown, only one shows a single breeched leg prominently. However the Americans Copley and Benjamin West led the artists who successfully showed that trousers could be used in heroic scenes, with works like West's The Death of General Wolfe (1770) and Copley's The Death of Major Peirson, 6 January 1781 (1783), although the trouser was still being carefully avoided in The Raft of the Medusa, completed in 1819.

Classically inspired male hairstyles included the Bedford Crop, arguably the precursor of most plain modern male styles, which was invented by the radical politician Francis Russell, 5th Duke of Bedford as a protest against a tax on hair powder; he encouraged his friends to adopt it by betting them they would not. Another influential style (or group of styles) was named by the French "coiffure à la Titus" after Titus Junius Brutus (not in fact the Roman Emperor Titus as often assumed), with hair short and layered but somewhat piled up on the crown, often with restrained quiffs or locks hanging down; variants are familiar from the hair of both Napoleon and George IV of the United Kingdom. The style was supposed to have been introduced by the actor François-Joseph Talma, who upstaged his wigged co-actors when appearing in productions of works such as Voltaire's Brutus (about Lucius Junius Brutus, who orders the execution of his son Titus). In 1799 a Parisian fashion magazine reported that even bald men were adopting Titus wigs,[102] and the style was also worn by women, the Journal de Paris reporting in 1802 that "more than half of elegant women were wearing their hair or wig à la Titus.[103]

Music edit

Neoclassicism in music is a 20th-century movement; in this case it is the Classical and Baroque musical styles of the 17th and 18th centuries, with their fondness for Greek and Roman themes, that were being revived, not the music of the ancient world itself. (The early 20th century had not yet distinguished the Baroque period in music, on which Neoclassical composers mainly drew, from what we now call the Classical period.) The movement was a reaction in the first part of the 20th century to the disintegrating chromaticism of late-Romanticism and Impressionism, emerging in parallel with musical Modernism, which sought to abandon key tonality altogether. It manifested a desire for cleanness and simplicity of style, which allowed for quite dissonant paraphrasing of classical procedures, but sought to blow away the cobwebs of Romanticism and the twilit glimmerings of Impressionism in favour of bold rhythms, assertive harmony and clean-cut sectional forms, coinciding with the vogue for reconstructed "classical" dancing and costume in ballet and physical education.

The 17th–18th century dance suite had had a minor revival before World War I but the Neoclassicists were not altogether happy with unmodified diatonicism, and tended to emphasise the bright dissonance of suspensions and ornaments, the angular qualities of 17th-century modal harmony and the energetic lines of countrapuntal part-writing. Respighi's Ancient Airs and Dances (1917) led the way for the sort of sound to which the Neoclassicists aspired. Although the practice of borrowing musical styles from the past has not been uncommon throughout musical history, art musics have gone through periods where musicians used modern techniques coupled with older forms or harmonies to create new kinds of works. Notable compositional characteristics are: referencing diatonic tonality, conventional forms (dance suites, concerti grossi, sonata forms, etc.), the idea of absolute music untramelled by descriptive or emotive associations, the use of light musical textures, and a conciseness of musical expression. In classical music, this was most notably perceived between the 1920s and the 1950s. Igor Stravinsky is the best-known composer using this style; he effectively began the musical revolution with his Bach-like Octet for Wind Instruments (1923). A particular individual work that represents this style well is Prokofiev's Classical Symphony No. 1 in D, which is reminiscent of the symphonic style of Haydn or Mozart. Neoclassical ballet as innovated by George Balanchine de-cluttered the Russian Imperial style in terms of costume, steps and narrative, while also introducing technical innovations.

Later Neoclassicism and continuations edit

After the middle of the 19th century, Neoclassicism starts to no longer be the main style, being replaced by Eclecticism of Classical styles. The Palais Garnier in Paris is a good example of this, since despite being predominantly Neoclassical, it features elements and ornaments taken from Baroque and Renaissance architecture. This practice was frequent in late 19th and early 20th century architecture, before WW1. Besides Neoclassicism, the Beaux-Arts de Paris well known for this eclecticism of Classical styles.

Pablo Picasso experimented with classicizing motifs in the years immediately following World War I.[106]

In American architecture, Neoclassicism was one expression of the American Renaissance movement, ca. 1890–1917; its last manifestation was in Beaux-Arts architecture, and its final large public projects were the Lincoln Memorial (highly criticized at the time), the National Gallery of Art in Washington, D.C. (also heavily criticized by the architectural community as being backward thinking and old fashioned in its design), and the American Museum of Natural History's Roosevelt Memorial. These were considered stylistic anachronisms when they were finished. In the British Raj, Sir Edwin Lutyens' monumental city planning for New Delhi marks the sunset of Neoclassicism. World War II was to shatter most longing for (and imitation of) a mythical time.

There was an entire 20th-century movement in the non-visual arts which was also called Neoclassicism. It encompassed at least music, philosophy and literature. It was between the end of World War I and the end of World War II. (For information on the musical aspects, see 20th-century classical music and Neoclassicism in music. For information on the philosophical aspects, see Great Books.)

This literary Neoclassical movement rejected the extreme romanticism of (for example) Dada, in favour of restraint, religion (specifically Christianity) and a reactionary political program. Although the foundations for this movement in English literature were laid by T. E. Hulme, the most famous Neoclassicists were T. S. Eliot and Wyndham Lewis. In Russia, the movement crystallized as early as 1910 under the name of Acmeism, with Anna Akhmatova and Osip Mandelshtam as the leading representatives.

Art Deco edit

Although it started to be seen as 'dated' after WW1, principles, proportions and other Neoclassical elements were not abandoned yet. Art Deco was the dominant style during the interwar period, and it corresponds with the taste of a bourgeois elite for high class French styles of the past, including the Louis XVI, Directoire and Empire (the period styles of French Neoclassicism). At the same time, this French elite was equally capable of appreciating Modern art, like the works of Pablo Picasso or Amedeo Modigliani. The result of this situation is the early Art Deco style, which uses both new and old elements. The Palais de Tokyo from 1937 in Paris, by André Aubert and Marcel Dastugue, is a good example of this. Although ornaments are not used here, the facade being decorated only with reliefs, the way columns are present here is a strong reminiscence of Neoclassicism. Art Deco design often drew on Neoclassical motifs without expressing them overtly: severe, blocky commodes by Émile-Jacques Ruhlmann or Louis Süe & André Mare; crisp, extremely low-relief friezes of damsels and gazelles in every medium; fashionable dresses that were draped or cut on the bias to recreate Grecian lines; the art dance of Isadora Duncan. Conservative modernist architects such as Auguste Perret in France kept the rhythms and spacing of columnar architecture even in factory buildings.

The oscillation of Art Deco between the use of historic elements, shapes and proportions, and the appetite for 'new', for Modernism, is the result of multiple factors. One of them is eclecticism. The complexity and heterogeneity of Art Deco is largely due to the eclectic spirit. Stylized elements from repertoire of Beaux-Arts, Neoclassicism, or of cultures distant in time and space (Ancient Egypt, Pre-Columbian Americas, or Sub-Saharian African art) are put together with references to Modernist avant-guard artists of the early 20th century (Henri Matisse, Amedeo Modigliani or Constantin Brâncuși). The Art Deco phenomenon owes to academic eclecticism and Neoclassicism mainly the existence of a specific architecture. Without the contribution of the Beaux-Arts trained architects, Art Deco architecture would have remained, with the exception of residential buildings, a collection of decorative objects magnified to an urban scale, like the pavilions of the International Exhibition of Modern Decorative and Industrial Arts from 1925, controversial at their time. Another reason for the swinging between historical elements and modernism was consumer culture. Objects and buildings in the puritan International style, devoid of any ornamentation or citation of the past, were too radical for the general public. In interwar France and England, the spirit of the public and much architectural criticism could not conceive a style totally deprived of ornament, like the International style.

The use of historic styles as sources of inspiration for Art Deco starts as far back as the years before WW1, through the efforts of decorators like Maurice Dufrêne, Paul Follot, Paul Iribe, André Groult, Léon Jallot or Émile-Jacques Ruhlmann, who relate to the prestigious French artistic and handicraft tradition of the late 18th and early 19th centuries (the Louis XVI, Directoire and Louis Philippe), and who want to bring a new approach to these styles. The neo-Louis XVI style was really popular in France and Romania in the years before WW1, around 1910, and it heavily influenced multiple early Art Deco designs and buildings. A good example of this is the Château de Sept-Saulx in Grand Est, France, by Louis Süe, 1928–1929.[114]

Neoclassicism and Totalitarian regimes edit

Main articles: Socialist Realism, Nazi architecture, and Rationalism (architecture)

In Fascist Italy, Nazi Germany, Romania under the rule of Carol II and the Soviet Union, during the 1920s and 1930s, totalitarian regimes chose Neoclassicism for state buildings and art. Architecture was central to totalitarian regimes' expression of their permanence (despite their obvious novelty). The way totalitarian regimes drew from Classicism took many forms. When it comes to state buildings in Italy and Romania, architects attempted to fuse a modern sensibility with abstract classical forms. Two good examples of this are the Palazzo della Civiltà Italiana in Rome, and the University Rectorate and Law Faculty Building in Bucharest (Bulevardul Mihail Kogălniceanu no. 36–46). In contrast, the Classicism of the Soviet Union, known as Socialist Realism, was bombastic, overloaded with ornaments and architectural sculptures, as an attempt to be in contrast with the simplicity of 'Capitalist' or 'bourgeois' styles like Art Deco or Modernism. The Lomonosov University in Moscow is a good example of this. Nikita Khrushchev, the Soviet leader that succeeded Stalin, did not like this pompous Socialist Realist architecture from the reign of his predecessor. Because of the low speed and cost of these Neoclassical buildings, he stated that 'they spent people's money on beauty that no one needs, instead of building simpler, but more'.

In the Soviet Union, Neoclassicism was embraced as a rejection of Art Deco and Modernism, which the Communists saw as being too 'bourgeois' and 'capitalist'. This Communist Neoclassical style is known as Socialist Realism, and it was popular during the reign of Joseph Stalin (1924–1953). In fine art. Generally, it manifested through deeply idealized representations of wiry workers, shown as heroes in collective farms or industrialized cities, political assemblies, achievements of Soviet technology, and through depictions happy children staying around Lenin or Stalin. Both subject matter and representation were carefully monitored. Artistic merit was determined by the degree to which a work contributed to the building of socialism. All artists had to join the state-controlled Union of Soviet Artists and produce work in the accepted style. The three guiding principles of Socialist Realism were party loyalty, presentation of correct ideology and accessibility. Realism, more easily understood by the masses, was the style of choice. At the beginning, in the Soviet Union, multiple competing avant-garde movements were present, notably Constructivism. However, as Stalin consolidated his power towards the end of the 1920s, avant-garde art and architecture were suppressed and eventually outlawed and official state styles were established. After Boris Iofan won the competition for the design of the Palace of the Soviets with a stepped classical tower, surmounted by a giant statue of Lenin, architecture soon reverted to pre-Revolutionary styles of art and architecture, untainted by Constructivism's perceived Western influence.[121] Although Socialist Realism in architecture ended more or less with the death of Stalin and the rise of Nikita Khrushchev, paintings in this style continued to be produced, especially in countries where there was a strong personality cult of the leader in power, like in the case of Mao Zedong's China, Kim Il Sung's North Korea, or Nicolae Ceaușescu's Romania.

The Nazis suppressed Germany's vibrant avant-garde culture once they gained control of the government in 1933. Albert Speer was set as Adolf Hitler's architectural advisor in 1934, and he tried to create an architecture that would both reflect the perceived unity of the German people and act as backdrop to the Nazis' expressions of power. The Nazis' approach to architecture was riffled with contradictions: while Hitler and Speer's plans for reordering Berlin aspired to imitate imperial Rome, in rural contexts Nazi buildings took inspiration from local vernaculars, trying to channel an 'authentic' German spirit. When it come to fine art, the Nazis created the term 'Degenerate art' for Modern art, a kind of art which to them was 'un-German', 'Jewish' or 'Communist'. The Nazis hated modern art and linked it to 'cultural bolshevism', the conspiracy theory that art (or culture broadly) was controlled by a leftist Jewish cabal seeking to destroy the aryan race. Hitler's war on Modern art mostly consisted of an exhibition that tried to discredit Modern artists, called the 'Degenerate Art exhibition' (German: Die Ausstellung "Entartete Kunst"). This exhibition was displayed next to the Great Exhibition of German Art, which consisted of artworks that the Nazis approved of. This way, the visitiors of both exhibitions could compare the art labeled by the regime as 'good' and 'bad'. With a similar atitude, the regime closes in 1931 the Bauhaus, an avant-garde art school in Dessau that will prove extremely influential in the future. It reopens in Berlin in 1932, but it's closed again in 1933.

Compared to Germany and the Soviet Union, in Italy the avant-garde contributed to state architecture. Classical architecture was also an influence, echoing Benito Mussolini's far cruder attempts to create links between his Fascist regime and ancient Rome. Some Italian architects tried to create fusions between Modernism and Classicism, like Marcello Piacentini with the Sapienza University of Rome, or Giuseppe Terragni with Casa del Fascio in Como.[122]

In Romania, towards the late 1930s, influenced by the Autocratic tendency of king Carol II, multiple state buildings are erected. They were Neoclassical, many very similar with what was popular in the same years in Fascist Italy. Examples in Bucharest include the University Rectorate and Law Faculty Building (Bulevardul Mihail Kogălniceanu no. 36–46), the Kretzulescu Apartment Building (Calea Victoriei no. 45), the CFR Building (Bulevardul Dinicu Golescu no. 38) or the Victoria Palace (Piața Victoriei no. 1). The Royal Palace, whose interiors are mostly done in a neo-Adam style, stands out by being more decorated, a little closer to the architecture before WW1.

Postmodernism edit

An early text questioning Modernism was by architect Robert Venturi, Complexity and Contradiction in Architecture (1966), in which he recommended a revival of the 'presence of the past' in architectural design. He tried to include in his own buildings qualities that he described as 'inclusion, inconsistency, compromise, accommodation, adaptation, superadjacency, equivalence, multiple focus, juxtaposition, or good and bad space.'[136] Robert Venturi's work reflected the broader counter-cultural mood of the 1960s which saw younger generations begin to question and challenge the political, social and racial realities with which they found themselves confronted. This rejection of Modernism is known as Postmodernism. Robert Venturi parodies Ludwig Mies van der Rohe's well-known maxim 'less is more' with 'less is a bore'. During the 1980s and 1990s, some Postmodern architects found a refuge in a sort of Neo-Neoclassicism. Their use of Classicism was not limited only to ornaments, using more or less proportions and other principles too. Post-Modern Classicism had been variously described by some people as 'camp' or 'kitsch'. An architect who has been remarked through Post-Modern Classicism is Ricardo Bofill. His work includes two housing projects of titanic scale near Paris, known as Les Arcades du Lac from 1975 to 1981, and Les Espaces d'Abraxas from 1978 to 1983. A building that stands out through its revivalism is the J. Paul Getty Museum, in Malibu, California, from 1970 to 1975, inspired by the ancient Roman Villa of the Papyri at Herculaneum. The J. Paul Getty Museum is far closer to 19th century Neoclassicism, like the Pompejanum in Aschaffenburg, Germany, than to Post-Modern Classicism of the 1980s.[137]

Architecture in the 21st century edit

Main article: New Classical Architecture

After a lull during the period of modern architectural dominance (roughly post-World War II until the mid-1980s), Neoclassicism has seen something of a resurgence.

As of the first decade of the 21st century, contemporary Neoclassical architecture is usually classed under the umbrella term of New Classical Architecture. Sometimes it is also referred to as Neo-Historicism or Traditionalism.[139] Also, a number of pieces of postmodern architecture draw inspiration from and include explicit references to Neoclassicism, Antigone District and the National Theatre of Catalonia in Barcelona among them. Postmodern architecture occasionally includes historical elements, like columns, capitals or the tympanum.

For sincere traditional-style architecture that sticks to regional architecture, materials and craftsmanship, the term Traditional Architecture (or vernacular) is mostly used. The Driehaus Architecture Prize is awarded to major contributors in the field of 21st century traditional or classical architecture, and comes with a prize money twice as high as that of the modernist Pritzker Prize.[140]

In the United States, various contemporary public buildings are built in Neoclassical style, with the 2006 Schermerhorn Symphony Center in Nashville being an example.

In Britain, a number of architects are active in the Neoclassical style. Examples of their work include two university libraries: Quinlan Terry's Maitland Robinson Library at Downing College and Robert Adam Architects' Sackler Library.

See also edit

Notes edit

  1. ^ Stevenson, Angus (2010-08-19). Oxford Dictionary of English. ISBN 9780199571123.
  2. ^ Kohle, Hubertu. (August 7, 2006). "The road from Rome to Paris. The birth of a modern Neoclassicism". Jacques Louis David. New perspectives.
  3. ^ Baldick, Chris (2015). "Neoclassicism". The Oxford Dictionary of Literary Terms (Online Version) (4th ed.). Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780191783234.
  4. ^ Greene, Roland; et al., eds. (2012). "Neoclassical poetics". The Princeton Encyclopedia of Poetry and Poetics (4th rev. ed.). Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-15491-6.
  5. ^ "Neoclassical architecture | Definition, Characteristics, Examples, & Facts | Britannica". www.britannica.com. 2023-06-01. Retrieved 2023-07-30.
  6. ^ "Classical / Classical Revival / Neo-Classical: an architectural style guide". www.architecture.com. Retrieved 2023-07-30.
  7. ^ Irwin, David G. (1997). Neoclassicism A&I (Art and Ideas). Phaidon Press. ISBN 978-0-7148-3369-9.
  8. ^ Honour, 17–25; Novotny, 21
  9. ^ A recurring theme in Clark: 19–23, 58–62, 69, 97–98 (on Ingres); Honour, 187–190; Novotny, 86–87
  10. ^ Lingo, Estelle Cecile (2007). François Duquesnoy and the Greek ideal. Yale University Press; First Edition. pp. 161. ISBN 978-0-300-12483-5.
  11. ^ Talbott, Page (1995). Classical Savannah: fine & decorative arts, 1800-1840. University of Georgia Press. p. 6. ISBN 978-0-8203-1793-9.
  12. ^ Cunningham, Reich, Lawrence S., John J. (2009). Culture and values: a survey of the humanities. Wadsworth Publishing; 7 edition. p. 104. ISBN 978-0-495-56877-3.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  13. ^ Honour, 57–62, 61 quoted
  14. ^ Both quotes from the first pages of "Thoughts on the Imitation of Greek Works in Painting and Sculpture"
  15. ^ "Industrial History of European Countries". European Route of Industrial Heritage. Council of Europe. Retrieved 2 June 2021.
  16. ^ North, Douglass C.; Thomas, Robert Paul (May 1977). "The First Economic Revolution". The Economic History Review. 30 (2). Wiley on behalf of the Economic History Society: 229–230. doi:10.2307/2595144. JSTOR 2595144. Retrieved 6 June 2022.
  17. ^ Dyson, Stephen L. (2006). In Pursuit of Ancient Pasts: A History of Classical Archaeology in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries. Yale University Press. pp. xii. ISBN 978-0-300-11097-5.
  18. ^ Honour, 21
  19. ^ Honour, 11, 23–25
  20. ^ Honour, 44–46; Novotny, 21
  21. ^ Honour, 43–62
  22. ^ Fortenberry 2017, p. 275.
  23. ^ Morrill, Rebecca (2019). Great Women Artists. Phaidon. p. 413. ISBN 978-0-7148-7877-5.
  24. ^ Morrill, Rebecca (2019). Great Women Artists. Phaidon. p. 211. ISBN 978-0-7148-7877-5.
  25. ^ a b Fortenberry 2017, p. 276.
  26. ^ Robertson, Hutton (2022). The History of Art - From Prehistory to Presentday - A Global View. Thames & Hudson. p. 993. ISBN 978-0-500-02236-8.
  27. ^ Andrew, Graham-Dixon (2023). art - The Definitive Visual History. p. 251. ISBN 978-0-2416-2903-1.
  28. ^ Morrill, Rebecca (2019). Great Women Artists. Phaidon. p. 59. ISBN 978-0-7148-7877-5.
  29. ^ Morrill, Rebecca (2019). Great Women Artists. Phaidon. p. 298. ISBN 978-0-7148-7877-5.
  30. ^ Morrill, Rebecca (2019). Great Women Artists. Phaidon. p. 419. ISBN 978-0-7148-7877-5.
  31. ^ Andrew, Graham-Dixon (2023). art - The Definitive Visual History. p. 270. ISBN 978-0-2416-2903-1.
  32. ^ Andrew, Graham-Dixon (2023). art - The Definitive Visual History. p. 298. ISBN 978-0-2416-2903-1.
  33. ^ Clark, 20 (quoted); Honour, 14; image of the painting (in fairness, other works by Mengs are more successful)
  34. ^ Honour, 31–32 (31 quoted)
  35. ^ Honour, 113–114
  36. ^ Honour, 14
  37. ^ Novotny, 62
  38. ^ Novotny, 51–54
  39. ^ Clark, 45–58 (47–48 quoted); Honour, 50–57
  40. ^ Honour, 34–37; Clark, 21–26; Novotny, 19–22
  41. ^ Novotny, 39–47; Clark, 97–145; Honour, 187–190
  42. ^ ART ● Architecture ● Painting ● Sculpture ● Graphics ● Design. 2011. p. 313. ISBN 978-1-4454-5585-3.
  43. ^ a b c Andrew, Graham-Dixon (2023). art - The Definitive Visual History. p. 273. ISBN 978-0-2416-2903-1.
  44. ^ Laneyrie-Dagen, Nadeije (2021). Historie de l'art pour tous (in French). Hazan. p. 264. ISBN 978-2-7541-1230-7.
  45. ^ Laneyrie-Dagen, Nadeije (2021). Historie de l'art pour tous (in French). Hazan. p. 265. ISBN 978-2-7541-1230-7.
  46. ^ Fortenberry 2017, p. 278.
  47. ^ Novotny, 378
  48. ^ Novotny, 378–379
  49. ^ Chinard, Gilbert, ed., Houdon in America Arno PressNy, 1979, a reprint of a book published by Johns Hopkins University, 1930
  50. ^ Novotny, 379–384
  51. ^ Novotny, 384–385
  52. ^ Novotny, 388–389
  53. ^ Novotny, 390–392
  54. ^ Gerdts, William H., American Neo-Classic Sculpture: The Marble Resurrection, Viking Press, New York, 1973 p. 11
  55. ^ Larbodière, Jean-Marc (2015). L'Architecture de Paris des Origins à Aujourd'hui (in French). Massin. p. 106. ISBN 978-2-7072-0915-3.
  56. ^ Palmer, Alisson Lee. Historical dictionary of neoclassical art and architecture. p. 1.
  57. ^ a b Gontar
  58. ^ Honour, 110–111, 110 quoted
  59. ^ Honour, 171–184, 171 quoted
  60. ^ de Martin 1925, p. 11.
  61. ^ Jones 2014, p. 276.
  62. ^ de Martin 1925, p. 13.
  63. ^ a b c Jones 2014, p. 273.
  64. ^ Jacquemart, Albert (2012). Decorative Art. Parkstone. p. 65. ISBN 978-1-84484-899-7.
  65. ^ Larbodière, Jean-Marc (2015). L'Architecture de Paris des Origins à Aujourd'hui (in French). Massin. p. 105. ISBN 978-2-7072-0915-3.
  66. ^ de Martin 1925, p. 17.
  67. ^ "Corner Cabinet - The Art Institute of Chicago".
  68. ^ de Martin 1925, p. 61.
  69. ^ a b Jacquemart, Albert (2012). Decorative Art. Parkstone. p. 61. ISBN 978-1-84484-899-7.
  70. ^ Graur, Neaga (1970). Stiluri în arta decorativă (in Romanian). Cerces. pp. 200, 201 & 202.
  71. ^ Sylvie, Chadenet (2001). French Furniture • From Louis XIII to Art Deco. Little, Brown and Company. p. 71.
  72. ^ Sylvie, Chadenet (2001). French Furniture • From Louis XIII to Art Deco. Little, Brown and Company. p. 72.
  73. ^ "ASTRONOMICAL CLOCK". madparis.fr. Retrieved 23 May 2021.
  74. ^ "Bergère du salon de Madame Récamier (OA 11384 à 11391), d'une paire avec OA 11386". collections.louvre.fr. Retrieved 23 May 2022.
  75. ^ Jones 2014, p. 275.
  76. ^ a b Hopkins 2014, p. 111.
  77. ^ Odile, Nouvel-Kammerer (2007). Symbols of Power • Napoleon and the Art of the Empire Style • 1800-1815. p. 209. ISBN 978-0-8109-9345-7.
  78. ^ Odile, Nouvel-Kammerer (2007). Symbols of Power • Napoleon and the Art of the Empire Style • 1800-1815. p. 32. ISBN 978-0-8109-9345-7.
  79. ^ Graur, Neaga (1970). Stiluri în arta decorativă (in Romanian). Cerces. pp. 217, 219, 220 & 221.
  80. ^ Sylvie, Chadenet (2001). French Furniture • From Louis XIII to Art Deco. Little, Brown and Company. p. 103 & 105.
  81. ^ Ispir, Mihai (1984). Clasicismul în Arta Românească (in Romanian). Editura Meridiane.
  82. ^ Florea, Vasile (2016). Arta Românească de la Origini până în Prezent. Litera. pp. 296, 297. ISBN 978-606-33-1053-9.
  83. ^ Oltean, Radu (2009). București 550 de ani de la prima atestare documentată 1459-2009 (in Romanian). ArCuB. p. 113. ISBN 978-973-0-07036-1.
  84. ^ Celac, Carabela & Marcu-Lapadat 2017, p. 65.
  85. ^ Florea, Vasile (2016). Arta Românească de la Origini până în Prezent. Litera. pp. 294, 296, 297. ISBN 978-606-33-1053-9.
  86. ^ Lăzărescu, Cristea & Lăzărescu 1972, p. 67, 68.
  87. ^ "The Origins of Modernism in Russian Architecture". Content.cdlib.org. Retrieved 2012-02-12.
  88. ^ a b Hopkins 2014, p. 103.
  89. ^ Bailey 2012, pp. 226.
  90. ^ Fortenberry 2017, p. 274.
  91. ^ Farthing, Stephen (2020). ARTA Istoria Artei de la pictura rupestră la arta urbană (in Romanian). rao. p. 260. ISBN 978-606-006-392-6.
  92. ^ Hopkins 2014, p. 104.
  93. ^ "Covered Urn - Cleveland Museum of Art". 30 October 2018. Retrieved 6 May 2022.
  94. ^ Graur, Neaga (1970). Stiluri în arta decorativă (in Romanian). Cerces. pp. 253, 255 & 256.
  95. ^ a b Hodge 2019, p. 112.
  96. ^ Hodge 2019, p. 31.
  97. ^ Irving, Mark (2019). 1001 BUILDINGS You Must See Before You Die. Cassel Illustrated. p. 281. ISBN 978-1-78840-176-0.
  98. ^ Graur, Neaga (1970). Stiluri în arta decorativă (in Romanian). Cerces. pp. 269, 270, & 271.
  99. ^ Turner, Turner (2013). British gardens: history, philosophy and design, Chapter 6 Neoclassical gardens and landscapes 1730–1800. London: Routledge. p. 456. ISBN 978-0415518789.
  100. ^ Hunt, 244
  101. ^ Hunt, 244–245
  102. ^ Hunt, 243
  103. ^ Rifelj, 35
  104. ^ a b Jones 2014, p. 296.
  105. ^ Hopkins 2014, p. 135.
  106. ^ a b Criticos, Mihaela (2009). Art Deco sau Modernismul Bine Temperat – Art Deco or Well-Tempered Modernism (in Romanian and English). SIMETRIA. p. 79. ISBN 978-973-1872-03-2.
  107. ^ "Commode à deux vantaux, cabinet de milieu". musee-orsay.fr. Retrieved 25 June 2023.
  108. ^ "A Primavera: Homenagem a Jean Goujon". gulbenkian.pt. Retrieved 25 June 2023.
  109. ^ Kadijevic, Aleksandar. "Arhitekt Josif Najman (1890-1951), Moment 18, Beograd 1990, 100-106". {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  110. ^ Criticos, Mihaela (2009). Art Deco sau Modernismul Bine Temperat - Art Deco or Well-Tempered Modernism (in Romanian and English). SIMETRIA. p. 81. ISBN 978-973-1872-03-2.
  111. ^ a b Criticos, Mihaela (2009). Art Deco sau Modernismul Bine Temperat - Art Deco or Well-Tempered Modernism (in Romanian and English). SIMETRIA. p. 91. ISBN 978-973-1872-03-2.
  112. ^ Curl, James Stevens (2013). The Egyptian Revival: Ancient Egypt as the Inspiration for Design Motifs in the West. Routledge. p. 412. ISBN 978-1-134-23467-7.
  113. ^ Woinaroski, Cristina (2013). Istorie urbană, Lotizarea și Parcul Ioanid din București în context european (in Romanian). SIMETRIA. p. 216. ISBN 978-973-1872-30-8.
  114. ^ Criticos, Mihaela (2009). Art Deco sau Modernismul Bine Temperat – Art Deco or Well-Tempered Modernism (in Romanian and English). SIMETRIA. pp. 29, 31, 40, 79, 91. ISBN 978-973-1872-03-2.
  115. ^ Watkin, David (2022). A History of Western Architecture. Laurence King. p. 880. ISBN 978-1-52942-030-2.
  116. ^ Dempsey, Amy (2018). Modern Art. Thamed & Hudson. p. 93. ISBN 978-0-500-29322-5.
  117. ^ Celac, Carabela & Marcu-Lapadat 2017, p. 72.
  118. ^ Hopkins 2014, p. 175.
  119. ^ a b Hopkins 2014, p. 176.
  120. ^ Celac, Carabela & Marcu-Lapadat 2017, p. 181.
  121. ^ Dempsey, Amy (2018). Modern Art. Thamed & Hudson. pp. 92, 93. ISBN 978-0-500-29322-5.
  122. ^ Hopkins 2014, p. 174, 175, 176.
  123. ^ Watkin, David (2022). A History of Western Architecture. Laurence King. pp. 663, 664. ISBN 978-1-52942-030-2.
  124. ^ Watkin, David (2022). A History of Western Architecture. Laurence King. p. 663. ISBN 978-1-52942-030-2.
  125. ^ Gura, Judith (2017). Postmodern Design Complete. Thames & Hudson. p. 53. ISBN 978-0-500-51914-1.
  126. ^ Wilhide, Elizabeth. Design The Whole Story. Thames & Hudson. p. 416. ISBN 978-0-500-29687-5.
  127. ^ a b Gura, Judith (2017). Postmodern Design Complete. Thames & Hudson. p. 121. ISBN 978-0-500-51914-1.
  128. ^ Watkin, David (2022). A History of Western Architecture. Laurence King. p. 665. ISBN 978-1-52942-030-2.
  129. ^ "77 West Wacker Drive Interior (1992)". are.na. Retrieved 3 September 2023.
  130. ^ a b Gura, Judith (2017). Postmodern Design Complete. Thames & Hudson. p. 77. ISBN 978-0-500-51914-1.
  131. ^ Gura, Judith (2017). Postmodern Design Complete. Thames & Hudson. p. 65. ISBN 978-0-500-51914-1.
  132. ^ Eleanor Gibson. "Seven of Robert Venturi's best postmodern projects". dezeen.com. Retrieved 25 June 2023.
  133. ^ "The Forum Shops at Caesars Palace (1992)". are.na. Retrieved 3 September 2023.
  134. ^ a b Gray, George T. (2022). An Introduction to the History of Architecture, Art & Design. Sunway University Press. p. 265. ISBN 978-967-5492-24-2.
  135. ^ "Philippe Starck, a pair of 'Louis Ghost' armchairs, Kartell. - Bukowskis". smow.com. Retrieved 19 June 2023.
  136. ^ Watkin, David (2022). A History of Western Architecture. Laurence King. p. 660. ISBN 978-1-52942-030-2.
  137. ^ Watkin, David (2022). A History of Western Architecture. Laurence King. pp. 660, 661, 663. ISBN 978-1-52942-030-2.
  138. ^ Watkin, David (2022). A History of Western Architecture. Laurence King. p. 673. ISBN 978-1-52942-030-2.
January 01, 1970
neoclassicism, musical, movement, music, also, spelled, classicism, emerged, western, cultural, movement, decorative, visual, arts, literature, theatre, music, architecture, that, drew, inspiration, from, culture, classical, antiquity, born, rome, largely, wri. For the musical movement see Neoclassicism music Neoclassicism also spelled Neo classicism emerged as a Western cultural movement in the decorative and visual arts literature theatre music and architecture that drew inspiration from the art and culture of classical antiquity Neoclassicism was born in Rome largely due to the writings of Johann Joachim Winckelmann during the rediscovery of Pompeii and Herculaneum Its popularity expanded throughout Europe as a generation of European art students finished their Grand Tour and returned from Italy to their home countries with newly rediscovered Greco Roman ideals 1 2 3 4 The main Neoclassical movement coincided with the 18th century Age of Enlightenment and continued into the early 19th century eventually competing with Romanticism In architecture the style endured throughout the 19th 20th and into the 21st century 5 6 Psyche Revived by Cupid s Kiss by Antonio Canova 1787 marble 155 cm 168 cm Louvre Charles Towneley in his sculpture gallery by Johann Zoffany 1782 oil on canvas height 127 cm width 102 cm Towneley Hall Art Gallery and Museum Burnley UK European Neoclassicism in the visual arts began c 1760 in opposition to the then dominant Rococo style Rococo architecture emphasizes grace ornamentation and asymmetry Neoclassical architecture is based on the principles of simplicity and symmetry which were seen as virtues of the arts of Ancient Rome and Ancient Greece and drawn directly from 16th century Renaissance Classicism Each neo classicism movement selects some models among the range of possible classics that are available to it and ignores others Between 1765 and 1830 Neoclassical proponents writers speakers patrons collectors artists and sculptors paid homage to an idea of the artistic generation associated with Phidias but sculpture examples they actually embraced were more likely to be Roman copies of Hellenistic sculptures They ignored both Archaic Greek art and the works of late antiquity The discovery of ancient Palmyra s Rococo art through engravings in Wood s The Ruins of Palmyra came as a revelation With Greece largely unexplored and considered a dangerous territory of the Ottoman Empire Neoclassicists appreciation of Greek architecture was predominantly mediated through drawings and engravings which were subtly smoothed and regularized corrected and restored monuments of Greece not always consciously The Empire style a second phase of Neoclassicism in architecture and the decorative arts had its cultural centre in Paris in the Napoleonic era Especially in architecture but also in other fields Neoclassicism remained a force long after the early 19th century with periodic waves of revivalism into the 20th and even the 21st centuries especially in the United States and Russia citation needed Contents 1 History 2 Painting drawing and printmaking 3 Sculpture 4 Architecture and the decorative arts 4 1 France 4 1 1 Louis XVI style 1760 1789 4 1 2 Directoire style 1789 1804 4 1 3 Empire style 1804 1815 4 2 Germany 4 3 Italy 4 4 Romania 4 5 Russia and the Soviet Union 4 6 The United Kingdom 4 7 The United States 5 Gardens 6 Fashion 7 Music 8 Later Neoclassicism and continuations 8 1 Art Deco 8 2 Neoclassicism and Totalitarian regimes 8 3 Postmodernism 8 4 Architecture in the 21st century 9 See also 10 Notes 11 References 12 Further reading 13 External linksHistory editNeoclassicism is a revival of the many styles and spirit of classic antiquity inspired directly from the classical period 7 which coincided and reflected the developments in philosophy and other areas of the Age of Enlightenment and was initially a reaction against the excesses of the preceding Rococo style 8 While the movement is often described as the opposed counterpart of Romanticism this is a great over simplification that tends not to be sustainable when specific artists or works are considered The case of the supposed main champion of late Neoclassicism Ingres demonstrates this especially well 9 The revival can be traced to the establishment of formal archaeology 10 11 nbsp Johann Joachim Winckelmann often called the father of archaeology 12 The writings of Johann Joachim Winckelmann were important in shaping this movement in both architecture and the visual arts His books Thoughts on the Imitation of Greek Works in Painting and Sculpture 1750 and Geschichte der Kunst des Alterthums History of Ancient Art 1764 were the first to distinguish sharply between Ancient Greek and Roman art and define periods within Greek art tracing a trajectory from growth to maturity and then imitation or decadence that continues to have influence to the present day Winckelmann believed that art should aim at noble simplicity and calm grandeur 13 and praised the idealism of Greek art in which he said we find not only nature at its most beautiful but also something beyond nature namely certain ideal forms of its beauty which as an ancient interpreter of Plato teaches us come from images created by the mind alone The theory was very far from new in Western art but his emphasis on close copying of Greek models was The only way for us to become great or if this be possible inimitable is to imitate the ancients 14 The Industrial Revolution saw global transition of human economy towards more efficient and stable manufacturing processes 15 There was tremendous material advancement and increased prosperity 16 With the advent of the Grand Tour a fad of collecting antiquities began that laid the foundations of many great collections spreading a Neoclassical revival throughout Europe 17 Neoclassicism in each art implies a particular canon of a classical model In English the term Neoclassicism is used primarily of the visual arts the similar movement in English literature which began considerably earlier is called Augustan literature This which had been dominant for several decades was beginning to decline by the time Neoclassicism in the visual arts became fashionable Though terms differ the situation in French literature was similar In music the period saw the rise of classical music and Neoclassicism is used of 20th century developments However the operas of Christoph Willibald Gluck represented a specifically Neoclassical approach spelt out in his preface to the published score of Alceste 1769 which aimed to reform opera by removing ornamentation increasing the role of the chorus in line with Greek tragedy and using simpler unadorned melodic lines 18 nbsp Anton Raphael Mengs Judgement of Paris circa 1757 oil on canvas height 226 cm width 295 cm bought by Catherine the Great from the studio Hermitage Museum Saint Petersburg Russia The term Neoclassical was not invented until the mid 19th century and at the time the style was described by such terms as the true style reformed and revival what was regarded as being revived varying considerably Ancient models were certainly very much involved but the style could also be regarded as a revival of the Renaissance and especially in France as a return to the more austere and noble Baroque of the age of Louis XIV for which a considerable nostalgia had developed as France s dominant military and political position started a serious decline 19 Ingres s coronation portrait of Napoleon even borrowed from Late Antique consular diptychs and their Carolingian revival to the disapproval of critics Neoclassicism was strongest in architecture sculpture and the decorative arts where classical models in the same medium were relatively numerous and accessible examples from ancient painting that demonstrated the qualities that Winckelmann s writing found in sculpture were and are lacking Winckelmann was involved in the dissemination of knowledge of the first large Roman paintings to be discovered at Pompeii and Herculaneum and like most contemporaries except for Gavin Hamilton was unimpressed by them citing Pliny the Younger s comments on the decline of painting in his period 20 As for painting Greek painting was utterly lost Neoclassicist painters imaginatively revived it partly through bas relief friezes mosaics and pottery painting and partly through the examples of painting and decoration of the High Renaissance of Raphael s generation frescos in Nero s Domus Aurea Pompeii and Herculaneum and through renewed admiration of Nicolas Poussin Much Neoclassical painting is more classicizing in subject matter than in anything else A fierce but often very badly informed dispute raged for decades over the relative merits of Greek and Roman art with Winckelmann and his fellow Hellenists generally being on the winning side 21 Painting drawing and printmaking editSee also Capriccio art nbsp Fantasy View with the Pantheon and other Monuments of Ancient Rome by Giovanni Paolo Panini 1737 oil on canvas 98 9 x 137 49 cm Museum of Fine Arts Houston US nbsp The ancient Capitol ascended by approximately one hundred steps by Giovanni Battista Piranesi c 1750 etching size of the entire sheet 33 5 49 4 cm Metropolitan Museum of Art New York City nbsp A Philosopher Lecturing on the Orrery by Joseph Wright of Derby c 1766 oil on canvas 1 47 x 2 03 m Derby Museum and Art Gallery Derby England 22 nbsp The Attributes of the Arts by Anne Vallayer Coster 1769 oil on canvas 90 x 121 cm Louvre 23 nbsp Ariadne Abandoned by Angelica Kauffmann before 1782 oil on canvas 88 x 70 5 cm Gemaldegalerie Alte Meister Dresden Germany 24 nbsp Oath of the Horatii by Jacques Louis David 1784 oil on canvas 3 3 x 4 27 m Louvre 25 nbsp Self Portrait with a Harp by Rose Adelaide Ducreux 1791 oil on canvas 193 x 128 9 cm Metropolitan Museum of Art nbsp Achilles mourning Patrocles after John Flaxman 1795 engraving after a drawing unknown size unknown location nbsp Portrait of Citizen Belley Ex Representative of the Colonies by Anne Louis Girodet 1796 1797 oil on canvas 1 59 x 1 11 m Musee national du chateau et de Trianon Versailles France 26 nbsp Cupid and Psyche by Francois Gerard 1798 oil on canvas 186 x 132 cm Louvre 27 nbsp Julie Lebrun as Flora by Elisabeth Vigee Le Brun c 1799 oil on canvas 129 5 x 97 8 cm Museum of Fine Arts St Petersburg Florida US nbsp Portrait of a Black Woman by Marie Guillemine Benoist 1800 oil on canvas 81 x 65 cm Louvre 28 nbsp Melancholy by Constance Marie Charpentier 1801 oil on canvas 130 x 165 Musee de Picardie Amiens France 29 nbsp Portrait of Charlotte du Val d Ognes by Marie Denise Villers 1801 oil on canvas 161 3 x 128 6 cm Metropolitan Museum of Art 30 nbsp Bonaparte Visiting the Plague Victims of Jaffa by Antoine Jean Gros 1804 oil on canvas 5 2 x 7 2 m Louvre 31 nbsp Portrait of Empress Josephine by Pierre Paul Prud hon 1805 oil on canvas 244 x 179 cm Louvre 32 nbsp Napoleon I on His Imperial Throne by Jean Auguste Dominique Ingres 1806 oil on canvas 2 62 x 1 62 m Army Museum Paris 25 nbsp The Genius of Art by Karl Briullov 1819 1821 gray paper pencil chalk charcoal and pastel 65 2 x 62 2 Russian Museum Saint Petersburg nbsp Tantalus and Sisyphus in Hades by August Theodor Kaselowsky c 1850 wall painting unknown dimensions on a wall of the Room of the Niobids Neues Museum Berlin It is hard to recapture the radical and exciting nature of early Neoclassical painting for contemporary audiences it now strikes even those writers favourably inclined to it as insipid and almost entirely uninteresting to us some of Kenneth Clark s comments on Anton Raphael Mengs ambitious Parnassus at the Villa Albani 33 by the artist whom his friend Winckelmann described as the greatest artist of his own and perhaps of later times 34 The drawings subsequently turned into prints of John Flaxman used very simple line drawing thought to be the purest classical medium 35 and figures mostly in profile to depict The Odyssey and other subjects and once fired the artistic youth of Europe but are now neglected 36 while the history paintings of Angelica Kauffman mainly a portraitist are described as having an unctuous softness and tediousness by Fritz Novotny 37 Rococo frivolity and Baroque movement had been stripped away but many artists struggled to put anything in their place and in the absence of ancient examples for history painting other than the Greek vases used by Flaxman Raphael tended to be used as a substitute model as Winckelmann recommended The work of other artists who could not easily be described as insipid combined aspects of Romanticism with a generally Neoclassical style and form part of the history of both movements The German Danish painter Asmus Jacob Carstens finished very few of the large mythological works that he planned leaving mostly drawings and colour studies which often succeed in approaching Winckelmann s prescription of noble simplicity and calm grandeur 38 Unlike Carstens unrealized schemes the etchings of Giovanni Battista Piranesi were numerous and profitable and taken back by those making the Grand Tour to all parts of Europe His main subject matter was the buildings and ruins of Rome and he was more stimulated by the ancient than the modern The somewhat disquieting atmosphere of many of his Vedute views becomes dominant in his series of 16 prints of Carceri d Invenzione Imaginary Prisons whose oppressive cyclopean architecture conveys dreams of fear and frustration 39 The Swiss born Johann Heinrich Fussli spent most of his career in England and while his fundamental style was based on Neoclassical principles his subjects and treatment more often reflected the Gothic strain of Romanticism and sought to evoke drama and excitement Neoclassicism in painting gained a new sense of direction with the sensational success of Jacques Louis David s Oath of the Horatii at the Paris Salon of 1785 Despite its evocation of republican virtues this was a commission by the royal government which David insisted on painting in Rome David managed to combine an idealist style with drama and forcefulness The central perspective is perpendicular to the picture plane made more emphatic by the dim arcade behind against which the heroic figures are disposed as in a frieze with a hint of the artificial lighting and staging of opera and the classical colouring of Nicolas Poussin David rapidly became the leader of French art and after the French Revolution became a politician with control of much government patronage in art He managed to retain his influence in the Napoleonic period turning to frankly propagandistic works but had to leave France for exile in Brussels at the Bourbon Restoration 40 David s many students included Jean Auguste Dominique Ingres who saw himself as a classicist throughout his long career despite a mature style that has an equivocal relationship with the main current of Neoclassicism and many later diversions into Orientalism and the Troubadour style that are hard to distinguish from those of his unabashedly Romantic contemporaries except by the primacy his works always give to drawing He exhibited at the Salon for over 60 years from 1802 into the beginnings of Impressionism but his style once formed changed little 41 Sculpture edit nbsp An Arch Rascal no 33 in a character head series by Franz Xaver Messerschmidt after 1770 alabaster height 38 cm Osterreichische Galerie Belvedere Vienna Austria 42 nbsp Mars and Venus by Johan Tobias Sergel c 1775 marble height 93 cm Nationalmuseum Stockholm Sweden 43 nbsp Mercury or The Trade by Augustin Pajou 1780 marble height 196 cm Louvre nbsp The Winter by Jean Antoine Houdon 1783 marble height 145 cm Musee Fabre Montpellier France 44 nbsp Cephalus and Aurora by John Flaxman 1789 1790 probably marble unknown dimensions Lady Lever Art Gallery Merseyside England nbsp The Princesses Louisa and Friderica of Prussia by Johann Gottfried Schadow 1795 1797 marble height 172 cm Nationalgalerie Berlin Germany 43 nbsp Venus Victrix by Antonio Canova 1804 1808 marble length 200 cm Galleria Borghese Rome 45 nbsp Bust of Madame Recamier by Joseph Chinard 1805 or 1806 marble 80 x 42 x 30 cm Museum of Fine Arts of Lyon Lyon France nbsp The Three Graces by Antonio Canova 1813 1816 marble height 1 82 m Hermitage Museum Saint Petersburg Russia 46 nbsp Ganymede and Jupiter by Bertel Thorvaldsen 1817 marble height 94 cm Thorvaldsen Museum Copenhagen Denmark 43 If Neoclassical painting suffered from a lack of ancient models Neoclassical sculpture tended to suffer from an excess of them Although examples of actual Greek sculpture of the Classical Period beginning in about 500 BC were then very few the most highly regarded works were mostly Roman copies 47 The leading Neoclassical sculptors enjoyed huge reputations in their own day but are now less regarded with the exception of Jean Antoine Houdon whose work was mainly portraits very often as busts which do not sacrifice a strong impression of the sitter s personality to idealism His style became more classical as his long career continued and represents a rather smooth progression from Rococo charm to classical dignity Unlike some Neoclassical sculptors he did not insist on his sitters wearing Roman dress or being unclothed He portrayed most of the notable figures of the Enlightenment and travelled to America to produce a statue of George Washington as well as busts of Thomas Jefferson Benjamin Franklin and other founders of the new republic 48 49 Antonio Canova and the Dane Bertel Thorvaldsen were both based in Rome and as well as portraits produced many ambitious life size figures and groups both represented the strongly idealizing tendency in Neoclassical sculpture Canova has a lightness and grace where Thorvaldsen is more severe the difference is exemplified in their respective groups of the Three Graces 50 All these and Flaxman were still active in the 1820s and Romanticism was slow to impact sculpture where versions of Neoclassicism remained the dominant style for most of the 19th century An early Neoclassicist in sculpture was the Swede Johan Tobias Sergel 51 John Flaxman was also or mainly a sculptor mostly producing severely classical reliefs that are comparable in style to his prints he also designed and modelled Neoclassical ceramics for Josiah Wedgwood for several years Johann Gottfried Schadow and his son Rudolph one of the few Neoclassical sculptors to die young were the leading German artists 52 with Franz Anton von Zauner in Austria The late Baroque Austrian sculptor Franz Xaver Messerschmidt turned to Neoclassicism in mid career shortly before he appears to have suffered some kind of mental crisis after which he retired to the country and devoted himself to the highly distinctive character heads of bald figures pulling extreme facial expressions 53 Like Piranesi s Carceri these enjoyed a great revival of interest during the age of psychoanalysis in the early 20th century The Dutch Neoclassical sculptor Mathieu Kessels studied with Thorvaldsen and worked almost exclusively in Rome Since prior to the 1830s the United States did not have a sculpture tradition of its own save in the areas of tombstones weathervanes and ship figureheads 54 the European Neoclassical manner was adopted there and it was to hold sway for decades and is exemplified in the sculptures of Horatio Greenough Harriet Hosmer Hiram Powers Randolph Rogers and William Henry Rinehart Architecture and the decorative arts editMain articles Neoclassical architecture Louis XVI style Directoire style Empire style Adam style and Biedermeier nbsp Hotel Gouthiere Rue Pierre Bullet no 6 Paris possibly by J Metivier 1780 55 nbsp The Etruscan room from Potsdam Germany c 1840 illustration by Friedrich Wilhelm Klose Neoclassical art was traditional and new historical and modern conservative and progressive all at the same time 56 Neoclassicism first gained influence in England and France through a generation of French art students trained in Rome and influenced by the writings of Winckelmann and it was quickly adopted by progressive circles in other countries such as Sweden Poland and Russia At first classicizing decor was grafted onto familiar European forms as in the interiors for Catherine II s lover Count Orlov designed by an Italian architect with a team of Italian stuccadori only the isolated oval medallions like cameos and the bas relief overdoors hint of Neoclassicism the furnishings are fully Italian Rococo A second Neoclassic wave more severe more studied through the medium of engravings and more consciously archaeological is associated with the height of the Napoleonic Empire In France the first phase of Neoclassicism was expressed in the Louis XVI style and the second in the styles called Directoire or Empire The Rococo style remained popular in Italy until the Napoleonic regimes brought the new archaeological classicism which was embraced as a political statement by young progressive urban Italians with republican leanings according to whom In the decorative arts Neoclassicism is exemplified in Empire furniture made in Paris London New York Berlin in Biedermeier furniture made in Austria in Karl Friedrich Schinkel s museums in Berlin Sir John Soane s Bank of England in London and the newly built capitol in Washington D C and in Wedgwood s bas reliefs and black basaltes vases The style was international Scots architect Charles Cameron created palatial Italianate interiors for the German born Catherine II the Great in Russian St Petersburg Indoors Neoclassicism made a discovery of the genuine classic interior inspired by the rediscoveries at Pompeii and Herculaneum These had begun in the late 1740s but only achieved a wide audience in the 1760s 57 with the first luxurious volumes of tightly controlled distribution of Le Antichita di Ercolano The Antiquities of Herculaneum The antiquities of Herculaneum showed that even the most classicizing interiors of the Baroque or the most Roman rooms of William Kent were based on basilica and temple exterior architecture turned outside in hence their often bombastic appearance to modern eyes pedimented window frames turned into gilded mirrors fireplaces topped with temple fronts The new interiors sought to recreate an authentically Roman and genuinely interior vocabulary Techniques employed in the style included flatter lighter motifs sculpted in low frieze like relief or painted in monotones en camaieu like cameos isolated medallions or vases or busts or bucrania or other motifs suspended on swags of laurel or ribbon with slender arabesques against backgrounds perhaps of Pompeiian red or pale tints or stone colors The style in France was initially a Parisian style the Gout grec Greek style not a court style when Louis XVI acceded to the throne in 1774 Marie Antoinette his fashion loving Queen brought the Louis XVI style to court However there was no real attempt to employ the basic forms of Roman furniture until around the turn of the century and furniture makers were more likely to borrow from ancient architecture just as silversmiths were more likely to take from ancient pottery and stone carving than metalwork Designers and craftsmen seem to have taken an almost perverse pleasure in transferring motifs from one medium to another 58 nbsp Chateau de Malmaison 1800 room for the Empress Josephine on the cusp between Directoire style and Empire style From about 1800 a fresh influx of Greek architectural examples seen through the medium of etchings and engravings gave a new impetus to Neoclassicism the Greek Revival At the same time the Empire style was a more grandiose wave of Neoclassicism in architecture and the decorative arts Mainly based on Imperial Roman styles it originated in and took its name from the rule of Napoleon in the First French Empire where it was intended to idealize Napoleon s leadership and the French state The style corresponds to the more bourgeois Biedermeier style in the German speaking lands Federal style in the United States 57 the Regency style in Britain and the Napoleon style in Sweden According to the art historian Hugh Honour so far from being as is sometimes supposed the culmination of the Neoclassical movement the Empire marks its rapid decline and transformation back once more into a mere antique revival drained of all the high minded ideas and force of conviction that had inspired its masterpieces 59 An earlier phase of the style was called the Adam style in Great Britain and Louis Seize or Louis XVI in France Neoclassicism continued to be a major force in academic art through the 19th century and beyond a constant antithesis to Romanticism or Gothic revivals although from the late 19th century on it had often been considered anti modern or even reactionary in influential critical circles who The centres of several European cities notably St Petersburg and Munich came to look much like museums of Neoclassical architecture Gothic revival architecture often linked with the Romantic cultural movement a style originating in the 18th century which grew in popularity throughout the 19th century contrasted Neoclassicism Whilst Neoclassicism was characterized by Greek and Roman influenced styles geometric lines and order Gothic revival architecture placed an emphasis on medieval looking buildings often made to have a rustic romantic appearance France edit Louis XVI style 1760 1789 edit Main article Louis XVI style nbsp Central pavilion of the Ecole Militaire Paris 1752 by Ange Jacques Gabriel 60 nbsp Pantheon Paris by Jacques Germain Soufflot and Jean Baptiste Rondelet 1758 1790 61 nbsp Hotel de la Marine Paris by Ange Jacques Gabriel 1761 1770 62 nbsp Facade of the Petit Trianon Versailles France by Ange Jacques Gabriel 1764 63 nbsp Staircase of the Petit Trianon by Ange Jacques Gabriel 1764 63 nbsp Interior of the Petit Trianon by Ange Jacques Gabriel 1764 63 nbsp Commode of Madame du Barry by Martin Carlin attribution 1772 oak base veneered with pearwood rosewood and amaranth soft paste Sevres porcelain bronze gilt white marble 87 x 119 cm Louvre 64 nbsp Hotel du Chatelet Paris unknown architect 1776 65 nbsp Stairway of the Grand Theater of Bordeaux Bordeaux France by Victor Louis 1777 1780 66 nbsp Parisian corner cabinet by Jean Henri Riesener 1780 1790 oak mahogany marble and ormolu mounts 94 3 81 3 55 9 cm Art Institute of Chicago US 67 nbsp Large vase 1783 hard porcelain and gilt bronze height 2 m diameter 0 90 m Louvre nbsp The Cabinet Dore of Marie Antoinette at the Palace of Versailles Versailles France by the Rousseau brothers 1783 68 nbsp Roll top desk of Marie Antoinette by Jean Henri Riesener 1784 oak and pine frame sycamore amaranth and rosewood veneer bronze gilt 103 6 x 113 4 cm Louvre 69 nbsp Writing table of Marie Antoinette by Adam Weisweiler 1784 oak ebony and sycamore veneer Japanese lacquer steel bronze gilt 73 7 x 81 2 cm Louvre 69 nbsp Ewer 1784 1785 silver height 32 9 cm Metropolitan Museum of Art nbsp Folding stool pliant 1786 carved and painted beechwood covered in pink silk 46 4 68 6 51 4 cm Metropolitan Museum of Art nbsp Pair of vases 1789 hard paste porcelain gilt bronze marble height each 23 cm Metropolitan Museum of Art nbsp Armchair fauteuil from Louis XVI s Salon des Jeux at Saint Cloud 1788 carved and gilded walnut gold brocaded silk not original overall 100 74 9 65 1 cm Metropolitan Museum of Art It marks the transition from Rococo to Classicism Unlike the Classicism of Louis XIV which transformed ornaments into symbols Louis XVI style represents them as realistic and natural as possible i e laurel branches really are laurel branches roses the same and so on One of the main decorative principles is symmetry In interiors the colours used are very bright including white light grey bright blue pink yellow very light lilac and gold Excesses of ornamentation are avoided 70 The return to antiquity is synonymous with above all with a return to the straight lines strict verticals and horizontals were the order of the day Serpentine ones were no longer tolerated save for the occasional half circle or oval Interior decor also honored this taste for rigor with the result that flat surfaces and right angles returned to fashion Ornament was used to mediate this severity but it never interfered with basic lines and always was disposed symmetrically around a central axis Even so ebenistes often canted fore angles to avoid excessive rigidity 71 The decorative motifs of Louis XVI style were inspired by antiquity the Louis XIV style and nature Characteristic elements of the style a torch crossed with a sheath with arrows imbricated disks guilloche double bow knots smoking braziers linear repetitions of small motifs rosettes beads oves trophy or floral medallions hanging from a knotted ribbon acanthus leaves gadrooning interlace meanders cornucopias mascarons Ancient urns tripods perfume burners dolphins ram and lion heads chimeras and gryphons Greco Roman architectural motifs are also very used flutings pilasters fluted and unfluted fluted balusters twisted and straight columns engaged and unengaged sometimes replaced by caryathids volute corbels triglyphs with guttae in relief and trompe l œil 72 Directoire style 1789 1804 edit Main article Directoire style nbsp Panel win an grotesque in the Hotel Gouthiere Paris unknown architect unknown date nbsp Rue Jacob no 46 Paris unknown architect unknown date nbsp Astronomical clock by Philippe Jacques Corniquet c 1794 gilt bronze and enamel face unknown dimensions Musee des Arts Decoratifs Paris 73 nbsp Fan by Charles Percier Pierre Francois Leonard Fontaine and Antoine Denis Chaudet c 1797 1799 paper wood and bone 23 5 x 43 8 cm Metropolitan Museum of Art New York City nbsp Armchair of the salon of Madame Recamier attributed to Jacob Freres c 1798 various types of wood 84 5 x 62 2 x 62 cm Louvre 74 Empire style 1804 1815 edit Main article Empire style nbsp Coffeepot 1797 1809 silver gilt height 33 3 cm Metropolitan Museum of Art New York City nbsp Empress Josephine s Bedroom in Chateau de Malmaison Rueil Malmaison France by Charles Percier and Pierre Francois Leonard Fontaine 1800 1802 75 nbsp Washstand athenienne or lavabo 1800 1814 legs base and shelf of yew wood gilt bronze mounts iron plate beneath shelf height 92 4 cm width 49 5 cm Metropolitan Museum of Art nbsp Portico of the Palais Bourbon Paris by Bernard Poyet 1806 1808 76 nbsp La Madeleine Paris by Pierre Alexandre Vignon 1807 1842 76 nbsp Vase 1809 hard paste porcelain and gilded bronze handles height 74 9 cm diameter 35 6 cm Wadsworth Atheneum Hartford Connecticut US 77 nbsp Egyptian Revival coin cabinet by Francois Honore Georges Jacob Desmalter 1809 1819 mahogany probably Swietenia mahagoni with applied and inlaid silver 90 2 x 50 2 x 37 5 cm Metropolitan Museum of Art nbsp Clock with Mars and Venus c 1810 gilded bronze and patina height 90 cm Louvre nbsp King of Rome s Cradle by Pierre Paul Prud hon Henri Victor Roguier Jean Baptiste Claude Odiot and Pierre Philippe Thomire 1811 wood silver gilt mother of pearl sheets of copper covered with velvet silk and tulle decorated with silver and gold thread height 216 cm Kunsthistorisches Museum Vienna Austria 78 nbsp Carpet 1814 1830 309 9 246 4 cm Metropolitan Museum of Art It s representative for the new French society that has exited the revolution which set the tone in all life fields including art The Jacquard machine is invented during this period which revolutionises the entire sewing system manual until then One of the dominant colours is red decorated with gilt bronze Bright colours are also used including white cream violet brown bleu dark red with little ornaments of gilt bronze Interior architecture includes wood panels decorated with gilt reliefs on a white background or a coloured one Motifs are placed geometrically The walls are covered in stuccos wallpaper pr fabrics Fireplace mantels are made of white marble having caryatids at their corners or other elements obelisks sphinxes winged lions and so on Bronze objects were placed on their tops including mantel clocks The doors consist of simple rectangular panels decorated with a Pompeian inspired central figure Empire fabrics are damasks with a bleu or brown background satins with a green pink or purple background velvets of the same colors brooches broached with gold or silver and cotton fabrics All of these were used in interiors for curtains for covering certain furniture for cushions or upholstery leather is also used for upholstery 79 All Empire ornament is governed by a rigorous spirit of symmetry reminiscent of the Louis XIV style Generally the motifs on a piece s right and left sides correspond to one another in every detail when they do not the individual motifs themselves are entirely symmetrical in composition antique heads with identical tresses falling onto each shoulder frontal figures of Victory with symmetrically arrayed tunics identical rosettes or swans flanking a lock plate etc Like Louis XIV Napoleon had a set of emblems unmistakably associated with his rule most notably the eagle the bee stars and the initials I for Imperator and N for Napoleon which were usually inscribed within an imperial laurel crown Motifs used include figures of Victory bearing palm branches Greek dancers nude and draped women figures of antique chariots winged putti mascarons of Apollo Hermes and the Gorgon swans lions the heads of oxen horses and wild beasts butterflies claws winged chimeras sphinxes bucrania sea horses oak wreaths knotted by thin trailing ribbons climbing grape vines poppy rinceaux rosettes palm branches and laurel There s a lot of Greco Roman ones stiff and flat acanthus leaves palmettes cornucopias beads amphoras tripods imbricated disks caduceuses of Mercury vases helmets burning torches winged trumpet players and ancient musical instruments tubas rattles and especially lyres Despite their antique derivation the fluting and triglyphs so prevalent under Louis XVI are abandoned Egyptian Revival motifs are especially common at the beginning of the period scarabs lotus capitals winged disks obelisks pyramids figures wearing nemeses caryatids en gaine supported by bare feet and with women Egyptian headdresses 80 Germany edit Main articles Biedermeier and Grunderzeit Neoclassical architecture became widespread as a symbol of wealth and power in Germany mostly in what was then Prussia Karl Friedrich Schinkel built many prominent buildings in this style including the Altes Museum in Berlin While the city remained dominated by Baroque city planning his architecture and functional style provided the city with a distinctly neoclassical center His Bauakademie is considered one of the forerunners of modern architecture due to its hithertofore relatively streamlined facade of the building nbsp Brandenburg Gate in Berlin 1788 1791 by Carl Gotthard Langhans nbsp Pyramid 1823 1825 and in City Church 1807 1816 in Karlsruhe by Friedrich Weinbrenner nbsp Konzerthaus Berlin in Berlin 1818 1821 by Karl Friedrich Schinkel nbsp Altes Museum in Berlin 1825 1830 by Karl Friedrich Schinkel nbsp Glyptothek in Munich 1816 1830 by Leo von Klenze nbsp Walhalla 1830 1842 by Leo von Klenze nbsp Propylaea in Munich 1854 1862 by Leo von Klenze nbsp Alte Nationalgalerie in Berlin 1862 1876 by Friedrich August Stuler and Heinrich Strack Italy edit nbsp Palazzo Grassi on the Grand canal in Venice by Giorgio Massari 1748 1772 nbsp La Scala Opera House Milan by Giuseppe Piermarini completed in 1778 nbsp Palazzo Belgioioso Milan by Giuseppe Piermarini 1781 nbsp Villa Belgiojoso Bonaparte Milan by Leopoldo Pollack 1790 1796 nbsp Piazza del Plebiscito Naples unknown architect 1809 1846 nbsp Piazza del Popolo Rome redesigned between 1811 and 1822 by Giuseppe Valadier nbsp Education of the Infant Bacchus by Niccolo Amastini first half 19th century onyx with gold frame overall in setting 6 5 x 4 8 cm Metropolitan Museum of Art New York City From the second half of the 18th century through the 19th century Italy went through a great deal of socio economic changes several foreign invasions and the turbulent Risorgimento which resulted in the Italian unification in 1861 Thus Italian art went through a series of minor and major changes in style The Italian Neoclassicism was the earliest manifestation of the general period known as Neoclassicism and lasted more than the other national variants of neoclassicism It developed in opposition to the Baroque style around c 1750 and lasted until c 1850 Neoclassicism began around the period of the rediscovery of Pompeii and spread all over Europe as a generation of art students returned to their countries from the Grand Tour in Italy with rediscovered Greco Roman ideals It first centred in Rome where artists such as Antonio Canova and Jacques Louis David were active in the second half of the 18th century before moving to Paris Painters of Vedute like Canaletto and Giovanni Paolo Panini also enjoyed a huge success during the Grand Tour Neoclassical architecture was inspired by the Renaissance works of Palladio and saw in Luigi Vanvitelli and Filippo Juvarra the main interpreters of the style Classicist literature had a great impact on the Risorgimento movement the main figures of the period include Vittorio Alfieri Giuseppe Parini Vincenzo Monti and Ugo Foscolo Giacomo Leopardi and Alessandro Manzoni nephew of Cesare Beccaria who were also influenced by the French Enlightenment and German Romanticism The virtuoso violinist Paganini and the operas of Rossini Donnizetti Bellini and later Verdi dominated the scene in Italian classical and romantic music The art of Francesco Hayez and especially that of the Macchiaioli represented a break with the classical school which came to an end as Italy unified see Italian modern and contemporary art Neoclassicism was the last Italian born style after the Renaissance and Baroque to spread to all Western Art Romania edit nbsp Round church of Saint Demetrius Lețcani unknown architect 1795 81 nbsp Știrbei Palace Calea Victoriei no 107 Bucharest by Michel Sanjouand c 1835 with a new level with caryatids added in 1882 by Joseph Hartmann 82 nbsp The old building of the University of Bucharest designed by Alexandru Orăscu and decorated with sculptures by Karl Storck 1857 1864 bombarded in April or May 1944 during WW2 and partially destroyed partially rebuilt during the late 1960s 83 nbsp Romanian Athenaeum on Calea Victoriei Bucharest by Albert Galleron 1886 1895 84 nbsp Upper part of a tiled stove in the principals house of the Central Girls School Bucharest unknown designer 1890 nbsp Arabesque on a corner of Strada General H M Berthelot no 52 Bucharest unknown architect 1890 nbsp Interior of the Cesianu Racoviță Palace Strada C A Rosetti no 5 Bucharest by Jules Berthet 1892 1902 nbsp Calea Unirii no 73 Craiova unknown architect c 1900 During the 19th century the predominant style in Wallachia and Moldavia later the Kingdom of Romania was Classicism which lasted for a long time until the 20th century although it coexisted in some short periods with other styles Foreign architects and engineers were invited here since the first decade of the 19th century Most of the architects that built during the beginning of the century were foreigners because Romanians did not have yet the instruction needed for designing buildings that were very different compared to the Romanian tradition Usually using Classicism they start building together with Romanian artisans usually prepared in foreign schools or academies Romanian architects study in Western European schools as well One example is Alexandru Orăscu one of the representatives of Neoclassicism in Romania Classicism manifested both in religious and secular architecture A good example of secular architecture is the Știrbei Palace on Calea Victoriei Bucharest built around the year 1835 after the plans of French architect Michel Sanjouand It received a new level in 1882 designed by Austrian architect Joseph Hartmann 85 86 Russia and the Soviet Union edit nbsp Ostankino Palace Moscow Russia by Francesco Camporesi completed in 1798 nbsp Arkhangelskoye Estate Krasnogorsky District Moscow Oblast by Jacob Guerne unknown date In 1905 1914 Russian architecture passed through a brief but influential period of Neoclassical revival the trend began with recreation of Empire style of alexandrine period and quickly expanded into a variety of neo Renaissance Palladian and modernized yet recognizably classical schools They were led by architects born in the 1870s who reached creative peak before World War I like Ivan Fomin Vladimir Shchuko and Ivan Zholtovsky When economy recovered in the 1920s these architects and their followers continued working in primarily modernist environment some Zholtovsky strictly followed the classical canon others Fomin Schuko Ilya Golosov developed their own modernized styles 87 With the crackdown on architects independence and official denial of modernism 1932 demonstrated by the international contest for the Palace of Soviets Neoclassicism was instantly promoted as one of the choices in Stalinist architecture although not the only choice It coexisted with moderately modernist architecture of Boris Iofan bordering with contemporary Art Deco Schuko again the purest examples of the style were produced by Zholtovsky school that remained an isolated phenomena The political intervention was a disaster for constructivist leaders yet was sincerely welcomed by architects of the classical schools Neoclassicism was an easy choice for the USSR since it did not rely on modern construction technologies steel frame or reinforced concrete and could be reproduced in traditional masonry Thus the designs of Zholtovsky Fomin and other old masters were easily replicated in remote towns under strict material rationing Improvement of construction technology after World War II permitted Stalinist architects to venture into skyscraper construction although stylistically these skyscrapers including exported architecture of Palace of Culture and Science Warsaw and the Shanghai International Convention Centre share little with the classical models Neoclassicism and neo Renaissance persisted in less demanding residential and office projects until 1955 when Nikita Khrushchev put an end to expensive Stalinist architecture The United Kingdom edit Main articles Adam style and Wedgwood nbsp Kedleston Hall Kedleston Derbyshire England by Robert Adam 1760 1770 88 nbsp Eating Room Osterley Park London by Robert Adam 1761 89 nbsp Syon House Middlesex England by Robert Adam 1762 88 nbsp The Hall Osterley Park by Robert Adam 1767 90 nbsp Carpet by Robert Adam 1770 1780 knotted wool 505 5 x 473 1 cm Metropolitan Museum of Art New York City nbsp Apotheosis of Virgil by John Flaxman c 1776 jasperware diameter 41 cm Harris Museum Preston Lancashire UK 91 nbsp Somerset House London by William Chambers 1776 1801 92 nbsp Urn on pedestal c 1780 with latter additions by Robert Adam inlaid mahogany height 49 8 cm Metropolitan Museum of Art nbsp Side table with many acanthus leafs and two bucrania by Robert Adam c 1780 with later addition mahogany overall 88 6 141 3 57 1 cm Metropolitan Museum of Art nbsp Covered Wedgwood urn c 1800 jasper ware with relief decoration overall 19 7 cm Cleveland Museum of Art Cleveland Ohio US 93 The Adam style was created by two brothers Adam and James who published in 1777 a volume of etchings with interior ornamentation In the interior decoration made after Robert Adam s drawings the walls ceilings doors and any other surface are divided into big panels rectangular round square with stuccos and Greco Roman motifs at the edges Ornaments used include festoons pearls egg and dart bands medallions and any other motifs used during the Classical antiquity especially the Etruscan ones Decorative fittings such as urn shaped stone vases gilded silverware lamps and stauettes all have the same source of inspiration classical antiquity The Adam style emphasizes refined rectangular mirrors framed like paintings in frames with stylised leafs or with a pediment above them supporting an urn or a medallion Another design of Adam mirrors is shaped like a Venetian window with a big central mirror between two other thinner and longer ones Another type of mirrors are the oval ones usually decorated with festoons The furniture in this style has a similar structure to Louis XVI furniture 94 Besides the Adam style when it comes to decorative arts England is also known for the ceramic manufacturer Josiah Wedgwood 1730 1795 who established a pottery called Etruria Wedgwood ware is made of a material called jasperware a hard and fine grained type of stoneware Wedgwood vases are usually decorated with reliefs in two colours in most cases the figures being white and the background blue The United States edit Main article Federal style nbsp Maple secretary c 1790 maple and brass height 242 57 cm Los Angeles County Museum of Art US nbsp Candlestand 1790 1800 mahogany birch and various inlays 107 x 49 21 x 48 9 cm Los Angeles County Museum of Art nbsp Writing desk 1790 1810 satinwood mahogany tulip poplar and pine 153 67 x 90 17 x 51 44 cm Los Angeles County Museum of Art nbsp White House Washington D C by James Hoban 1792 1829 95 nbsp Capitol Building Washington D C 1793 1863 by William Thornton and Thomas Ustick Walter 95 nbsp Armchair possibly by Ephraim Haines 1805 1815 mahogany and cane height 84 77 cm width 52 07 cm Los Angeles County Museum of Art nbsp Four column pedestal card table with pineapple finial 1815 1820 mahogany tulip poplar and pine woods 74 93 x 92 71 x 46 67 cm Los Angeles County Museum of Art nbsp The Rotunda University of Virginia Charlottesville Virginia by Thomas Jefferson 1822 1826 96 nbsp South Carolina State House Columbia South Carolina by John Rudolph Niernsee 1855 nbsp Brevard Rice House Garden District New Orleans by James Calrow 1857 97 On the American continent architecture and interior decoration have been highly influenced by the styles developed in Europe The French taste has highly marked its presence in the southern states after the French Revolution some emigrants have moved here and in Canada a big part of the population has French origins The practical spirit and the material situation of the Americans at that time gave the interiors a typic atmosphere All the American furniture carpets tableware ceramic and silverware with all the European influences and sometimes Islamic Turkish or Asian were made in conformity with the American norms taste and functional requirements There have existed in the US a period of the Queen Anne style and an Chippendale one A style of its own the Federal style has developed completely in the 18th and early 19th centuries which has flourished being influenced by Britannic taste Under the impulse of Neoclassicism architecture interiors and furniture have been created The style although it has numerous characteristics which differ from state to state is unitary The structures of architecture interiors and furniture are Classicist and incorporate Baroque and Rococo influences The shapes used include rectangles ovals and crescents Stucco or wooden panels on walls and ceilings reproduce Classicist motifs Furniture tend to be decorated with floral marquetry and bronze or brass inlays sometimes gilded 98 Gardens editIn England Augustan literature had a direct parallel with the Augustan style of landscape design The links are clearly seen in the work of Alexander Pope The best surviving examples of Neoclassical English gardens are Chiswick House Stowe House and Stourhead 99 Fashion edit nbsp James Dawkins and Robert Wood Discovering the Ruins of Palmyra by Gavin Hamilton 1758 nbsp Dresses from the Gallery of Fashion 1794 1802 nbsp Francis Russell 5th Duke of Bedford in a Bedford Crop by William Grimaldi after John Hoppner early 19th century based on a work of 1796 1797 nbsp Madame Raymond de Verninac by Jacques Louis David with clothes and chair in Directoire style Year 7 that is 1798 1799 nbsp Revolutionary socialite Theresa Tallien by Marie Guillemine Benoist c 1799 nbsp Portrait of Madame Recamier by Jacques Louis David 1800 nbsp Henriette Victoire Elisabeth d Avrange comtesse de Relingue with a coiffure a la Titus by Louis Leopold Boilly 1810 nbsp Point de Convention by Louis Leopold Boilly c 1801 nbsp Illustration showing women playing badminton hand colored etching from the series Le Bon Genre by Francois Joseph Bosio 1801 nbsp Madame Recamier by Francois Gerard 1802 nbsp Kensington Garden dresses for June fashion plate from Le Beau Monde 1808 In fashion Neoclassicism influenced the much greater simplicity of women s dresses and the long lasting fashion for white from well before the French Revolution but it was not until after it that thorough going attempts to imitate ancient styles became fashionable in France at least for women Classical costumes had long been worn by fashionable ladies posing as some figure from Greek or Roman myth in a portrait in particular there was a rash of such portraits of the young model Emma Lady Hamilton from the 1780s but such costumes were only worn for the portrait sitting and masquerade balls until the Revolutionary period and perhaps like other exotic styles as undress at home But the styles worn in portraits by Juliette Recamier Josephine de Beauharnais Theresa Tallien and other Parisian trend setters were for going out in public as well Seeing Mme Tallien at the opera Talleyrand quipped that Il n est pas possible de s exposer plus somptueusement One could not be more sumptuously undressed In 1788 just before the Revolution the court portraitist Louise Elisabeth Vigee Le Brun had held a Greek supper where the ladies wore plain white Grecian tunics 100 Shorter classical hairstyles where possible with curls were less controversial and very widely adopted and hair was now uncovered even outdoors except for evening dress bonnets or other coverings had typically been worn even indoors before Thin Greek style ribbons or fillets were used to tie or decorate the hair instead Very light and loose dresses usually white and often with shockingly bare arms rose sheer from the ankle to just below the bodice where there was a strongly emphasized thin hem or tie round the body often in a different colour The shape is now often known as the Empire silhouette although it predates the First French Empire of Napoleon but his first Empress Josephine de Beauharnais was influential in spreading it around Europe A long rectangular shawl or wrap very often plain red but with a decorated border in portraits helped in colder weather and was apparently laid around the midriff when seated for which sprawling semi recumbent postures were favoured 101 By the start of the 19th century such styles had spread widely across Europe Neoclassical fashion for men was far more problematic and never really took off other than for hair where it played an important role in the shorter styles that finally despatched the use of wigs and then white hair powder for younger men The trouser had been the symbol of the barbarian to the Greeks and Romans but outside the painter s or especially the sculptor s studio few men were prepared to abandon it Indeed the period saw the triumph of the pure trouser or pantaloon over the culotte or knee breeches of the Ancien Regime Even when David designed a new French national costume at the request of the government during the height of the Revolutionary enthusiasm for changing everything in 1792 it included fairly tight leggings under a coat that stopped above the knee A high proportion of well to do young men spent much of the key period in military service because of the French Revolutionary Wars and military uniform which began to emphasize jackets that were short at the front giving a full view of tight fitting trousers was often worn when not on duty and influenced civilian male styles The trouser problem had been recognised by artists as a barrier to creating contemporary history paintings like other elements of contemporary dress they were seen as irredeemably ugly and unheroic by many artists and critics Various stratagems were used to avoid depicting them in modern scenes In James Dawkins and Robert Wood Discovering the Ruins of Palmyra 1758 by Gavin Hamilton the two gentleman antiquaries are shown in toga like Arab robes In Watson and the Shark 1778 by John Singleton Copley the main figure could plausibly be shown nude and the composition is such that of the eight other men shown only one shows a single breeched leg prominently However the Americans Copley and Benjamin West led the artists who successfully showed that trousers could be used in heroic scenes with works like West s The Death of General Wolfe 1770 and Copley s The Death of Major Peirson 6 January 1781 1783 although the trouser was still being carefully avoided in The Raft of the Medusa completed in 1819 Classically inspired male hairstyles included the Bedford Crop arguably the precursor of most plain modern male styles which was invented by the radical politician Francis Russell 5th Duke of Bedford as a protest against a tax on hair powder he encouraged his friends to adopt it by betting them they would not Another influential style or group of styles was named by the French coiffure a la Titus after Titus Junius Brutus not in fact the Roman Emperor Titus as often assumed with hair short and layered but somewhat piled up on the crown often with restrained quiffs or locks hanging down variants are familiar from the hair of both Napoleon and George IV of the United Kingdom The style was supposed to have been introduced by the actor Francois Joseph Talma who upstaged his wigged co actors when appearing in productions of works such as Voltaire s Brutus about Lucius Junius Brutus who orders the execution of his son Titus In 1799 a Parisian fashion magazine reported that even bald men were adopting Titus wigs 102 and the style was also worn by women the Journal de Paris reporting in 1802 that more than half of elegant women were wearing their hair or wig a la Titus 103 Music editNeoclassicism in music is a 20th century movement in this case it is the Classical and Baroque musical styles of the 17th and 18th centuries with their fondness for Greek and Roman themes that were being revived not the music of the ancient world itself The early 20th century had not yet distinguished the Baroque period in music on which Neoclassical composers mainly drew from what we now call the Classical period The movement was a reaction in the first part of the 20th century to the disintegrating chromaticism of late Romanticism and Impressionism emerging in parallel with musical Modernism which sought to abandon key tonality altogether It manifested a desire for cleanness and simplicity of style which allowed for quite dissonant paraphrasing of classical procedures but sought to blow away the cobwebs of Romanticism and the twilit glimmerings of Impressionism in favour of bold rhythms assertive harmony and clean cut sectional forms coinciding with the vogue for reconstructed classical dancing and costume in ballet and physical education The 17th 18th century dance suite had had a minor revival before World War I but the Neoclassicists were not altogether happy with unmodified diatonicism and tended to emphasise the bright dissonance of suspensions and ornaments the angular qualities of 17th century modal harmony and the energetic lines of countrapuntal part writing Respighi s Ancient Airs and Dances 1917 led the way for the sort of sound to which the Neoclassicists aspired Although the practice of borrowing musical styles from the past has not been uncommon throughout musical history art musics have gone through periods where musicians used modern techniques coupled with older forms or harmonies to create new kinds of works Notable compositional characteristics are referencing diatonic tonality conventional forms dance suites concerti grossi sonata forms etc the idea of absolute music untramelled by descriptive or emotive associations the use of light musical textures and a conciseness of musical expression In classical music this was most notably perceived between the 1920s and the 1950s Igor Stravinsky is the best known composer using this style he effectively began the musical revolution with his Bach like Octet for Wind Instruments 1923 A particular individual work that represents this style well is Prokofiev s Classical Symphony No 1 in D which is reminiscent of the symphonic style of Haydn or Mozart Neoclassical ballet as innovated by George Balanchine de cluttered the Russian Imperial style in terms of costume steps and narrative while also introducing technical innovations Later Neoclassicism and continuations edit nbsp Beaux Arts Exterior of the Palais Garnier Paris by Charles Garnier 1860 1875 104 nbsp Beaux Arts Grand stairs of the Palais Garnier by Charles Garnier 1860 1875 104 nbsp Beaux Arts Grand Central Terminal New York City by Reed and Stem and Warren and Wetmore 1903 105 nbsp Beaux Arts Hotel Roxoroid de Belfort Paris 1911 by Andre Arfvidson nbsp Late Neoclassical The West building of the National Gallery of Art Washington D C US by John Russell Pope 1941 After the middle of the 19th century Neoclassicism starts to no longer be the main style being replaced by Eclecticism of Classical styles The Palais Garnier in Paris is a good example of this since despite being predominantly Neoclassical it features elements and ornaments taken from Baroque and Renaissance architecture This practice was frequent in late 19th and early 20th century architecture before WW1 Besides Neoclassicism the Beaux Arts de Paris well known for this eclecticism of Classical styles Pablo Picasso experimented with classicizing motifs in the years immediately following World War I 106 In American architecture Neoclassicism was one expression of the American Renaissance movement ca 1890 1917 its last manifestation was in Beaux Arts architecture and its final large public projects were the Lincoln Memorial highly criticized at the time the National Gallery of Art in Washington D C also heavily criticized by the architectural community as being backward thinking and old fashioned in its design and the American Museum of Natural History s Roosevelt Memorial These were considered stylistic anachronisms when they were finished In the British Raj Sir Edwin Lutyens monumental city planning for New Delhi marks the sunset of Neoclassicism World War II was to shatter most longing for and imitation of a mythical time There was an entire 20th century movement in the non visual arts which was also called Neoclassicism It encompassed at least music philosophy and literature It was between the end of World War I and the end of World War II For information on the musical aspects see 20th century classical music and Neoclassicism in music For information on the philosophical aspects see Great Books This literary Neoclassical movement rejected the extreme romanticism of for example Dada in favour of restraint religion specifically Christianity and a reactionary political program Although the foundations for this movement in English literature were laid by T E Hulme the most famous Neoclassicists were T S Eliot and Wyndham Lewis In Russia the movement crystallized as early as 1910 under the name of Acmeism with Anna Akhmatova and Osip Mandelshtam as the leading representatives Art Deco edit nbsp Chest of drawers a highly simplified reinterpretation of the Louis XVI style by Clement Mere 1910 maple ebony leather and ivory 87 5 x 96 x 37 cm Musee d Orsay Paris 107 nbsp Dressing table and chair a reinterpretation of the Louis XVI style by Paul Follot 1919 marble and encrusted lacquered and gilded wood unknown dimensions Musee d Art Moderne de Paris nbsp Hommage a Jean Goujon by Alfred Janniot 1919 1924 limestone partially coloured 220 x 235 x 129 cm Calouste Gulbenkian Museum Lisboa Portugal 108 nbsp Plate with design for an interior from the collection of projects Architectures by Louis Sue and Andre Mare 1921 nbsp Boudoir from the Hotel du Collectionneur a highly simplified reinterpretation of the Louis XVI style at the 1925 Paris Exhibition by Emile Jacques Ruhlmann nbsp Little Horses dress by Madeleine Vionnet 1925 rayon crepe black and gold seed beads Museum at the Fashion Institute of Technology New York nbsp Palais de Tokyo Paris by Andre Aubert and Marcel Dastugue 1937 nbsp Embassy of France Belgrade Serbia by Roger Henri Expert with Josif Najman as assistant designed in 1926 built in 1939 109 110 nbsp Chateau de Sept Saulx Grand Est a highly simplified reinterpretation of the Louis XVI style France by Louis Sue 1928 1929 111 nbsp Daily Telegraph Building London by Charles Ernest Elcock after consulting with Thomas S Tait 1928 112 nbsp Design for Severance Hall grand foyer of the Severance Hall Cleveland US by Walker and Weeks c 1930 nbsp Dumitru Săvulescu House Bulevardul Dacia no 73 Bucharest Romania by Gheorghe Negoescu 1933 113 nbsp Grave of the Străjescu Family Bellu Cemetery Bucharest by George Cristinel 1934 106 nbsp Avenue Foch no 53 Paris by Charles Abella 1939 111 Although it started to be seen as dated after WW1 principles proportions and other Neoclassical elements were not abandoned yet Art Deco was the dominant style during the interwar period and it corresponds with the taste of a bourgeois elite for high class French styles of the past including the Louis XVI Directoire and Empire the period styles of French Neoclassicism At the same time this French elite was equally capable of appreciating Modern art like the works of Pablo Picasso or Amedeo Modigliani The result of this situation is the early Art Deco style which uses both new and old elements The Palais de Tokyo from 1937 in Paris by Andre Aubert and Marcel Dastugue is a good example of this Although ornaments are not used here the facade being decorated only with reliefs the way columns are present here is a strong reminiscence of Neoclassicism Art Deco design often drew on Neoclassical motifs without expressing them overtly severe blocky commodes by Emile Jacques Ruhlmann or Louis Sue amp Andre Mare crisp extremely low relief friezes of damsels and gazelles in every medium fashionable dresses that were draped or cut on the bias to recreate Grecian lines the art dance of Isadora Duncan Conservative modernist architects such as Auguste Perret in France kept the rhythms and spacing of columnar architecture even in factory buildings The oscillation of Art Deco between the use of historic elements shapes and proportions and the appetite for new for Modernism is the result of multiple factors One of them is eclecticism The complexity and heterogeneity of Art Deco is largely due to the eclectic spirit Stylized elements from repertoire of Beaux Arts Neoclassicism or of cultures distant in time and space Ancient Egypt Pre Columbian Americas or Sub Saharian African art are put together with references to Modernist avant guard artists of the early 20th century Henri Matisse Amedeo Modigliani or Constantin Brancuși The Art Deco phenomenon owes to academic eclecticism and Neoclassicism mainly the existence of a specific architecture Without the contribution of the Beaux Arts trained architects Art Deco architecture would have remained with the exception of residential buildings a collection of decorative objects magnified to an urban scale like the pavilions of the International Exhibition of Modern Decorative and Industrial Arts from 1925 controversial at their time Another reason for the swinging between historical elements and modernism was consumer culture Objects and buildings in the puritan International style devoid of any ornamentation or citation of the past were too radical for the general public In interwar France and England the spirit of the public and much architectural criticism could not conceive a style totally deprived of ornament like the International style The use of historic styles as sources of inspiration for Art Deco starts as far back as the years before WW1 through the efforts of decorators like Maurice Dufrene Paul Follot Paul Iribe Andre Groult Leon Jallot or Emile Jacques Ruhlmann who relate to the prestigious French artistic and handicraft tradition of the late 18th and early 19th centuries the Louis XVI Directoire and Louis Philippe and who want to bring a new approach to these styles The neo Louis XVI style was really popular in France and Romania in the years before WW1 around 1910 and it heavily influenced multiple early Art Deco designs and buildings A good example of this is the Chateau de Sept Saulx in Grand Est France by Louis Sue 1928 1929 114 Neoclassicism and Totalitarian regimes edit Main articles Socialist Realism Nazi architecture and Rationalism architecture nbsp Socialist Realist Lenin State Library Moscow Russia by Vladimir Shchuko and Vladimir Helfreich 1928 1941 115 nbsp Socialist Realist Assembly of the Revolutionary Military Council of the USSR Chaired by Kliment Voroshilov by Isaak Brodsky 1929 oil on canvas 95 5 x 129 5 cm private collection 116 nbsp Fascist University Rectorate and Law Faculty Building in Bucharest Bulevardul Mihail Kogălniceanu no 36 46 Bucharest Romania by Petre Antonescu 1933 1935 117 nbsp Nazi Familie The Family by Josef Thorak c 1937 probably bronze unknown dimensions exhibited at the 1937 Paris World Fair nbsp Nazi New Reich Chancellery Berlin by Albert Speer 1938 1939 118 nbsp Fascist Palazzo della Civilta Italiana Rome by Giovanni Guerrini Ernesto La Padula and Mario Romano 1939 1942 119 nbsp Socialist Realist Lomonosov University Moscow by Lev Rudnev 1947 1952 119 nbsp Socialist Realist Colonels Quarter Șoseaua Panduri no 60 62 Bucharest by I Novițchi C Ionescu C Hacker and A Șerbescu 1950 1960 120 nbsp Socialist Realist Homage by Constantin Nitescu c 1980 unknown technique unknown dimensions Romania In Fascist Italy Nazi Germany Romania under the rule of Carol II and the Soviet Union during the 1920s and 1930s totalitarian regimes chose Neoclassicism for state buildings and art Architecture was central to totalitarian regimes expression of their permanence despite their obvious novelty The way totalitarian regimes drew from Classicism took many forms When it comes to state buildings in Italy and Romania architects attempted to fuse a modern sensibility with abstract classical forms Two good examples of this are the Palazzo della Civilta Italiana in Rome and the University Rectorate and Law Faculty Building in Bucharest Bulevardul Mihail Kogălniceanu no 36 46 In contrast the Classicism of the Soviet Union known as Socialist Realism was bombastic overloaded with ornaments and architectural sculptures as an attempt to be in contrast with the simplicity of Capitalist or bourgeois styles like Art Deco or Modernism The Lomonosov University in Moscow is a good example of this Nikita Khrushchev the Soviet leader that succeeded Stalin did not like this pompous Socialist Realist architecture from the reign of his predecessor Because of the low speed and cost of these Neoclassical buildings he stated that they spent people s money on beauty that no one needs instead of building simpler but more In the Soviet Union Neoclassicism was embraced as a rejection of Art Deco and Modernism which the Communists saw as being too bourgeois and capitalist This Communist Neoclassical style is known as Socialist Realism and it was popular during the reign of Joseph Stalin 1924 1953 In fine art Generally it manifested through deeply idealized representations of wiry workers shown as heroes in collective farms or industrialized cities political assemblies achievements of Soviet technology and through depictions happy children staying around Lenin or Stalin Both subject matter and representation were carefully monitored Artistic merit was determined by the degree to which a work contributed to the building of socialism All artists had to join the state controlled Union of Soviet Artists and produce work in the accepted style The three guiding principles of Socialist Realism were party loyalty presentation of correct ideology and accessibility Realism more easily understood by the masses was the style of choice At the beginning in the Soviet Union multiple competing avant garde movements were present notably Constructivism However as Stalin consolidated his power towards the end of the 1920s avant garde art and architecture were suppressed and eventually outlawed and official state styles were established After Boris Iofan won the competition for the design of the Palace of the Soviets with a stepped classical tower surmounted by a giant statue of Lenin architecture soon reverted to pre Revolutionary styles of art and architecture untainted by Constructivism s perceived Western influence 121 Although Socialist Realism in architecture ended more or less with the death of Stalin and the rise of Nikita Khrushchev paintings in this style continued to be produced especially in countries where there was a strong personality cult of the leader in power like in the case of Mao Zedong s China Kim Il Sung s North Korea or Nicolae Ceaușescu s Romania The Nazis suppressed Germany s vibrant avant garde culture once they gained control of the government in 1933 Albert Speer was set as Adolf Hitler s architectural advisor in 1934 and he tried to create an architecture that would both reflect the perceived unity of the German people and act as backdrop to the Nazis expressions of power The Nazis approach to architecture was riffled with contradictions while Hitler and Speer s plans for reordering Berlin aspired to imitate imperial Rome in rural contexts Nazi buildings took inspiration from local vernaculars trying to channel an authentic German spirit When it come to fine art the Nazis created the term Degenerate art for Modern art a kind of art which to them was un German Jewish or Communist The Nazis hated modern art and linked it to cultural bolshevism the conspiracy theory that art or culture broadly was controlled by a leftist Jewish cabal seeking to destroy the aryan race Hitler s war on Modern art mostly consisted of an exhibition that tried to discredit Modern artists called the Degenerate Art exhibition German Die Ausstellung Entartete Kunst This exhibition was displayed next to the Great Exhibition of German Art which consisted of artworks that the Nazis approved of This way the visitiors of both exhibitions could compare the art labeled by the regime as good and bad With a similar atitude the regime closes in 1931 the Bauhaus an avant garde art school in Dessau that will prove extremely influential in the future It reopens in Berlin in 1932 but it s closed again in 1933 Compared to Germany and the Soviet Union in Italy the avant garde contributed to state architecture Classical architecture was also an influence echoing Benito Mussolini s far cruder attempts to create links between his Fascist regime and ancient Rome Some Italian architects tried to create fusions between Modernism and Classicism like Marcello Piacentini with the Sapienza University of Rome or Giuseppe Terragni with Casa del Fascio in Como 122 In Romania towards the late 1930s influenced by the Autocratic tendency of king Carol II multiple state buildings are erected They were Neoclassical many very similar with what was popular in the same years in Fascist Italy Examples in Bucharest include the University Rectorate and Law Faculty Building Bulevardul Mihail Kogălniceanu no 36 46 the Kretzulescu Apartment Building Calea Victoriei no 45 the CFR Building Bulevardul Dinicu Golescu no 38 or the Victoria Palace Piața Victoriei no 1 The Royal Palace whose interiors are mostly done in a neo Adam style stands out by being more decorated a little closer to the architecture before WW1 Postmodernism edit nbsp J Paul Getty Museum Malibu California US by the partnership of Langdon and Wilson with Edward Genter as the project architect and archaeological advice from Dr Norman Neuerberg 1970 1975 123 nbsp Interior courtyard of Les Arcades du Lac Saint Quentin en Yvelines France by Ricardo Bofill 1975 1981 124 nbsp Piazza d Italia New Orleans US by Charles Moore 1978 nbsp Sheraton chair with applied decoration by Robert Venturi for Knoll 1978 1984 bent laminated wood unknown dimensions Milwaukee Art Museum Milwaukee USA 125 nbsp Apartment buildings on Bulevardul Unirii Bucharest Romania unknown architects 1980s nbsp Tea and coffee piazza set by Charles Jencks 1983 silver unknown dimensions unknown location 126 nbsp Louis XVI lowboy by Robert Venturi for Arc International c 1985 laminated wood unknown dimensions Indianapolis Museum of Art Indianapolis USA 127 nbsp Sainsbury Wing National Gallery London by Robert Venturi 1987 1991 128 nbsp Pumping Station Isle of Dogs London John Outram 1988 127 nbsp 77 West Wacker Drive Chicago US by Ricardo Bofill 1990 1992 129 nbsp Harold Washington Library Chicago by Hammond Beeby amp Babka 1991 130 nbsp Entrance era of the Harold Washington Library by Hammond Beeby amp Babka 1991 130 nbsp M2 Building Tokyo Japan by Kengo Kuma 1991 131 nbsp Antigone Montpellier France by Ricardo Bofill completed in 1992 nbsp Children s Museum of Houston Houston US by Robert Venturi 1992 132 nbsp The Forum Shops in Caesars Palace Las Vegas US by Marnell Corrao Associates 1992 133 nbsp Exterior of the Trafford Centre Manchester UK designed by Chapman Taylor and Leach Rhodes Walker with sculptures by Colin Spofforth 1998 134 nbsp Interior of the Trafford Centre by Chapman Taylor and Leach Rhodes Walker 1998 134 nbsp Louis Ghost a simplified reinterpretation of armchairs in the Louis XVI style by Philippe Starck 2009 polycarbonate height 94 cm various locations 135 An early text questioning Modernism was by architect Robert Venturi Complexity and Contradiction in Architecture 1966 in which he recommended a revival of the presence of the past in architectural design He tried to include in his own buildings qualities that he described as inclusion inconsistency compromise accommodation adaptation superadjacency equivalence multiple focus juxtaposition or good and bad space 136 Robert Venturi s work reflected the broader counter cultural mood of the 1960s which saw younger generations begin to question and challenge the political social and racial realities with which they found themselves confronted This rejection of Modernism is known as Postmodernism Robert Venturi parodies Ludwig Mies van der Rohe s well known maxim less is more with less is a bore During the 1980s and 1990s some Postmodern architects found a refuge in a sort of Neo Neoclassicism Their use of Classicism was not limited only to ornaments using more or less proportions and other principles too Post Modern Classicism had been variously described by some people as camp or kitsch An architect who has been remarked through Post Modern Classicism is Ricardo Bofill His work includes two housing projects of titanic scale near Paris known as Les Arcades du Lac from 1975 to 1981 and Les Espaces d Abraxas from 1978 to 1983 A building that stands out through its revivalism is the J Paul Getty Museum in Malibu California from 1970 to 1975 inspired by the ancient Roman Villa of the Papyri at Herculaneum The J Paul Getty Museum is far closer to 19th century Neoclassicism like the Pompejanum in Aschaffenburg Germany than to Post Modern Classicism of the 1980s 137 Architecture in the 21st century edit Main article New Classical Architecture nbsp Queen s Gallery Buckingham Palace London by John Simpson 2000 2002 138 nbsp Schermerhorn Symphony Center Nashville US by Earl Swensson Associates David M Schwarz Architects and Hastings Architecture Associates 2006 nbsp Postmodern table with different legs some of which are reminiscent of Neoclassical furniture unknown designer c 2010 painted wood unknown dimensions Cărturești Verona Strada Arthur Verona no 15 Bucharest Romania nbsp James Simon Gallery entrance of the Neues Museum Berlin by David Chipperfield 2009 2018 After a lull during the period of modern architectural dominance roughly post World War II until the mid 1980s Neoclassicism has seen something of a resurgence As of the first decade of the 21st century contemporary Neoclassical architecture is usually classed under the umbrella term of New Classical Architecture Sometimes it is also referred to as Neo Historicism or Traditionalism 139 Also a number of pieces of postmodern architecture draw inspiration from and include explicit references to Neoclassicism Antigone District and the National Theatre of Catalonia in Barcelona among them Postmodern architecture occasionally includes historical elements like columns capitals or the tympanum For sincere traditional style architecture that sticks to regional architecture materials and craftsmanship the term Traditional Architecture or vernacular is mostly used The Driehaus Architecture Prize is awarded to major contributors in the field of 21st century traditional or classical architecture and comes with a prize money twice as high as that of the modernist Pritzker Prize 140 In the United States various contemporary public buildings are built in Neoclassical style with the 2006 Schermerhorn Symphony Center in Nashville being an example In Britain a number of architects are active in the Neoclassical style Examples of their work include two university libraries Quinlan Terry s Maitland Robinson Library at Downing College and Robert Adam Architects Sackler Library See also edit1795 1820 in Western fashion American Empire style Antiquization Nazi architecture Neoclassical architecture Neoclassicism in France Neo Grec the late Greek Revival style Skopje 2014Notes edit Stevenson Angus 2010 08 19 Oxford Dictionary of English ISBN 9780199571123 Kohle Hubertu August 7 2006 The road from Rome to Paris The birth of a modern Neoclassicism Jacques Louis David New perspectives Baldick Chris 2015 Neoclassicism The Oxford Dictionary of Literary Terms Online Version 4th ed Oxford University Press ISBN 9780191783234 Greene Roland et al eds 2012 Neoclassical poetics The Princeton Encyclopedia of Poetry and Poetics 4th rev ed Princeton NJ Princeton University Press ISBN 978 0 691 15491 6 Neoclassical architecture Definition Characteristics Examples amp Facts Britannica www britannica com 2023 06 01 Retrieved 2023 07 30 Classical Classical Revival Neo Classical an architectural style guide www architecture com Retrieved 2023 07 30 Irwin David G 1997 Neoclassicism A amp I Art and Ideas Phaidon Press ISBN 978 0 7148 3369 9 Honour 17 25 Novotny 21 A recurring theme in Clark 19 23 58 62 69 97 98 on Ingres Honour 187 190 Novotny 86 87 Lingo Estelle Cecile 2007 Francois Duquesnoy and the Greek ideal Yale University Press First Edition pp 161 ISBN 978 0 300 12483 5 Talbott Page 1995 Classical Savannah fine amp decorative arts 1800 1840 University of Georgia Press p 6 ISBN 978 0 8203 1793 9 Cunningham Reich Lawrence S John J 2009 Culture and values a survey of the humanities Wadsworth Publishing 7 edition p 104 ISBN 978 0 495 56877 3 a href Template Cite book html title Template Cite book cite book a CS1 maint multiple names authors list link Honour 57 62 61 quoted Both quotes from the first pages of Thoughts on the Imitation of Greek Works in Painting and Sculpture Industrial History of European Countries European Route of Industrial Heritage Council of Europe Retrieved 2 June 2021 North Douglass C Thomas Robert Paul May 1977 The First Economic Revolution The Economic History Review 30 2 Wiley on behalf of the Economic History Society 229 230 doi 10 2307 2595144 JSTOR 2595144 Retrieved 6 June 2022 Dyson Stephen L 2006 In Pursuit of Ancient Pasts A History of Classical Archaeology in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries Yale University Press pp xii ISBN 978 0 300 11097 5 Honour 21 Honour 11 23 25 Honour 44 46 Novotny 21 Honour 43 62 Fortenberry 2017 p 275 Morrill Rebecca 2019 Great Women Artists Phaidon p 413 ISBN 978 0 7148 7877 5 Morrill Rebecca 2019 Great Women Artists Phaidon p 211 ISBN 978 0 7148 7877 5 a b Fortenberry 2017 p 276 Robertson Hutton 2022 The History of Art From Prehistory to Presentday A Global View Thames amp Hudson p 993 ISBN 978 0 500 02236 8 Andrew Graham Dixon 2023 art The Definitive Visual History p 251 ISBN 978 0 2416 2903 1 Morrill Rebecca 2019 Great Women Artists Phaidon p 59 ISBN 978 0 7148 7877 5 Morrill Rebecca 2019 Great Women Artists Phaidon p 298 ISBN 978 0 7148 7877 5 Morrill Rebecca 2019 Great Women Artists Phaidon p 419 ISBN 978 0 7148 7877 5 Andrew Graham Dixon 2023 art The Definitive Visual History p 270 ISBN 978 0 2416 2903 1 Andrew Graham Dixon 2023 art The Definitive Visual History p 298 ISBN 978 0 2416 2903 1 Clark 20 quoted Honour 14 image of the painting in fairness other works by Mengs are more successful Honour 31 32 31 quoted Honour 113 114 Honour 14 Novotny 62 Novotny 51 54 Clark 45 58 47 48 quoted Honour 50 57 Honour 34 37 Clark 21 26 Novotny 19 22 Novotny 39 47 Clark 97 145 Honour 187 190 ART Architecture Painting Sculpture Graphics Design 2011 p 313 ISBN 978 1 4454 5585 3 a b c Andrew Graham Dixon 2023 art The Definitive Visual History p 273 ISBN 978 0 2416 2903 1 Laneyrie Dagen Nadeije 2021 Historie de l art pour tous in French Hazan p 264 ISBN 978 2 7541 1230 7 Laneyrie Dagen Nadeije 2021 Historie de l art pour tous in French Hazan p 265 ISBN 978 2 7541 1230 7 Fortenberry 2017 p 278 Novotny 378 Novotny 378 379 Chinard Gilbert ed Houdon in America Arno PressNy 1979 a reprint of a book published by Johns Hopkins University 1930 Novotny 379 384 Novotny 384 385 Novotny 388 389 Novotny 390 392 Gerdts William H American Neo Classic Sculpture The Marble Resurrection Viking Press New York 1973 p 11 Larbodiere Jean Marc 2015 L Architecture de Paris des Origins a Aujourd hui in French Massin p 106 ISBN 978 2 7072 0915 3 Palmer Alisson Lee Historical dictionary of neoclassical art and architecture p 1 a b Gontar Honour 110 111 110 quoted Honour 171 184 171 quoted de Martin 1925 p 11 Jones 2014 p 276 de Martin 1925 p 13 a b c Jones 2014 p 273 Jacquemart Albert 2012 Decorative Art Parkstone p 65 ISBN 978 1 84484 899 7 Larbodiere Jean Marc 2015 L Architecture de Paris des Origins a Aujourd hui in French Massin p 105 ISBN 978 2 7072 0915 3 de Martin 1925 p 17 Corner Cabinet The Art Institute of Chicago de Martin 1925 p 61 a b Jacquemart Albert 2012 Decorative Art Parkstone p 61 ISBN 978 1 84484 899 7 Graur Neaga 1970 Stiluri in arta decorativă in Romanian Cerces pp 200 201 amp 202 Sylvie Chadenet 2001 French Furniture From Louis XIII to Art Deco Little Brown and Company p 71 Sylvie Chadenet 2001 French Furniture From Louis XIII to Art Deco Little Brown and Company p 72 ASTRONOMICAL CLOCK madparis fr Retrieved 23 May 2021 Bergere du salon de Madame Recamier OA 11384 a 11391 d une paire avec OA 11386 collections louvre fr Retrieved 23 May 2022 Jones 2014 p 275 a b Hopkins 2014 p 111 Odile Nouvel Kammerer 2007 Symbols of Power Napoleon and the Art of the Empire Style 1800 1815 p 209 ISBN 978 0 8109 9345 7 Odile Nouvel Kammerer 2007 Symbols of Power Napoleon and the Art of the Empire Style 1800 1815 p 32 ISBN 978 0 8109 9345 7 Graur Neaga 1970 Stiluri in arta decorativă in Romanian Cerces pp 217 219 220 amp 221 Sylvie Chadenet 2001 French Furniture From Louis XIII to Art Deco Little Brown and Company p 103 amp 105 Ispir Mihai 1984 Clasicismul in Arta Romanească in Romanian Editura Meridiane Florea Vasile 2016 Arta Romanească de la Origini pană in Prezent Litera pp 296 297 ISBN 978 606 33 1053 9 Oltean Radu 2009 București 550 de ani de la prima atestare documentată 1459 2009 in Romanian ArCuB p 113 ISBN 978 973 0 07036 1 Celac Carabela amp Marcu Lapadat 2017 p 65 Florea Vasile 2016 Arta Romanească de la Origini pană in Prezent Litera pp 294 296 297 ISBN 978 606 33 1053 9 Lăzărescu Cristea amp Lăzărescu 1972 p 67 68 The Origins of Modernism in Russian Architecture Content cdlib org Retrieved 2012 02 12 a b Hopkins 2014 p 103 Bailey 2012 pp 226 sfn error no target CITEREFBailey2012 help Fortenberry 2017 p 274 Farthing Stephen 2020 ARTA Istoria Artei de la pictura rupestră la arta urbană in Romanian rao p 260 ISBN 978 606 006 392 6 Hopkins 2014 p 104 Covered Urn Cleveland Museum of Art 30 October 2018 Retrieved 6 May 2022 Graur Neaga 1970 Stiluri in arta decorativă in Romanian Cerces pp 253 255 amp 256 a b Hodge 2019 p 112 Hodge 2019 p 31 Irving Mark 2019 1001 BUILDINGS You Must See Before You Die Cassel Illustrated p 281 ISBN 978 1 78840 176 0 Graur Neaga 1970 Stiluri in arta decorativă in Romanian Cerces pp 269 270 amp 271 Turner Turner 2013 British gardens history philosophy and design Chapter 6 Neoclassical gardens and landscapes 1730 1800 London Routledge p 456 ISBN 978 0415518789 Hunt 244 Hunt 244 245 Hunt 243 Rifelj 35 a b Jones 2014 p 296 Hopkins 2014 p 135 a b Criticos Mihaela 2009 Art Deco sau Modernismul Bine Temperat Art Deco or Well Tempered Modernism in Romanian and English SIMETRIA p 79 ISBN 978 973 1872 03 2 Commode a deux vantaux cabinet de milieu musee orsay fr Retrieved 25 June 2023 A Primavera Homenagem a Jean Goujon gulbenkian pt Retrieved 25 June 2023 Kadijevic Aleksandar Arhitekt Josif Najman 1890 1951 Moment 18 Beograd 1990 100 106 a href Template Cite journal html title Template Cite journal cite journal a Cite journal requires journal help Criticos Mihaela 2009 Art Deco sau Modernismul Bine Temperat Art Deco or Well Tempered Modernism in Romanian and English SIMETRIA p 81 ISBN 978 973 1872 03 2 a b Criticos Mihaela 2009 Art Deco sau Modernismul Bine Temperat Art Deco or Well Tempered Modernism in Romanian and English SIMETRIA p 91 ISBN 978 973 1872 03 2 Curl James Stevens 2013 The Egyptian Revival Ancient Egypt as the Inspiration for Design Motifs in the West Routledge p 412 ISBN 978 1 134 23467 7 Woinaroski Cristina 2013 Istorie urbană Lotizarea și Parcul Ioanid din București in context european in Romanian SIMETRIA p 216 ISBN 978 973 1872 30 8 Criticos Mihaela 2009 Art Deco sau Modernismul Bine Temperat Art Deco or Well Tempered Modernism in Romanian and English SIMETRIA pp 29 31 40 79 91 ISBN 978 973 1872 03 2 Watkin David 2022 A History of Western Architecture Laurence King p 880 ISBN 978 1 52942 030 2 Dempsey Amy 2018 Modern Art Thamed amp Hudson p 93 ISBN 978 0 500 29322 5 Celac Carabela amp Marcu Lapadat 2017 p 72 Hopkins 2014 p 175 a b Hopkins 2014 p 176 Celac Carabela amp Marcu Lapadat 2017 p 181 Dempsey Amy 2018 Modern Art Thamed amp Hudson pp 92 93 ISBN 978 0 500 29322 5 Hopkins 2014 p 174 175 176 Watkin David 2022 A History of Western Architecture Laurence King pp 663 664 ISBN 978 1 52942 030 2 Watkin David 2022 A History of Western Architecture Laurence King p 663 ISBN 978 1 52942 030 2 Gura Judith 2017 Postmodern Design Complete Thames amp Hudson p 53 ISBN 978 0 500 51914 1 Wilhide Elizabeth Design The Whole Story Thames amp Hudson p 416 ISBN 978 0 500 29687 5 a b Gura Judith 2017 Postmodern Design Complete Thames amp Hudson p 121 ISBN 978 0 500 51914 1 Watkin David 2022 A History of Western Architecture Laurence King p 665 ISBN 978 1 52942 030 2 77 West Wacker Drive Interior 1992 are na Retrieved 3 September 2023 a b Gura Judith 2017 Postmodern Design Complete Thames amp Hudson p 77 ISBN 978 0 500 51914 1 Gura Judith 2017 Postmodern Design Complete Thames amp Hudson p 65 ISBN 978 0 500 51914 1 Eleanor Gibson Seven of Robert Venturi s best postmodern projects dezeen com Retrieved 25 June 2023 The Forum Shops at Caesars Palace 1992 are na Retrieved 3 September 2023 a b Gray George T 2022 An Introduction to the History of Architecture Art amp Design Sunway University Press p 265 ISBN 978 967 5492 24 2 Philippe Starck a pair of Louis Ghost armchairs Kartell Bukowskis smow com Retrieved 19 June 2023 Watkin David 2022 A History of Western Architecture Laurence King p 660 ISBN 978 1 52942 030 2 Watkin David 2022 A History of Western Architecture Laurence King pp 660 661 663 ISBN 978 1 52942 030 2 Watkin David 2022 A History of Western Architecture Laurence King p 673 ISBN 978 1 52942 030 2 span, wikipedia, wiki, book, books, library,

article

, read, download, free, free download, mp3, video, mp4, 3gp, jpg, jpeg, gif, png, picture, music, song, movie, book, game, games.